ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

FACULTY NARAYAN K. PRABHU

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR INTRODUCTION

MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS
FOUR MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS

PLANNING ORGANISING LEADING CONTROLLING

PLANNING
PLANNING INCLUDES DEFINING GOALS, ESTABLISHING STRATEGY, AND DEVELOPING PLANS TO COORDINATE ACTIVITIES.

ORGANIZING
DETERMINING WHAT TASKS ARE TO BE DONE, WHO IS TO DO THEM, HOW THE TASKS ARE TO BE GROUPED, WHO REPORTS TO WHOM, AND WHERE DECISIONS ARE TO BE MADE.

LEADING
INCLUDES MOTIVATING SUBORDINATES, DIRECTING OTHERS, SELECTING THE MOST EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION CHANNELS, AND RESOLVING CONFLICTS.

CONTROLLING
MONITORING ACTIVITIES TO ENSURE THEY ARE BEING ACCOMPLISHED AS PLANNED AND CORRECTING ANY SIGNIFICANT DEVIATIONS.

MANAGERIAL ROLES
INTERPERSONAL INFORMATIONAL DECISIONAL

MANAGERIAL ROLES
INTERPERSONAL
FIGUREHEAD

LEADER

LIAISON

MANAGERIAL ROLES
INFORMATIONAL
MONITOR

DISSEMINATOR

SPOKESPERSON

MANAGERIAL ROLES
DECISIONAL
ENTREPRENEUR

DISTURBANCE HANDLER

RESOURCE ALLOCATOR

NEGOTIATOR

FIGUREHEAD
SYMBOLIC HEAD; REQUIRED TO PERFORM A NUMBER OF ROUTINE DUTIES OF A LEGAL OR SOCIAL NATURE

LEADER
RESPONSIBLE FOR THE MOTIVATION AND DIRECTION OF SUBORDINATES

LIAISON
MANTAINS A NETWORK OF OUTSIDE CONTACTS WHO PROVIDE FAVORS AND INFORMATION.

MONITOR
RECIEVES WIDE VARIETY OF INFORMATION; SERVES AS NERVE CENTER OF INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL INFORMATION OF THE ORGANISATION.

DISSEMINATOR
TRANSMITS INFORMATION RECEIVED FROM OUTSIDERS OR FROM OTHER SUBORDINATES TO MEMBERS OF THE ORGANISATION.

SPOKESPERSON
TRANSMITS INFORMATION TO OUTSIDERS ON ORGANISATIONS PLANS, POLICIES, ACTIONS, AND RESULTS; SERVES AS EXPERT ON ORGANISATIONS INDUSTRY.

ENTREPRENEUR
SEARCHES ORGANISATION AND ITS ENVIRONMENT FOR OPPORTUNITIES AND INITIATES PROJECTS TO BRING ABOUT CHANGE.

DISTURBANCE HANDLER
RESPONSIBLE FOR CORRECTIVE ACTION WHEN ORGANISATION FACES IMPORTANT, UNEXPECTED DISTURBANCES.

RESOURCE ALLOCATOR
MAKING OR APPROVING SIGNIFICANT ORGANISATIONAL DECISIONS.

NEGOTIATOR
RESPONSIBLE FOR REPRESENTING THE ORGANISATION AT MAJOR NEGOTIATIONS.

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

APPLIED BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES

PSYCHOLOGY SOCIOLOGY SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY POLITICAL SCIENCE

CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES
PSYCHOLOGY THE SCIENCE THAT SEEKS TO MEASURE, EXPLAIN, AND SOMETIMES CHANGE THE BEHAVIOUR OF HUMANS AND OTHER ANIMALS.

CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES
SOCIOLOGY THE STUDY OF PEOPLE IN RELATION TO THEIR FELLOW HUMAN BEINGS.

CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AN AREA WITHIN PSYCHOLOGY THAT BLENDS CONCEPTS FROM PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY AND THAT FOCUSES ON THE INFLUENCE OF PEOPLE ON ONE ANOTHER.

CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES
ANTHROPOLOGY THE STUDY OF SOCIETIES TO LEARN ABOUT HUMAN BEINGS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES.

CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES
POLITICAL SCIENCE THE STUDY OF THE BEHAVIOUR OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS WITHIN A POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT.

OB : DEFINITION
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR CAN BE DEFINED AS THE UNDERSTANDING, PREDICTION, AND MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IN ORGANISATIONS
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
FRED LUTHANS

OB : DEFINITION
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR IS A FIELD OF STUDY THAT ENVISAGES THE IMPACT THAT INDIVIDUALS, GROUPS, AND STRUCTURE HAVE ON BEHAVIOUR WITHIN ORGANISATIONS FOR THE PURPOSE OF APPLYING SUCH KNOWLEDGE TOWARD IMPROVING AN ORGANISATIONS EFFECTIVENESS.
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR - CONCEPTS, CONTROVERSIES & APPLICATIONS
STEPHEN P. ROBBINS

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR ;DEFINATION

OB IS THE FIELD THAT SEEKS KNOWLEDGE OF BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS BY SYSTEMATICALLY STUDYING INDIVIDUAL , GROUP , AND ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESES.

BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS: JERALD GREENBERG & ROBERT A. BARON

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR:DEFINATION O B IS THE TERM USED TO DESCRIBETHE ACTIONS AND REACTIONS OF INDIVIDUALS. DYADS, AND GROUPS IN THE SYSTEM AS THE INTERACT WITH EACH OTHER IN THE COURSE OF THE WORKING DAY.

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR :TEXT & CASES UMA SEKARAN

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR STUDIES THREE DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOUR IN ORGANISATIONS: INDIVIDUALS, GROUPS AND STRUCTURE. OB INCLUDES THE CORE TOPICS OF MOTIVATION, LEADER BEHAVIOUR AND POWER, INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION, GROUP STRUCTURE AND PROCESSES, LEARNING, ATTITUDE DEVELOPMENT AND PERCEPTION, CHANGE PROCESSES, CONFLICT, WORK DESIGN, AND WORK STRESS.
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR - CONCEPTS, CONTROVERSIES & APPLICATIONS
STEPHEN P. ROBBINS

A GENERAL MODEL OF O B STAKES OUT ITS PARAMETERS IDENTIFIES ITS PRIMARY DEPENDENT & INDEPENDENT VARIABLES.

MODEL ABSTRACTION OF REALITY: SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION OF SOME REAL - WORLD PHENOMENON.

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR : DEFINITION ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR IS THE STUDY OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMPONENTS, AND THEIR IMPACT ON HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCES. SUCH STUDY CAN BEDEFIT FROM VARIOUS BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MANAGERIAL SKILL. DEVELOPING

KAE H. CHUNG AND LEON C. MEGGINSON.

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR : DEFINITION ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MEANS THE STUDY OF THE BEHAVIOR OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS IN ORGANIZATIONS, AND ORGANISATIONS THEMSELVES, AS THEY ACT AND INTERACT TO ATTAIN DESIRED OUTCOMES.

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR H. RANDOLPH BOBBIT JR.

PERCEPTION AND INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING

PERCEPTION AND INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING

THE WORLD AS IT IS PERCEIVED IS THE WORLD THAT IS BEHAVIORALLY IMPORTANT.

PERCEPTION : DEFINITION
A PROCESS BY WHICH INDIVIDUALS ORGANIZE AND INTERPRET THEIR SENSORY IMPRESSIONS IN ORDER TO GIVE MEANING TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

j j j THE PERCEIVER THE TARGET THE SITUATION

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PERCEPTION

FACTORS IN THE PERCEIVER jATTITUDES jMOTIVES jINTERESTS jEXPERIENCE jEXPECTATIONS

FACTORS IN THE SITUATION jTHE PERCEIVER jTHE TARGET jTHE SITUATION

PERCEPTION

FACTORS IN THE TARGET jNOVELTY jMOTION jSOUNDS jSIZE jBACKGROUND jPROXIMITY

DEFINITION OF ATTRIBUTION THEORY

WHEN INDIVIDUALS OBSERVE BEHAVIOR, THEY ATTEMPT TO DETERMINE WHETHER IT IS INTERNALLY OR EXTERNALLY CAUSED.

DETERMINATION IS BASED ON THREE FACTORS j j j DISTINCTIVENESS CONSENSUS CONSISTENCY

THERE IS A TENDENCY FOR INDIVIDUALS TO ATTRIBUTE THEIR OWN SUCCESSES TO INTERNAL FACTORS SUCH AS ABILITY OR EFFORT WHILE PUTTING THE BLAME FOR FAILURE ON EXTERNAL FACTORS SUCH AS LUCK.

FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR

THE TENDENCY TO UNDERESTIMATE THE INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL FACTORS AND OVERESTIMATE THE INFLUENCE OF INTERNAL FACTORS WHEN MAKING JUDGMENTS ABOUT THE BEHAVIOR OF OTHERS.

SELF-SERVING BIAS
THE TENDENCY FOR INDIVIDUALS TO ATTRIBUTE THEIR OWN SUCCESS TO INTERNAL FACTORS WHILE PUTTING THE BLAME FOR FAILURES ON EXTERNAL FACTORS.

FREQUENTLY USED SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING OTHERS

j j j j j SELECTIVE PERCEPTION HALO EFFECT CONTRAST EFFECTS PROJECTION STEREOTYPING

FREQUENTLY USED SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING OTHERS

SELECTIVE PERCEPTION PEOPLE SELECTIVELY INTERPRET WHAT THEY SEE ON THE BASIS OF THEIR INTERESTS, BACKGROUND, EXPERIENCE, AND ATTITUDES.

HALO EFFECT DRAWING A GENERAL INDIVIDUAL ON THE CHARACTERISTIC. IMPRESSION BASIS OF ABOUT AN A SINGLE

FREQUENTLY USED SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING OTHERS

CONTRAST EFFECTS EVALUATIONS OF A PERSONS CHARACTERISTICS THAT ARE AFFECTED BY COMPARISONS WITH OTHER PEOPLE RECENTLY ENCOUNTERED WHO RANK

HIGHER OR LOWER ON THE SAME CHARACTERISTICS.

FREQUENTLY USED SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING OTHERS

PROJECTION ATTRIBUTING ONES OWN CHARACTERISTICS TO OTHER PEOPLE.

STEREOTYPING JUDGING SOMEONE ON THE BASIS OF ONES PERCEPTION OF THE GROUP TO WHICH THAT PERSON BELONGS.

SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS

j j j j j EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS PERFORMANCE EVALUATION EMPLOYEE EFFORT EMPLOYEE LOYALTY

AMBIGUOUS PICTURE OF A YOUNG WOMAN AND AN OLD WOMAN.

(SOURCE: EDWIN G. BORING, A NEW AMBIGUOUS FIGURE, AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY, JULY 1930, P. 444. ALSO SEE ROBERT LEEPER, A STUDY OF A NEGLECTED PORTION OF THE FIELD OF LEARNING - THE DEVELOPMENT OF SENSORY ORGANIZAITON, JOURNAL OF GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY, MARCH 1935, P. 62. ORIGINALLY DRAWN BY CARTOONIST W.E. HILL AND PUBLISHED IN PUCK, NOVEMBER 6, 1915.)

CLEAR PICTURES OF THE YOUNG WOMAN AND OLD WOMAN.

( SOURCE : ROBERT LEEPER, A STUDY OF A NEGLECTED PORTION OF THE FIELD OF LEARNING THE DEVELOPMENT OF SENSORY ORGANIZATION, JOURNAL OF GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY, MARCH 1935, P. 62. )

THE RATIONAL DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

RATIONAL REFERS TO CHOICES THAT ARE CONSISTENT AND VALUE MAXIMIZING.

RATIONAL DECISION-MAKING A DECISION-MAKING MODEL THAT DESCRIBES HOW INDIVIDUALS SHOULD BEHAVE IN ORDER TO MAXIMIZE SOME OUTCOME.

STEPS IN THE RATIONAL DECISIONMAKING MODEL

j j j j j j DEFINE THE PROBLEM IDENTIFY THE DECISION CRITERIA ALLOCATE WEIGHTS TO THE CRITERIA DEVELOP THE ALTERNATIVES EVALUATE THE ALTERNATIVES SELECT THE BEST ALTERNATIVE

ASSUMPTIONS OF THE MODEL

j j j j j j PROBLEM CLARITY KNOWN OPTIONS CLEAR PREFERENCES CONSTANT PREFERENCES NO TIME OR COST CONSTRAINTS MAXIMUM PAYOFF

CREATIVITY IN DECISION MAKING : DEFINITION

THE ABILITY TO COMBINE IDEAS IN A UNIQUE WAY OR TO MAKE UNUSUAL ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN IDEAS.

DECISION MAKING ORGANIZATIONS

j j j j j j BOUNDED RATIONALITY INTUITION PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT MAKING CHOICES ESCALATION OF COMMITMENT

BOUNDED RATIONALITY
INDIVIDUALS MAKE DECISIONS BY CONSTRUCTING SIMPLIFIED MODELS THAT EXTRACT THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES FROM PROBLEMS WITHOUT CAPTUREING ALL THEIR COMPLEXITY. j THE SATISFICING DECISION MAKER SETTLES FOR THE FIRST SOLUTION THAT IS GOOD ENOUGH.

INTUITIVE DECISION MAKING

AN UNCONSCIOUS PROCESS CREATED OUT OF DISTILLED EXPERIENCE. j INTUITION IS NOT INDEPENDENT OF RATIONAL ANALYSIS. THE TWO COMPLEMENT EACH OTHER.

MAKING CHOICES
HEURISTICS JUDGMENTAL SHORTCUTS IN DECISION MAKING.

AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC
THE TENDENCY FOR PEOPLE TO BASE THEIR JUDGMENTS ON INFORMATION THAT IS READILY AVAILABLE TO THEM.

REPRESENTATIVE HEURISTIC
ASSESSING THE LIKELIHOOD OF AN OCCURRENCE BY DRAWING ANALOGIES AND SEEKING IDENTICAL SITUATIONS WHERE THEY DONT EXIST.

ESCALATION OF COMMITMENT

AN INCREASED COMMITMENT TO A PREVIOUS DECISION IN SPITE OF NEGATIVE INFORMATION.

ORGANIZATIONAL CONSTRAINTS : DECISION MAKING

j j j j j PERFORMANCE EVALUATION REWARD SYSTEMS PROGRAMMED ROUTINES SYSTEM-IMPOSED TIME CONSTRAINTS HISTORICAL PRECEDENTS

FACTORS AFFECTING ETHICAL DECISIONMAKING BEHAVIOR

STAGE OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

ETHICAL DECISIONMAKING BEHAVIOR

LOCUS OF CONTROL

PERCEPTION : DEFINITION
PERCEPTION CAN BE DEFINED AS THE PROCESS THROUGH WHICH PEOPLE SELECT, ORGANIZE AND INTERPRET OR ATTACH MEANING TO EVENTS HAPPENING IN THE ENVIRONMENT.

THIS ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR TEXT AND CASES UMA SEKARAN

HONING PERCEPTUAL SKILLS

j j j j j KNOWING AND PERCEIVING ONESELF ACCURATELY BEING EMPATHIC HAVING POSITIVE ATTITUDES ENHANCING ONES SELF-CONCEPT MAKING A CONSCIOUS EFFORT TO AVOID THE POSSIBLE COMMON BIASES IN PERCEPTION COMMUNICATING WITH EMPLOYEES TO ERASE INCORRECT PERCEPTIONS, AND AVOIDING ATTRIBUTIONS.

j j

SUBPROCESSES OF PERCEPTION
EXTERNAL EBVIRONMENT STIMULUS OR SITUATION CONSEQUENCE/S BEHAVIOR CONFRONTATION OF SPECIFIC STIMULUS REGISTRATION OF STIMULUS INTERPRETATION OF STIMULUS FEEDBACK FOR CLARIFICATION

THE JOHARI WINDOW

ASPECTS OF ME THAT:

OTHERS KNOW

PUBLIC AREA

BLIND AREA

OTHERS DONT KNOW

PRIVATE AREA

DARK AREA

MODEL OF PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

PERCEIVED CHARACTERISTICS OF STIMULI OR INPUTS SIZE INTENSITY REPETITION NOVELTY STATUS APPEARANCE CONTRAST MOTION

PERCEPTUAL MECHANISMS PERCEPTUA L INPUTS OR STSTIMULI OBJECTS EVENTS PEOPLE ORGANISATION SELECTION INTERPRETATION

PERCEPTUAL OUTPUTS ATTITUDES OPINIONS FEELINGS VALUES BEHAVIOUR

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SITUATION - PHYSICAL - SOCIAL - ORGANISATIONAL - TIMING - ORGANISATIONAL ROLES

PERCEIVERS CHARACTERISTICS 1. NEEDS & MOTIVES 2. SELF-CONCEPT 3. PAST EXPERIENCE 4. PSYCHOLOGICAL OR EMOTIONAL STATE 5. OTHER PERSONALITY ROLES

CASE STUDIES : OB Dr. T.V.RAO. A good way to learn from cases is to analyze each case and the following questions may be asked: What is the problem? What is the organization or the manager in the case should be concerned about? 2. What will happen if the organization /manager lets thing go on as they are? 3. What are the events that have led upto this situation? 4. What are the competency gaps of various individuals in performing their roles? 5. What organization polices seem to effect the individuals in the case? 6. What are the points of view adopted that have led to the present situation? Which of these are desirable or less desirable? 7. What can be done to solve the problem? Who should initiate action? How? With what anticipated consequences? 8. What is the role of HR Manager? 9. What things should change in the organization? What should change in different individuals involved in the case in terms of their attitudes, valves, perceptions etc.? 10. What lessons can be drawn from this case for the organization, the line manager, and the HR Manager?
1.

