THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

INTRODUCTION

Why do you need to study mathematics? What is the importance of mathematics in

your daily life?

According to John William Navin Sullivan, a famous science writer, ""Mathematics, as

much as music or any other art, is one of the means by which we rise to a complete self-
consciousness. The significance of mathematics resides precisely in the fact that it is an art;
by informing us of the nature of our own minds, it informs us of much that depends on our
minds."

True to what Sullivan said, mathematics is at the center of history and development
of culture. Mathematics is evident in ancient arts, Egyptian architecture, and music. In fact,
Pythagoras (570-495 BC), the "Father of Numbers," discovered numerical reasons in
musical harmony.

Mathematics is very beneficial to every human being in his or her day-to-day living. It
helps an individual develop reasoning, analytical thinking, and critical thinking. Analytical
thinking helps a person investigate and determine the truth around him or her. Mathematics
can explain how things work and phenomena can be best understood through it. It is evident
that mathematics has played a central role in the physical sciences for centuries, and
currently it is being used by life scientists in analyzing patterns present in plants, animals,
and humans.

The things and benefits that mathematics can do and provide are countless. A
knowledge of the basic concepts of mathematics will enable people to explore its
applications and in what phenomena and activities in life this field can be helpful.

WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?

The word mathematics comes from the Greeek μαθημα (máthēma), which, in the
ancient Greek language, means "that which is learnt," or "lesson" in modern Greek.
Mathema is derived from manthano" while the modern Greek equivalent is "mathaino" which
means "to learn." The study of mathematics and the use of generalized mathematical
theories and proofs are the key differences between Greek mathematics and the
mathematics of preceding civilizations.

Voluminous studies have been conducted about the nature of mathematics since
time immemorial. The rapid growth of mathematics and its applications over the past several
years have led to several discussions, studies, essays, and arguments that examine its
nature and importance. Mathematics is defined as the science of patterns and relationships.
However, people still ask: What is it exactly that mathematicians do when they are doing
mathematics? What really is mathematics?

Numerous definitions from different sources are given to "mathematics." For

example, the Encyclopedia Britannica defines mathematics as "the science of structure,
order, and relations that has evolved from elemental practices of counting, measuring, and
describing the shapes and characteristics of objects." This definition is the one closest to the
mathematics that is evident in the modern world today.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICS

Different people have different notions of and views on mathematics. However,

regardless of nationality, culture, beliefs, or gender, everybody uses the same mathematics.
The following figure shows the characteristics that make mathematics different from the
other fields of endeavor.

• Classification

Within logical-mathematical knowledge is the process of classification which

represents the first step towards learning more complex mathematical concepts.
Classification generates a series of mental relations through which objects are grouped
according to similarities and differences depending on specific criteria such as shape, color,
size, etc.

• Logical Sequence

ldeas in mathematics need to flow in an order that makes sense. The sequence can
naturally match what occurs in a text (main ideas) and what the reader needs to understand.
It means that each step can be derived logically from the preceding steps.

• Structure

In mathematics, a structure on a set is an additional mathematical object that is

related to that given set in some particular characteristic or manner, and attaches (or relates)
to that set to endow it with some additional meaning or significance. The structure on a
particular mathematical set will allow mathematicians to study the set further and find its
relationship with other objects.

• Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the actual (true) value. It is the degree
to which a given quantity is correct and free from error. Precision, on the other hand, is how
close the measured values are to each other. The concepts of accuracy and precision are
both closely related and are often confused with each other. For example, while the accuracy
of a number x is given by the number of significant decimal (or other) to the right of the
decimal point in x, the precision of x is the total number of significant decimal (or other)
digits.

• Abstractness

Abstraction is the process of extracting the underlying essence of a mathematical

concept by taking away any dependence on real-world objects. Techniques and methods in
abstraction deal with quantitative relations and spatial forms and their interrelationships with
one another. It has a great significance in understanding concepts in other disciplines.

• Symbolism

The language of mathematics is the system used by mathematicians to communicate

mathematical ideas using symbols instead of words. This language is uniquely constructed
in such a way that all mathematicians understand symbolic notations and mathematical
formulas.

