The Lion's Outlook - Sitagu Students' Research Journal - Vol-3 - 2012

THE LIONS OUTLOOK
Sitagu Students Research Journal

Sitagu International Buddhist Academy,
Mandalay, Sagaing, Yangon
MYANMAR

Vol. III

March 2012

Organizing Body: SitaguStar StudentSelection

Free Distribution

Any part of this publication may be republished and redistributed in any form or by any means
with the prior permission from authors as their moral rights have been asserted.

Published for Department of Research & Compilation,
Sitagu International Buddhist Academy,
Sagaing Hills, Sagaing, Myanmar.

The Stag Resolution

We resolve to make effort:
To beautify our lives in this world we live,
To promote our Ssana ardently,
To make our country prosperous,
With the best of our ability, without arrogance.

Preface

In 21
st
Century, the popularity of research works along with the comprehensive
study of research methodology finds its spot in Myanmar traditional Buddhist education
system. By broadening the thorough research study on Pi Piaka literature and
establishing the basic foundation of theoretical perspective on the Buddhist platform, it is
prime time to explore to the higher level of the enlightening system of Buddhism. As a
major part of the development of academic infrastructure, Sitagu International Buddhist
Academy sets a pace to widen the multidimensional aspect in the area of Buddhist
Studies and the other related fields.
Keeping the practice of encouraging young generation of researchers, this journal
makes an attempt to reveal the works of sitagu students who never lose their real
enthusiasm for eliminating conflicts between traditional and modern education system in
the new century. It is a humble endeavor of Sitagu students who are overwhelmed by the
advanced academic approach of SIBAs and overjoyed on an occasion celebrating Sitagu
Adhipatis 75
th
birthday.
This journal strives to impress all sitagu students through accuracy and ability to be
academically articulate. Perhaps, there are a few errors remaining. An apology goes
primarily to the original authors and to readers secondarily. Additionally, the
responsibility for the facts or opinions expressed is entirely of the authors and it will be
upgraded with upcoming fresh researches if future allows. In the end, the Organizing
Body feels its duty to express sincere thanks to sitagu brothers, sisters and friends who
have higher expectation on SIBAs and utmost admiration for Sitagu Sayadaws incredible
amount of Buddhassana works.

7 March 2012 Organising Body
SitaguStar StudentSelection
Sitagu International Buddhist Academy
Mandalay, Sagaing, Yangon, MYANMAR

REVIEW & FEEDBACK ARE WELCOME!

http://sitagustar.wordpress.com
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Contents

The Stag Resolution
Preface

A. Sitagu Sayadaws Speech
1. Lets Fulfil the Peoples Requirements 1
2. Observation of Current World Affairs from the Standpoint of Buddhism 3
3. Buddhist Sagha and Social Welfare 7

B. Sitagu Students Selection
1. The Buddhist Attitudes towards Taking Refuge in the Buddha 11
Ashin Kuala
2. Buddhism and Rituals in Yaw (Myanmar) 26
Ashin Nandcrlankra
3. Analysis of Kusalatika according to Tikamtik 44
Ashin Medhnanda
4. Pidivaso 50
yasm Kusalo
5. Mercy Killing or Euthanasia in Buddhism 54
Ashin Sriya
6. The Cause of War: A Buddhist Perspective 66
Ashin Candvara
7. Asokas Dhammathambha: A Guide to Historical and Canonical Analysis 76
Ashin Dhammacara
8. Punjabi University, Patiala: General History 93
Thaint (Myanmar)

C. Academic Approach
1. Overview of the Academic Essay 96
2. Outlining 101
3. Beginning the Academic Essay 106
4. Developing a Thesis 111
5. Ending the Essay 116
6. Summary 120
7. Revising the Draft 125

Sitagu Sayadaws Speech

Lets Fulfill the Peoples Requirements
1

We were all born from the same father, though there are differences of country,
race, language, etc. The Buddha is our father. We are all living under the shadow of a
tree. The Dhamma is that shadow. That is why we, as disciples of the Buddha, should
create a great common highway and walk together towards a goal. The goal is to teach
the Dhamma to all people, and to enlighten this World which is shrouded in ignorance.
We are religious leaders. We are teachers of the Dhamma, and that is why we all
have this responsibility. The Buddha said, Happy is the appearance of the Buddha; but
happiness cannot be obtained unless a person has an ear to listen to the Dhamma. After
being fully-awakened, the Buddha lived around the Bo-tree for forty-nine days. None of
the herdsmen knew the Buddha as the Buddha even though he lived under their
Banyan tree in the Uruvela forest for seven days. Even in the nearby city of Gaya, no one
either saw the Buddha or heard the Dhamma. For all of those living nearby during those
forty-nine days what a pitiful loss to have missed such a golden opportunity.
The Buddha then proceeded on a Dhamma journey to Varanasi, located more
than 200 miles away. Along the way, he ran into Upaka Ajivaka, a follower of Jainism.
Seeing the radiance of the Buddha, he asked him many questions about which his

1
The opening speech was given at a council meeting for the Association of Theravada Buddhist
Universities and Colleges on13-15 January 2008 at Maha Mongkut Buddhist University, Bangkok, Thailand.

2 Lets Fulfil People Requirements
teachers are, and the teachings he liked best. When the Buddha replied that he was a
great teacher, that he had conquered and removed all defilements, and was looking to
strike the drum of Dhamma in the World; Upaka just nodded his head said that maybe
that was so and carried on his way. Since Buddha could not find anyone who could
accept and understand the Dhamma, he knew the whole world was dark. That is why
its absolutely necessary to give enlightenment to a world of beings so deluded and
blinded by ignorance. Just as hearing is necessary for those in a world of deafness or
silence; light is necessary for a world of darkness.
Brothers and sisters, we, the religious leaders have a responsibility to fulfill the
needs of todays world. The whole world is needy. The unity of the Bhikkhu Sagha is
for the happiness of mankind. Look at a brief history of Buddhism. The Sagha split
into two sects only 100 years after the demise of the Buddha, and into eighteen sects
after 200 years. After 1500 years, Buddhism in its entirety disappeared from its
homeland - India. The country and the people lost valuable teachings on Truth and
Reality; they lost their happiness because they couldnt receive proper and good
guidance.
The work of a united Sagha is needed for the happiness of people. So, lets fulfil
the needs of the people by teaching the Dhamma effectively. It is for nothing to give an
eye, by which one can see in the world of beings but still cannot see the Buddha; and to
give an ear, by which one can hear in the world of beings, that has no ear to hear the
Dhamma. Let us be the ones who are beneficial to mankind. Lets make a goal to bring
all beings from ignorance to enlightenment.

Observation of Current World Affairs from the Standpoint of Buddhism

When we observe and analyse the current world affairs from the standpoint of
Buddhism, you will be amazed to notice that the teachings of the Buddha are directly
applied to the way we live in this world. The obvious reason is that the Buddha himself
was a human being living on this planet earth he didnt live anywhere else. The
Buddhas noble teachings, collectively known as Dhamma, are nothing but the truth and
virtue about our way of living and the transcendence of suffering.
In a nutshell, the Buddhas homocentric or human-oriented teachings and
sermons are indeed applicable to the nature of our human life, simply because the
Buddhas teachings came from his own experiences in the human world. Having
personally experienced family life and knowing the limitations of life, the Buddha
discovered the Truth from his trial-and-error quest for Dhamma, and then he set out to
declare and teach about it.
The teaching of the Buddha is the unchanging universal truth, whether in the
present or in any other time at any place. The Buddha revealed the truth over 2,500
years ago and it has been the truth ever since. The Buddha said, Sabbo loko uno, sabbo
loko atitto, which means the whole world of mankind is always lacking something or
the whole world is always in need of something. Considering the current world affairs in

4 Observation of Current World Affairs from the Standpoint of Buddhism
the context of Buddhism, we can easily break down those needs into two categorical
components: material needs and spiritual needs.
What are the material needs? To address a few, those material needs are such as
owning a big and nice house, owning the latest and greatest car, attaining power and
fame, getting married with a handsome husband or a beautiful wife, chasing after money,
and so forth.
When asked that to what extent do you think you need to fulfil or satisfy
yourselves with material needs? Those who have been chasing after material needs have
no clue on when and where to stop, or about control on the extent of their ever-growing
desire-list. This situation is comparable to a sea, where all rivers in the world continuously
flow into it nonstop with massive amounts of water.
The water body of the sea relatively stays the same and seldom overflows in spite
of the nonstop inflows from many rivers. Basically, the needs, greed, desire and craving
will never be fulfilled if ones need is similar to the water body of the sea. Once the
forces of materialism overwhelm you, it will give rise to an avalanche of socio-economic
issues such as robbery, fraud, theft, terrorist attacks, conflicts, tensions and many more.
Being out of control on the material needs is the primary root cause of those above
mentioned issues.
In the same token, we can identify the numerous challenging aspects of the
spiritual-moral needs and their positive counter-active forces, such as by neutralizing
endless needs with contentment; anxiety with happiness; hatred with loving-kindness;
cruelty with compassion; selfishness with altruistic magnanimity and generosity; jealousy

5 The Lions Outlook, Sitagu Students Research Journal
with appreciative joy; animosity and hostility with friendship and companionship, and so
on. Apparently, it is no easy job for the ordinary person to cultivate or foster those
neutralizing positive forces on their own, to achieve the spiritual evolution by keeping the
unwanted dark forces in check. Needless to say, those dark forces phenomenally take
root on or thrive on ones one ignorance, thirsty-craving and greed which in terms are the
breeding grounds or their vicious-circle.
When it comes to material needs, we should leave it to the governing authorities
such as kings, queens, presidents, prime ministers, etc. to set up and engage in the
economic policies, academic policies and political policies to improve the quality of living
standards.
However, the most important of all, we, as brothers and sisters of world religions,
we, as leaders and teachers of the spiritual world, need to assume the responsibility and
take the initiative roles in order to liberate people from the quagmire or ignorance and
lustful desire. The battle against ignorance cannot be fought with bombs or guns, but with
the steady application and propagation of the Dhamma. As materially poor as one may
be, for a spiritually rich person, he or she will always be exuberant with happiness,
contentment, thoughtfulness, tolerance and tranquility in their inner mind at all time,
regardless. Looking back into the 15th and 16th centuries, we noted the rapid
advancement of science and technology in the Renaissance Era, which in turn has helped
advance the materialistic world.
On the other hand, the spiritual world has been running a deficit and now people
are almost at the brink of spiritual bankruptcy. Since the spiritual evolution is a process,

6 Observation of Current World Affairs from the Standpoint of Buddhism
not a destination, and also the panacea (cure-all medicine) in resolving the socio-
economic issues, I would like to earnestly beseech continuous cooperation and relentless
effort of all religious leaders and spiritual leaders by working hand-in-hand with one
another as a global team. By putting our heads together to tackle many challenges lying
ahead we will succeed. By creating and walking on a global spiritual platform, we
can achieve resolution and solve the current world problems. Thus, everyone can
attain a sublime mental and spiritual life through self-reliance, loving-kindness and
balance. Then, the World will be a better place to live in, altogether and harmoniously.