0
United States Australia Canada Britian Netherlands Singapore Germany

10

15

20 25

30

35

FIGURE 1.1 The distribution (per 100 people, 1995) of computers around the world. (Source: World Economic Forum, 1996.)

France Honkong Japan Italy Taiwan Soth Korea

FIGURE 2.2 Characteristics of learning organizations. (source: Adapted from Fred Luthans, micheal J. Rubach, and Paul Marsnik, Going Beyond Total Quality: The Characteristics, Techniques, and Measures of Learning Organizations. The international Journal of Organzational Analysis Jan1995

Presence of Tension Gap between vision & reality Questioning / Inquiry Challenging Status Quo Critical Reflection

LEARNING ORGANIZATION
Systems Thinking Shared vision Holistic Thinking Openness Cultural Facilitating Learning Suggestions Team Work Empowerment Empathy

VALUES, ATTITUDES AND JOB SATISFACTION

A VALUE IS A VALUE FOR ME ONLY WHEN I SEE THE VALUE OF THE VALUE AS VALUABLE TO ME.

SWAMI DAYANANDA

THE VALUE OF VALUES SRI GANGA DHARE SWAR TRUST PURANI JHADI RISHIKESH

WHEN YOU PREVENT ME FROM DOING ANYTHING IWANT TO DO, THAT IS PERSECUTION; BUT WHEN I PREVENT YOU FROM DOING ANYTHING YOU WANT TO DO, THAT IS LAW, ORDER AND MORALS.

- G. B. SHAW

VALUES
BASIC CONVICTIONS THAT A SPECIFIC MODE OF CONDUCT OR END-STATE OF EXISTENCE IS

PERSONALLY OR SOCIALLY PREFERABLE TO AN OPPOSITE OR CONVERSE MODE OF CONDUCT OR END-STATE OF EXISTENCE.

VALUE SYSTEM
A HIERARCHY BASED ON A RANKING OF AN INDIVIDUALS VALUES INTENSITY. IN TERMS OF THEIR

TYPES OF VALUES
TERMINAL VALUES
DESIRABLE END-STATES OF EXISTENCE; THE GOALS THAT A PERSON WOULD LIKE TO ACHIEVE DURING HIS OR HER LIFETIME.

INSTRUMENTAL VALUES
PREFERABLE MODES OF BEHAVIOR OR MEANS OF ACHIEVING ONES TERMINAL VALUES.

A FRAMEWORK OF ASSESSING CULTURES

y y y y y y y y POWER DISTANCE INDIVIDUALISM COLLECTIVISM QUANTITY OF LIFE QUALITY OF LIFE UNCERTAINTY OF EVIDENCE LONG TERM ORIENTATION SHORT TERM ORIENTATION

ATTITUDES
EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS OR JUDGMENTS CONCERNING OBJECTS, PEOPLE, OR EVENTS.

COGNITIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE

THE OPINION OR BELIEF SEGMENT OF AN ATTITUDE.

AFFECTIVE COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE

THE EMOTIONAL OR FEELING SEGMENT OF AN ATTITUDE.

BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT OF AN ATTITUDE

AN INTENTION TO BEHAVE IN A CERTAIN WAY TOWARD SOMEONE OR SOMETHING.

TYPES OF ATTITUDES
MOST OF THE RESEARCH IN OB HAS BEEN CONCERNED WITH THREE ATTITUDES:y y y JOB SATISFACTION JOB INVOLVEMENT ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

JOB SATISFACTION
THE TERM JOB SATISFACTION REFERS TO AN

INDIVIDUALS GENERAL ATTITUDE TOWARDS HIS OR HER OWN JOB.

JOB INVOLVEMENT
THE DEGREE TO WHICH A PERSON IDENTIFIES WITH HIS OR HER JOB, ACTIVELY PARTICIPATES IN IT, AND CONSIDERS HIS OR HER PERFORMANCE IMPORTANT TO SELF-WORTH.

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT
THE DEGREE TO WHICH AN EMPLOYEE IDENTIFIES WITH A PARTICULAR ORGANIZATION AND ITS

GOALS, AND WISHES TO MAINTAIN MEMBERSHIP IN THE ORGANIZATION.

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
ANY INCOMPATIBILITY BETWEEN TWO OR MORE ATTITUDES ATTITUDES. OR BETWEEN BEHAVIOR AND

SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY
ATTITUDES ARE USED AFTER THE FACT TO MAKE SENSE OUT OF AN ACTION THAT HAS ALREADY OCCURRED.

IT SEEMS THAT WE ARE VERY GOOD AT

FINDING REASONS FOR WHAT WE DO, BUT NOT SO GOOD AT DOING WHAT WE FIND REASONS FOR.

WHAT DETERMINES JOB SATISFACTION

y y y y y y MENTALLY CHALLENGING WORK EQUITABLE REWARDS SUPPORTIVE WORKING CONDITIONS SUPPORTIVE COLLEAGUES PERSONALITY - JOB FIT GENES HEREDITARY

JOB SATISFACTION INDIAN CONTEXT

y y y y y y y y y y y COMMUNICATION QUALITY INTER-PERSONAL RELATIONSHIP TRUST LEVEL BASIC ATTITUDE (GIVE & TAKE) PERCEIVED ORGANIZATIONAL & DEPARTMENTAL REALITIES JOB / WORK / ROLE ITSELF COMPENSATION & REWARD SYSTEM CAREER ADVANCEMENT RECOGNITION / MOTIVATION (INTERNAL/EXTERNAL) REALITIES IN HOME FRONT FAMILY PERSONALITY MAKE UP OUTLOOK `

A SHIFT IN FOCUS FROM

JOB SATISFACTION TO LIFE SATISFACTION DELIGHT CONTENTMENT SOLACE

EFFECT OF JOB SATISFACTION ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

 y y y PRODUCTIVITY ABSENTEEISM TURN OVER

HOW EMPLOYEES EXPRESS DISSATISFACTION

EXIT
DISSATISFACTION EXPRESSED THROUGH BEHAVIOR DIRECTED TOWARD LEAVING THE ORGANIZATION.

VOICE
DISSATISFACTION EXPRESSED THROUGH ACTIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVE ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE CONDITIONS.

HOW EMPLOYEES EXPRESS DISSATISFACTION

LOYALTY
DISSATISFACTION EXPRESSED BY PASSIVELY WAITING FOR CONDITIONS TO IMPROVE.

NEGLECT
DISSATISFACTION EXPRESSED THROUGH ALLOWING CONDITIONS TO WORSEN.

AN ATTITUDE

IS

DEFINED AS A

LEARNED

PREDISPOSITION TO RESPOND IN A CONSISTENTLY FAVORABLE OR UNFAVORABLE RESPECT TO A GIVEN OBJECT. MANNER WITH

ABILITY
STABLE CHARACTERISTIC RESPONSIBLE FOR A PERSONS MAXIMUM PHYSICAL OR MENTAL PERFORMANCE.

SKILL
SPECIFIC CAPACITY TO MANIPULATE OBJECTS.

INTELLIGENCE
CAPACITY FOR CONSTRUCTIVE THINKING,

REASONING, PROBLEM SOLVING.

EMOTIONS
COMPLEX HUMAN REACTIONS TO PERSONAL

ACHIEVEMENTS AND SETBACKS.

PERFORMANCE DEPENDS ON THE RIGHT COMBINATION OF EFFORT, ABILITY, AND SKILL

ABILITY

EFFORT

PERFORMANCE

SKILL

IMMATURITY CHARACTERISTICS PASSIVITY DEPENDENCE FEW WAYS OF BEHAVING SHALLOW INTERESTS SHORT TIME PERSPECTIVE SUBORDINATE POSITION LACK OF SELF-AWARENESS

MATURITY CHARACTERISTICS ACTIVITY INDEPENDENCE DIVERSE BEHAVIOR DEEP INTERESTS LONG TIME PERSPECTIVE SUPERORDINATE POSITION SELF-AWARENESS AND CONTROL

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION OF EMPLOYEES

1. CHANGE OF ATTITUDES, VALUES, AND BEHAVIORS 2. CONTINUITY OF SOCIALIZATION OVER TIME 3. ADJUSTMENT TO NEW JOBS, ORGANIZATIONAL PRACTICES WORK GROUPS, AND

4. MUTUAL INFLUENCE BETWEEN NEW RECRUITS AND THEIR MANAGERS 5. CRITICALITY OF THE EARLY SOCIALIZATION PERIOD.

STEPS FOR SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION

1. PROVIDE A CHALLENGING FIRST JOB. 2. PROVIDE RELEVANT TRAINING. 3. PROVIDE TIMELY AND CONSISTENT FEEDBACK. 4. SELECT A GOOD FIRST SUPERVISOR TO BE IN CHARGE OF SOCIALIZATION. 5. DESIGN A RELAXED ORIENTATION PROGRAM. 6. PLACE NEW RECRUITS IN WORK GROUPS WITH HIGH MORALE.

COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES
EMOTIONAL COMPONENT
THE EMOTIONAL COMPONENT INVOLVES THE PERSONS FEELINGS OR AFFECT-POSITIVE, NEUTRAL, OR NEGATIVE-ABOUT AN OBJECT.

INFORMATIONAL COMPONENT
THE INFORMATIONAL COMPONENT CONSISTS OF THE BELIEFS AND INFORMATION THE INDIVIDUAL HAS ABOUT THE OBJECT.

BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT
THE BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT CONSISTS OF A PERSONS TENDENCIES TO BEHAVE IN A PARTICULAR WAY TOWARDS AN OBJECT.

FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES

yTHE ADJUSTMENT FUNCTION yTHE EGO-DEFENSIVE FUNCTION yTHE VALUE-EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION yTHE KNOWLEDGE FUNCTION

CHANGING ATTITUDES
yBARRIERS TO CHANGING ATTITUDES yPROVIDING NEW INFORMATION yUSE OF FEAR yRESOLVING DISCREPANCIES yINFLUENCE OF FRIENDS OR PEERS yTHE CO-OPTING APPROACH

INTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL

ATTRIBUTING OUTCOMES TO ONES OWN ACTIONS.

EXTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL

ATTRIBUTING OUTCOMES TO CIRCUMSTANCES BEYOND ONES CONTROL.

ATTITUDE
LEARNED PREDISPOSITION TOWARD A GIVEN OBJECT

LEARNED HELPLESSNESS
DEBILITATING LACK OF FAITH IN ONES ABILITY TO CONTROL THE SITUATION

SELF-EFFICACY IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS

SELF-EFFICACY REQUIRES CONSTRUCTIVE ACTION IN EACH OF THE FOLLOWING MANAGERIAL AREAS: 1. RECRUITING/SELECTION/JOB ASSIGNMENTS 2. JOB DESIGN 3. TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT 4. SELF-MANAGEMENT 5. GOAL SETTING AND QUALITY IMPROVEMENT 6. COACHING 7. LEADERSHIP 8. REWARDS.

THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS

PERSONALITY DIMENSION CHARACTERISTICS OF A PERSON SCORING POSITIVELY ON THE DIMENSION OUTGOING, TALKATIVE, SOCIABLE, ASSERTIVE TRUSTING, GOOD NATURED, COOPERATIVE, SOFT HEARTED DEPENDABLE, RESPONSIBLE, ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTED, PERSISTENT RELAXED, SECURE, UNWORRIED INTELLECTUAL, IMAGINATIVE, CURIOUS, BROAD MINDED

1. EXTRAVERSION 2. AGREEABLENESS 3. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS

4. EMOTIONAL STABILITY 5. OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE

SOURCE: ADAPTED FROM M R BARRICK AND M K MOUNT, AUTONOMY AS A MODERATOR OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND JOB PERFORMANCE, JOURNAL OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY, FEBRUARY 1993, PP 111-18

Executives Terminal Instrumental 1. Self- respect 1. Honest

Union Members Activists Terminal Instrumental Terminal Instrumental 1. Family 1. Responsible 1. Equality 1. Honest Security 2. Family 2. Responsible 2. Freedom 2. Honest 2. A world 2. Helpful security of peace 3. Freedom 3. Capable 3. Happiness 3. Courageous 3. Family 3. Courageous security 4. A sense of 4. Ambitious 4. Self-respect 4. Independent 4. Self4. Responsible accomplishment respect 5. Happiness 5. Independent 5. Mature love 5. Capable 5. Freedom 5. Capable
Source: Based on W.C. Frederick and J. Weber, The Values of Corporate Managers and Their Critics: An Empirical Description and Normative Implications, in W.C. Frederick and L. E. Preston (eds), Business Ethics: Research Issues and Empirical Studies (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1990), pp. 123-44.

TERMINAL AND INSTRUMENTAL VALUES IN ROKEACH SURVEY TERMINAL VALUES A COMFORTABLE LIFE (A PROSPEROUS LIFE) AN EXCITING LIFE (A STIMULATING, ACTIVE LIFE) INSTUMENTAL VALUES AMBITIOUS (HARDWORKING, ASPIRING) BROAD-MINDED (OPENMINDED)

A SENSE OF CAPABLE (COMPETENT, ACCOMPLISHMENT (LASTING EFFECTIVE) CONTRIBUTION) A WORLD AT PEACE (FREE OF CHEERFUL (LIGHT-HEARTED, WAR AND CONFLICT) JOYFUL) A WORLD OF BEAUTY (BEAUTY OF NATURE AND THE ARTS) EQUALITY (BROTHERHOOD, EQUAL OPPORTUNITY FOR ALL) FAMILY SECURITY (TAKING CARE OF LOVED ONES) FREEDOM (INDEPENDENCE, FREE CHOICE) HAPPINESS (CONTENTEDNESS) CLEAN (NEAT, TIDY)

COURAGEOUS (STANDING UP FOR YOUR BELIEFS) FORGIVING (WILLING TO PARDON OTHERS) HELPFUL (WORKING FOR THE WELFARE OF OTHERS) HONEST (SINCERE, TRUTHFUL)

TERMINAL VALUES MATURE LOVE (SEXUAL AND SPIRITUAL INTIMACY) NATIONAL SECURITY (PROTECTION FROM ATTACK) PLEASURE (AN ENJOYABLE, LEISURELY LIFE) SALVATION (SAVED, ETERNAL LIFE) SELF-RESPECT (SELFESTEEM) SOCIAL RECOGNITION (RESPECT, ADMIRATION) TRUE FRIENDSHIP (CLOSE COMPANIONSHIP) WISDOM (A MATURE UNDERSTANDING OF LIFE)

INSTUMENTAL VALUES INDEPENDENT (SELFRELIANT, SELF-SUFFICIENT) INTELLECTUAL (INTELLIGENT, REFLECTIVE) LOGICAL (CONSISTENT, RATIONAL) LOVING (AFFECTIONATE, TENDER) OBEDIENT (DUTIFUL, RESPECTFUL) POLITE (COURTEOUS, WELL MANNERED) RESPONSIBLE (DEPENDABLE, RELIABLE) SELF-CONTROLLED (RESTRAINED, SELFDISCIPLINED)

Source: M. Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values (New York: The Free Press, 1973).