• Applicability

The applicability of mathematics can lie anywhere on a spectrum from the completely
simple (trivial) to the utterly complex (mysterious). Mathematics can be used in all fields of
human endeavor. According to Kant, "in any special doctrine of nature, there can be only as
much proper science as there is mathematics therein." Many agree that the problem of
understanding the significant link between mathematics and modern science is an
interesting and significant challenge for the philosopher of mathematics.

• Generalizations

Making generalizations is fundamental to mathematics. It is a skill that must be

developed among students. It is of vital importance in a functioning society. The Webster
Dictionary defines generalization as the process of "finding and singling out [of properties] in
a whole class of similar objects."

NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

Because mathematics plays such a central role in modern culture, some basic
understanding of the nature of mathematics is a requisite for scientific literacy in the modern
world. Figure 1.2 shows the nature of mathematics.
 • A science of measures- Measurement is an integral part of modern scíence as well
as of engineering, commerce, and daily life. It is an activity that involves interaction
with a concrete system with the aim of representing aspects of that system in
abstract terms if "concrete" implies "real." It often involves the representation of ideal
systems. For example, measurement can represent the average weight of garbage
from a community, the kilowatt usage of electricity of a household, the maximum
profit a business can have on a particular product, or an electron at complete rest,
among others.

• Intellectual game - Is mathematics just an intellectual game? Intellectual games are

games of skill that require significant intelligence and cognitive effort. These games
may be largely based on a wide or deep knowledge, where the major test is the
person's ability to remember and recall. Discovering patterns in mathematics needs
patterns of intellectual skills that make one mathematical abstraction a reality. Like
board games, mathematics requires visual imagery. Before you make a
contemplated move, you have to visualize how the board will look after you make it,
and then how it will be changed by your opponent's response, and how it will look
after you meet another possible answer. Games and mathematics both require a
strong dose of patience, restraint, and concentration.

• The art of drawing conclusions - Making sense of this world is a natural

characteristic that everyone must develop. Making sense of mathematics using
logical thinking is the foundation of reasoning and proof standard. Being able to
reason is essential to understanding mathematics. Reasoning is a way to use
mathematical knowledge and to generate and solidity new mathematical ideas. There
are various examples of mathematical reasoning that will be vital to draw conclusions
and make generalizations about those ideas.

• A tool subject - In many fields of human activity, mathematics is undeniably a highly

powerful instrument of investigation. Mathematics is applied in the fields of
engineering, theoretical and applied physics, astronomy, aeronautics, architecture,
geology, and geodetic survey. Even the life sciences (biology, psychology, and
medicine) include numerous fields of investigations which require knowledge of
mathematics. In industry and business an understanding of mathematics will be very
helpful to understand interests, yields, amortizations, actuarial problems, production
optimizations, etc.

• A system of logical procedure - Problem-solving is an important component of

mathematics. It is more than a vehicle for teaching and reinforcing mathematical
knowledge and helping to meet everyday challenges. Problem-solving is also a skill
which can enhance our logical reasoning.

• An intuitive method - Mathematicians have traditionally regarded intuition as a way

of understanding proofs and conceptualizing problems. Proving theorems is not
mechanical; proving theorems does require formal manipulation. Yet, it also requires
the use of intuition, the ability to see what is reasonable or not, and the ability to put
all these together.

MATHEMATICS AS A SCIENCE OF PATTERNS

The characterization of mathematics as the "study of patterns" had been first made
by British mathematician, G.H. Hardy. In his book, he said that "A mathematician, like a
painter or a poet, is a master of patterns. If his patterns are more permanent than theirs, it is
because they are made with ideas" (Hardy, 1992, p. 84).
 A pattern is a visible regularity in the world or in a man-made design. As such, the
elements of a pattern repeat in a predictable manner. Patterns, in a mathematical sense,
refer to the study of "tilings" "and wall-paper symmetries." This connotes order, regularity,
and lawfulness. In the modern world, the patterns of counting, measuring, reasoning, motion,
shape, position, and prediction, reveal the powerful infuence mathematics has over people's
perception of reality.