Buddhist Sagha and Social Welfare

As a Bodhisatta (becoming Buddha), the Buddhas first priority was to strive for the
welfare and good of all beings (lokatthacariya). By striving for the welfare and good of all
beings and by striving to perfect himself, He was able to become the Buddha. Therefore,
as disciples of the Buddha, we Sagha should diligently endeavour to work for the
benefit and good of all beings, while we are striving for enlightenment. Like the Buddha,
we must make both efforts simultaneously in this and every lifetime.
It is not possible for man to live alone in the world today. No matter who or
where we are, we have to live in a society where we associate or communicate with
others in some way or another. Even the recluse monk who dwells deep in a forest
monastery is not exempt. Each day he must go on an alms-round to nearby homes or
villages because he depends upon these donors for his food. In return, these donors
depend upon the recluse monk to provide spiritual guidance and blessings for their
safety. They look to him to radiate his loving-kindness and compassion. In the present
world, everyone is needy, and everyone must be responsible for the needs of others;
even those who have renounced the world.
When we look into the daytime sky we see the sun, which radiates its warmth and
light upon the earth. At night-time we feel the coolness of the moonlight, which flows
down upon us. Though the sun and moon turn in their own orbits without directly

8 Buddhist Sagha and Social Welfare
touching the earth, they provide us many benefits for which we are grateful. However,
the sun and the moon do not expect anything in return from us. So, too, we the Sagha
must conduct ourselves like the example of the sun and moon. We should not expect
anything from others while we radiate our light upon those in need, by providing
guidance, social and spiritual leadership.
By performing social welfare works for the benefit of others, lay-people will be
happy, thankful and grateful because they receive social and religious benefits from us.
As long as we provide for the World (just as the sun and moon provide warmth and cool
light), we too will receive tremendous gratitude. Accordingly, our missionary works will
never fail.
Our missionary projects will only succeed when we perform our duties by
balancing social and religious works. However, when we perform these duties we must
do so without any discrimination toward others and we should not be seeking to convert
them. A persons class, cast, creed, colour, religion, etc. does not matter, because all
people are needy. When looking at those in need we must look only towards their
benefit. The list is endless and ever-changing, because they may need some mental,
spiritual, moral, cultural, or material support. From a missionary point of view, the only
conversion that needs to be done at that moment is to convert the needy from ignorance
to enlightenment.
There are two very important qualities that are needed by the Sangha as religious
or social leaders when performing our missionary and social works. They are wisdom
(pa ) and compassion (karu). And when these two qualities are developed

harmoniously and equally, only then can we properly say that the qualities of a leader are
perfect. I would like to say that wisdom is like the radiance of the sun, while compassion
is like the radiance of the moon.
Wisdom is the intellectual ability to reason, investigate, and collect information
and critique, when planning missionary and social works. It is the ability to design,
estimate, construct and run the project, evaluate the results and make corrections if it is
ineffective. It is from the side of wisdom that man-power, material-power, money-power
and mind-power drive our missionary work and social welfare projects to succeed.
Therefore, wisdom means an energetic quality of mind; endeavour and strength is like
the radiance and the warmth from the sun.
When we look at the characteristics of compassion we see it as a perfect love,
kindness, charity, sympathy and tolerance towards other beings. Each of these is a
quality of the heart because each quality is soft and genteel, like the coolness we feel
from the soft light of the moon. When a leader has these calming feelings in his heart, he
will be able to actually feel the supplicants suffering and difficulty in his own heart.
Wisdom and compassion must go hand-in-hand. A leader not only must be able
to understand the suffering and difficulties of those in need (thanks to his wisdom), but he
must feel it in his heart. If someone has wisdom and education but lacks compassion,
loving kindness and development of insight (bhvan), he will be a cruel or hard-hearted
wise man. If someone has unlimited compassion but no wisdom, his heart will be very
soft and gentle, but he can do nothing for the world. Therefore, we must develop

10 Buddhist Sagha and Social Welfare
wisdom and compassion equally in order to become a more perfect social and religious
leader.
By having both wisdom and compassion on an equal level, we as leaders will be
able to intellectually and compassionately look at all difficulties and suffering. We will be
able to look at them and be able to reason accordingly, How can I, at the best of my
ability, be able to resolve these difficulties and sufferings of humanity in their best
interest? And then with our wisdom we can start social welfare programs to relieve
suffering. But we leaders must not attach to our work, and we must not expect anything
in return. We must only radiate both our wisdom and compassion onto others, just like
that of the sun and moons light.
In conclusion, at this present time, in all spheres of life, whether individual, social
or political, we can truly say that thoughts of ill-will, enmity, violence and hatred are the
result of a lack of compassion and wisdom in the world today.
We religious leaders, who currently are or will be performing social and religious
works, should endow ourselves with these noble qualities, such as selfless renunciation,
detachment from ones own benefit, loving kindness and non-hatred, non-enmity and
non-violence.
I would like to say that only then will the knowledge and wisdom we have learned
become true wisdom.

Sitagu Students Selection

The Buddhist Attitudes towards Taking Refuge in the Buddha

Ashin Kuala (Ph.D)
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi, India

When primitive men began to think about various kinds of natural phenomena in
this world, they noticed many wonderful occurrences such as volcano explosion, great
fires, great floods, landslide, rumbling of the earth, earth quakes, thunders, diseases and
other dangers. When certain natural forces or phenomena were not in their will they had
to feel terrible shock.
They had seen and experienced natural disasters and terrifying incidents. Then
they started to think how they could prevent these unfavourable condition which created
fear, suspicion, insecurity, tensions and sufferings. They knew that many of these things
were beyond comprehension and therefore, they thought these must be some invisible
powerful supernatural forces or persons behind all these happenings. These occurrences,
which were difficult to understand, were thought to be the work of various gods. They
begin to worship them and to make animal sacrifices hoping to please these supernatural
powers.
They also started to praise worship in thanks when certain phenomena were in his
favour, thinking that these too were the acts of the gods. Therefore, E.B.Tayalar said that

12
Religion is a belief in supernatural being and metaphysical powers. Besides, Frazer
defines the word religion that Religion is not merely belief in super human power but
our response towards them. By praying, worship to the god is religion. In this case, the
Buddha also states in Dhammapada that Bahu ve sarana yanti, pabbatni vanni ca.
rma rukkha cetayyni, manuss bhayatajjit.
1
It means that Ancient people take
refuge in the mountains, jungles, gardens, sacred trees and shrines, because of fear. We
can conclude that, in this way, religion or refuge came into existence in the world.
Briefly speaking, religion has built up on the blind faith (Amlaka sadh) with the purpose
of gaining protection and blessings from the Supreme God and gods to live in world
without facing any difficulties.
On the contrary, Buddhism is non-theistic teaching. There is no supreme God in
Buddhism. Buddhism completely rejects the belief in any kinds of divine being as blind
faith (Amaka Saddh) is rejected in Buddhism. But Buddhism accepts wisdom faith
(kravat saddh). This is because without wisdom faith (kravat saddh) no one can
start the noble search for freedom to end suffering (Dukkha).
Therefore, Buddhist people do not take refuge in the Buddha as a savior or
creator but as a just teacher (Satth) or master who has shown the real path which leads
to the liberation of the suffering (Vimutti). The Buddha never declares himself as savior or
creator who will save us from the sins or vices and who will reward us or curse us. In this
regard, the Buddha frankly utters that Atthi attano ntho, ko hi ntho paro si y
2

1
. Dhp verse, 188
2
. Dhp, verse, 160

which mean that one is ones own master and there is no other master for the man.
And, the Buddha say- Tumhehi kiccamtabb akkhtro tathgat
3
meaning it should
be done by yourselves for the liberation of the suffering (Vimutti), and the Buddhas are
only teacher who guide the way leads to the end of suffering (Nibbna). By paying
attention to the nine kinds of virtuous qualities of the Buddha (Navagua), Buddhist
people pay homage to the Buddha without asking for any material favors and rewards in
return, but only with showing their gratitude and respect. Buddhist people all over the
world recite and contemplate on verses (Gath) and the discourses (Sutta) exposing
sublime virtuous qualities of the Buddha in their daily devotional activities.
If the Buddhas teaching is considered as the building, in order to enter it,
everyone has to enter through the door of the building. The door of entrance to the
teaching of the Buddha is the going for refuge to the Buddha. According to well known
Buddhist scholar, a refuge is a person, place or thing giving protection from harm and
danger.
4
He further states that so when we begin a practice by going for refuge, this
implies that the practice is intended to protect us from harm and danger. In the light of
this statement, there must be a question that what is harm and danger from which we
need to be protected?
In the words of the Buddha, man is like a traveler passing through a thick forest
bordered by a swamp and precipice;
5
like a person who swept away by a stream seeking

3
. Dhp, verse, 276
4
. Bodhi, Bhikku, Going for Refuge Taking the Precepts p. 2
5
. S III 109

14
safety by clutching at reeds;
6
like a sailor crossing a turbulent ocean;
7
or like a person
pursed by venomous snakes and murderous enemies.
8

The genuine purpose of taking refuge in the Buddha is to get instructions
regarding how to emancipate from the difficult risks mentioned above and how to see or
how to know his position as it really is; that is, to see it accurately and against its total
background.
Here is a notable parable for man to understand his situation and worldly
pleasure: A man had lost his way when he was going through a thick forest covered with
thorns and rocks. Then he was confronted by a huge elephant which starts to chase him.
He started to run for his life. While he was running he saw a well and he thought that this
would be good place for him to escape from the elephant. But very unfortunately he saw
a big poisonous snake at the bottom of the well. However, since there was no other way
of escape from the elephant he jumped into the well and managed to get hold of a thick
creeper that was growing on the side wall of the well. While he was hanging on to the
creeper he saw two mice, a white and dark one. To his horror he saw that these two
mice were slowly cutting the creeper which he was holding on to. He also found a
beehive close by from which occasional drops of honey trickled down. While facing his
death in three ways in that dangerous position he greedily started to taste the honey
drops. Seeing the pathetic situation of this poor man, another kind of person who
happened to pass by, volunteered to give a helping hand to save his life. But this greedy

6
. S III 139
7
. S IV 157
8
. S IV 173

and foolish man refused to listen to him because of the taste of honey he was enjoying.
The taste of the honey had so intoxicated him that he preferred to ignore the dangerous
position he was facing.
9