MENTAL ABILITIES UNDERLYING PERFORMANCE

ABILITY 1. COMPREHENSION 2. WORD FLUENCY DESCRIPTION VERBAL THE ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND WHAT WORDS MEAN AND TO READILY COMPREHEND WHAT IS READ. THE ABILITY TO PRODUCE ISOLATED WORDS THAT FULFILL SPECIFIC SYMBOLIC OR STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS (SUCH AS ALL WORDS THAT BEGIN WITH THE LETTER B AND HAVE TWO VOWELS). THE ABILITY TO MAKE QUICK AND ACCURATE ARITHMETIC COMPUTATIONS SUCH AS ADDING AND SUBTRACTING. BEING ABLE TO PERCEIVE SPATIAL PATTERNS AND TO VISUALIZE HOW GEOMETRIC SHAPES WOULD LOOK IF TRANSFORMED IN SHAPE OR POSITION. HAVING GOOD ROTE MEMORY FOR PAIRED WORDS, SYMBOLS, LISTS OF NUMBERS, OR OTHER ASSOCIATED ITEMS. THE ABILITY TO PERCEIVE FIGURES, IDENTIFY SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES, AND CARRY OUT TASKS INVOLVING VISUAL PERCEPTION. THE ABILITY TO REASON FROM SPECIFICS TO GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

3. NUMERICAL

4. SPATIAL

5. MEMORY

6. PERCEPTUAL SPEED

7. INDUCTIVE REASONING

SOURCE: ADAPTED FROM M D DUNNETTE, APTITUDES, ABILITIES, AND SKILLS, IN HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, ED M D DUNNETTE (SKOKIE, IL: RAND MCNALLY, 1976), PP 478-83

Positive and Negative Emotions

Negative Emotions (Goal incongruent) Positive Emotions (Goal congruent)

Anger Fright/ anxiety Guilt/ shame Sadness Envy/ jealousy Disgust

Happiness/joy

Pride

Love/affection

Relief

Source: Adapted from discussion in R S lazarus, Emotion and Adaptation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), Chs 6,7.

HOW TO MANAGE ANGER IN YOURSELF AND OTHERS

REDUCING CHRONIC ANGER [IN YOURSELF]
GUIDES FOR ACTION y APPRECIATE THE POTENTIALLY VALUABLE LESSONS FROM ANGER. USE MISTAKES AND SLIGHTS TO LEARN y y RECOGNIZE THAT YOU AND OTHERS CAN DO WELL ENOUGH WITHOUT BEING PERFECT. TRUST THAT MOST PEOPLE WANT TO BE CARING, HELPFUL FAMILY MEMBERS AND COLLEAGUES. FORGIVE OTHERS AND YOURSELF. CONFRONT UNREALISTIC, BLAMEORIENTED ASSUMPTIONS.

RESPONDING TO ANGRY PROVOCATION

GUIDES FOR ACTION y EXPECT ANGRY PEOPLE TO EXAGGERATE. RECOGNIZE THE OTHERS y FRUSTRATIONS AND PRESSURES. y USE THE PROVOCATION TO DEVELOP YOUR ABILITIES. y ALLOW THE OTHER TO LET OFF STEAM.

y y

y y

ADOPT CONSTRUCTIVE, LEARNINGORIENTED ASSUMPTIONS. PITFALLS TO AVOID y ASSUME EVERY SLIGHT IS A PAINFUL WOUND. y EQUATE NOT GETTING WHAT YOU WANT WITH CATASTROPHE. y SEE EVERY MISTAKE AND SLIP AS A TRANSGRESSION THAT MUST BE CORRECTED IMMEDIATELY. ATTACK SOMEONE FOR YOUR GETTING ANGRY. ATTACK YOURSELF FOR GETTING ANGRY. TRY TO BE AND HAVE THINGS PERFECT. SUSPECT PEOPLES MOTIVES UNLESS YOU HAVE INCONTESTABLE EVIDENCE THAT PEOPLE CAN BE TRUSTED. ASSUME ANY ATTEMPT TO CHANGE YOURSELF IS AN ADMISSION OF FAILURE. NEVER FORGIVE.

BEGIN TO PROBLEM SOLVE WHEN THE ANGER IS AT MODERATE LEVELS. CONGRATULATE YOURSELF ON TURNING AN OUTBURST INTO AN OPPORTUNITY TO FIND SOLUTIONS. SHARE SUCCESSES WITH PARTNERS.

PITFALLS TO AVOID y TAKE EVERY WORD LITERALLY. y DENOUNCE THE MOST EXTREME STATEMENTS AND IGNORE MORE MODERATE ONES. DOUBT YOURSELF BECAUSE THE OTHER DOES. ATTACK BECAUSE YOU HAVE BEEN ATTACKED. FORGET THE EXPERIENCE WITHOUT LEARNING FROM IT.

y y y y

y y

SOURCE: EPRINTED WITH PERMISSION FROM D TIJOSVOLD, LEARNING TO MANAGE CONFLICT: GETTING PEOPLE TO WORK TOGETHER PRODUCTIVELY, PP 127-29 COPYRIGHT 1993 DEAN TJOSVOLD. FIRST PUBLISHED BY LEXINGTON BOOKS. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

A Conceptual Model for the Study of Individual Differences in OB

The Unique Individual

Forms of Self-Expression

Personality traits

Attitudes

Abilities
Self-concept Self-esteem Self-efficacy Self-monitoring

Emotions

BASIC MOTIVATIONAL CONCEPTS

MOTIVATION
PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES THAT AROUSE AND DIRECT GOAL-ORIENTED BEHAVIOUR.

THE TERM MOTIVATION DERIVES FROM THE LATIN WORD MOVERE, MEANING TO MOVE. IN THE PRESENT CONTEXT, MOTIVATION REPRESENTS THOSE PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES THAT CAUSE THE AROUSAL, DIRECTION, AND PERSISTANCE OF VOLUNTARY ACTIONS THAT ARE GOAL DIRECTED. (T. R. MITCHELL, MOTIVATION: NEW DIRECTION FOR THEORY, RESEARCH AND PRACTICE, ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT REVIEW, JANUARY, 1982, PAGE 81).

NEEDS
INDIVIDUALS ARE MOTIVATED BY UNSATISFIED NEEDS. DISSATISFACTION WITH SOCIAL LIFE SHOULD MOTIVATE ONE TO PARTICIPATE IN MORE SOCIAL ACTIVITIES. HENRY MURRAY, A 1930S PSYCHOLOGIST, WAS THE FIRST BEHAVIOURAL SCIENTIST TO PROPOSE A LIST OF NEEDS TO UNDERLIE GOAL ORIENTED BEHAVIOUR.

REINFORCEMENT
BEHAVIOUR IS CONTROLLED BY ITS CONSEQUENCES, NOT BY THE RESULT OF HYPOTHETICAL INTERNAL STATES SUCH AS INSTINCTS, DRIVES, OR NEEDS. PEOPLE REPEAT BEHAVIOURS FOLLOWED BY FAVORABLE CONSEQUENCES AND AVOID BEHAVIOURS RESULTING IN UNFAVORABLE CONSEQUENCES.

REINFORCEMENT THEORISTS THORNDIKE AND B. F. SKINNER.

ARE

EDWARD

L.

COGNITIONS
BEHAVIOUR IS A FUNCTION OF BELIEFS, EXPECTATIONS, VALUES, AND OTHER MENTAL COGNITIONS. BEHAVIOUR IS THEREFORE VIEWED AS THE RESULT OF RATIONAL AND CONSCIOUS CHOICES AMONG ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION.

JOB CHARACTERISTICS
TASK ITSELF IS THE KEY TO EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION. A BORING AND MONOTONOUS JOB STIFLES MOTIVATION, A CHALLENGING JOB ENHANCES MOTIVATION. 3 INGREDIENTS OF CHALLENGING JOB ARE VARIETY, AUTONOMY, AND DECISION MAKING. ONE CAN ALSO CONSIDER JOB ENRICHMENT, JOB REDESIGN AND JOB ROTATION.

FEELINGS/EMOTIONS
EMPLOYEES ARE WHOLE PEOPLE WHO PURSUE GOALS OUTSIDE OF BECOMING A HIGH PERFORMER. EXAMPLES: AN IDEAL STUDENT, A LOVING BOYFRIEND OR GIRLFRIEND, A CARING PARENT, A GOOD FRIEND, A RESPONSIBLE CITIZEN, OR A HAPPY PERSON. WORK MOTIVATION IS A FUNCTION OF FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS TOWARDS INTERESTS AND GOALS.

PERFORMANCE = LEVEL OF ABILITY x LEVEL OF SKILL x MOTIVATION x KNOWLEDGE ABOUT HOW TO COMPLETE THE TASK x FEELINGS/EMOTIONS x FACILITATING AND INHIBITING CONDITIONS NOT UNDER THE INDIVIDUALS CONTROL.

[THIS EQUATION WAS ADAPTED FROM J P CAMPBELL AND R D PRITCHARD, MOTIVATION THEORY IN INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, IN HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, ED M D DUNNETTE (SKOKIE, IL: RAND MCNALLY, 1976), PP 63-130].

NEED THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

NEEDS
PHYSIOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR. DEFICIENCIES THAT AROUSE

MASLOWS NEED HIERARCHY THEORY

IN 1943, PSYCHOLOGIST ABRAHAM MASLOW PROPOUNDED HISNOW-FAMOUS HIERARCHY THEORY OF MOTIVATION.

Maslows Need Hierarchy

Self-Actualization Desire for self-fulfillment to become the best one is capable of becoming.

Esteem Need for reputation, prestige, and recognition from others. Also contains need for self-confidence and strength. Love The desire to be loved and to love. Contains the need for affection and belonging. Safety Consists of the need to be safe from physical and psychological harm. Physiological Most basic need. Entails having enough food, air, and water to survive.
Source: adapted from descriptions provided by A H Maslow, A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review, July 1943, pp 370-96.

MCCLELLANDS NEED THEORY

IN 1940 A WELL-KNOWN PSYCHOLOGIST PROPOUNDED MCCLELLANDS NEED THEORY

NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT

DESIRE TO ACCOMPLISH SOMETHING DIFFICULT.

THE NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT IS DEFINED

BY THE FOLLOWING DESIRES: TO ACCOMPLISH SOMETHING DIFFICULT. TO MASTER, MANIPULATE, OR ORGANIZE PHYSICAL OBJECTS, HUMAN BEINGS, OR IDEAS. TO DO THIS AS RAPIDLY AND AS INDEPENDENTLY AS POSSIBLE. TO OVERCOME OBSTACLES AND ATTAIN A HIGH STANDARD. TO EXCEL ONES SELF. TO RIVAL AND SURPASS OTHERS. TO INCREASE SELF-REGARD BY THE SUCCESSFUL EXERCISE OF TALENT. [H A MURRAY, EXPLORATIONS IN PERSONALITY (NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS, 1938), P 164].

NEED FOR AFFILIATION

DESIRE TO SPEND TIME IN SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS AND ACTIVITIES.

NEED FOR POWER

DESIRE TO INFLUENCE, COACH, ENCOURAGE OTHERS TO ACHIEVE. TEACH, OR

JOB DESIGN
CHANGING THE CONTENT AND/OR PROCESS OF A SPECIFIC JOB TO INCREASE JOB SATISFACTION AND PERFORMANCE.

JOB ENLARGEMENT
PUTTING MORE VARIETY INTO A JOB.

JOB ROTATION
MOVING EMPLOYEES FROM ONE SPECIALIZED JOB TO ANOTHER.

JOB ENRICHMENT
FREDERICK HERZBERG PROPOUNDED MOTIVATOR-HYGIENE THEORY OF SATISFACTION. THE JOB

MOTIVATORS
JOB CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED SATISFACTION. WITH JOB

HYGIENE FACTORS
JOB CHARACTERISTICS DISSATISFACTION. ASSOCIATED WITH JOB

Herbergs Motivator - Hygiene Model

Motivators
No Satisfaction Jobs that do not offer achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement. Satisfaction jobs offering achievement, recognition, stimulation work responsibility, and advancement.

Hygiene Factors
Dissatisfaction Jobs with poor company policies and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships with Supervisors, and working conditions. No Dissatisfaction Jobs with good company policies and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships with Supervisors, and working conditions.

Source: Adapted in part from D.A. Whitsett and E.K. Winslow, An alysis of Studies Critical of the Motivator-Hygiene Theory Personnel Psychology, Winter 1967, pp 391-415.

JOB ENRICHMENT
BUILDING STIMULATING ACHIEVEMENT, WORK, RECOGNITION, AND

RESPONSIBILITY,

ADVANCEMENT INTO A JOB.

PRINCIPLES OF VERTICALLY LOADING A JOB MOTIVATORS INVOLVED REMOVING SOME CONTROLS WHILE RESPONSIBILITY RETAINING ACCOUNTABILITY AND PERSONAL ACHIEVEMENT INCREASING THE ACCOUNTABILITY RESPONSIBILITY OF INDIVIDUALS FOR THEIR OWN AND RECOGNITION WORK GIVING A PERSON A COMPLETE RESPONSIBILITY, NATURAL UNIT OF WORK (MODULE, ACHIEVEMENT, AND DIVISION, AREA, AND SO ON) RECOGNITION GRANTING ADDITIONAL RESPONSIBILITY, AUTHORITY TO AN EMPLOYEE IN ACHIEVEMENT, AND HIS ACTIVITY; JOB FREEDOM RECOGNITION MAKING PERIODIC REPORTS INTERNAL DIRECTLY AVAILABLE TO THE RECOGNITION WORKER HIMSELF RATHER THAN TO THE SUPERVISOR INTRODUCING NEW AND MORE GROWTH AND DIFFICULT TASKS NOT PREVIOUSLY LEARNING HANDLED ASSIGNING INDIVIDUALS SPECIFIC RESPONSIBILITY, OR SPECIALISED TASKS, ENABLING GROWTH, AND THEM TO BECOME EXPERTS ADVANCEMENT PRINCIPLE

A. B. C. D. E.

F. G.

SOURCE: REPRINTED BY PERMISSION OF THE HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW. AN EXHIBIT FROM: ONE MORE TIME: HOW DO YOU MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES? BY F. HERZBERG (JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1968). COPYRIGHT 1968 BY THE PRESIDENT AND FELLOWS OF HARVARD COLLEGE; ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

JOB SATISFACTION
AN AFFECTIVE OR EMOTIONAL RESPONSE TO ONES JOB

MET EXPECTATIONS
THE EXTENT TO WHICH ONE RECEIVES WHAT HE OR SHE EXPECTS FROM A JOB.

VALUE ATTAINMENT
THE EXTENT TO WHICH A JOB FULFILLMENT OF ONES WORK VALUES. ALLOWS

GOAL
WHAT AN INDIVIDUAL IS TRYING TO ACCOMPLISH.

MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PARTICIPATION IN DECISION SETTING, AND FEEDBACK. INCORPORATING MAKING, GOAL

PERSISTENCE
EXTENT TO WHICH EFFORT IS EXPENDED ON A TASK OVER TIME.

SECONDARY MOTIVES
AS HUMAN SOCIETY DEVELOPS ECONOMICALLY AND BECOMES MORE COMPLEX, SECONDARY

MOTIVES BECOME IMPORTANT.

EXAMPLES OF KEY SECONDARY NEEDS NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT NEED FOR SECURITY 1. DOING BETTER THAN 1. HAVING A SECURE JOB COMPETITORS (a) ATTAINING OR SURPASSING A (a) BEING PROTECTED AGAINST DIFFICULT GOAL LOSS OF INCOME OR ECONOMIC DISASTER 1. SOLVING A COMPLEX PROBLEM 1. HAVING PROTECTION AGAINST ILLNESS AND DISABILITY (E) CARRYING OUT A 1. BEING PROTECTED AGAINST CHALLENGING ASSIGNMENT PHYSICAL HARM OR SUCCESSFULLY HAZARDOUS CONDITIONS (a) DEVELOPING A BETTER WAY TO 1. AVOIDING TASKS OR DECISIONS DO SOMETHING WITH A RISK OF FAILURE AND BLAME NEED FOR POWER (b) INFLUENCING PEOPLE TO CHANGE THEIR ATTITUDES OR BEHAVIOUR (c) CONTROLLING PEOPLE AND ACTIVITIES (d) BEING IN A POSITION OF AUTHORITY OVER OTHERS (e) GAINING CONTROL OVER INFORMATION AND RESOURCES NEED FOR STATUS 2. HAVING THE RIGHT CAR AND WEARING THE RIGHT CLOTHES 3. 4. 5. WORKING FOR THE RIGHT COMPANY IN THE RIGHT JOB HAVING A DEGREE FROM THE RIGHT UNIVERSITY LIVING IN THE RIGHT NEIGHBOURHOOD AND BELONGING TO THE COUNTRY CLUB HAVING EXECUTIVE PRIVILEGES

(f)

DEFEATING AN OPPONENT OR 6. ENEMY

EXAMPLES OF KEY SECONDARY NEEDS NEED FOR AFFILIATION 1. BEING LIKED BY MANY PEOPLE 2. BEING ACCEPTED AS PART OF A GROUP OR TEAM 3. WORKING WITH PEOPLE WHO ARE FRIENDLY AND COOPERATIVE 4. MAINTAINING HARMONIOUS RELATIONSHIPS AND AVOIDING CONFLICTS 5. PARTICIPATING IN PLEASANT SOCIAL ACTIVITIES SOURCE: ADAPTED FROM GARY YUKL, SKILLS FOR MANAGERS AND LEADERS, PRETICE-HALL, ENGLEWOOD CLIFFS, N.J., 1990, P 41. THE EXAMPLES OF NEED FOR STATUS WERE NOT COVERED BY YULK.