Pattern recognition is a key determinant of logical, verbal, numerical, and spatial

abilities. Look at some of the most commonly used patterns today: the logic patterns, symbol
patterns, number patterns, and word patterns.

Logic Patterns

One kind of logic pattern deals with the characteristics of various objects. Another
kind deals with order. Some patterns appear in a sequence while some possess similar
attributes. These types of pattern are common in aptitude tests. To construct or solve a
pattern, find the rule for the pattern, understand the nature of the sequence, and analyze the
difference between the two successive terms.

Example 1

Look carefully at the sequence of symbols or figures to find the pattern. What should
be the figure in this sequence?

In this question, the first figure has 4 squares. The lines in the first square are
slanting to the left. The square below it has horizontal lines. The third square has lines
slanting to the right andthe fourth square has vertical lines. In the second set of squares, the
top square has vertical lines.This was the last square on the first set of squares. In the third
set of squares, the top square has lines slanting to the right and this is the last square in the
second set of squares. So, the next set of squares must have a square on top with horizontal
lines, followed by a square with lines slanting to the right, followed by a square with vertical
lines, and the last square with lines slating to the left. Hence, the answer is B.
Example 2

What will be the next figure in this sequence?

Notice that the first figure in the sequence is a single circle. The second figure has
two circles. The third figure has four circles. What must be next? The answer is D. Can you
tell why?

Notice that the second figure is just a double of the first figure, so it has two circles.
The third figure is the double of the second figure, thus it has four circles. The fourth figure
must be the double of the third figure and so it should have eight circles.

Example 3

Which figure can be used to continue the series?

 In this sequence, look at the movement of the arrows inside the triangles. The arrow
starts from a vertex and the arrowhead points towards the opposite side. So, the missing
figure should be B.

Example 4

If the word MODERN can be encrypted as OQFGTP, how can you code the word WORLD?
A. YQSNF C. YQUNF
B. YQTNF D. YQPNF

The correct answer is B. Each letter in the original word MODERN is forwarded two
places (+2) in the alphabetical order to get the encrypted word.

Example 5

In a certain code language, the word PATTERNS can be written TRTRTRTR, how
would you write ALGEBRA in the same code language?

A. RGGRRRG C. GRRGGR
B. GRGRGRG D. RRGGRR

The correct answer is B. Each letter in the third, sixth, ninth, etc. (multiples of 3)
positions is reported according to the length of the given word.

Example 6

Which figure is next in the sequence?

Notice that box 3 has 3 circles which is the sum of the number of circles in box 1 and
box 2. Then, the number of circles in box 4 is the sum of the number of circles in box 1, box
2, and box 3. Hence, the next box must contain 12 circles, which is the sum of the number of
circles in box 1, box 2, box 3, and box 4.

Example 7

What figure should come next in this sequence?

In this sequence, notice the movement of the triangle. It is turning 45 degrees each
time. Hence, the correct figure is B.

Example 8

What figure should come next in this sequence?

In this sequence, the next figure should be B. Can you tell why? Notice the
movement .of arrow inside the pentagon.
Example 9

What figure should be next in this sequence?

Can you tell the pattern in this sequence? The correct answer is A. Why?

Example 10

Can you tell the pattern in this sequence? What is the correct answer?
Number Patterns

Mathematics is very useful in making predictions. Working with number patterns

leads directly to the concept of functions in mathematics. It is important that students are
able to recognize number patterns to help them develop their problem-solving skill.

The first step in determining the rule that defines the pattern is to look for differences
between two consecutive numbers. The number pattern helps make a generalization of how
the numbers are arranged in a sequence. If there is no logic (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, squares, cubes, primes, etc.) in the differences, find other operations
used in the pattern.

If the numbers in a pattern change in the same way or in the same value each time,
then that type of pattern is called a repeating pattern.

Example 11

What is the next number in the sequence: 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, ___

If you get the differences between two consecutive numbers, you will have 2, 4, 2, 4.
These differences did not tell us any pattern at all. But notice that the numbers are all
consecutive primes. So, the next number must be 29.