To know mans real situation is very important so that he can overcome worldly
problems which produce a pitch of anxiety, confusion and turmoil, and he can escape
from the sasaric sufferings. In the same breath, he has to agree with the concept that
mans enjoyment in sensual pleasure deals with sufferings. The Buddha approves this
idea by description the simile of the fish tempted with the baited hook by the
fisherman.
10

Thats why, the Buddha says: The world is established on suffering, is founded on
suffering (dukkhe loko patihito).
11
The Dhammacakkapavattana sutta of Samyuttanikya
runs the sufferings which are to be experienced by man- birth is suffering, ageing (decay
or old age) is suffering, sickness or disease is suffering, death is suffering, sorrow,
lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suffering, association with the unpleasant things is
suffering, dissociation from the pleasant things is suffering, not to get what one wants is
suffering, in summary, the five aggregates of attachment or with clinging are suffering.
12

Life, to one who sees deeply and thoroughly, is full of suffering. All beings are subject to
birth without emancipation; this birth goes consequently to decay, disease and death. No
one is exempted from these four inevitable causes of suffering. All kinds of suffering in

9
. K. Sri Dhammananda, Gems of Buddhist Wisdom p. 241
10
. Bodhi, Bhikhu, The Connected Discourse of the Buddha, p. 1228. S IV 158-159
11
. S I 40
12
. S V 421; M I 48

16
life, like birth, old age, sickness, death, sorrow, lamentation, grief, distress, pain, misery,
association with hate persons and unpleasant things, separation from beloved ones and
pleasant things, not getting what one desires, are universally accepted as suffering.
Thats why, Buddhist people should find out the genuine refuge which can leads
the liberation of above sufferings and in the same breath, they should understand clearly
and completely the process of taking refuge in the Buddha.
After listening to the Buddhas Discourse called Fear and Dread, the Brahman
Jaanussoni becomes a lay follower of the Buddha, by taking the Threefold Refuge. The
words used by him differ slightly from the usual formula in so far as in the latter the words
the Lord Gotama are replaced by the Buddha. Buddhaghosas comment, here slightly
abridged, runs as follows:
I go for refuge to the Lord Gotama (bhavanta Gotama saraagacchmi).
13

This means: The Lord Gotama is my refuge and my guiding ideal. I am going for refuge to
the Lord Gotama. I resort to him, follow and honor him, in the sense of his being the
Destroyer of Affliction and the Provider of Weal. Or: I know and understand him to be of
such a nature.
The last explanation is based upon the fact that in the Pi language, the verbal
roots denoting going (gati) may also have the meaning of knowing (buddhi).
14

Therefore the words I go for refuge to the Buddha may also be taken to express the
idea: I know and understand him to be the refuge.

13
. M I 23
14
. VA I 171; khpA 18

As to the meaning of the word saraa, the commentator relates it, not in the sense
of a linguistic derivation, but for the purpose of exposition, to the verb sarati, to crush,
having the same meaning as hisati, to kill.
15
The refuge is explained in that way,
because, for those who are taking that refuge, it kills and destroys danger and fear,
suffering, and the defilements leading to evil destiny. The refuge is a name of the Triple
Gem.
16
Another explanation: The Buddha destroys fear in beings by promoting their
happiness and by removing harm from them. The Dhamma does it by making the beings
cross the wilderness of existence and by giving them solace. The Sagha does it by
(enabling devotees) to obtain rich results even from small religious acts (like homage,
offerings etc.)
17

The going for refuge is an act of consciousness (cittuppda) which, through
confidence in and reverence for the Triple Gem, is devoid of defilements and occurs in
the mode of regarding the Triple Gem as the supreme resort.
18
The going for refuge can
be divided into two: the mundane and supramundane going for refuge.
The supramundane going for refuge is achieved at the moment of the path by
those who have seen the truths, through the eradication of the defilements of the going
for refuge; by way of its object, it takes Nibbna as its object and by way of its tasks, it
succeeds in regard to the entire Triple Gem.
19

15
. DA I 230; MA I 131; KhpA 15
16
. DA I 230 ; MA I 131
17
. DA I 230; MA I 131; KhpA 15
18
. DA I 230; MA I 131
19
. DA I 230; M A I 131

18
The mundane going for refuge is achieved by worldlings through the suppression
of the defilements of the going for refuge; by way of its object, it takes as its object the
excellent qualities of the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sagha.
20
This mundane going
for refuge occurs in four ways: by self-surrender, by taking the Triple Gem as ones
supreme resort, by the acceptance of pupilship, and homage by prostration.
21

Therein, self-surrender is the relinquishing of oneself to the Triple Gem, expressed
thus: From today onward I surrender myself to the Buddha, to the Dhamma, and to the
Sagha. Taking the Triple Gem as ones supreme resort is expressed thus: From today
onward the Buddha is my supreme resort, the Dhamma is my supreme resort, and the
Sagha is my supreme resort. Thus may you know me! The acceptance of pupilship is
expressed thus: From today onward I am a pupil of the Buddha, a pupil of the Dhamma
a pupil of the Sagha. Thus may you know me! Homage by prostration is the quality of
deepest humility towards the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sagha, expressed thus:
From today onward I do homage, rise up in respect, show reverential salutation, and
perform the proper duties only towards the three objects of refuge: the Buddha, the
Dhamma, and the Sagha. Thus may you know me! Refuge is taken by acting in any of
these four ways.
22

The methods of going for refuge have been divided into two general kinds: the
superior or supramundane going for refuge and the common or mundane going for

20
. DA I 230; MA I 131
21
. DA I 230; M A I 131
22
. DA I 230; MA I 131

refuge.
23
The supramundane going for refuge is the going for refuge of a superior person,
that is, of an ariyan disciple who has reached the supramundane path leading irreversibly
to Nibbna. When such a person goes for refuge to the Triple Gem, his going for refuge is
a superior refuge, unshakable and invincible. The ariyan person can never again, through
the remainder of his future births (which amount to a maximum of only seven), go for
refuge to any other teacher than the Buddha, to any other doctrine than the Dhamma, or
to any other spiritual community than the Sagha. The Buddha says that the confidence
such a disciple places in the Triple Gem cannot be shaken by anyone in the world, that it
is firmly grounded and immovable.
The common way of going for refuges is the way in which ordinary persons, the
vast majority below the ariyan plane, go for refuge to the Triple Gem. This can be
subdivided into two types: the initial going for refuge and the recurrent going for refuge.
The initial going for refuge is the act of formally going for refuge for the first time.
When a person has studied the basic principles of the Buddhas teaching, undertaken
some of its practices, and become convinced of its value for his life, he may want to
commit himself to the teaching by making an outer profession of his conviction. Strictly
speaking, as soon as there arises in his mind an act of consciousness which takes the
Buddha, Dhamma, and Sagha as his guiding ideal, that person has gone for refuge to
the Triple Gem and become a Buddhist lay disciple (upsak).
After one has decided to go for refuge, one should seek out a qualified monk
ones own spiritual teacher or another respected member of the Order. One should, in

23
. DA I 230

20
the presence of the preceptor, join the palms together in respectful salutation (ajal),
bow down three times before the image of the Buddha, and pay respects to the Buddha,
Dhamma, and Sagha, as represented by the images and symbols in the shrine. Then,
kneeling in front of the shrine, one should request the bhikkhu to give the three refuges.
The bhikkhu will reply: Repeat after me and then recite:
Buddha saraa gacchmi
I go for refuge to the Buddha;
Dhamma saraa gacchmi
I go for refuge to the Dhamma;
Sagha saraa gacchmi
I go for refuge to the Sagha.
Dutiyampi Buddha saraa gacchmi
A second time I go for refuge to the Buddha.
Dutiyampi Dhamma saraa gacchmi
A second time I go for refuge to the Dhamma.
Dutiyampi Sagha saraa gacchmi
A second time I go for refuge to the Sagha.
Tatiyampi Buddha saraa gacchmi
A third time I go for refuge to the Buddha.
Tatiyampi Dhamma saraa gacchmi
A third time I go for refuge to the Dhamma.

Tatiyampi Sagha saraa gacchmi.
24

A third time I go for refuge to the Sagha.
The candidate should repeat each line after the bhikkhu. At the end, the bhikkhu
will say: Saraagamana sampunna The going for refuge is completed. With this one
formally becomes a lay follower of the Buddha, and remains such so long as the going for
refuge stands intact.
On the other hand, the Buddhist people should take care of two things:
corruption and breach. Corruptions of the refuge are factors that make the going for
refuge impure, insincere, and ineffective. According to the commentaries there are three
factors that defile the going for refuge ignorance, doubt, and wrong views.
25
[Tattha ca
lokiyasaraagamana tisu vatthsu aasasayamicchdihi sakilissati, na
mahjutika hoti, na mahvipphra.]
26
If one does not understand the reasons for
going for refuge, the meaning of taking refuge, or the qualities of the refuge-objects, this
lack of understanding is a form of ignorance which corrupts the going for refuge. Doubt
corrupts the refuge insofar as the person overcome by doubt cannot settle confidence
firmly in the Triple Gem. His commitment to the refuge is tainted by inner perplexity,
suspicion, and indecision. The defilement of wrong views means a wrong understanding
of the act of refuge or the refuge-objects.
27
A person holding wrong views goes for refuge
with the thought that the refuge act is a sufficient guarantee of deliverance; or he believes

24
. Khp 1
25
. Bodhi, Bhikkhu, Going for Refuge Taking the Precepts,p 41-42, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy,
Sri Lanka, 1981
26
. DA I 233; MA I 134
27
. Bodhi, Bhikkhu, Going for Refuge Taking the Preceptions, p 42, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy,
Sri Lanka, 1981, P. 42; DA I 365

22
that the Buddha is a god with the power to save him, or that the Dhamma teaches the
existence of an eternal self, or that the Sagha functions as an intercessory body with the
ability to mediate his salvation. Even though the refuge act is defiled by these corruptions,
as long as a person regards the Triple Gem as his supreme reliance his going for refuge is
intact and he remains a Buddhist follower. But though the refuge is intact, his attitude of
taking refuge is defective and has to be purified. Such purification can come about if he
meets a proper teacher to give him instruction and help him overcome his ignorance,
doubts, and wrong views.
The breach of the refuge means the breaking or violation of the commitment to
the threefold refuge. A breach of the refuge occurs when a person who has gone for
refuge comes to regard some counterpart to the three refuges as his guiding ideal or
supreme reliance.
28
If he comes to regard another spiritual teacher as superior to the
Buddha, or as possessing greater spiritual authority than the Buddha, then his going for
refuge to the Buddha is broken. If he comes to regard another religious teaching as
superior to the Dhamma, or resorts to some other system of practice as his means to
deliverance, then his going for refuge to the Dhamma is broken. If he comes to regard
some spiritual community other than the ariyan Sagha as endowed with supramundane
status, or as occupying a higher spiritual level than the ariyan Sagha, then his going for
refuge to the Sagha is broken. In order for the refuge-act to remain valid and intact, the
Triple Gem must be recognized as the exclusive resort for ultimate deliverance: For me
there is no other refuge, the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sagha are my supreme refuge.