HIGH ACHIEVERS IN ACTION

y y y y DRAW UP A FIVE-YEAR PLAN RAISE MORE MONEY THAN IS NEEDED TEST THE MARKET DONT TAKE NO FOR AN ANSWER.

GOAL DIFFICULTY
THE AMOUNT OF EFFORT REQUIRED TO MEET A GOAL.

GOAL SPECIFICITY
QUANTIFIABILITY OF A GOAL.

GOAL COMMITMENT
AMOUNT OF COMMITMENT TO ACHIEVING A GOAL.

THE MEANING OF MOTIVATION

ONE OR MORE OF THE FOLLOWING WORDS ARE INCLUDED IN THE DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION: DESIRES, WANTS, WISHES, AIMS, GOALS, NEEDS, DRIVES, MOTIVES, AND INCENTIVES.

COMPREHENSIVE DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION

MOTIVATION IS A PROCESS THAT STARTS WITH A PHYSIOLOGICAL OR PSYCHOLOGICAL DEFICIENCY OR NEED THAT ACTIVATES A BEHAVIOR OR A DRIVE THAT IS AIMED AT A GOAL OR INCENTIVE.

(FRED LUTHANS) ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOR

PRIMARY MOTIVES
PRIMARY MOTIVES ARE ALSO CALLED

PHYSIOLOGICAL, BIOLOGICAL, UNLEARNED, OR PRIMARY.

SIMPLE WAYS TO GET ALONG WITH PEOPLE

SIX IDEAS TO MOTIVATE YOUR EMPLOYEES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. TRAIN EMPLOYEES TO GET ALONG WITH EACH OTHER ENCOURAGE EACH OF YOUR EMPLOYEE TO BECOME CUSTOMER - ORIENTED STRETCH YOUR EMPLOYEES SOLVE YOUR EMPLOYEES PROBLEMS MOTIVATE YOUR EMPLOYEES TO THINK CURE YOUR OBNOXIOUS EMPLOYEES.

FIGURE 2.2 Characteristics of learning organizations. (source: Adapted from Fred Luthans, micheal J. Rubach, and Paul Marsnik, Going Beyond Total Quality: The Characteristics, Techniques, and Measures of Learning Organizations. The international Journal of Organzational Analysis Jan1995

Presence of Tension Gap between vision & reality Questioning / Inquiry Challenging Status Quo Critical Reflection

LEARNING ORGANIZATION
Systems Thinking Shared vision Holistic Thinking Openness Cultural Facilitating Learning Suggestions Team Work Empowerment Empathy

FOUNDATION OF GROUP BEHAVIOR

GROUP
TWO OR MORE INDIVIDUALS, INTERACTING AND INTERDEPENDENT, WHO HAVE COME TOGETHER TO ACHIEVE PARTICULAR OBJECTIVES.

FORMAL GROUP
A DESIGNATED WORK GROUP DEFINED BY THE ORGANIZATIONS STRUCTURE.

INFORMAL GROUP
A GROUP THAT IS NEITHER FORMALLY STRUCTURED NOR ORGANIZATIONALLY DETERMINED; APPEARS IN RESPONSE TO THE NEED FOR SOCIAL CONTACT.

COMMAND GROUP
A MANAGER AND SUBORDINATES. HIS OR HER IMMEDIATE

TASK GROUP
THOSE WORKING TOGETHER TO COMPLETE A JOB TASK.

INTEREST GROUP
THOSE WORKING TOGETHER TO ATTAIN A SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE WITH WHICH EACH IS CONCERNED.

FRIENDSHIP GROUP
THOSE BROUGHT TOGETHER BECAUSE THEY SHARE ONE OR MORE COMMON CHARACTERISTICS.

WHY DO PEOPLE JOIN GROUPS?

1. SECURITY BY JOINING A GROUP, INDIVIDUALS CAN REDUCE THE INSECURITY OF STANDING ALONE. PEOPLE FEEL STRONGER, HAVE FEWER SELF-DOUBTS, AND ARE MORE RESISTANT TO THREATS WHEN THEY ARE PART OF A GROUP 2. STATUS INCLUSION IN A GROUP THAT IS VIEWED AS IMPORTANT BY OTHERS PROVIDES RECOGNITION AND STATUS FOR ITS MEMBERS.

WHY DO PEOPLE JOIN GROUPS

3. SELF-ESTEEM GROUPS CAN PROVIDE PEOPLE WITH FEELINGS OF SELF-WORTH. THAT IS, IN ADDITION TO CONVEYING STATUS TO THOSE OUTSIDE THE GROUP, MEMBERSHIP CAN ALSO GIVE INCREASED FEELINGS OF WORTH TO THE GROUP MEMBERS THEMSELVES. 4. AFFILIATION GROUPS CAN FULFILL SOCIAL NEEDS. PEOPLE ENJOY THE REGULAR INTERACTION THAT COMES WITH GROUP MEMBERSHIP. FOR MANY PEOPLE, THESE ON-THE-JOB INTERACTIONS ARE THEIR PRIMARY SOURCE FOR FULFILLING THEIR NEEDS FOR AFFILIATION.

WHY DO PEOPLE JOIN GROUPS?

5. POWER WHAT CANNOT BE ACHIEVED INDIVIDUALLY OFTEN BECOMES POSSIBLE THROUGH GROUP ACTION. THERE IS POWER IN NUMBERS. 6. GOAL ACHIEVEMENT THERE ARE TIMES WHEN IT TAKES MORE THAN ONE PERSON TO ACCOMPLISH A PARTICULAR TASK THERE IS A NEED TO POOL TALENTS, KNOWLEDGE, OR POWER IN ORDER TO COMPLETE A JOB. IN SUCH INSTANCES, MANAGEMENT WILL RELY ON THE USE OF A FORMAL GROUP.

STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

PRESTAGE
y y y y y FORMING STORMING NORMING PERFORMING ADJOURNING

FORMING
THE FIRST STAGE IN GROUP DEVELOPMENT CHARACTERIZED BY MUCH UNCERTAINTY.

STORMING
THE SECOND STAGE IN GROUP DEVELOPMENT, CHARACTERIZED BY INTRAGROUP CONFLICT.

NORMING
THE THIRD STAGE IN GROUP DEVELOPMENT, CHARACTERIZED BY CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS AND COHESIVENESS.

PERFORMING
THE FOURTH STAGE IN GROUP DEVELOPMENT, WHEN THE GROUP IS FULLY FUNCTIONAL.

ADJOURNING
THE FINAL STAGE IN GROUP DEVELOPMENT FOR TEMPORARY GROUPS, CHARACTERIZED BY CONCERN WITH WRAPPING UP ACTIVITIES RATHER THAN TASK PERFORMANCE.

The Job Characteristics Model

Core job characteristics Critical Psychological states Outcomes

Skill variety Task identity Task significance

Autonomy Feedback from job

Experienced meaningfulness of the work Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work Knowledge of the actual results of the work activities Moderators 1. Knowledge and skill 2. Growth need strength 3. Context satisfactions

High internal work motivation High Growth Satisfaction High general job satisfaction High work effectiveness

Source: J R Hackman and G R Oldham, Work Redesign, 1980, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, MA, p 90. Reprinted with permission

People Have Different Cognitive Styles and Corresponding Characteristics

Decision Style St Sensation/Thinking NT Intuition/Thinking SF Sensation/Feeling NF Intuition/Feeling

Focus of attention

Facts

Possibilities

Facts

Possibilities

Method of handling things Tendency to become

Impersonal analysis

Impersonal analysis

Personal warmth

Personal warmth

Practical and matter-of-fact Technical skills with facts and objects

Logical and indigenous

Sympathetic and friendly Practical help and services for people

Enthusiastic and insightful Understanding and communicating with people

Expression of abilities

Theoretical and technical developments

Representative occupation

Manager

Source: W Taggart and D Robey, Minds and Managers: On the Dual Nature of Human Information Processing and Management, Academy of Management Review, April 1981, p 190. Used with permission.

Herbergs Motivator - Hygiene Model

Motivators
No Satisfaction Jobs that do not offer achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement. Satisfaction jobs offering achievement, recognition, stimulation work responsibility, and advancement.

Hygiene Factors
Dissatisfaction Jobs with poor company policies and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships with Supervisors, and working conditions. No Dissatisfaction Jobs with good company policies and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships with Supervisors, and working conditions.

Source: Adapted in part from D.A. Whitsett and E.K. Winslow, An alysis of Studies Critical of the Motivator-Hygiene Theory Personnel Psychology, Winter 1967, pp 391-415.

A Systems Model of Motivation and Performance

Inputs
Desired end-result Perceived gap

Outputs

Materials and machinery Performance objectives and expectations Individual differences Training Job characteristics Psychological climate Work flow and internal processes

Internal and external customer satisfaction Performance Job satisfaction Organisational commitment Job involvement Absenteeism and turnover

Transformational Elements
Consequences Performance monitoring

Delay

People
Support and coaching Feedback

Source: A Kiniki, Performance Management Systems, 1992, Kiniki and Associates, Inc., Chandler, AZ, pp 1-8. Reprinted with permission; all rights reserved.

SOCIOMETRY: ANALYZING GROUP INTERACTION

 y y y y y y y y y y SOCIAL NETWORKS CLUSTERS PRESCRIBED CLUSTERS EMERGENT CLUSTERS COALITIONS CLIQUES STARS LIAISONS BRIDGES ISOLATES.

y GROUPS ARE A SUBSET OF A LARGER ORGANIZATION SYSTEM

y ABILITIES SET THE PARAMETERS FOR WHAT MEMBERS CAN DO AND HOW EFFECTIVELY THEY WILL PERFORM IN A GROUP.

ROLE
A SET OF EXPECTED BEHAVIOR PATTERNS ATTRIBUTED TO SOMEONE OCCUPYING A GIVEN POSITION IN A SOCIAL UNIT.

ROLE IDENTITY
CERTAIN ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS CONSISTENT WITH A ROLE.

ROLE PERCEPTION
AN INDIVIDUALS VIEW OF HOW HE OR SHE IS SUPPOSED TO ACT IN A GIVEN SITUATION.

ROLE EXPECTATIONS
HOW OTHERS BELIEVE A PERSON SHOULD ACT IN A GIVEN SITUATION.

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT
AN UNWRITTEN AGREEMENT THAT SETS OUT WHAT MANAGEMENT EXPECTS FROM THE EMPLOYEE, AND VICE VERSA.

ROLE CONFLICT
A SITUATION IN WHICH AN INDIVIDUAL IS CONFRONTED BY DIVERGENT ROLE EXPECTATIONS.

NORMS
ACCEPTABLE STANDARDS OF BEHAVIOR WITHIN A GROUP THAT ARE SHARED BY THE GROUPS MEMBERS.

REFERENCE GROUPS
IMPORTANT GROUPS TO WHICH INDIVIDUALS BELONG OR HOPE TO BELONG AND WITH WHOMS NORMS INDIVIDUALS ARE LIKELY TO CONFORM.

CONFORMITY
ADJUSTING ONES BEHAVIOR TO ALIGN WITH THE NORMS OF THE GROUP.

STATUS
A SOCIALLY DEFINED POSITION OR RANK GIVEN TO GROUPS OR GROUP MEMBERS BY OTHERS.

SOCIAL LOAFING
THE TENDENCY FOR INDIVIDUALS TO EXPEND LESS EFFORT WHEN WORKING COLLECTIVELY THAN WHEN WORKING INDIVIDUALLY.

GROUP DEMOGRAPHY
THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE MEMBERS OF A GROUP SHARE A COMMON DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTE, SUCH AS AGE, SEX, RACE, EDUCATIONAL LEVEL, OR LENGTH OF SERVICE IN THE ORGANIZATION, AND THE IMPACT OF THIS ATTRIBUTE ON TURNOVER.

COHORTS
INDIVIDUALS WHO, AS PART OF A GROUP, HOLD A COMMON ATTRIBUTE.

COHESIVENESS
DEGREE TO WHICH GROUP MEMBERS ARE ATTRACTED TO EACH OTHER AND ARE MOTIVATED TO STAY IN THE GROUP.

SYNERGY
AN ACTION OF TWO OR MORE SUBSTANCES THAT RESULTS IN AN EFFECT THAT IS DIFFERENT FROM THE INDIVIDUAL SUMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCES.

A Systems Model of Motivation and Performance

Inputs
Desired end-result Perceived gap

Outputs

Materials and machinery Performance objectives and expectations Individual differences Training Job characteristics Psychological climate Work flow and internal processes

Internal and external customer satisfaction Performance Job satisfaction Organisational commitment Job involvement Absenteeism and turnover

Transformational Elements
Consequences Performance monitoring

Delay

People
Support and coaching Feedback

Source: A Kiniki, Performance Management Systems, 1992, Kiniki and Associates, Inc., Chandler, AZ, pp 1-8. Reprinted with permission; all rights reserved.

COMMUNICATION

BARNARDS CONTRIBUTION : 7 FACTORS

1. 2. THE CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION SHOULD DEFINITELY KNOWN. BE

THERE SHOULD BE A DEFINITE FORMAL CHANNEL OF COMMUNICATION TO EVERY MEMBER OF AN ORGANIZATION. THE LINE OF COMMUNICATION SHOULD BE AS DIRECT AND SHORT AS POSSIBLE. THE COMPLETE FORMAL LINE OF COMMUNICATION SHOULD NORMALLY BE USED. THE PERSONS SERVING AS COMMUNICATION CENTERS SHOULD BE COMPETENT. THE LINE OF COMMUNICATION SHOULD NOT BE INTERRUPTED WHILE THE ORGANIZATION IS FUNCTIONING. EVERY COMMUNICATION SHOULD BE AUTHENTICATED.

3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

LUTHANS AND MARTINKOS CHARACTERISTICS OF FEEDBACK FOR EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK INTENDED TO HELP THE EMPLOYEE SPECIFIC DESCRIPTIVE USEFUL TIMELY CONSIDERS EMPLOYEE READINESS FOR FEEDBACK CLEAR VALID 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. INEFFECTIVE FEEDBACK INTENDED TO BELITTLE THE EMPLOYEE GENERAL EVALUATIVE INAPPROPRIATE UNTIMELY MAKES THE EMPLOYEE DEFENSIVE NOT UNDERSTANDABLE INACCURATE

THE PURPOSES AND METHODS OF DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

1. 2. TO GIVE SPECIFIC TASK DIRECTIVESABOUT JOB INSTRUCTIONS. TO GIVE INFORMATION ABOUT ORGANIZATIONAL PROCEDURES AND PRACTICES TO PROVIDE INFORMATION ABOUT THE RATIONALE OF THE JOB. TO TELL SUBORDINATES ABOUT THEIR PERFORMANCE. TO PROVIDE IDEOLOGICAL INFORMATION TO FACILITATE THE INDOCTRINATION OF GOALS.

3. 4. 5.

TYPES OF INFORMATION FOR UPWARD COMMUNICATION

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. WHAT THE PERSONS HAVE DONE WHAT THOSE UNDER THEM HAVE DONE WHAT THEIR PEERS HAVE DONE WHAT THEY THINK NEEDS TO BE DONE WHAT THEIR PROBLEMS ARE WHAT THE PROBLEMS OF THE UNIT ARE WHAT MATTERS OF ORGANIZATIONAL PRACTICE AND POLICY NEED TO BE REVIEWED.

COMMUNICATION STYLES
COMMUNICATIO N STYLE ASSERTIVE NON-VERBAL BEHAVIOR PATTERN PUSHING HARD GOOD EYE WITHOUT CONTACT. ATTACKING; COMFORTABLE PERMITS OTHERS BUT FIRM TO INFLUENCE POSTURE. OUTCOME; STRONG, STEADY, EXPRESSIVE AND AND AUDIBLE SELF-ENHANCING VOICE. FACIAL WITHOUT INTRUDING ON EXPRESSIONS OTHERS. MATCHED TO MESSAGE. APPROPRIATELY SERIOUS TONE. SELECTIVE INTERRUPTIONS TO ENSURE UNDERSTANDING. TAKING GLARING EYE ADVANTAGE OF CONTACT. OTHERS; MOVING OR EXPRESSIVE AND LEANING TOO SELF-ENHANCING CLOSE. AT OTHERS THREATENING EXPENSE. GESTURES (POINTED FINGER; CLENCHED FIST). LOUD VOICE. FREQUENT INTERRUPTIONS. DESCRIPTION VERBAL BEHAVIOR PATTERN DIRECT AND UNAMBIGUOUS LANGUAGE. NO ATTRIBUTIONS OR EVALUATIONS OF OTHERS BEHAVIOR. USE OF I STATEMENTS AND CO-OPERATIVE WE STATEMENTS.