Example 12

What is the next number in the pattem: 5, 7, 10, 15, 22, ?

The differences between each pair of consecutive terms in the sequence are as
follows: 2,3,5,7. These primes are added to the previous number to get the next number. 5 +
2 = 7, 7 + 3 = 10, 10 + 5 = 15, 15 + 7 = 22. So, you know that the next prime is 11. Hence,
the next number in the pattern is 22 + 11 = 33.

Example 13

What should be the number in the blank? 100, 98, 96, 94, ___

In this simple series, the difference between two consecutive numbers is constant.
There is a difference of (-2) between each number. The missing number in this case is 92.

Example 14

Find the next number in the sequence: 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, ____

This is a more complex series. If you look at the given numbers, you will notice that
the differences between the numbers are not constant. They are dynamic, but there is still a
clear logical rule. The rule for this series is: Add1 to the first number, then add 2 to the
resulting number, then add 3 to the resulting number, then add 4, and so on. In this case, the
missing number is 27.
Example 15

Find the next two numbers in the sequence: 5, 6, 10, 19, 35, ___, ____

The difference between 5 and 6 is 1. The difference between 6 and 10 is 4, the

difference between 10 and 19 is 9 and the difference between 19 and 35 is 16. These
differences are squares of 1,2,3, and 4. So, the difference between 35 and the next number
should be the square of 5, which is 25. Hence, the next missing number is 60, and the last
number must be 96.

Example 16

Find the next two numbers in the number sequence: 7, 20, 47, 94, 167, ____, ____

If you get the differences, you will get 13, 27, 47, and 73, which do not tell you
anything. They are not squares nor cubes of small numbers. Now, let us look the cubes of 1,
2, 3, 4, and 5.

13 = 1, 23 = 8, 33 = 27, 43 = 64, and 53 = 125. If you subtract the given numbers in the pattern
and the cubes, you get

7 20 47 94 167
1 8 27 64 125
6 12 20 30 42

These differences are simply the product of (2 x 3) = 6, (3 x 4) 12, (4 x 5) = 20, (5 x 6) = 30,

and (6 x 7) = 42. Adding these products to the cubes: 1 3 + (2 x 3) = 7; 23 + (3 x 4)= 20, 33 + (4
x 5) = 47; 43 + (5 x 6) = 94; and 53 + (6 x 7)= 167. So, the next number in the pattern must be
63 + (7 x 8) = 216 + 56= 272.

Example 17

Find the next number in the sequence: 1, 4, 2, 8, 6, 24, 22

Noting the difference between two consecutive numbers in the sequence, you will get
3,-2, 6,-2. 18, and-2. There is a common difference of -2. If you multiply the first, third, fifth,
and seventh numbers by 4, you will get the next number: 1 x4 = 4, 2 x4 = 8, 6 x 4 = 24.
Hence, the next number must be 22 x 4 = 88.

Example 18

Find the next number in the sequence: 1, 4, 11, 29, 76, 199

This is an example of a number pattern where the logic can be found after some
fixed terms. The differences (3, 7, 18, 47, and 123) do not give you any pattern at all. But
you can rewrite the differences as: 7 = 2 x 4 -1, 18 = 2 x 11 -4, 47 = 2 x 29 - 11, 123 =2 x 76
-29. From this pattern, the third term in the pattern is two times the second term minus the
first term; the fourth term is two times the third term minus the second term; the fifth term is
three times the fourth term minus the third term, and so on. Hence, the next term must be 2
x 199 - 76 = 322. The first two terms are fixed.
Example 19

Find the missing number in the sequence: 6, 13, 27, 55, 111,-

The differences between two consecutive numbers will not show any pattern. But
notice that that the second number is two times the first number plus one, the third number is
the two times the second number plus , the fourth number is two times the third number plus
1, and the fifth number is two times the fourth number plus 1. Hence, the next number must
be 2 x 111 +1 = 223.

Word Patterns

Patterns can also be found in language. The metrical patterns of poems and the
syntactic patterns of how nouns are made plural or how verbs are changed to past tense are
both word patterns. Language is a way to communicate in inductive mathematics.