28
. DA I 233

Breaking the commitment to any of the three refuge-objects breaks the
commitment to all of them, since the effectiveness of the refuge-act requires the
recognition of the interdependence and inseparability of the three. Thus by adopting an
attitude which bestows the status of a supreme reliance upon anything outside the Triple
Gem, one cuts off the going for refuge and relinquishes one's claim to be a disciple of the
Buddha, Dhamma and Sagha. In order to become valid once again the going for refuge
must be renewed, preferably by confessing ones lapse and then by once more going
through the entire formal ceremony of taking refuge.

24
Selected Bibliography
(I) Primary Sources
(1) Dghanikya Ahakath (Sumagalavilsin-ahakath), ed. T.W.Rhys Davids,
J.Estlin Carpenter and W.Stede, PTS, London, 1968-1971
(2) Khuddakapha-ahakath, ed. Helmer Smith, PTS, London, 1978
(3) Majjimanikya, ed. V.Trenckner and R.Chalmers, PTS, London, 1948-1951
(4) Majjimanikya-ahakath (Papa casdan), ed. J.H.Woods, D.Kosambi and
I.B.Horner, 1976-1979
(5) Sayuttanikya, ed. L.Feer, PTS, London, 1884-1904Vols.
(6) Vinaya-ahakhath (Samantapsdik),ed. U.Takakusu, M.Nagai and K,Miruno,
PTS, London, 1966-1981
(7) Dhammapada Pi. Sixth Samgha Council Edition, Yangon, Myanmar, 1991

(II) Secondary Sources
(1) The Threefold Refuge by yapoika Thera
(2) Going for Refuge, Taking the Precepts by Bhikkhu Bodhi
(3) The Discourse on the Fruits of Recluse-ship Translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi
(4) Gems of Buddhist Wisdom by Dr. K. Sri Dhammananda
(5) What Buddhist Believe by Dr. K. Sri Dhammananda

ABBREVIATION
DA Dghanikya-ahakath (Sumagalavilsin Ahakath)

DhpA Dhammapada- ahakath
KhpA Khuddakapha- ahakath
M Maijjimanikya
MA Majjimanikya- ahakath (Papa casdan)
S Sayuttanikya
V Vinaya -ahakhath (Samantapsdik)

Buddhism and rituals In Yaw (Myanmar)

Ashin Nandcrlankra

I. Introduction
Most people in Myanmar 85 percents of the population of the country are
Buddhists. They belong to Theravda school. Buddhism is understood as the national religion
in the country even though it is not officially appointed as it is so. Buddhism spread out
almost all parts of the country in 11
th
century CE. However there are, although they do not
differ from one another in essence, some interesting and slightly different things among
Buddhists in religious perspectives such as in devotions and religious rituals as they are in
different places and they hold on the culture and tradition which belong to the individual
regions. That is right. We have a proverb that proves the differences from one place to
another. This is Ta Kyaung Ta Gatar, Ta yor Ta Pok Sann: meaning there is a verse or
motto in every monastery and a story or slogan in every village which are different from one
another. This can be interpreted that wherever you go or visit monastery or village you
will see or hear a motto which is (slightly) different from one place to another. Therefore,
here in this paper, I will attempt to examine the devotion of the people in Yaw and their
religious rituals in that region focusing on similarity and dissimilarity with other places.

27 Buddhism and Rituals in Yaw (Myanmar)
II. Yaw
In Myanmar, there are 135 distinct ethic groups officially recognized by Myanmar
Government. Yaw is one of them. Their language is Burmese as the people do in main land,
but they speak it in slightly different pronunciation and they have different descriptions in
some cases, though they use the same word like that of the people in main land. If they
speak quickly as they usually do it, sometime, the people come from other regions do not
understand exactly what they mean and sometime, their description can be funny when
they use the same word to main land with different meaning, because it can be strange and
misunderstand-able to them. There is a word nyar tal, for example, which means to get
married to someone in main land, but for them it mainly means to sell something to
someone and rarely means to get married to someone. Concerning such kind of word, there
are many stories in this region, for the people from other, which are sometime strange,
sometime funny, and sometime friendly and lovely. Once, there was an event with regard to
someone who wanted to visit countryside which is far away from main land, which has not
developed yet, and which still retain the customs and cultures as before. Of course, there
were many places to choose in Myanmar, because most of areas in countryside do not
develop yet. However he chose Yaw and, visited and stayed at a certain family in a village.
Before he went back home, the householder of the family said that his cow and the man
from other village are nyar tal. First, it was so strange for him to hear it and he continued to

think about how a man got married to a cow. Later on, it became funny when he knew that
it meant that the householder has sold his cow to the man from other village.
Yaw region is in the western Myanmar, it is located between two mountain ranges
Chin Hills in the west, and Ponenyar and Ponetaung Hills in the east. In olden days, Yaw
regain was combined with four townships: namely Htilin, Gant Gaw, Saw, and Laung Shae.
As time has gone and things have changed, Laung Shae Township has lost its importance in
that region as result of political changes and different policies. Now Laung Shae has not been
recognized as township any more, it gradually became a large village. However a notable
one happened. It is that Kalay Township, which is border to Gant Gaw, became a part of
Yaw region. The reason is that most people in Kalay share the same religion, language,
cultures and so forth to the people in Yaw. Therefore Yaw region still consists of four
townships. The people in Yaw farm and cultivate several fruits. Farming areas are fertile, and
there have many lakes and streams flowed from the mountain ranges mentioned above.

III. Buddhism in Yaw

3.1 Theravada Buddhism
Buddhism in Yaw is Theravada Buddhism. It seems to me that Buddhism in Yaw had
appeared when Theravada Buddhism was introduced to Burmese states by King Anuruddha
or Anawrahta in the early 11
th
century CE. It is because King Anawrahta started Buddhist

missionary throughout monks and lay Buddhist to the whole country as soon as he brought
Tipiaka, the Buddhas original teachings together with commentaries and sub-
commentaries, (the manuscripts of the sacred scriptures of Theravda Buddhism), and
Buddhist scholar monks and lay Pi scholars, and skilled worker from Thaton situated in
Low Myanmar, which at the time had already flourished in Theravada Buddhism, to the
capital Bagan of his Kingdom in 1057 (Heinz Bechert, 1991, p.148). The missionary
involved teaching Buddhist scriptures to the people, engaging with the social welfare of the
people, and establishing monastery for monks who would do missionary work. Buddhist
monks went to villages, taught the people reading and writing, and organized the people to
build a monastery in every village for the monk(s) who will live in the village and also for the
sake of the facts that all the people can at anytime come and see the monk, listen to the
Dhamma, meet each other for the good of the village, and sometime celebrate religious
rituals. As result, Theravada Buddhism spread out almost all states in the country and Yaw
region as well.
Buddhism can be found as the highest point at every corner in Yaw and Buddhism for
them is very important in daily life as well, because there is no other than Buddhism to
believe in, worship, chant, follow, and practice as the Buddha taught. whatever happen to
them they first of all remember the triple Gem the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Samgha
and worship the Triple Gem or recite what he knows about triple Gem, for instance if she
or he is surprised or afraid of something strange or frightened in seeing and hearing them, he

or she will definitely utter oh, Buddha or Bayar, Bayar, Bayar for three times Bayar
1

here means The Buddha; whether they have idea about the attributes of the Buddha when
they suddenly recite Bayar, Bayar, Bayar depends on how much they have knowledge
about and they have practiced them, because it is easy to remember, notice, and reflect
them if they have practiced enough and have been familiar with the attributes of the
Buddha. Then Yaw people established a Monastery together with Pagoda; we can usually
find them in the east of villages and sometime at the middle of villages; one remarkable
thing is that all monasteries and Pagodas are built in a mountain or above level of villages, if
there is any possibility to do so, in order to recognize or regard the triple Gem as the highest
position of the village, to see the monastery and Pagoda even from distance, to be aware of
the attributes of the triple Gem and what the Buddha taught by seeing them, to follow and
practice what the Buddha taught by being aware of them, and to get happiness by following
and practicing the teachings of the Buddha.
Then in every house, we can find a Bayar Cin (shrine), the place for the Buddha in the
higher level than that of what the people live but we cannot usually find the Buddhas statue
or image on it. There may have several reasons for that. Some say that in the old time, there
were no shops which sell Buddhas statue and image near the region, but for me this might
not be the main reason because the people went far away to central Myanmar, afforded
much money for Buddhas statues, brought them to their village, and kept them in a
monastery in order that all the people in the village pay homage to, and increase in merits

with regard to the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sagha; if not being any shop for
Buddhas statues near the Yaw region was the main reason, they would buy Buddhas statue
for them since they have been to central Myanmar. To me, there is another main reason
Buddha Agrava which is acceptable in accordance with the situation which their lives are
led by Buddhist doctrine. Here Agrava means not just non-respect to someone and also
being rude. Therefore Buddha Agrava means not just non-respect to the Buddha and also
being rude. Buddha Agrava is not just attacking to the Buddha directly, but it is also Buddha
Agrava if somebody does something bad, unacceptable, and unsuitable for them in front of
the Buddha in bodily or verbal ( M. II. 2010, No.249). As ordinary people, they know that
they cannot avoid all bad things all the time; they might be angry with some family members
or other; they might quarrel with them; they might act or say bad things to them even
though they fully respect to the Buddha. Indeed, they do not want to do such things in front
the Buddha; and furthermore, they understand that they have the same benefits if they
practice the Dhamma as the Buddha taught and that it is no matter whether they have
Buddhas statue or not with regard to practicing Dhamma. Therefore they keep their Bayar
Cin without the Buddhas statue. However, on the Bayar Cin, we can find one or two
flowerpot(s) with fresh flowers, water glasses with pure water, a tray with rice and curry, and
sometime candle for lighting up which are offered to the Buddha by keeping one doctrine in
mind: No matter whether you pay homage to the Buddha who is alive or dead, you have
the same result if you have the same mind accompanied by Saddh, faith and Pa,

wisdom in offering something to or paying homage to the Buddha alive or dead
(dhammapadahakath, 2010, Ch.xiv. No.9). Buddhism in Yaw is very pure, because they
practice the Dhamma as taught by the Buddha and they get guided by the monk, they
follow the guidance, they do not have idea about animism much, there is no room for
animism in their house and lives, and they have very lesser animistic ritual than that of other
region.