SWEAR WORDS AND ABUSIVE LANGUAGE. ATTRIBUTIONS AND EVALUATIONS OF OTHERS BEHAVIOR. SEXIST OR RACIST TERMS. EXPLICIT THREATS OR PUTDOWNS. NON-ASSERTIVE ENCOURAGING LITTLE EYE QUALIFIERS OTHERS TO TAKE CONTACT. (MAY BE; KIND ADVANTAGE OF DOWNWARD OF). US; INHIBITED; GLANCES. FILLERS (UH, SELF-DENYING. SLUMPED YOU KNOW, POSTURE. WELL) CONSTANTLY NEGATERS (ITS SHIFTING WEIGHT. NOT REALLY WRINGING THAT HANDS. IMPORTANT; IM WEAK OR WHINY NOT SURE) VOICE. SOURCE: ADAPTED IN PART FROM J A WATERS, MANAGERIAL ASSERTIVENESS, BUSINESS HORIZONS, SEPTEMBER OCTOBER 1982, PP 24-29.

AGGRESSIVE

PRACTICAL TIPS
POSITIVE NONVERBAL ACTIONS THAT HELP TO COMMUNICATE INLUDE: y y y y y MAINTAINING EYE CONTACT OCCASIONALLY NODDING THE HEAD IN AGREEMENT SMILING AND SHOWING ANIMATION LEANING TOWARD THE SPEAKER SPEAKING AT A MODERATE RATE, IN A QUIET, ASSURING TONE.

THE KEYS TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING

KEYS TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING CAPITALIZE ON THOUGHT SPEED THE BAD LISTENER TENDS TO DAYDREAM THE GOOD LISTENER STAYS WITH THE SPEAKER, MENTALLY SUMMARIZES THE SPEAKER, WEIGHS EVIDENCE, AND LISTENS BETWEEN THE LINES LISTENS FOR CENTRAL OR OVERALL IDEAS LISTENS FOR ANY USEFUL INFORMATION ASSESSES CONTENT BY LISTENING TO ENTIRE MESSAGE BEFORE MAKING JUDGEMENTS WITHHOLDS JUDGEMENT UNTIL COMPREHENSION IS COMPLETE

1.

2. 3. 4.

LISTEN FOR IDEAS FIND AN AREA OF INTEREST JUDGE CONTENT, NOT DELIVERY HOLD YOUR FIRE

LISTENS FOR FACTS TUNES OUT DRY SPEAKERS OR SUBJECTS TUNES OUT DRY OR MONOTONE SPEAKERS GETS TOO EMOTIONAL OR WORKED UP BY SOMETHING SAID BY THE SPEAKER AND ENTERS INTO AN ARGUMENT DOES NOT EXPEND ENERGY ON LISTENING IS EASILY DISTRACTED SHUTS OUT OR DENIES UNFAVORABLE INFORMATION RESISTS LISTENING TO PRESENTATIONS OF DIFFICULT SUBJECT MATTER DOES NOT TAKE NOTES OR PAY ATTENTION TO VISUAL AIDS

5.

6. 7. 8.

WORK LISTENING RESIST DISTRACTIONS

AT

HEAR WHAT IS SAID

9.

CHALLENGE YOURSELF USE HANDOUTS, OVERHEADS, OR OTHER VISUAL AIDS

GIVES THE SPEAKER FULL ATTENTION. FIGHTS DISTRACTIONS AND CONCENTRATES ON THE SPEAKER LISTENS TO BOTH FAVOURABLE AND UNFAVOURABLE INFORMATION TREATS COMPLEX PRESENTATIONS AS EXERCISE FOR THE MIND TAKES NOTES AS REQUIRED AND USES VISUAL AIDS TO ENHANCE UNDERSTANDING OF THE PRESENTATION.

10.

SOURCE: DERIVED FROM G MANNING, K CURTIS, AND S MCMILLEN, BUILDING THE HUMAN SIDE OF WORK COMMUNITY (CINCINNATI, OH: THOMSON EXECUTIVE PRESS, 1996), PP 127-54; AND P SLIZEWSKI, TIPS FOR ACTIVE LISTENING, HRFOCUS, MAY 1995, P 7.

COMMUNICATION DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WOMEN AND MEN

LINGUISTIC CHARACTERIS TIC TAKING CREDIT MEN WOMEN GREATER USE OF WE STATEMENTS (E.G., WE DID THIS AND WE DID THAT); LESS LIKELY TO BOAST ABOUT THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS MORE LIKELY TO INDICATE A LACK OF UNCERTAINTY ABOUT AN ISSUE MORE LIKELY TO ASK QUESTIONS MORE FREQUENTLY SAY IM SORRY

GREATER USE OF I STATEMENTS (E.G., I DID THIS AND I DID THAT); MORE LIKELY TO BOAST ABOUT THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS DISPLAYING LESS LIKELY TO CONFIDENCE INDICATE THAT THEY ARE UNCERTAIN ABOUT AN ISSUE ASKING LESS LIKELY TO ASK QUESTIONS QUESTIONS (E.G., ASKING FOR DIRECTIONS) CONVERSATION AVOID MAKING RITUALS APOLOGIES BECAUSE IT PUTS THEM IN A ONEDOWN POSITION GIVING MORE DIRECT AND BLUNT FEEDBACK GIVING COMPLIMENTS INDIRECTNESS

MORE TACTFUL; TEND TO TEMPER CRITICISM WITH PRAISE STINGY WITH PRAISE PAY MORE COMPLIMENTS THAN MEN INDIRECT WHEN IT INDIRECT WHEN COMES TO ADMITTING TELLING OTHERS WHAT FAULT OR WHEN THEY TO DO DONT KNOW SOMETHING

SOURCE: DERIVED FROM D TANNEN, THE POWER OF TALK: WHO GETS HEARD AND WHY, HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW, SEPTEMBER OCTOBER 1995, PP 138-48; AND D TANNEN, YOU JUST DONT UNDERSTAND: WOMEN AND MEN IN CONVERSATION (NEW YORK: BALLANTINE BOOKS, 1990).

SOME ACTIONS TO AVOID

y y y y y LOOKING AWAY OR TURNING AWAY AWAY FROM THE SPEAKER. CLOSING YOUR EYES. USING AN UNPLEASANT VOICE TONE. SPEAKING TOO QUICKLY OR TOO SLOWLY. YAWNING EXCESSIVELY.

THE PURPOSES AND METHODS OF INTERACTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. 2. 3. 4. TASK COORDINATION PROBLEM SOLVING INFORMATION SHARING CONFLICT RESOLUTION.

A perceptual Model of Communication

Encoding

Message

Transmitted on medium

Receiver decodes

Sender

Noise

Receiver creates meaning

Source decodes

Transmitted on medium

Message

Encoding

Feedback Loop

Communication Competence Affects Upward Mobility

Communication competence
Upward mobility

Communication Abilities/Traits Cross-cultural awareness Assertiveness Aggressiveness Defensiveness Active Listening

Situational Factors Company philosophy on openness Company policy and procedures Organizational climate Geographic location of organization

Individuals Involved A friend Someone you do not trust A superior A subordinate

SENDER
IS A PERSON WHO HAS A NEED - DESIRE TO SEND INFORMATION, IDEAS,

MESSAGE, DATA TO THE RECEIVER(S).

RECEIVER
IS A PERSON WHO HAS A CHOICE / OPTION FREEDOM TO RECEIVE

INFORMATION, IDEAS, MESSAGE, DATA (EITHER FULL OR OTHERWISE) FROM THE SENDER(S)

NOISE
ANY OBSTRUCTION WHICH MODIFIES, ALTERS, PREVENT, DELETES, RECASTS THE ORIGINAL MESSAGE.

MESSAGE
y y y SENT RECEIVED CONFIRMED BY FEEDBACK INFORMATION, DATA, IDEAS M1 M2 M3

LISTENING
y y y y VOLUNTARY FOCUSSED INTAKE EVERYTHING AVAILABLE POSSIBLY DEEPLY INTERESTED

HEARING
y y y y INVOLUNTARY NON FOCUSSED MISSED OUT MANY SOUNDS NOT REALLY INTERESTED

RESPONSES
SOLUTION ORIENTED INTEROGATIVE INQUISITIVE (CURIOUS) REPRIMAND SYMPATHETIC NON COMMITAL INDIFFERENT

ACCURATE
EMPATHY

ACCURATE EMPATHY RESPONSE

PAUSE MS./MR. ABC YOU ARE SAYING (Repeat in short) AND YOU ARE FEELING (TRY TO PICK-UP AND STATE THE FLOATING FEELING) PAUSE (Check for Confirmation non verbal preferred)

COMMUNICATION
HUMAN SENSITIVITY QUALITY AWARENESS CONSCIOUSNESS CARING CONCERN OPEN TRANSPARENCY HONESTY ACCURACY AUTHENTIC GENUINE FEELING(S) GIVE & TAKE RELATIONSHIP BASIC DELIGHT COPING ABILITY GOAL ORIENTED

LEADERSHIP

A Charismatic Model of Leadership

Leader behavior Leader establishes a vision Leader establishes high performance expectations and displays confidence in him/herself and the collective ability to realize the vision Leader models the desired values, traits, beliefs, and behaviors needed to realize the vision Effects on follower self-concepts Follower motivation, achievement orientation, and goal pursuit Follower identification with both the leader and the collective interests of organizational members Motivational mechanisms Increased intrinsic value of effort and goals Increased effort performance expectancies Personal outcomes

Personal commitment to leader and vision Self-sacrificial behavior Organizational commitment Task meaningfulness and satisfaction

Follower self-esteem and self-efficacy

Increased intrinsic value of goal accomplishment

Increased performance

Sources: Based in part on B Shamir, R J House, and M B Arthur, The Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership: A Self-Concept Based Theory, Organisational Science, November 1993, pp 577-94 and R J House and B Shamir, Toward the integration of Transformation, Charismatic, and Visionary Theories, in Leadership and Research: Perspectives and Directions, eds M M Chemers and R Ayman (New York: Academic Press, 1993), pp 81-107.

Whetten and Cameron model of interpersonal skills.

Gaining power Exercising influence Empowering others
5. Gaining Power and influence

Coaching Counseling Listening

4. Communicating Supportively

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

7. Managing Conflict

6. Motivating Others

Identifying causes Selecting appropriate strategies Resolving confrontations

Diagnosing poor performance Creating a motivating environment Rewarding accomplishments

Whetten and Cameron model of personal skills.

Coping with stressors Managing time Delegating

2. Managing Stress

PERSONAL SKILLS

Determining values and priorities Identifying cognitive style Assessing attitude toward change

1. Developing SelfAwareness

3. Solving Problems Creatively

Using the rational approach Using the creative approach Fostering innovation in others

Relative distribution of managers activities.

Networking (19%)

Traditional Management (32%)

Human Resources (20%)

Routine Communication (29%)

The Leadership Grid

1,9 Country club management Thoughtful attention to needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo. 9,9 Team management Work accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through a common stake in organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect. 5,5 Middle of the road management Adequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level. 1,1 Impoverished management Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership. 9,1 Authority-compliance Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree.
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 High

Concern for Production

Low

Concern for Production

Source: From Leadership Dilemmas-Grid Solutions, p 29 by Robert R Blake and Anne Adams McCanse. Copyright 1991 by Robert R Blake and the estate of Jane S Mouton.

Situational Leadership Theory

Leader Behavior
High Participating S3 Share ideas and facilitate in decision making Participating S3 Share ideas and facilitate in decision making Low Participating S3 Share ideas and facilitate in decision making Participating S3 Share ideas and facilitate in decision making Task Behavior (guidance) Follower Readiness moderate High R4 Able and willing or confident R3 Able but unwilling or insecure R2 Unable but willing or confident Low R1 Unable and willing or insecure High

Low

Follower-Directed

Leader-Directed

Source: Reprinted with permission from Dr. Paul Hersey, (1984). The Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources, the centre for Leadership studies, Escondido, Calfiornia. All rights reserved.

Four Leadership Styles Derived from the Ohio State Studies

Low structure, high consideration High structure, high consideration

High Less emphasis is placed on structuring The leader provides a lot of guidance Consideration

employee tasks while the leader about how tasks can be completed concentrates on satisfying employee while being highly considerate of needs and wants. employee needs and wants. Low structure, low consideration High structure, low consideration

Low The leader fails to provide necessary Primary

emphasis is placed on structure and demonstrates little structuring employee tasks while the consideration for employee needs and leader demonstrates little consideration wants. for employee needs and wants.
Low Initiating Structure High

A conceptual Framework for Understanding Leadership

Leader characteristics/ Traits Need for achievement Need for power Cognitive ability Interpersonal skills Self-confidence Ethics Managerial Behavior/ Roles Interpersonal roles Informational roles Decisional roles Desired End Results Unit Performance Profitability Goal attainment Job satisfaction Learning organization

Situational Variables Individual level Leaders position power Follower motivation Follower role clarity Follower ability Organizational level Resource adequacy Task/technology Organizational structure External environment
Source: Adapted in part from G Yukl, Managerial Leadership: A Review of Theory and Research, Journal of Management, June 1989, p 274.

EFFECTIVE TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERS: CHARACTERISTICS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. THEY IDENTIFY THEMSELVES AS CHANGE AGENTS. THEY ARE COURAGEOUS THEY BELIEVE IN PEOPLE THEY ARE VALUE-DRIVEN. THEY ARE LIFELONG LEARNERS.

EFFECTIVE MANAGERS : SKILLS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. VERBAL COMMUNICATION (INCLUDING LISTENING) MANAGING TIME AND STRESS MANAGING INDIVIDUAL DECISIONS RECOGNIZING, DEFINING, AND SOLVING PROBLEMS MOTIVATING AND INFLUENCING OTHERS DELEGATING SETTING GOALS AND ARTICULATING A VISION SELF-AWARENESS TEAM BUILDING MANAGING CONFLICT

NADLER AND TUSHMANS CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP STYLES

TYPES OF CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP STYLES ENVISIONING MEANING EXAMPLES

CREATING A PICTURE OF THE FUTURE OR A DESIRED FUTURE STATE WITH WHICH PEOPLE CAN IDENTIFY AND WHICH CAN GENERATE EXCITEMENT. DIRECTING THE GENERATION OF ENERGY, THE MOTIVATION TO ACT, AMONG MEMBERS OF THE ORGANIZATION.

ARTICULATING A COMPELLING VISION. SETTING HIGH EXPECTATIONS.

ENERGIZING

DEMONSTRATING PERSONAL EXCITEMENT AND CONFIDENCE. SEEKING, FINDING, AND USING SUCCESS.

ENABLING

PSYCHOLOGICALLY EXPRESSING HELPING PEOPLE ACT PERSONAL SUPPORT. OR PERFORM IN THE EMPATHIZING. FACE OF CHALLENGING GOALS.

ETHICAL AND UNETHICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CHARISMATIC LEADERS

ETHICAL CHARISMATIC UNETHICAL CHARISMATIC LEADER LEADER USES POWER TO SERVE OTHERS USES POWER ONLY FOR PERSONAL GAIN OR IMPACT ALIGNS VISION WITH PROMOTES OWN PERSONAL FOLLOWERS NEEDS AND VISION ASPIRATIONS CONSIDERS AND LEARNS FROM CENSURES CRITICAL OR CRITICISM OPPOSING VIEWS STIMULATES FOLLOWERS TO DEMANDS OWN DECISIONS BE THINK INDEPENDENTLY AND TO ACCEPTED WITHOUT QUESTION QUESTION THE LEADERS VIEW OPEN, TWO-WAY ONE-WAY COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION COACHES, DEVELOPS, AND INSENSITIVE TO FOLLOWERS SUPPORTS FOLLOWERS: SHARES NEEDS RECOGNITION WITH OTHERS RELIES ON INTERNAL MORAL RELIES ON CONVENIENT, STANDARDS TO SATISFY EXTERNAL MORAL STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONAL AND TO SATISFY SELF-INTERESTS. SOCIETAL INTERESTS. SOURCE: JANE M. HOWELL AND BRUCE J. AVOLIO, THE ETHICS OF CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP: SUBMISSION OR LIBERATION? ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT EXECUTIVE, MAY 1992, P. 45. USED WITH PERMISSION.