Word patterns are used in decoding like: consonant blends (words with a group of
two or three consonants that each make its own sound-grow, blend, sleeve, stair, sweet,
free, blood, clothes), consonant digraphs (words with two or three letters that come together
to create a single sound, for example, chest, shop, sheep, brush, shirt, shade), vowel
diphthongs (vowels that glide in the middle-boil, now, soil, brown, cloud, rain, meat, bout,
cow), and vowel digraphs (a spelling pattern in which more adjoining letters represent a
single vowel sound school, clean, each, feet, moon, cheese).

Patterns in Nature

Millions of patterns can be found in the environment. These patterns occur in various
forms and in different contexts which can be modeled mathematically. Some examples are
symmetries, trees, spirals, waves, tesseliations, stripes, meanders, cracks, and many
more.

Symmetry comes from a Greek word which means to measure together."

Mathematically, symmetry means that one shape becomes exactly like another shape when
you move it in some way: turn, filip, or slide. For two objects to be symmetrical, they must be
of the same size and shape, with one object having a different orientation from the first. Not
all objects have symmetry. If an object is not symmetrical, it is called asymmetric.

Trees in mathematics, and more specifically in graph theory, are undirected graph in
which any two vertices are connected by exactly one path.

Tessellation or a tiling is a pattern of shapes that fit perfectly together; that is, a
pattern of shapes that have no overlaps or gaps.

People are familiar with especially if they love the seas and oceans. It is possible to
look at waves mathematically because the shape of a wave repeats itself over a consistent
period of time

Current researches in biology have created convincing models of patterns as diverse

as zebra stripes, giraffe blotches, jaguar spots (medium-dark patches surrounded by dark
broken rings), and ladybird shell patterns (different geometrical layouts of spots and stripes).
 The German biologist Ernst Haeckel painted marine organisms to show their
symmetry. Scottish biologist D'Archy Thompson studied the growth patterns in plants and
animals.
.
Visible in the following image on the opposite column are patterns found on a veiled
chameleon, or Chamaeleon calyptratus, which provide it with camouflage and signal mood
as well as breeding condition.

Beehives is another example of pattern in nature that can be modeled

mathematically. They are made of walls, each of the same size, enclosing small hexagonal
cells where honey and pollen are stored and bees are raised. Bees are renowned as first-
rate honey producers, but they are also very good users of geometry. The honeycombs
which bees produce are very good representations of hexagons. Honeycombs are examples
of wallpaper symmetry. Wallpaper symmetry is created when a pattern is repeated until it
covers a plane. Other examples, are mosaics and tiled floors.

Sunflowers or Helianthus are bright yellow flowers of the genus of plants comprising
about 70 species in the family Asteraceae. Sunflowers boast of radial symmetry and
another type of numerical symmetry known in mathematics as the Fibonacci sequence.

Scientists theorize that sunflowers can pack in the maximum number of seeds if each
seed is separated by an irrational-numbered angle. In mathematics, the most irrational
number is known as the golden ratio, or Phi. If a Fibonacci number is divided by any
preceding number in the sequence, it will produce an angle corresponding to the value of Phi
(known as the golden angle) between each seed, leaf, petal, or branch of a plant.

The uterus is also another example of symmetry according to a gynecologist at the

University Hospital Leuven in Belgium. Medical doctors can tell whether a uterus looks
normal and healthy based on its relative dimensions that approximate the golden ratio.

The Romanesco broccoli is a very good example of fractal symmetry pattern in

nature.

In mathematics, a spiral is a curve which starts from a point, moving farther away as
it revolves around the point. Pinecones have seed pods that arrange in a spiral pattern. They
consist of a pair of spirals, each one twisting upwards in opposing directions. The number of
steps will almost always match a pair of consecuti ve Fibonacci numbers. This spiraling
Fibonacci pattern also occurs in pineapples and artichokes.

Spider webs are very good representations of near-perfect Circular webs that have
near-equal-distanced radial supports coming out of the middle and a spiral that is woven to
catch prey.