3.2 Attitude toward animism in Yaw
Animism can be found in Yaw as a ritual left from the old tribal religion, although there
is no importance in daily life. It is very less degree than other parts of Myanmar. As
mentioned above, people have no much deal with animism, they have two or three Nats
here what I mean animism which are concerned with the whole village, not with
individual. Nat is defined by R. Grant Brown as following:
The Burmese word Nat is usually translated spirit or disembodied spirit. These
terms, however, are much too wide. A Nat is something quite different. The word is the
equivalent of our word god, in the sense in which we speak of the gods of ancient
Greece and Rome. How exactly a spirit becomes a Nat it would be difficult to say,
though it seems often to have been by royal decree (Brown, 1921, p.79).
Nat Cin, (shrine) a place for Nat is situated outside villages and in a mountain near the
villages and it is usually under a big tree. Some people in Yaw give foods to Nat in Nat Cin

once a year but nowadays they do not know the reason why they are giving it to the Nat;
they just follow the tradition when the time comes; some people do not do any performance
concerning Nat. That is the fact that Nat has lost its importance. Indeed, the people in the
old time gave the foods to the Nat in the senses that the Nat will protect them from
something bad when any danger happened to them and that the Nat will help them when
they need it while they are facing with difficulties. Due to the experiences about Nat along
with the history, the development of knowledge and civilization, people became aware of
not being importance of Nat and they gradually reduced room for Nat. In this way, its
importance fades away from the sight of the people though it was the tribal religion in Yaw.
Here in, I should describe about the idea of tantric Buddhism before the introduction of
Theravada in the country By King Anuruddha. According to Heinz Bechert, the real
Burmese, or Mranma which are called Myanmar today, gradually arrived to Irrawaddy plain
where they founded their capital Bagan in 847 They originally derived from Pyu. Then
they soon are influenced by the tantric Buddhism which the Pyu had adopted, though they
were still practicing their old tribal religion, animism (Bechert, 1991, p.147). And G. Grant
Brown believed that Burmese Buddhism can be seen together with some animistic beliefs
which may not be consistent with the pure teaching of the Buddha that can be reached from
the Pi texts which have been maintained from generation to generation even though these
beliefs are very much less degree than the Buddhism of some other countries. He thinks that
these beliefs came into Myanmar with the Mahayanist or north form of Buddhism, which

can be considered as tantric. He gives examples such as the dragon-embraced pagodas, the
frequent representation of a cobras hood over the head of Buddha etc. (Brown, 1921.
P.79). Then he remarked as following:
Before the time of the great Burman King Nawyata (Anuruddha) of Pagan, who reigned
in the eleventh century, the Mahayanist form of Buddhism seems to have been
prevalent, though to what extent it was accepted by the people can only be guessed. It
appears to have been overgrown by the animistic beliefs and practices incorporated in
it, some of them no doubt indigenous, for snake-worship was common to all the
countries through which Buddhism passed (Brown, 1921, pp. 79-80).
In Yaw region, however, I believed that such kinds of animisms mentioned above by
two scholars, except the traditional Nat that I called animism in Yaw region, cannot be seen
at anywhere and that we cannot find any evidence for the beliefs. It seems to me that when
the tantric Buddhism flourished in Bagan, the tribal religion (Nat) in Yaw was in position.
Furthermore, Yaw was in far distance from Bagan owing to the dense forest and high
mountain ranges between the two regions at the time; it was one of the facts that would be
difficult to reach to Yaw region in accordance with the situation at the time. One thing is
important to keep in mind that not only tantric Buddhism existed in the country, but also
other religions existed in certain regions, for example Theravada Buddhism in Thaton, Low
Myanmar; the tribal animism like Nat in Yaw.

IV. Religious rituals

A. Buddha pj
The Pi word pj literally means veneration, adoration, reverence, or worship.
Therefore Buddha pj means the veneration to the Buddha or paying homage to the
Buddha. The word Buddha pj, which is commonly known as Bayar poul in Myanmar, is
especially used to refer special veneration to the Buddha once or twice a year, in another
word Buddha pj festival although everyday-veneration or worship to the Buddha is also
Buddha pj. Buddha pj, Bayar poul in Yaw is usually of two kinds: 1) Bayar poul in Vesak
day and 2) Bayar poul on the anniversary day on which the people in each village have
decided to take place.

4.1.1. Bayar poul in Vesak day
Bayar poul on Vesak day is held on the full moon day that the Siddhattha Gotama
2
had
enlightened and had become the Buddha. The full moon day is usually in May. On that day,
the people in village celebrate in the morning and early in the evening. Indeed, since the
day before the full moon day or Vesak day, the people in old age go to monastery or temple
in group and they give the message about the Buddha, remind, organize, encourage the
people that the time come to celebrate Bayar poul. Then in the following morning (on Vesak
day), they cook several foods, bring them, gather on the main road in village, stand in a line,

and go to the temple or Pagoda where they celebrate. Before they arrive to the Pagoda,
some leaders in the village go to monastery, ask monk(s) to come to the Pagoda, and bring
the monk(s). Then they offer foods to the Pagoda and the monks. The monks, in return,
expound the Dhamma that the Buddha taught, recite some Suttas for the sake of the welfare
of the people, develop loving-kindness together with the people, and share their merits to all
beings in order that they can increase in merits by sharing merits to other, and other beings
also can get goodness, happiness, and peacefulness by rejoicing at the merits.
In the evening, they gather again, bring water, flowers and candles, and go to Bodhi
tree
3
. There they pay homage to the Bodhi tree and the monks, keep five or eight precepts,
offer flowers , pour water to Bodhi tree , light candles up, share the merits to all beings, and
move to another place which is called Thaepon Ceti Bayar. On the way to Thaepon Ceti
Bayar, they perform traditional dance and song and they celebrate all religious actions. After
all, donors provide traditional foods to the participants and all audiences. Thaepon Ceti is a
kind of Pagoda which is temporarily built with bamboo and sands. Bamboo is designed as
Pagoda; it is about ten-feet high; but there will be about four or five-feet high circle for filling
sands; it is kept on the ground and sands are filled in it before the day that they take the
celebration.

4.1.2 Bayar poul on annual day

This Bayar poul is annually held on the day that have already fixed up. It is bigger,
wider than the first kind of Bayar pouls. When the date is getting near, the people, who have
presently been away from the village it may be for education, work, or visit , return home
to celebrate Bayar poul if they have possibilities to do so. Then the people in the village
prepare foods, snacks, and presents for visitors who will come to the festival. All monks from
the four sides east, west, north, and south come. It means that all monks are already
invited to come to it if such kind of Bayar poul is held in any village. And many people from
other villages come and participate it, and in return when other villages hold such kind of
Bayar poul, they go and participate it too. The Bayar poul has colorful meanings; it is not just
celebration as traditional one; it brings about all beneficial conditions socially, religiously,
economically, and politically as well. Monks and some people usually arrive at the village on
the day before the celebrated day and they recite Patthana, one of the doctrines of the
Buddha which describe about conditional relation of all things or phenomena. On the
following morning, all people from the village and other gather in a Pagoda where they have
fixed up to celebrate it and some, who will donate things to monks, stand in a row around
the Pagoda by taking things to offer, and when monks come to the Pagoda, they offer things
to the monks and finally the monks recite some suttas discourses, develop Metta loving-
kindness, and give Dhamma lectures to the people. Then people visit house to house, talk
about this and that, discuss on present situation or anything else.

4.1.3 Overview on Buddha pj
Buddha puja in other places especially in main land can also be divided into two
kinds: 1) Buddha puja on Wesak day and 2) Buddha puja on annual day. The former is held
on the same day to Yaw. They organize those who are interested in celebration, go to Bodhi
tree in a temple like Shwedagon Pagoda, pour the Bodhi tree, keep precepts, donate what
they have prepared, listen to the Dhamma taught by a certain monk and go back home.
They do not usually celebrate Thaepon Ceti pouls and so on like in Yaw. Then the latter is
held on a certain day. Before it, they prepare a place for the celebration; invite the monks,
who are nationally known and good speaker in Dhamma to give Dhamma talk, and listen to
them at night for two or three days. And on the fixed day, they offer foods and things to
monks and finish the celebration. They do not provide any food to the people. The cause
may be that there is no one who comes from away. The reason why Both Yaw and other
places are slightly different from one another is that on one hand Yaw regions do not
develop much while the main land do and the people in Yaw follow the leadership of the
monks and they themselves are pious and easy to organize whatever they want, on the other
hand, though the people in main land are pious; they are busier than the people in Yaw;
they have much to do; and they themselves organize as much as they can; and they do not
approach to monks for leadership for that celebration like in Yaw.

B. Buddhist lent and paritta chanting


4.2.1 Buddhist lent
Buddhist lent day is commonly celebrated in the whole country. This is especially
concerned with monks; this Buddhist lent lasts for three months; during Buddhist lent,
monks cannot travel away; they can only sleep in their monastery; but they have exceptions
to go and sleep away if the people from away want to see monks, to donate something to
monks, and to listen to the Dhamma and if monks parents are ill etc. (V.iii, 2010, Ch. iii,
No.187-192). Buddhist lent day is the full moon day of Vaso in Myanmar calendar; it is
usually in July; therefore sometime we say that we celebrate Buddhist lent day on the full
moon day of July. On the Buddhist lent day, lay people come to monastery, give candles,
robes, flowers, juices etc and the monks in return give Dhamma lectures. On the following
day, monks start Buddhsit lent by vowing and reciting for three times: I will be here in the
monastery for three months during the rainy season (V.iii, 2009, Ch. ii, No.185). This
celebration is the same to the whole country. Chanting Paritta on the Buddhist lent day is
different from main land.

4.2.2 Paritta chanting
The Pi word Pritta literally means to protect those who chant, recite or listen to it
from something bad. The pritta is the recital Sutta expounded by the Buddha in Pi
language. Ven. K. Sri Dhammananda concerned about protection thus: Here protection

means shielding ourselves from various forms of evil spirits, misfortune, sickness and
influence of the planetary systems as well as instilling confidence in the mind
(Dhammananda, 1982, pp.205-206). Furthermore, with regard to pritta tradition in
Myanmar, Paul D. Greene said:
Lay people invite monks the perform paritta, and in return they give the monks food,
often in the form of an elaborate feast. Even without the promise of food, monks are
generally expected to perform a paritta ritual for anyone who requests it; in Myanmar,
to refuse such a request would be as unthinkable as for a medical practitioner to refuse
to offer needed medical aid (Greene, 2004, p.51).
In Yaw, it is difficult to see many monks in a place; therefore at least, five or six monks
around the area gather in a village and recite pritta in all parts of the village; the people who
listen to the pritta follow them when monks move one part to another. This chanting pritta
will be one village after another and is prior to the Buddhist lent day. in other places, such
kind of chanting is usually held on new year day, because they want to start new year day
with blessing and protection from evils and they also have many monks celebrated the
chanting pritta at anytime they want, but they cannot reach all parts due to the fact that they
have wide area or big city like Yangon and Mandalay, therefore they monks and listeners
gather in a certain place of a quarter or town and chant and listen to pritta. This tradition is
also importantly celebrated once a year in the whole country but in different time. Of
course, this tradition is importantly celebrated in Yaw as part of Buddhist lent.