FUNCTIONAL ROLES PERFORMED BY GROUP MEMBERS

TASK ROLES
INITIATOR INFORMATION SEEKER/GIVER OPINION SEEKER/GIVER ELABORATOR CO-ORDINATOR ORIENTER EVALUATOR EMERGIZER PROCEDURAL TECHNICIAN RECORDER

DESCRIPTION
SUGGESTS NEW GOALS OR IDEAS. CLARIFIES KEY ISSUES. CLARIFIES PERTINENT VALUES. PROMOTES GREATER UNDERSTANDING THROUGH EXAMPLES OR EXPLORATION OF IMPLICATIONS. PULLS TOGETHER IDEAS AND SUGGESTIONS. DEEPS GROUP HEADED TOWARD ITS STATED GOAL(S). TESTS GROUPS ACCOMPLISHMENTS WITH VARIOUS CRITERIA SUCH AS LOGIC AND PRACTICALITY. PRODS GROUP TO MOVE ALONG OR TO ACCOMPLISH MORE. PERFORMS ROUTINE DUTIES (E.G., HANDING OUT MATERIALS OR REARRANGING SEATS). PERFORMS A GROUP MEMORY FUNCTION BY DOCUMENTING DISCUSSION AND OUTCOMES.

MAINTENANCE ROLES
ENCOURAGER HARMONIZER COMPROMISER GATEKEEPER STANDARD SETTER COMMENTATOR FOLLOWER

DESCRIPTION
FOSTERS GROUP SOLIDARITY BY ACCEPTING AND PRAISING VARIOUS POINTS OF VIEW. MEDIATES CONFLICT THROUGH RECONCILIATION OR HUMOR. HELPS RESOLVE CONFLICT BY MEETING OTHERS HALF WAY. ENCOURAGES ALL GROUP MEMBERS TO PARTICIPATE. EVALUATES THE QUALITY OF GROUP PROCESSES. RECORDS AND COMMENTS ON GROUP PROCESSES/DYNAMICS. SERVES AS A PASSIVE AUDIENCE.

SOURCE: ADAPTED FROM DISCUSSION IN K D BENNE AND P SHEATS, FUNCTIONAL ROLES OF GROUP MEMBERS, JOURNAL OF SOCIAL ISSUES, SPRING 1948; PP 41-49.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEADERS AND MANAGERS

LEADERS
INNOVATE DEVELOP INSPIRE LONG-TERM VIEW ASK WHAT AND WHY ORIGINATE CHALLENGE THE STATUS QUO DO THE RIGHT THINGS

MANAGERS
ADMINISTER MAINTAIN CONTROL SHORT-TERM VIEW ASK HOW AND WHEN INITIATE ACCEPT THE STATUS QUO DO THINGS RIGHT

SOURCE: DISTINCTIONS WERE TAKEN FROM W G BENNIS, ON BECOMING A LEADER (READING, MA: ADDISON-WESLEY, 1989).

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGERS VERSUS LEADERS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

MANAGER CHARACTERISTICS ADMINISTERS A COPY MAINTAINS FOCUSES ON SYSTEMS AND STRUCTURE RELIES ON CONTROL SHORT-RANGE VIEW ASKS HOW AND WHEN EYE ON THE BOTTOM LINE IMITATES ACCEPTS THE STATUS QUO CLASSIC GOOD SOLDIER DOES THINGS RIGHT LEADER CHARACTERISTICS INNOVATES AN ORIGINAL DEVELOPS FOCUSES ON PEOPLE INSPIRES TRUST LONG-RANGE PERSPECTIVE ASKS WHAT AND WHY EYE ON THE HORIZON ORIGINATES CHALLENGES THE STATUS QUO OWN PERSON DOES THE RIGHT THING

SOURCE: WARREN G. BENNIS. MANAGING THE DREAM: LEADERSHIP IN THE 21ST CENTURY. JOURNAL OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE MANAGEMENT, VOL. 2, NO. 1, 1989, P. 7.

POWER & POLITICS

MUTUALITY OF INTEREST
BALANCING INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL INTERESTS THROUGH WIN-WIN COOPERATION.

EIGHT GENERIC INFLUENCE TACTICS

1. 2. CONSULTATION. GETTING OTHERS TO PARTICIPATE IN DECISIONS AND CHANGES. RATIONAL PERSUASION. TRYING TO CONVINCE SOMEONE WITH REASON, LOGIC, OR FACTS. INSPIRATIONAL APPEALS. TRYING TO BUILD ENTHUSIASM BY APPEALING TO OTHERS EMOTIONS, IDEAS, OR VALUES. INGRATIATING TACTICS. GETTING SOMEONE IN A GOOD MOOD PRIOR TO MAKING A REQUEST.

3.

4.

EIGHT GENERIC INFLUENCE TACTICS

5. COALITION TACTICS. GETTING OTHERS TO SUPPORT YOUR EFFORT TO PERSUADE SOMEONE. PRESSURE TACTICS. DEMANDING COMPLIANCE OR USING INTIMIDATION AND THREATS. UPWARD APPEALS. TRYING TO PERSUADE SOMEONE ON THE BASIS OF EXPRESS OR IMPLIED SUPPORT FROM SUPERIORS. EXCHANGE TACTICS. MAKING EXPRESS OR IMPLIED PROMISES AND TRADING FAVORS.

6.

7.

8.

THREE POSSIBLE INFLUENCE OUTCOMES

1. COMMITMENT. YOUR FRIEND ENTHUSIASTICALLY AGREES AND WILL DEMONSTRATE INITIATIVE AND PERSISTENCE WHILE COMPLETING THE ASSIGNMENT. COMPLIANCE. YOUR FRIEND GRUDGINGLY COMPLIES AND WILL NEED PRODDING TO SATISFY MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS. RESISTANCE. YOUR FRIEND WILL SAY NO, MAKE EXCUSES, STALL, OR PUT UP AN ARGUMENT.

2.

3.

TIPS FOR DEALING WITH POTENTIAL ALLIES

1. 2. 3. 4. MUTUAL RESPECT OPENNESS TRUST MUTUAL BENEFIT

RECIPROCITY
WIDESPREAD BELIEF THAT PEOPLE SHOULD BE PAID BACK FOR THEIR POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ACTS.

SOCIAL POWER
ABILITY TO GET THINGS DONE WITH HUMAN, INFORMATIONAL, AND MATERIAL RESOURCES.

DIMENSIONS OF POWER
y y y y y y y SOCIALIZED POWER PERSONALIZED POWER REWARD POWER COERCIVE POWER LEGITIMATE POWER EXPERT POWER REFERENT POWER

EMPOWERMENT
SHARING POWER WITH NONMANAGERSTHROUGH PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT.

DELEGATION
GRANTING DECISION-MAKING AUTHORITY TO

PEOPLE AT LOWER LEVELS.

ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS

INTENTIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF SELF-INTEREST.

UNCERTAINTY IN ORGANIZATIONS
POLITICAL MANEUVERING IS TRIGGERED BY UNCERTAINTY.

FIVE SOURCES OF UNCERTAINTY

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. UNCLEAR OBJECTIVES VAGUE PERFORMANCE MEASURES ILL-DEFINED DECISION PROCESSES STRONG INDIVIDUAL OR GROUP COMPETITION ANY TYPE OF CHANGE.

COALITION
TEMPORARY GROUPINGS OF PEOPLE WHO ACTIVELY PURSUE A SINGLE ISSUE.

LEVELS OF POLITICAL ACTION IN ORGANIZATIONS

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS

NETWORK LEVEL COALITION LEVEL INDIVIDUAL LEVEL

COOPERATIVE PURSUIT OF GENERAL SELF-INTERESTS

COOPERATIVE PURSUIT OF GROUP INTERESTS IN SPECIFIC ISSUES

INDIVIDUAL PURSUIT OF GENERAL SELF-INTERESTS

POLITICAL TACTICS
THERE ARE EIGHT POLITICAL TACTICS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. ATTACKING OR BLAMING OTHERS. USING INFORMATION AS A POLITICAL TOOL. CREATING A FAVORABLE IMAGE. (ASLO KNOWN AS IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT). DEVELOPING A BASE OF SUPPORT. PRAISING OTHERS (INGRATIATION). FORMING POWER COALITIONS WITH STRONG ALLIES. ASSOCIATING WITH INFLUENTIAL PEOPLE. CREATING OBLIGATIONS (RECIPROCITY).

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
GETTING OTHERS TO SEE US IN A CERTAIN MANNER.

NEGOTIATION
GIVE-AND-TAKE PROCESS BETWEEN CONFLICTING INTERDEPENDENT PARTIES.

SIMPLE WAY TO MANAGE YOUR ATTITUDES

1. 2. THINKING ASKING DETERMINES YOUR ATTITUDES INCREASES YOUR INFORMATION TO DO YOUR KARMA WELL GIVES YOU THE FEELING OF SUCCESS AND HAPPINESS PUTS YOU ON THE ROAD TO SELF-SATISFACTION IF YOU AIM FOR EXCELLENCE, YOU WILL ACHIEVE IT IS THE FRUIT OF GOOD KARMAS.

3. 4. 5. 6.

DOING IMPROVING EXCELLING ENJOYING

SIMPLE WAY TO MANAGE YOUR TIME

7. 8. PRIORITISING WHEN YOU PRIORITISE, YOU ACHIEVE SUCCESS. CHANGING WHEN YOU CHANGE YOURSELF, YOU CHANGE THE WORLD AROUND YOU. IS SEEING THINKS THROUGH A NEW LENS.

9. 10. 11. 12.

INNOVATING

DISCIPLINING IS PRACTICING GOOD HABITS, SLOWLY. LISTENING DELEGATING IS PUTTING YOURSELF IN OTHERS SHOES DELEGATE, DONT ABDICATE.

SIMPLE WAY TO MANAGE YOUR GOALS

13. CUSTOMERISING HAPPY CUSTOMERS IS THE GOAL OF EVERY BUSINESS LEARN FROM BOOKS AND PEOPLE IS A SIMPLE WAY TO ACHIEVE YOUR GOALS IS ALSO A SIMPLE WAY TO ACHIEVE YOUR GOALS GIVE AND TAKE AND GIVE : ITS SIMPLE SUCCESS NEEDS NO EXPLANATION, FAILURE HAS NONE.

14. 15. 16.

LEARNING FORGIVING ENCOURAGING

17. 18.

GIVING SUCCEEDING

SIMPLE WAYS TO GET ALONG WITH PEOPLE

SIX IDEAS TO MAKE YOUR EMPLOYEES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. LEAD YOUR EMPLOYEES WITH THE FLAG IN YOUR HAND UNDERSTAND THE PYGMALION EFFECT TO EMPOWER YOUR EMPLOYEES BUILD THE SELF-RESPECT OF YOUR EMPLOYEES YOUR EMPLOYEES SUCCESS IS YOUR SUCCESS FORGIVE YOUR EMPLOYEES MISTAKES GRACEFULLY MAKE YOURS A WINNING TEAM.

SIMPLE WAYS TO GET ALONG WITH PEOPLE

SIX IDEAS TO MANAGE YOUR EMPLOYEES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. TRY TO BEND YOUR EMPLOYEES MINDS REMEMBER .. YOU BUY YOUR EMPLOYEES TIME EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION WITH YOUR EMPLOYEES IS THE OPEN SESAME AVOID PUTTING ROUND EMPLOYEES IN SQUARE HOLES DELEGATE BUT DONT FORGET LEARN TO CONDUCT GOOD MEETINGS.

SIMPLE WAYS TO GET ALONG WITH PEOPLE

SIX IDEAS TO MOTIVATE YOUR EMPLOYEES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. TRAIN EMPLOYEES TO GET ALONG WITH EACH OTHER ENCOURAGE EACH OF YOUR EMPLOYEE TO BECOME CUSTOMER - ORIENTED STRECH YOUR EMPLOYEES SOLVE YOUR EMPLOYEES PROBLEMS MOTIVATE YOUR EMPLOYEES TO THINK CURE YOUR OBNOXIOUS EMPLOYEES.

POLITICAL TACTICS DERIVED FROM RESEARCH

TACTICS PRESSURE TACTICS DESCRIPTION USING DEMANDS, THREATS, OR INTIMIDATION TO CONVINCE YOU TO COMPLY WITH A REQUEST OR TO SUPPORT A PROPOSAL. UPWARD APPEALS PERSUADING YOU THAT THE REQUEST IS APPROVED BY HIGHER MANAGEMENT, OR APPEALING TO HIGHER MANAGEMENT FOR ASSISTANCE IN GAINING YOUR COMPLIANCE WITH THE REQUEST. EXCHANGE TACTICS MAKING EXPLICIT OR IMPLICIT PROMISES THAT YOU WILL RECEIVE REWARDS OR TANGIBLE BENEFITS IF YOU COMPLY WITH A REQUEST OR SUPPORT A PROPOSAL, OR REMINDING YOU OF A PRIOR FAVOR TO BE RECIPROCATED. COALITION TACTICS SEEKING THE AID OF OTHERS TO PERSUADE YOU TO DO SOMETHING, OR USING THE SUPPORT OF OTHERS AS AN ARGUMENT FOR YOU TO AGREE ALSO. INGRATIATING SEEKING TO GET YOU IN A GOOD MOD OR TO TACTICS THINK FAVORABLY OF THE INFLUENCE AGENT BEFORE ASKING YOU TO DO SOMETHING. RATIONAL USING LOGICAL ARGUMENTS AND FACTUAL PERSUASION EVIDENCE TO PERSUADE YOU THAT A PROPOSAL OR REQUEST IS VIABLE AND LIKELY TO RESULT IN THE ATTAINMENT OF TASK OBJECTIVES. INSPIRATIONAL MAKING AN EMOTIONAL REQUEST OR APPEALS PROPOSAL THAT AROUSES ENTHUSIASM BY APPEALING TO YOUR VALUES AND IDEALS OR BY INCREASING YOUR CONFIDENCE THAT YOU CAN DO IT. CONSULTATION SEEKING YOUR PARTICIPATION IN MAKING A TACTICS DECISION OR PLANNING HOW TO IMPLEMENT A PROPOSED POLICY, STRATEGY, OR CHANGE.
SOURCE: ADAPTED FROM GARY YUKL AND CECILIA M FALBE, INFLUENCE TACTICS AND OBJECTIVES IN UPWARD, DOWNWARD, AND LATERAL INFLUENCE ATTEMPTS, JOURNAL OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY, VOL. 75, 1990, P. 133. USED WITH PERMISSION.

RANDOLPHS EMPOWERMENT MODEL THE EMPOWERMENT PLAN SHARE INFORMATION y SHARE COMPANY PERFORMANCE INFORMATION. y HELP PEOPLE UNDERSTAND THE BUSINESS. y BUILD TRUST THROUGH SHARING SENSITIVE INFORMATION y CREATE SELF-MONITORING POSSIBILITIES.
CREATE AUTONOMY THROUGH STRUCTURE yCREATE A CLEAR VISION AND CLARIFY THE LITTLE PICTURES. yCLARIFY GOALS AND ROLES COLLABORATIVELY. yCREATE NEW DECISION-MAKING RULES THAT SUPPORT EMPOWERMENT. yESTABLISH NEW EMPOWERING PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT PROCESSES. yUSE HEAVY DOSES OF TRAINING. LET TEAMS BECOME THE HIERARCHY yPROVIDE DIRECTION AND TRAINING FOR NEW SKILLS. yPROVIDE ENCOURAGEMENT AND SUPPORT FOR CHANGE. yGRADUALLY HAVE MANAGERS LET GO OF CONTROL. yWORK THROUGH THE LEADERSHIP VACUUM STAGE. yACKNOWLEDGE THE FEAR FACTOR.

REMEMBER: EMPOWERMENT IS NOT MAGIC; IT CONSISTS OF A FEW SIMPLE STEPS AND A LOT OF PERSISTENCE. SOURCE: NAVIGATING THE JOURNEY TO EMPOWERMENT, BY W ALAN RANDOLPH. REPRINTED BY PERMISSION OF THE PUBLISHER FROM ORGANIZATIONAL DYNAMICS, SPRING 1992. 1995 AMERICAN MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

ARE YOU POLITICALLY NAVE, POLITICALLY SENSIBLE, OR A POLITICAL SHARK?

CHARACTER ISTICS UNDERLYIN G ATTITUDE INTENT NAIVE POLITICS IS UNPLEASANT. AVOID AT ALL COSTS. SENSIBLE POLITICS IS NECESSARY FURTHER DEPARTMENTAL GOALS. NETWORK; EXPAND CONNECTIONS; USE SYSTEM TO GIVE AND RECEIVE FAVORS. NEGOTIATE, BARGAIN. SHARKS POLITICS IS AN OPPORTUNITY. SELF-SERVING AND PREDATORY. MANIPULATE; USE FRAUD AND DECEIT WHEN NECESSARY.

TECHNIQUES

TELL IT LIKE IT IS.

FAVORITE TACTICS

NONE-THE TRUTH WILL WIN OUT.

BULLY; MISUSE INFORMATION; CULTIVATE AND USE FRIENDS AND OTHER CONTACTS.