Some other examples are given below. Do a research on the different patterns that
are found in the following:

THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS

The language of mathematics uses symbols to communicate mathematical ideas.

The symbolic language of mathematics is a distinct, special-purpose language. It has its own
symbols and rules that are rather different from spoken languages. It is not a dialect of
English. It is mostly a written language. Simple expressions can be pronounced, but
complicated expressions may only be pointed to or referred to.
 Mathematics uses symbols instead of words. There are the 10 digits: 0,1,2,..9. There
are symbols for operations: +,,x, +, that "stand in" for values and many special symbols:
7,=,<, , 5,t, ..etc. Mathematical expressions use mathematical symbols instead of words. For
example, the "sum of five and a number x" can be written as 5 +x; "a number y decreased by
2", can be written as y- 2; and "twice a number x increased by 5" can be written as 2x + 5.

PROBLEM-SOLVING IN MATHEMATICS

Problem-solving refers to mathematical tasks that have the potential to provide

intellectual challenges for enhancing your mathematical understanding and development. lt
refers to finding solutions and answers to problems using different methods. Knowing how to
solve problems in mathematics requires knowing what to look for. Mathematical problems
often require established procedures and determining when to apply them. To solve a
problem, one must be able to collect the appropriate information, identify a strategy or
strategies, and use the strategy appropriately.

Problem-solving is a process and involves three basic functions: seeking information,

generating new knowledge, and making decisions. According to George Polya, there is
nothing specific to mathematics than the four stages of problem-solving: understanding the
problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and looking back.

The problem solver can use either inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is sometimes referred to as top-down logic. It starts with a

general case and deduces specific instances.

For example, second-degree equations in one variable can be solved using the
quadratic formula. To solve the equation - 3x2- 5x+2=0, apply the quadratic formula because
the given equation is a second-degree equation in one variable. Therefore,
____________
X= (-(-5) +/- √(-5)2 - 4(-3)(2) ) / ((2)(-3)) Thus, x = -1 and x = 2/3

In the example, a general rule is applied to a specific rule. You can reason out that it
is valid to apply the general (quadratic formula) to the specific equation – 3x 2 - 5x +2 = 0
since it is a second- degree equation.

Inductive Reasoning

The term "inductive reasoning" is reasoning from a specific case or cases to derive a
general rule. It is sometimes referred to as bottom-up logic. It draws inferences from
observations to make generalizations. In doing so, it recognizes that conclusions may not be
certain.

Inference can be done in four stages:

1. Observation - collecting facts without bias.
2. Analysis classifying the facts, identifying patterns of regularity.
3. Inference - from the patterns, making generalizations about the relations between the
facts.
4. Confirmation - testing the inference through further observation.
Most logic and number patterns involve inductive reasoning.

Here are some examples where inductive reasoning is employed:

• The chair in the living room is green. The chair in the dining room is green. The chair
in the bedroom is green. All chairs in the house are green.
• Karen leaves for the office at 6:00 a.m. Karen is always on time. Karen assumes then
that she will always be on time if she leaves at 6:00 a.m.
• Every time I eat chocolate, irritations appear on my skin. So, I am allergic to
chocolates.
• All the males in the class live in dormitories; therefore, all males in the college live in
dormitories.
• All kids in the nursery school like to play with clay. All children, therefore, enjoy
playing with clay.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

The following guidelines can be used to solve a mathematical problem:

1. Clarify the problem. Read the problem carefully.

2. Identify the key elements of the problem. It is important to determine the information
necessary to solve the problem. Important details must be identified. Discard useless
information.
3. Visualize the problem and draw a picture or diagram. Identify and visualize the
important elements of the problem, and make sure to show them in the picture or
diagram that you will create. Most people better understand a problem through
visuals.
4. Create a model of the problem. Model drawing is by no means exhaustive but it will
open a new doorway for someone who has been struggling with math problems.
5. Look for a pattern. Determine from the key elements of the problem if there is a
pattern you can work with.
6. Separate or divide the problem into smaller parts. Any problem has various
components. Think of it as stages: beginning, middle, and end. Then, solve the
problem in stages.