V. Conclusion
The word Yaw can be represented to a race or a region, and Buddhism which belongs
to Theravada school flourishes in Yaw since they have adopted Buddhism. The people in
Yaw, however, have rituals concerning Buddhism. Based on the Buddhist rituals, they
practice the Dhamma, what the Buddha taught. The elder persuade all people to participate
the rituals in order to be familiar with and to understand them. Then they also teach young
generation about Buddhism to be able to practice in daily life as guided by the Buddha.
Anyway, there are some slightly different things from other places such as Bayar poul and
chanting pritta when they perform the rituals in Yaw even though there is no difference in
meaning and essence. However these rituals are in each way interesting and lovely as well.

End Notes:
1. This is commonly used as a word to reply and to show respect at the same time when
the seiner monks call junior monks and novice and, when the monks and novices call
lay people
2. The word siddhattha is giving or personal name and Gotama, family name.
3. Bodhi tree is a tree under which the Buddha had enlightened and had become the
Buddha.

References:
1. Bechert, Heinz. (1991). To be a Burmese is to be a Buddhist: Buddhism in Burma. In
Gombrich, Richard. (ED.). The world of Buddhism. Ch. 6, pp.147-158.
2. Brown, R. Grant. (1921) The pre-Buddhist Religion of the Burmese. Folklore, Vol. 32,
No. 2, (Jun, 30). Taylor & Francis, Ltd. pp.77-100,
(http://www.jstor.org/stable/1255237)
3. Dhammananda, K. Sri. (1987). What the Buddhists believe. Kuala Lumpur: Buddhist
Missionary Society.
4. Green, Paul D. (2004) The Dhamma as Sonic Praxis: Paritta Chant in Burmese
Theravada Buddhism. Asian Music. Vol. 35, No.2 , Spring-summer, pp. 43-72

5. King, Winston L. (Nov., 1969-Feb., 1970). A Trilogy on Theravada Buddhism.
History of Religion. Vol. 9, No. 2/3, (The University of Chicago Press) pp. 261-270.
6. Tipiakanikya.LNk (CD). (2010) Mahvagga Pai, vinaya piaka. Ch. III. No.187-192
7. Tipiakanikya.LNK (CD). (2010) majjimapasa Pi, Mijjimanikya, Ch. III. No.
249
8. Tipiakanikya.LNK (CD). (2010) Dhammapadahkath, Kuddakanikya, Ch. Xiv.
No.9

Analysis of Kusalatika according to Tikamtik

Ashin Medhnanda
Mumbai

Abhidhamma is the most famous doctrine in Buddhism. Among the three Piakas,
Abhidhamma is more wide and difficult to learn because it explains details of phenomena,
like philosophy. But this Abhidhamma was taught by the Buddha after seven years of his
enlightenment at the celestial world to the deities especially to his mother who was died just
three days after his born. According to Myanmar tradition, it takes for three months to
complete this doctrine. Then, the Buddha taught to Venerable Sriputta by way of
summarizing while he takes lunch at the Lake of Anotatta near Himalaya Mountain. Then,
Sriputta continues to introduce to the five hundreds monks. Some scholar thinks this
Abhidhamma is not taught by the Buddha. Whatever may be, nowadays most people accept
this Abhidhamma is very essential for the Buddhism.
Abhidhamma is explained with four kinds of Paramattha: they are, Citta
(consciousness), Cetasika (mental factors), Rpa (coprealities) and Nibbhna (Summum
Bonum of Buddhism). Here I would like to explain in detail one part of Tikamtik and want
to point out of four phenomena according to Myanmar tradition that are learning by heart

45 Analysis of Kusalatika according to Tikamtik
course because Dhammasanga explains the divisions based on these Mtikas of Tikas
(Triplets) and Dukas (Doublet).
The Mtika consists of one hundred and twenty two groups, of which the first twenty
two are called the Tikas, those that are divided under three heads; and the remaining one
hundred are called the Dukas, those that are divided under two heads. Although there are
one hundred and twenty-two matikas by way of Abhidhamma, it must be observed that only
fourty-two mtikas are explained by way of Suttanta. Therefore, it should be understood that
Mtik has in two ways; Abhidhamma and Suttanta. However, Mtikas concludes with a list
of the categories of dhamma or ultimate realities.
Under Tika as an example, dhammas are classified according to four kinds of
Paramattha which are Citta having 89 or 121 in number, Cetasika having 52, Rpa having
28 and Nibbna alone. There are twenty two kinds of Tikamtik what the Buddha taught
such as Kusalatika and vedantika etc. Of them, Kusalatika is enumerated with
paramatthadhamma which is dividing into three:
1. Kusala dhamm,
2. Akusala dhamm
3. Abykata dhamm
The meanings are as follows;

1. Kusal - anavajja sukhavipka lakkha; the wholesome is, as a healthy state of mind
(rogya), as morally faultless (anavajja), and as having favorable or pleasant kamma results
(sukhavipka).
2. Akusal -svajja dukkhavipka lakkhan; the unwholesome is unmorally fault,
(svajja) and as having unfavorable or unpleasant kamma-results (dukha-vipka)
3. Abykat- kusalkusalabhvena akathit aabhvena kathit; neither wholesome
nor unwholesome are Abykata dhamma.
Although the Buddha taught as Kusala Dhamma in conventional way, it can be
enumerated the ultimate realities as follows;

I. Wholesome dhamma (kusal dhamm)
There are 21 wholesome consciousness (kusalacittni) pertaining to the four spheres
of existence, namely;
-Kmvacara mahkusala 8
-Rpvacara mahkusala 5
-Arpvacara kusala 4
-Lokuttara kusala 4
And, there are 38 cetasikas associated with these 21 kusala cittas. They are
aasamna cetasikas-13 and sobhana cetasikas-25. It should be understood here that cittas

are never alone whenever they occur in the various occasions of knowing objects and they
have the associated mental factors together.

II. Unwholesome dhamma (akusal dhamm)
There are 12 unwholesome consciousnesses (akusalacittni) Rooted in Greed (Lobha),
Hatred (Dosa), delusion (Moha), namely:
Lobhamla citta 8
-Dosamla citta 2
-Mohamlacitta 2
And, there are 27 cetasikas associated with these 12 akusala cittas. They are
aasamna cetasikas-13 and akusala cetasikas-14.

III. Neither wholesome nor unwholesome dhamma (abykat dhamm)
There are 36 resultant consciousnesses (vipkacittni) pertaining to the four spheres,
namely:
- kmvacara akusala vipka ahetuka citta 7
- kmvacara kusala vipka ahetuka citta 8
- kmvacara mahvipka citta 8
- Rpvacara vipka citta 5
- Arpvacara vipka citta 4

- Lokuttara vipka citta 4
There are 20 non-causative actions (kiriyacittni) pertaining to the three spheres, i.e.
- Kmvacara ahetuka kiriya citta 3
- Kmvacara mahkiriya citta 8
- Rpvacara kiriya citta 5
- Arpvacara kiriya citta 4

Thus, there are altogether 56 dhamm which are neither wholesome nor
unwholesome (abykat).
And, there are 38 cetasikas associated with these 56 abykata cittas. They are
aasamna cetasikas-13 and sobhanacetasikas-25. Moreover, Abykata can be enumerated
with all corporeality (Rpa-28) and Nibbna.

Here, the table which is show detail dividing by way of Khandh, yatana, Dhtu and
Sacca is shown in order to discern the analysis of Dhamma according to Abhidhamma.
Tikamtik
Kusalatika
Khandh yatana Dhtu Sacca Saccavi
mutta

Kusaldhamma 21
citta, 38 cetacika,
4, vedan,
sa,
sakhra,
via
5,rpa,ved-
an, sa,
sakhra,
via
2, Dhamma,
manovi
a
2, dukkha-
17-38,
magga- 8-
cet)
29
(mg-4-
28)


In the same way other 21 Tikas also have their own definition, meaning and Dhamma
by way of Khandh, yatana, Dhtu and Sacca.
This Tikamtik is the very first explanation of Abhidhamma. It is illustration of four
ultimate truths. This Abhidhamma and daily life is mostly related. So everybody should know
Abhidhamma in the basic way.

Akusaldhamma
12 citta, 27
cetasikas
4, vedan,
sa,
sakhra,
vina
2,
Dhamm,
and man
2, Dhamma,
manovi
a

2, dukkha-
12, 26;
samudaya -
lobha)

Abykatdhamma
(56 cittas, 38
citasikas, rpa 28,
Nibbna
5, rpa,vedan
sa,
sakhra,
via
12, all 18, all 2.dukkha
53, 35
(except.
virat-3),
rpa 28,
niroda-
Nibbna)
37 (ph
4- 36)

Peidivaso

Ayasm Kusalo
lunotakkasilyam ll(hnam
lndrlyara((ham Mahra((ha((hno

lldlvaso ayam klo sumangalo. A||a pldlvaso pana buddhavasso paca-
pasdhlko dvlsahassapacasato vassantautu bhadramsa|unhapakkhanavamiyam
sukkavro---gha(lyam ---vlgha(lyam---anugha(lyam hotl.
Mayam lunonma takkasllyam vlracltam vlsosabhutam lmam plsabham
gacchantnam carlynam ca slssnam ca vlsosato pa(lmantlknam atithlnam ca
ro|atthya v abhayatthya v kyaclttasukkhatthya v patthayma.
Adhun lmya plsabhyam plbhsam kathltum oksam labhltv ca sabbo
sappurlsabhuto tumho passltv ca atlvlya pamodhma.
Aham pana marammara((hato buddhasvakosu bhlkkhusamuhosu aataro
yasm kusalo nma hotl. lmam lndrlyara((ham plbhsyam v bhsantaram v
parlypunltum cova ugganhtum ca gaccham.
ldnl pana punonagaro punonma takkasllyam pl(hno dutlyasamvacchayo
M.A.vhayyam llyam carlynam cova pmokkhnam ca santlko buddhavacanam
bhsantarabhutya Angallsabhsya ganhml.