SOURCE: REPRINTED FROM J K PINTO AND O P KHARBANDS, LESSONS FOR AN ACCIDENTAL PROFESSION, BUSINESS HORIZONS, MARCH-APRIL 1995, P 45. 1998 BY THE FOUNDATION FOR THE SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AT INDIANA UNIVERSITY. USED WITH PERMISSION.

SOME PRACTICAL ADVICE ON MANAGING ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS.

TO REDUCE SYSTEM UNCERTAINTY MAKE CLEAR WHAT ARE THE BASES AND PROCESSES FOR EVALUATION. DIFFERENTIATE REWARDS AMONG HIGH AND LOW PERFORMERS. MAKE SURE THE REWARDS ARE AS IMMEDIATELY AND DIRECTLY RELATED TO PERFORMANCE AS POSSIBLE. TO REDUCE COMPETITION TRY TO MINIMIZE RESOURCE COMPETITION AMONG MANAGERS. REPLACE RESOURCE COMPETITION WITH EXTERNALLY ORIENTED GOALS AND OBJECTIVES. TO BREAK EXISTING POLITICAL FIEFDOMS WHERE HIGHLY COHESIVE POLITICAL EMPIRES EXIST, BREAK THEM APART BY REMOVING OR SPLITTING THE MOST DYSFUNCTIONAL SUBGROUPS. IF YOU ARE AN EXECUTIVE, BE KEENLY SENSITIVE TO MANAGERS WHOSE MODE OF OPERATION IS THE PERSONALIZATION OF POLITICAL PATRONAGE. FIRST, APPROACH THESE PERSONS WITH A DIRECTIVE TO STOP THE POLITICAL MANEUVERING. IF IT CONTINUES, REMOVE THEM FROM THE POSITIONS AND, PREFERABLY, THE COMPANY. TO PREVENT FUTURE FIEFDOMS MAKE ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT CRITERIA FOR PROMOTION AN APOLITICAL ATTITUDE THAT PUTS ORGANIZATIONAL ENDS AHEAD OF PERSONAL POWER ENDS. SOURCE: D R BEEMAN AND T W SHARKEY, THE USE AND ABUSE OF CORPORATE POLITICS, BUSINESS HORIZONS, MARCH-APRIL 1987, P 30.

POLITICAL STRATEGIES FOR ATTAINING POWER IN ORGANIZATIONS

TAKING COUNSEL MAINTAINING MANEUVERABILITY PROMOTING LIMITED COMMUNICATION EXHIBITING CONFIDENCE CONTROLLING ACCESS TO INFORMATION AND PERSONS MAKING ACTIVITIES CENTRAL AND NONSUBSTITUTABLE CREATING A SPONSOR-PROTG RELATIONSHIP STIMULATING COMPETITION AMONG AMBITIOUS SUBORDINATES NEUTRALIZING POTENTIAL OPPOSITION MAKING STRATEGIC REPLACEMENTS COMMITTING THE UNCOMMITTED FORMING A WINNING COALITION DEVELOPING EXPERTISE BUILDING PERSONAL STATURE EMPLOYING TRADE-OFFS USING RESEARCH DATA TO SUPPORT ONES OWN POINT OF VIEW RESTRICTING COMMUNICATION ABOUT REAL INTENTIONS WITHDRAWING FROM PETTY DISPUTES.

The Constant Tug-of-War between Self-Interest and Mutuality of Interest Requires Managerial Action

Climate of Destructive Competition and Suspicion

Climate of Openness, Cooperation, and Trust

Influence tactics

Self-interest

Political Tactics

Organizational contributors Individuals Groups

Power Conflict management Integrative negotiation

Mutuality of interest (organizational effectiveness)

The Evolution of Power: From Domination to Delegation

High Power Distribution Followers granted authority to make decisions. Power Sharing Manager/leader and followers jointly make decisions.

Degree of Empowerment

Authoritarian Power Manager/Leader imposes decisions.

Influence Sharing Manager/Leader consults followers when making decisions

None

Domination

Consultation

Participation

Delegation

Eight Common Political Tactics in Organizations

POLITICAL TACTIC PERCENTAGE OF MANAGERS MENTIONING TACTIC BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF TACTIC

1. Attacking or blaming others

54%

Used to avoid or minimize association with failure. Reactive when scapegoating is involved. Proactive when goal is to reduce competition for limited resources. Involves the purposeful withholding or distortion of information. Obscuring an unfavorable situation by overwhelming superiors with information. Dressing/grooming for success. Adhering to organizational norms and drawing attention to ones successes and influence. Taking credit for others accomplishments. Getting prior support for a decision. Building others commitment to a decision through participation. Making influential people feel good (apple polishing) Teaming up with powerful people who can get results. Building a support network both inside & outside the organization. Creating social debts (I did you a favor, so you owe me a favor)

2. Using information as a political tool

54%

3. Creating a favorable image (impression management) 4. Developing a base of support 5. Praising others (ingratiation) 6. Forming power coalitions with strong allies 7. Associating with influential people 8. Creating obligations (reciprocity)

53%

37% 25% 25% 24% 13%

Source: Adapted from R W Allen, D L Madison, L W Porter, P A Renwick, and B T Mayres, Organizational Politics: Tactics and Characteristics of its Actors, California Management Review, Fall 1979, pp 77-83.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Five Conflict-Handling Styles

Concern for Others

High

Integrating

Obliging

Compromising

Low

Dominating

Avoiding

High

Low

Concern for self

Source:M A Rahim, A strategy for Managing Conflict in Complex Organizations, Human Relations, January 1985, p 84. Used with authors permission.

Macro

Levels of conflict in Organizational Behavior

Organizational

Intergroup

Interpersonal

Intraindividual

Micro

CONFLICT

MICRO AND MACRO DYNAMICS OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Need (deficiency)

Drive (deficiency with direction) Barrier (1) Overt (2) Covert Frustration

Goal/ Incentive (reduction of the drives and fulfillment of deficiencies)

Defense mechanisms (1) Aggression (2) Withdrawal (3) Fixation (4) Compromise

A SIMPLE EXAMPLE OF FRUSTRATION

Need (cells are deprived of water)

Drive (walk to the water fountain) Barrier (stuck door) Frustration

Goal/ Incentive (water fountain)

Defense mechanisms (1) Aggression (kick and/or curse the door) (2) Withdrawal (back away from the door and/or pout) (3) Fixation (continue to try to open the door) (4) Compromise (drink some coffee in the room or climb out the window)

The Luft and Ingham Johari window for inter-personal relationships.

The person knows about the other The person does not know about the other

The person knows about himor herself

1 OPEN SELF

2 HIDDEN SELF

The person does not know about him-or herself

3 BLIND SELF

4 UNDISCOVERED SELF

Randolphs Empowerment Model

The Empowerment Plan
Share Information * Share company performance information. * Help people understand the business * Build trust through sharing sensitive information * Create self-monitoring possibilities.

Create Autonomy Through Structure * Create a clear vision and clarify the little pictures. * Clarify goals and roles collaboratively. * Create new decision-making rules that support empowerment. * Establish new empowering performance management processes * Use heavy doses of training.

Let Teams Become The Hierarchy * Provide direction and training for new skills. * Provide encouragement and support for change. * Gradually have managers let go of control. * Work through the leadership vacuum stage. * Acknowledge the fear factor.

Remember: Empowerment is not magic; it consists of a few simple steps and a lot of persistence.

Source: Navigating the journey to Empowerment, by W Alan Randolph. Reprinted by permission of the publisher from Organizational dynamics, Spring 1995. 1995 American Management Association. All rights reserved.

The Relationship between Conflict Intensity and Outcomes

Positive

Neutral

Too little conflict Negative Low

Appropriate conflict

Too much conflict

Moderate Intensity

High

Source: L D Brown, Managing Conflict of Organizational Interfaces, 1986, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, Massachusetts.

STRESS MANAGEMENT

Attitudinal Characteristics of Burnout

Attitude
Fatalism Boredom Discontent Cynicism Inadequacy Failure Overwork Nastiness Dissatisfaction Escape

Description
A feeling that you lack control over your work. A lack of interest in doing your job. A sense of being unhappy with your job. A tendency to undervalue the content of your job and the rewards received. A feeling of not being able to meet your objectives. A tendency to discredit your performance and conclude that you are ineffective. A feeling of having too much to do and not enough time to complete it. A tendency to be rude or unpleasant to your co-workers. A feeling that you are not being justly rewarded for your efforts. A desire to give up and get away from it all.

Source: Adapted from D P Rogers, Helping Employees Cope with Burnout, Business, October-December 1984, p 4.

A Model of Burnout
Personal stressors High achievement expectations High organizational expectations Level of job involvement Job and organizational stressors Role overload Role conflict Duration, frequency, and intensity of interpersonal interactions

Emotional exhaustion
Attitudinal and behavioral symptoms of burnout

Depersonalization

Negative attitudes Fatigue Frustration Helplessness Withdrawal from friends and socializing

Feeling of lack of personal accomplishment

Source: Based in part on C L Cordes and T W Dougherty, A Review and an Integration of Research on Job Burnout, Academy of Management Review, October 1993, p 641.

A Model of the Coping Process

Situational factors Control Cognitive appraisal of stressor Coping strategies Escape Symptom management

Personal factors Harmful? Threatening? Challenging?

Source: Based in part on R S Lazarus and S Folkman, Coping and Adaptation, in Handbook of Behavioral Medicine, ed W D Gentry (New York: The Guilford Press, 1984), pp 282-325.

Type A Characteristics
1. Hurried speech; explosive accentuation of key words. 2. Tendency to walk, move, and eat rapidly. 3. Constant impatience with the rate at which most events take place (e.g., irritation with slow-moving traffic and slow-talking and slow-to-act people. 4. Strong preference for thinking of or doing two or more things at once (e.g., reading this text and doing something else at the same time). 5. Tendency to turn conversations around to personally meaningful subjects or themes. 6. Tendency to interrupt while others are speaking to make your point or to complete their train of thought in your own words. 7. Guilt feelings during periods of relaxation or leisure time. 8. Tendency to be oblivious to surroundings during daily activity. 9. Greater concern for things worth having than with things worth being. 10. Tendency to schedule more and more in less and less time; a chronic sense of time urgency. 11. Feelings of competition rather than compassion when faced with another Type A person. 12. Development of nervous tics or characteristic gestures. 13. A firm belief that success is due to the ability to get things done faster than the other guy. 14. A tendency to view and evaluate personal activities and the activities of other people in terms of numbers (e.g., number of meetings attended, telephone calls made, visitors received).

Source: Adapted from M Friedman and R H Roseman, Type A Behavior and Your Heart (Greenwich, CT: Fawcett Publications, 1974), pp 100-102.

Stress-Reduction Techniques
TECHNIQUE Muscle relaxation DESCRIPTIONS Uses slow deep breathing systematic muscle tension reduction, and an altered state of Consciousness to reduce stress. A machine is used to train people to detect muscular tension; muscle relaxation is then used to alleviate this symptom of stress. The relaxation response is activated by redirecting ones thoughts away from oneself; a four-step procedure is used. Irrational or maladaptive thoughts are identified and replaced with those that are rational or logical. A broad, interdisciplinary approach that goes beyond stress reduction by advocating that people strive for personal wellness in all aspects of their lives. ASSESMENT Inexpensive and easy to use; may require a trained professional to implement. Expensive due to costs of equipment; however, equipment can be used to evaluate effectiveness of other stress-reduction programs. Least expensive, simple to implement, and can be practiced almost anywhere. Expensive because it requires a trained psychologist or counselor. Involves inexpensive but often behaviorally difficult lifestyle changes.

Biofeedback

Meditation

Cognitive restructuring

Holistic wellness

Stress Levels and Consequences

Low Stress

Optimum Stress

High stress

STRESS LEVEL LOW STRESS OPTIMUM STRESS HIGH STRESS -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Reactions Behaviors Boredom/Apathy Low Motivation Careless Mistakes Psychological Withdrawal Physical Withdrawal Inactivity Low Performance Dull Health High Energy High Motivation Heightened Perception High Involvement Exhaustion Anxiety & Nervousness Indecisiveness Bad Judgement

Performance Health Effects

High Performance Good Health

Poor Performance Insomnia Psychosomatic Illness

INTRA-PERSONAL STRESSORS

JOB-RELATED STRESSORS

Role Conflict Role Ambiguity Role Overload Ethical Dilemmas Unsatisfactory Career Progress

Nature of Job In-Built Stress Transfers Travel Time Pressures

Individual

INTER-PERSONAL STRESSORS

Relationships with Peers Subordinates and Superiors Interpersonal Communication Interpersonal Conflicts Group Processes

INTER-ORGANISATIONAL STRESSORS

Noise Heat Lighting Limited Resources No Career Paths

Organisational Stressors

High

Functionality of Conflict (Creativity, Innovation, Productivity, Performance)

Optimum
Levels of Conflict

Low Low LEVEL OF CONFLICT High

Function

HORIZONTAL THREE SLIDES

STRESS CAN BE A TOUGH COMPETITOR

THERE IS GROWING AS THEY REALIZATION WITNESS AMONG

COMPANIES

STRESSED-OUT

WORKERS FALLING VICTIM TO ILLNESS, ACCIDENTS, AND IN RARE CASES, DEATH.

COMPANIES ARE REALIZING THAT TEACHING EMPLOYEES HOW TO DEAL WITH STRESS IS JUST AS IMPORTANT AS TEACHING THEM TECHNICAL SKILLS. IT IS AS IMPORTANT FOR PRODUCTIVITY AND FOR THE HEALTH OF WORKERS.

FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE
TO EITHER CONFRONT STRESSORS OR TRY TO AVOID THEM. STRESS IS EXPERIENCED IN OUR DAILY LIFE. RESEARCHERS CONCLUDE THAT STRESS TRIGGERS ONE OF THE TWO BASIC REACTION: ACTIVE FIGHTING OR PASSIVE FLIGHT (RUNNING AWAY OR ACCEPTANCE), THE SOCALLED FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE.

PHYSIOLOGIVALLY, THE STRESS RESPONSE IS A BIOCHEMICAL PASSING GEAR INVOLVING

HARMONAL CHANGES THAT MOBILIZE THE BODY FOR EXTRAORDINARY DEMANDS. THE BODIES ARE ENERGIZED BY AN HARMONAL CHANGE, INVOLVING THE RELEASE OF ADRENALINE INTO THE

BLOOKSTREAM.

IN

TODAYS

HECTIC

URBANIZED

AND

INDUSTRIALIZED SOCIETIES THE PROBLEMS ARE DEADLINES, ROLE CONFLICT AND AMBIGUITY, FINANCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES, TRAFFIC

CONGESTION, NOICE AND AIR POLLUTION, FAMILY PROBLEMS AND WORK OVERLOAD. THESE TRIGGER OFF NEGATIVE SIDE EFFECTS SUCH AS HEADACHES, INSOMANIA, ULCERS, HEART ATTACKS, HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE AND STROKES.

STRESS : DEFINITION
STRESS IS AN ADAPTIVE RESPONSE, MEDIATED BY INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS AND/OR PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES, THAT IS A CONSEQUENCE OF ANY EXTERNAL ACTION, SITUATION OR EVENT THAT PLACES PHYSICAL AND/OR PSYCHOLOGICAL DEMANDS UPON A PERSON. THERE ARE THREE INTER-RELATED DIMENSIONS OF STRESS: (1) (2) (3) ENVIRONMENTAL DEMANDS (STRESSORS) ADAPTIVE RESPONSE INFLUENCED BY INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.

ACCORDING TO HANS SELYE, FATHER OF THE MODERN CONCEPT OF STRESS: y y y y STRESS IS NOT MERELY NERVOUS TENSION STRESS CAN HAVE POSITIVE CONSEQUENCES STRESS IS NOT SOMETHING TO BE AVOIDED COMPLETE ABSENCE OF STRESS IS DEATH.

IT IS CLEAR THAT STRESS IS INEVITABLE. EFFORTS ARE TO BE DIRECTED AT MANAGING STRESS, NOT AT SOMEHOW ESCAPING IT ALTOGETHER.

STRESSORS: ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT PRODUCE STRESS.

STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS: LIFE EVENTS THAT DISRUPT DAILY ROUTINES AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS.

BURNOUT: A CONDITION OF EMOTIONAL EXHAUSTION AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES.

BUFFERS: RESOURCES OR ADMINISTRATIVE CHANGES THAT REDUCE BURNOUT.

MODERATORS OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS

1. AWARENESS OF MODERATORS HELPS IDENTIFY THOSE MOST LIKELY TO EXPERIENCE STRESS AND ITS NEGATIVE OUTCOMES. STRESS REDUCTION PROGRAMS CAN BE FORMULATED FOR HIGH-RISK EMPLOYEES.

2.

MODERATORS, IN AND OF THEMSELVES, SUGGEST POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR REDUCING OUTCOMES OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS.