51 Peidivaso
Amhkam pl(hno nnra((hato cova nnnagarato ca gantv nndoslyaslss
nnslppam upaclnantl cova ugganhantl ca. ldnl to slss pasdhlk sat hontl.
Acarly pana ldha cuddasa hontl. 1osu pana carlyosu Dovak nma dlspmokkho ca
laradi Cokhalo nma pmokkho ca llngaladovi nma pmokkh ca Nlmaka
Kulkanldovi nma pmokkh ca lat Cyatardovi nma pmokkh ca San|o 1anbhagato
nma carlyo ca U||okumro nma carlyo ca Anuruddh nmdl carly ca hontl. 1o
carly sakasakavlsayosu kusal hutv slssnam su((hu slkkhpontl vlpontl.
Athacparam to carly saputtabharlyohl gaha((havlnayam purayant nlccam pacasilam
rakkhant goho nlvasantl. 1asm aparo manuss sant sappurlstl vadantl.
ll(hno slssak buddhapvacanasankhtam topa(akam sabbona sabbam
muchyatthona slkkhantl cova ugganhantl ca. 1osu pana pl(akosu abhldhammapl(ako
atlsukhumo cova atlgambhlro ca hutv slkkhpotum atldukkro ca. 1asm pubbaklo tam
pl(akam vltthrona na sakk ugganpotum. ldnl pana paccakkhaklo
abhldhmmatthasangaham tassa samvannanbhutona abhldhammattavlbhvlninmlkya
(ikya saddhim slkkhpontl. 1asm adhun pl(hnam atlvlya parlpunnam
vl||laya(hnam hotl. Angataklo pana lmasamlm pl(hno abhldhammapl(ako
adhlkabhs hutv nnra((hato slssak ca ao manuss ca slgganhltum cova
skacchltum ca ldam pl(hnam gacchantl.
Klcpl ldnl amhkam sammsambuddho parlnlbbuto hutv
s|ivasammsambuddham dassltum oksam na labhantl. Atha kho pana lmasamam loko
buddhapvacanabhutnl catusahassdhlknl a((hasatasahassnl dhammakkhandh
avaslssantl. uddhaklato hl yva||atan s((hakathohl to dhammkkhandh atlsuddh

kovalaparlpunn hontl. 1o okantona pana catusahassdhlknl a((hasata sahassaganana-
bhut sammsambuddh hontl. Vlsosato hl oko dhammakkhandho oko buddho hotl.
1asm paccakkhaklo mayam bahu sammsambuddho sabbona sabbam dassltum
passltum atlsundaram oksam labhma. 1ona vuttam bhagavata sayam o vo nanda
may dhammo ca vlnayo doslto paatto so vo mammaccayona satthtl Dighanlkyo
mahvaggaplyam mahparlnlbbnasutto.
Acarly cova slssak ca buddhapvacannl vlrlyabalona dlvaso dlvaso slkkhpontl
cova ugganhantl ca. 1asam buddhavacanam ugganhanavasona to mayam
sammsambuddham dlvaso dlvaso dlssma cova passma ca. ath buddho
|otavanavlhro nlccam vlharatl amhkampl pl(hnotl vadltum va((atl. 1asm
sammsambuddham dassltum lcchant cova sappurlsabhut ca sotu|an lmam
pl(hnam gantv parlypunltum atlvlya va((atl. Amhkam buddhaklo manuss
plbhsam yobhuyyona vandltl. Catusaccadhammo doslyamno sammsambuddh cova
buddhasvaksvlk ca plbhsayova vao|ontl. S pana plbhs mulabhstl v
arlyabhs hotitl carly vadantl. Kasm: Arlyapuggalohl vaa|anabhvato cova
puthu||annam puggalnam arlyabhvam ppanto ca.
Noruttlk hl carly plvacanassa attham ovam vacanattham karontl. ltl
rakkhatitl pl. 1ona vacanatthona v dhtuto l-paccayabhvam dassotl. 1ona vuttam
carlyamoggalnatthorona pto itl suttam muggalnabykarano. Ayam pana pitl
padam okapadam katv vlbha|atl. Dvlpadato pana ovam vacanattham vlbha|antl--
paka((hnam buddhapvacanam l tantitl. ldam pana paitl padacchodam katv
paka((hnam itl vacanattham karontl. 1am dutlyanayam plvldu vannontl pasamsontl.

53 Peidivaso
larampar hl buddhasvak bhlkkhu buddhapvacanassa attham
plbhsyamova vcpayato rakkhantl. 1asm plbhs parlsuddho anakulo
gambhirattho hotl. Nlbbnam hl atthlkohl kulaputtohl buddhapvacanam plbhsam
ugganhltum parlypunltum arahatl. Kasm: uddhapvacanasankhtya plbhsya
arlyadhamma-sankhtam nlbbnam ppanato. Acarlyakaccyanatthoro ca kaccyana-
bykarano ovam vadatl Attho akkhayasato. Sabbavacannamattho akkharohova
sayato. Akkhayavlpattlyam hl atthassa dunnayat hotl. 1asm akkhayakosallam
bahupakram suttantosu.
Adhun mama vacanam nl((hpossml. ldnl mama vacananlgamanaklo
sabbasattosu mottam clttam pharltv buddhamattautassa carlyamhbuddhaghosassa
ghthyo vadlssml.
Clram tl((hatu saddhammo, dhammo hontu sagrav.
Sabbopl satt klona, samm dovo pavassatu.
ath rakkhlmsu porn, sur|no tathovlmam.
k| rakkhatu dhammona, attanova pa|am pa|am.

Mercy Killing or Euthanasia in Buddhism

Ashin Sriya

I. Introduction
Mercy killing which is known as euthanasia or assisted-suicide is an act of homicide.
The word euthanasia derives from the Greek words eu a prefix which means good or
well and thanasia which means death. So euthanasia is literally translated as good
death. It is usually used as an action to end the life of a person who is suffering from
extreme pain or illness. A person who is facing a terminal illness may wish to end his or her
own life. Nevertheless, he or she does not have the ability to do it. At the time, he or she
may ask for help from another person. But we must consider that it is not legal in most
except a few some locales permit it.
We find that mercy killing, euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide is a controversial
topic in society, especially medical professionals in general. Some are agree with but some
are not on this issue because it is a cruel infringement on human rights. In the light of
Buddhist point of view, it cannot be allowed. It is ethically and morally guilty and it is not an
act of compassion. If we scrutinize the the world mercy killing known as euthanasia mercy
is coming from compassionate mind whereas the word killing is spring from hatred and

55 Mercy Killing or Euthanasia in Buddhism
aversion which is called Dosa in Pi term. Compassion and hatred never go together and so
they are different function in the mental process.
Therefore mercy which is based on compassion is good but killing living being which is
based on hatred or aversion is not good so if we kill living being any reason with intention, it
has guilty and offence and it is against moral law. The one who has compassionate mind
never thinks such a kind of killing action.

II. Mercy killing or Euthanasia in modern time
In present modern time the act of mercy killing is controversy issue among different
people and different religion. It is legally used in some other countries, for example, in
modern Japan, the Nagoya High Court, on December 22, 1962, defines the conditions
under which mercy killing can legally be administered. According to Nagoya High Court, the
disease must be considered terminal and incurable by modern medicine. The suffering or
pain is unbearable that is not only for the patient but also those around him. The death is for
the purpose of his peaceful passing. The person himself has requested the death whereas
consciousness and sane. The killing is performed by a doctor. The method of killing is
humane.
1
These are what they consider legally about mercy killing in modern time.
Moreover, there are also two states legally doing mercy killing in the U.S which are
Oregon and Washington. Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg are

1
Retrieved 9 Oct 2011 from http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/buddhism.htm

example countries which have also set up provisions for lawful mercy killing.
2
But most of
people think that mercy killing causes societys respect weaker and weaker because life is
sanctity. So there are many controversies on this issue and are arguments against mercy
killing.
Letting mercy killing will go to less good care for the terminally ill and undermined the
commitment of doctors and nurses to saving humans lives. Permitting mercy killing will
discourage the search for new cures and treatments for the terminally ill. Some say that it is
against God. Those who oppose mercy killing claim that it is not only guilty but also outright
murder. On the other hand, there are some who favor mercy killing. They argue and give
some reason why they agree with it. They say that our bodies are our own, and we should
be allowed to do what we want with them. So it is wrong to make anyone live longer than
they want. In fact, making people go on living when they dont want to violate their personal
freedom and human rights. It is immoral, they say to force people to continue living in
suffering and pain
3
. This is example of which they stand on with regard to mercy killing.
These issues which should be done or should not be done are controversial among different
people. Here the author, John Keown, says:
In the medical context, there are no exceptions to inviolabilitys moral
prohibition of intentional killing: the doctor who intentionally shortens the life
of a patient, whether a terminally ill adult or a child with Downs syndrome,

2
Retrieved 9 Oct 2011 from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-mercy-killing.htm
3
Retrieved 10 Oct 2011 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/problems.shtml

breaches the principle. It matters not, moreover, whether the shortening is by
withholding treatment, or food, water or warmth, is no less wrong than
injecting a lethal poison. Nor does a good motive, such as the alleviation of
suffering, of the patient or relatives, redeem a bad intent. In short, any
conduct which is intended to shorten a patients life, whether as an end or as
a means to an end, and whatever the further motive, offends against the
principle (John Keown, 2002, p, 42).
According to him, mercy killing is against the principle so it should not be allowed. The
valuation of human life grounds the principle. We have to consider the value of human life
without even harming and torture any living being.

III. Is killing living being mercy?
If we consider the act or action of killing living being, it is very sure that its attention is
not mercy. In mental process, mercy and killing can never go together. It is because they are
different function and characteristic in their own nature and mercy is compassionate mind
whereas killing is hatred or a type of anger.
According to Buddhist Abhidhamma, there are three kinds of unwholesome bodily
actions which are killing any living being, stealing or taking others property unlawfully and
sexual misconduct such as unlawful sexual intercourse. Out of them, the first one, killing
living, is unwholesome action (Mehm Tin Mon, 1995, p, 213). This unwholesome action

always associates with hatred or ill-well. It never associates with compassion which is herein
called mercy. One who has compassionate mind never think about any living being to kill
and so killing living being is not mercy.

IV. killing and Buddhist ethics
It is clear that killing is unwholesome action. In Buddhism, there are ten kinds of
unwholesome actions called ten ducaritas which mean evil conducts. Out of ten, killing,
harsh speech and ill-will are accomplished by the root of hatred mind (Mehm Tin Mon,
1995, p, 213). Killing action includes in ten kinds of unwholesome action. In the Noble
Eightfold Path, the fourth element is right action which means refraining from killing living
being.
Moreover, Buddhists keep Five Precepts. In terms of Buddhist Five Precepts, killing, the
first moral rule, is also against moral and ethical principle. As Buddhist monks, there are 227
rules which arrange according to importance. The first four are the most serious offences
which are called Parajikas, major rules for monks. Breaking any one of them involves the
monk in defeat which means that expulsion from the Order. Intentionally killing another
human being or animal is contrary to the third offences herein.
The Buddhas teaching is non-aggressive or non-violence which is known as Ahimsa.
So Buddhism places great stress on non-harm, and on avoiding the ending of life. Intentional

ending of life is against and contrary to Buddhist teaching. The Buddha teaches us, for
example, how to have attitude towards living beings in Matta Sutta:
Just as a mother would protect her only child even at the risk of her own life,
even so let one cultivate a boundless heart towards all beings. Let ones
thoughts of boundless love pervade the whole world- above, below, and
across- without any obstruction, without any hatred, without any enmity
4

(Walpola Rahula, 1967, p,97).
Killing living being- any living being- is a bad thing which leads to an unpleasant rebirth.
Following the Buddhas path involves refraining from killing livings, laying aside weapons,
and cultivating the compassion of the Buddha.