FOUR MODERATORS:
(A) SOCIAL SUPPORT: AMOUNT OF HELPFULNESS DERIVED FROM SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS. GLOBAL SOCIAL SUPPORT: THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF SOCIAL SUPPORT AVAILABLE. FUNCTIONAL SOCIAL SUPPORT: SUPPORT SOURCES THAT BUFFER STRESS IN SPECIFIC SITUATIONS. (B) COPING: PROCESS OF MANAGING STRESS.

CONTROL STRATEGY: COPING STRATEGY THAT DIRECTLY CONFRONTS OR SOLVES PROBLEMS. ESCAPE STRATEGY: COPING STRATEGY THAT AVOIDS OR IGNORES STRESSORS AND PROBLEMS.

FOUR MODERATORS:
(C) HARDINESS: PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS THAT NEUTRALIZES STRESS.

(D)

TYPE A BEHAVIOR PATTERN: AGGRESSIVELY INVOLVED IN A CHRONIC, DETERMINED STRUGGLE TO ACCOMPLISH MORE IN A LESS TIME.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Chain Reactions of Behaviors and Responses in Conflictful Situations

Behaviour 1

M
Behaviour 2 (Response to #1)

Behaviour 3

(Response to #2)

Behaviour 4

(Response to #3)

Residuals of Aftermath

Latent Conflict

Conflict Aftermath

Perceived Conflict

Felt Conflict

Manifest Conflict A B

Conflict Resolution

Competition Collaboration Compromising Accommodation Avoidance

Pondys Conflict Episode Process (Adepted)

High (Cooperative Behaviour)

ACCOMODATING

COLLABORATING

CONCERN FOR OTHERS

COMPROMISING

Low (Uncooperative Behaviour)

AVOIDING

COMPETING

Low (Unassertive Behaviour)

CONCERN FOR SELF

High (Assertive Behaviour)

Conflict Resolution Models

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
SHARED VALUES AND BELIEFS THAT UNDERLIE A COMPANYS IDENTITY.

HOW CULTURES ARE EMBEDDED IN ORGANIZATIONS

1. FORMAL STATEMENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL PHILOSOPHY, MISSION, VISION, VALUES, AND MATERIALS USED FOR RECRUITING, SELECTION, AND SOCIALIZATION. THE DESIGN OF PHYSICAL SPACE, WORK ENVIRONMENT, AND BUILDINGS. SLOGANS, LANGUAGE, ACRONYMS, AND SAYINGS. DELIBERATE ROLE MODELING, TRAINING PROGRAMS, TEACHING, AND COACHING BY MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS. EXPLICIT REWARDS, STATUS SYMBOLS (E.G., TITLES), AND PROMOTION CRITERIA.

2. 3. 4.

5.

HOW CULTURES ARE EMBEDDED IN ORGANIZATIONS

6. 7. STORIES, LEGENDS, AND MYTHS ABOUT KEY PEOPLE AND EVENTS. THE ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVITIES, PROCESSES, OR OUTCOMES THAT LEADERS PAY ATTENTION TO, MEASURE, AND CONTROL. LEADER REACTIONS TO CRITICAL INCIDENTS AND ORGANIZATIONAL CRISES. THE WORKFLOW AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE. ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS AND THE ASSOCIATED CRITERIA USED FOR RECRUITMENT, SELECTION, DEVELOPMENT, PROMOTION, LAYOFFS, AND RETIREMENT OF PEOPLE.

8. 9. 11.

ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION
PROCESS BY WHICH EMPLOYEES LEARN AN

ORGANIZATIONS VALUES, NORMS, AND REQUIRED BEHAVIORS.

CORPORATE CULTURE
ITS ALWAYS BEEN THERE, BUT BUSINESSES NEVER PAID MUCH ATTENTION TO IT, UNTIL NOW, THAT IS WITH REENGINEERING, DOWNSIZING, ACQUISITIONS AND A HOST OF OUTSIDE PRESSURES WREAKING HAVOC ON AMERICAN BUSINESSES, MANY MANAGERS ARE TAKING A CLOSER LOOK AT THE INNER WORKINGS OF THEIR ORGANIZATIONS-THEIR VALUES, THEIR BELIEFS, THEIR PRIORITIES-TO SEE IF THEY STILL MAKE SENSE IN A NEW BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
. . . A PATTERN OF BASIC ASSUMPTIONS-INVENTED, DISCOVERED, OR DEVELOPED BY A GIVEN GROUP AS IT LEARNS TO COPE WITH ITS PROBLEMS OF EXTERNAL ADAPTATION AND INTERNAL INTEGRATION-THAT HAS WORKED WELL ENOUGH TO BE CONSIDERED VALUABLE AND, THEREFORE, TO BE TAUGHT TO NEW MEMBERS AS THE CORRECT WAY TO PERCEIVE, THINK, AND FEEL IN RELATION TO THOSE PROBLEMS.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. OBSERVED BEHAVIORAL REGULARITIES. NORMS. DOMINANT VALUES. PHILOSOPHY. RULES. ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE.

FOUR FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Organizational identity

Sense-making device

Organizational culture

Collective commitment

Social system stability

Source: Adapted from discussion in L Smircich, Concepts of Culture and Organizational Analysis, Administrative Science Quarterly, September 1983, pp 339-58

A MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION

Phases 1. Anticipatory Socialization Learning that occurs prior to joining the organization Outsider Perceptual and Social Processes yAnticipating realities about the organization and the new job yAnticipating organizations needs for ones skills and abilities yAnticipating organizations sensitivity to ones needs and values. yManaging lifestyle-versus-work conflicts yManaging intergroup role conflicts ySeeking role definition and clarity yBecoming familiar with task and group dynamics yCompeting role demands are resolved yCritical tasks are mastered yGroup norms and values are internalized

2. Encounter Values, skills and attitudes start to shift as new recruit discovers what the organization is truly like

3. Change and acquisition Recruit masters skills and roles and adjusts to work groups values and norms

Behavioral Outcomes yPerforms role assignments yRemains with organization ySpontaneously innovates and cooperates

Socialized insider

Affective Outcomes yGenerally satisfied yInternally motivated to work yHigh job involvement

Source: Adapted from material in D C Feldman, The Multiple Socialization of Organization Members, Academy of Management Review, April 1981, pp 309-18

DEVELOPING AND PRESERVING AN ADAPTIVE CULTURE

Early business leaders create and implement a business vision and strategy that fits the business environment well. Business leaders emphasize the importance of constituencies and leadership in creating the success.

Firm succeeds

A strong culture emerges with a core that emphasizes service to customers, stockholders, and employees, as well as the importance of leadership. Subsequent top managers work to preserve the adaptive core of the culture. They demonstrate greater commitment to its basic principles than any specific business strategy or practice.
Source: Reprinted with permission of The Free Press, a division of Simon & Schuster, from Corporate Culture and Performance by J C Kotter and J L Heskett. Copyright 1992 by Kotter Associates, Inc and James L Heskett.

A MODEL FOR OBSERVING AND INTERPRETING GENERAL MANIFESTATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Content of Culture Culture yImportant shared understandings Objects yShared things Talk yShared sayings Generate Behavior yShared doings Emotion yShared feelings Receive yAsk yObserve yRead yFeel Manifestations of Culture Interpretations of Culture Interpret yInfer meanings

Source: Implications of Corporate Culture: A Managers Guide to Action, by Vijay Sathe. Reprinted, by permission of publisher, from Organizational Dynamics, Autumn 1983. 1983 American Management Association, New York. All rights reserved.

EXPLORATIONS IN MANAGEMENT OF SELF & ROLES

CONCEPTS, PHILOSOPHY, AND TECHNOLOGY MULTIPLE ROLE IN INDUSTRY, ACADEMICS AND PERSONAL LIFE

Struggle discovering MORE & NEW in me and my roles. Deal with themselves, situations and others multiple roles and realities to increasing EFFECTIVENESS, ADDING WHOLESOMENESS AND DISCOVERING NEW MEANINGS in life. Taking charge for ones own OUTSIDE, dealing with and managing what is INSIDE and what is OUTSIDE.

i. Articulating the Inarticulate ii. Making the invisible, visible iii. Owning the disowned iv. Acting the With-held Here and Now

ENCOUNTER I LOCATION AND RELOCATION OF SELF / ROLE I hear you say you are not quiet happy - or you have anxieties - problems arising out of the change. It becomes quiet handy not to belong to my present environment, assignment. I always can throw it out on somebody. I do not own and hence I am not responsible.

I am only giving the meaning to it based on your feelings. My invitation to you is to stay in this new world, belong to it, own it and feel responsible. Tell me where are you in this process of my meaning-giving.

You have a choice of not working on it and I would like you to tell me your decision because I do not want to spend time on futile intellectual exercises or fantasising.

1. I failed in my earlier assignments as Finance Manager of the manufacturing unit. 2. After 14 years of work and having got promoted only last year as Commercial Manager as No. 2 of the unit there are many negative images about me. Corporate Group feel, I am creating polarisation in groups; I have problems of acceptance with Technical Managers including the General Manager. 3. My Technical Competence is of high quality but my professional competence lacks inter-personal skills. 4. I am full of feelings of loss, uprooted from my past and wonder whether I can create the new world. I feel helpless, bearingless, anchorless.

Bloody painful and yet it is my own creation. It is painful and there is also a commitment to create, seek support, demand help. I wonder what prevents me from seeking, receiving. Do I feel small. I can only be a giver.

Yes - I have always been a giver. People would never accept Bhavesh as receiver. Is that the image that Bhavesh has given to himself and wanting others to see only that image! The all powerful!

So the All Powerful giver is a myth; Deep down you feel powerless. Look even at the risk of prescribing, let me see if this makes sense. Can I, Bhavesh go to Patel, Prashant and Divakar asking how do they hold me. How important is it for me to know their feelings about me. How important is it for me to get their support and help. I as Bhavesh am interested to know this since they can help me let the other, more functional and positive Bhavesh in me also emerge/reveal. Can I let them see my struggle with my loss and my loneliness.

Because there is this Bhavesh in KK also and well KK can be Bhavesh and many more. That is KK.

That also means total loss of your world and getting somewhere else. There would be another Prashant, Patel and many more. Bhavesh, my concern is with Bhavesh who will meet another Prashant, Patel etc. and will land up in similar problems since Bhavesh moves out as the same person - helpless, lacking the power, allowing people to hold their images about SELF. Bhavesh, is becoming a stone that people can use as they want. Bhavesh will not add anything to himself. Yes this is a choice available. Let others do, and act. I will only react.

ENCOUNTER II AM I AN ASSET OR A LIABILITY / LOW SELF WORTH It is desirable to feel ones feelings and if possible state/share it with the person who is the source of the feelings. If one is genuine, this sharing would normally lead to a process of understanding.

One always learns and grows with sincere and genuine explorations on feelings and facts. Normally thats how it goes; people say that - and it worked that way regarding S.N.-not involving me nor telling me.

Hemant, I am not asking about People saying, normally, and such beliefs. I am talking about data of his owning up, calling Mahesh and telling him in your presence. Are you with me? Yes I understand. A a matter of fact I did feel good about it for a moment. But somehow the other thing bothered me. I got carried away by Mahesh getting things his way.

You know Hemant, this is our trap. We negate the positive data, positive feelings and refuse to build on fresh perspectives. It is very easy to get imprisoned by peoples belief. If I go a step further, what I describe as peoples belief are my own beliefs. I am using peoples umbrella since that makes me feel safe. I will not be attacked. Where are you?

Data? Your specifically?

assumption?

Did

you

ask

him

My assumption - it appears. I did not check with him But how do you say my assumption. Because I did not check. I cant leave it open, nor do I see myself in that position, because I have already believed that Mahesh is closer to him and that is the reason.

Yes KK, you have said it. I felt so insecure and saw Mahesh as my Works Manager and it got built up further. Having done so much, - streamlining the materials management function, computerised systems cost control devices, taking over additional load of 25 persons of Production shop, is this what I am getting? I realise now that S.N also told me that management knows my strength and would never like to waste it.

Yes, you know what you are saying? - Even the process of constructing the universe depends on my meaning-mankind and meaning-giving which in turn depends on how I perceive. I see you now constructing your universe in a different manner since now you seem to be giving different meaning to it.

You have already answered it while working on the issues. I also feel I could have dealt with the issues right there. You know I did feel like dealing with it there. But was full of anxieties if S.N. does not understand my positive intentions. S.N. will understand what you want him to understand. Our genuine intentions speak much louder than our words.

Hemant when I doubt some one elses ability to understand I am doubting my abilities to relate and reaching out as well as my abilities to deal with the consequences. Were are you? I think the last one is real.

Thanks a lot KK, you know we are strangers here. I do not have my parents and all my time goes on the plant. I feel extremely happy having you with me. Hemant you are in this place for nine years, I have come four years back. You are more of a GUJJU then me. But I understand what you are saying and you can always fall back on me - not to give you formula and pills for your problems and headaches but to BE with you and find out the moreness in us.

ENCOUNTER III SELF / ROLE ANCHORED IN EXTERNAL IMAGES AND STATUS SYMBOLS

Arvind let us deal with what I see happening right here. Tell me, how are you feeling? Feeling O.K. well, sort of. But tell me why are you asking? Because I sense you feeling quiet uncomfortable in shifting Patils office and residential telephone. Yes, sort of But why are you raising it? I am raising it because loaded with your discomfort, while talking to Patil you will carry guilt and become apologetic about it. As if he is a victim.

My concern is with the possibility of your disowning the responsibility for these two decisions and throw it out, making management the villain. Arvind, I am talking about the process and situations which I am sure you have seen in your professional career where the managers disown their being the management, in conveying such tough / painful decisions.

Before we go on to the telephone, can we make this office better equipped? Giving him a small roundish table with six chairs for him to shift over for discussions with marketing and manufacturing people on quality problems. This will give him professional dignity as well as functional ease since his work desk will not be disturbed. We could not do this in his present office due to the room size. Arvind, this is not a manipulative move to soften his annoyance. We will be equipping the new office since it can accommodate two tables, it will ease his work and dignity.

Yes KK, Is it not natural for a person to feel bad and angry for losing a residential telephone once having been installed? I am sure you and I would feel the same way. We should put ourselves in the shoes. I would feel humiliated and indignified-to use your terms.

Look Arvind, I certainly would grant him his humanness to feel bad. We can deal with it. But look at what you are doing. You had told me that he was given the residential telephone 2 years back with an understanding that he will apply for OYT. Management was to shift the phone after one year, for the Product Managers office. Patil was not required to have residential phone by his level nor his function.

And yet inspite of this factual background see how gullible we are in getting loaded with feelings and disassociating, delinking ourselves from the decision, projecting our own feelings. We certainly need to understand feelings of Patil with a view to deal with them effectively rather than justifying them. You need not loose your managerial identity in dealing with Patils humanness.

Tell me are you saying that I retain my managerial identity at the cost of my humanness? No. you can own up and hold on to your role identity i.e. managerial identity as well as humanness simultaneously. Sounds very good but philosophical-no sorry theoretical. Theoretical is it? I say it is a practice based concept. Let me turn the focus on here and now, in all humility. Examine my holding the role-identity without losing my humanness right here with you. You feel I was-in-human?

But let me respond to the satisfaction issue, I am quite clear that things do not happen in life and more so in industry to our satisfaction; and the management's decision (Cutting) in ) Is this the way management treats Managers? You are a Behavioural Scientist and the HRD expert. You should not have agreed to witness this. This is not the HRD way, you should know your job and profession. Look Raja, I can raise my voice too and you could feel more humiliated. The question of HRD.

You should understand how a person would feel when facilities are withdrawn by management. You should by your professional ask Management that no ones feelings should be aroused or hurt (almost gets up from the chair) Raja if you want to get up and leave please don (Raja sits down). Do you realise how you have hurt me-Telling me my job, teaching my role , accusing me I am not worth my profession and cutting me twice while I was still speaking Getting hurt and hurting is part of our human existence. To me the challenge is how do I deal with hurt without indignifying others or letting others indignify me

Do you think Management is interested in harassing you? And are you also not management Raja pardon my saying this but I think I owe it to you. If I am putting up and image externally, keep building it up through these status symbols and drive my strengths from it, I am bound to feel small in absence of those status symbols Did you apply for OYT simultaneously while getting this telephone installed at your place ? Knowing the commitment of one years time-frame What I am concerned with is the process in which your wife and children have got involved, no not involved but hooked in the game of image-building through artificial limbs, cosmetics.

Raja, my concern right now is with the fact that I built up my status on a symbol which was never mine - it was given to me by Management on my request for a year during which I was to make my own OYT arrangement I am also concerned with the fact that your wife and children have got into this process of image-building on temporarily hired symbols. What bothers me is your passing on these values to them.