V. Mercy killing and Buddhism
If we use the way of mercy killing any situation, it is breaking of moral and ethical
principle or rule as mentioned above. In recent years many scientists and religionists have
used the expressions like human killing, mercy killing, gentle killing, and painless
killing to justify the ending of life. They argue that if the victim feels no pain, if the knife is
sharp, killing is justified. But Buddhism can never accept these arguments because it is not
how the killing occurs that is important, but the fact that a life of one being is terminated by
another. No one has any right to do that for whatever reason.

4
Walpola Rahula, 1967, What the Buddha Taught, Selected Texts, page, 97.

We must take care of the life of living being. Let alone human being, we must protect
even pets and other animals as possible as we can. With regard to mercy killing K. Sri
Dhammananda comments;
When some people see their dogs or cats suffer from some skin disease, they
arrange to kill those poor animals. They call this action, mercy killing. Actually
it is not that they have mercy towards those animals, but they kill them for
their own precaution and to get rid of an awful sight (K. Sri, 1982, p, 292).
According to him, even though we have real mercy toward those animals that are suffering,
we have no right to take away their life. No matter how we have reason about it, it is not
correct method or approach. Needless to say that their original intention or motive is good
but the evil act of killing which occurs through a later thought, will certainly bring about
unwholesome result. If we scrutinize the tow actions of killing with mercy and the other
killing with hatred, their consequences are different. Here we should consider whether
killing action is a completed course of action or not. The act of killing has five components:
A living being, the perception of the living being as such, the thought of
killing, the action, and the death of the being as a result. There are six
means: ones own person, giving orders, missiles, stationary devices,
magical spells, and psychic power
5
(Rupert Gethin, Journal of Buddhist
Ethics, p, 172).

5
Retrieved on 11 Oct 2011 from http://www.urbandharma.org/pdf/geth0401.pdf

These five kinds of conditions are necessary for killing of a living being to be fulfilled as a
completed full course of action. If we lack of one of them, we cannot call that it is a
completed full course of action but there may still have unwholesome or immoral act of
some sort or degree. Therefore, commentary explains degree of killing. In the case of
animals, the bigger the animal is the more serious the act of killing. In the case of humans,
the more virtuous the human is the more serious the act of killing. The intensity of the desire
to kill coupled with the effort involved in the actual act of killing. The action of killing herein
may be different from one another depending on size, virtue, and the intensity of the desire
to kill and so their consequences are also not the same when they give their result.
In Buddhism, when we say he or she is killing, his or her intention is very important
to decide whether he or she has a completed full course of action. Killing a living being is the
intention to kill in one who is aware of a living being as a living being when this occurs
through either the door of the body or of speech and produces the exertion that cuts off the
life-faculty. Cutting off life-faculty is because of his or her hatred or ill-well which is called
Dosa. So mercy killing can be decided in two ways before and after his or her actual action.
Before the patient dies, mercy to the patients suffering is good but when he or she cuts off
the patients life-faculty is not mercy, it is only ill-well or hatred at the time of killing. Dr.
Rupert Gethin says about mercy killing:
In Buddhist psychology, mercy killing or active euthanasia cannot be
carried out without ill-will or feeling of repugnance (dosa) of the perpetrator

toward the fact of the patients suffering. Even though the motivation behind
this action may have been good, namely to prevent further suffering for the
patient, as soon as it becomes action to terminate life it becomes an act of
aversion. So when a doctor performs what, he believes is mercy killing,
actually it is due to his repugnance of the patients pain and suffering which
disturb him mind i f he understand this psychological process he would
recognize the hidden hatred that arise in his mind at the time of performing at
lethal deed and would not deceive himself with the belief that this deep was
motivated by benevolence alone
6
(Rupert Gethin, Journal of Buddhist Ethics,
p, 185).
Similar this kind of Mercy killing can be found in early Buddhist canonical sources, especially
Monastic Rule (Vinaya). These cases relevant to mercy killing are described in detail for the
monk in third Vinaya Rule, against the destruction of human life. It happened at the time of
the Buddha. Some monks did suicide. Some killed one another. Others were ready to help
an assistant from outside the order who killed them with knife. As soon as the Buddha knew,
he at once took action to prevent any recurrence by introducing a precept. The precept
prohibits both killing a human being and seeking assistance in dying. In fact, mercy killing is
morally unacceptable in all circumstances.

6
Retrieved on 12 Oct 2011 from http://www.urbandharma.org/pdf/geth0401.pdf

VI. Conclusion
Mercy killing is one of controversy issues. Some agree with the action of mercy killing
but some are not. For those who agree with it have some reasons about mercy killing. If a
patient who is about to die suffers terminal illness, he has hopeless to recover from his severe
pain by present medicine. Both the patient and those who are surrounding him cannot stand
his severe pain. So death is better for him than having severe pain. At the same time the
patient requests the doctor to end his life because he does not want to have no more severe
pain. In those situations, mercy killing should be legal. Otherwise, the person who illegally
performs the mercy killing may be sent to prison. Some argue that we have no right to take
the others life any reason. Life is very valuable. According to Buddhism, if we do mercy
killing, it is against moral and ethical principle law. We dont know what will happen to him
next life that may be even worse than the life of the sick person now.
Cutting off the life-faculty interferes with the working out of Kamma. The Buddha also
encourages us to practice non-harm or non-aggression. He advises everyone to abstain from
killing. If we kill human being including animal no matter how we say that we kill him or her
because of mercy or compassionate mind to remove his or her severe suffering, it is guilty or
criminal offence. It is because his or her attention involves hatred, ill-well, and aversion
which are called Dosa. So intentionally killing living being can never be considered wholly
an act of compassion. Killing is motivated by hatred or ill-well, Dosa, and so it is only

unwholesome action that will give bad result more or less as a consequence. Mercy and
killing never go together; they have different function in the mind process.

Bibliography------
1. John Keown, 2002, Euphanasia, Ethics and Public Policy, Published by the press
syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
2. K. Sri Dhammananda, 1982, What Buddhist Believe, Publication of the Buddhist
Missionary Society.
3. Dr Mehm Tin Mon, 1995, Buddha Abhidhamma, Ultimate Science, Printed with
permission from the author by Ven Hui Xin (Fo Guang Shain Malaysia)
4. Walpola Rahula, 1967, What the Buddha Taught, Printed in England by Diemer &
Reynolds Limited Bedford.
5. http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ADM/damien.htm
6. http://www.urbandharma.org/pdf/geth0401.pdf
7. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/problems.shtml
8. http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/buddhism.htm
9. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-mercy-killing.htm

The Cause of War: A Buddhist Perspective

Ashin Candvara
I.B.E.C, Sagaing Hills, Myanmar

All religions of the world agree to establish and receive global peace. No religion
denies possessing global peace but terrorists. The situation is not hopeless and out of our
hands. If we dont do it, who will? Peace of war is our decision. The fundamental goal of
Buddhism is peace. Actually, it is more not only peace in this world but also peace in all
worlds. The way to peace taught by Buddha is that the first step of global peace is the
understanding of the causality of peace. When we understand what causes peace, we
know where to aim our efforts.
Nowadays, we have to face with so great a mass of crime, fraud, swindling and
murdered. Even in these modern times it is clear that one's precious life is not safe. No
former generation has had to experience so much terrible news as we face today; this
invariable awareness of fear and anxiety should make any sensitive and compassionate
person question seriously the progress of our modern world.
Every being wants happiness and does not want suffering. If we, as intelligent
human beings, do not accept this fact, there will be more and more suffering on this
earth. If we adopt a self-centred approach to life and steadily try to use others for our

67 The Cause of War: A Buddhist Perspective
own selfishness, we may gain provisional benefits, but in the long run we will not succeed
in achieving even personal happiness, and global peace will be completely out of the
question. According to Buddhist philosophy, our passionate desire for and attachment to
things that we misunderstand as enduring entities make most of our plights. The chase of
the objects of our desire and attachment engages the use of aggression and
competitiveness as supposedly efficacious instruments. These mental processes easily
translate into actions, breeding belligerence as an obvious effect. Such processes have
been going on in the human mind since time immemorial, but their execution has
become more effective under modern conditions.
All sources of unwholesome are greed, hatred and ignorance. Removing these
three kinds of unwholesome, we must cultivate tolerance, proper intension and good
volition for the peace of the world. And then loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic
joy and equanimity called four immeasurable can provide all human peace and
compatibility. These four kinds can be carried out without discrimination, creed and
colour, and those can serve from all sufferings and the last offer happiness and construct
peaceful world.
Alternative agreement, good relation and co-ordination with tolerance, loving-
kindness and compassion can also create the happiness of humans. But we all should
understand and realize that world peace concerns with individual peace. According
Buddhist Teaching, peaceful mind leads to peaceful speech and peaceful action. When
human minds are at peace, the world will be at peace.

I do believe, it is very rear to see holy person whose mind is truly, permanently at
peace. If we wait for all human in the world to become sages, what chance is there of a
peaceful world for us? Even though our minds are not completely peaceful, is there any
possibility of reducing the levels of violence in the world and successfully abating the
winds of war? The answers to these questions are ready in Buddhist Teaching.

The causes of war by Buddhism
Buddha said, Mind is the forerunner of (all evil) states. Mind is chief; mind made
are they. If one speaks or acts with wicked mind, because of that, suffering follows one,
even as the wheel follows the hoof of the draught-ox.
Every action comes out of our mind, good or bad. Therefore, Buddha pointed out
the mind as the original sources of all.
Buddhism, being a religion with a claim of the reality of existence, has well
acknowledged causal forces that could constitute the hindrance to a harmonious living on
every level of human actions. Violence and conflict, from the perspective of Buddhist
principle of dependent origination, are, same with everything else in the world, a product
of causes and conditions. To eliminate violence and conflict, all we have to do is to
resolve the underlying causes and conditions. Using human body/consciousness as a
division, the Buddhist analysis of the causes of violence and conflict is arrayed along three
domains: the external, the internal, and the root.

The External Causes of Violence and Conflicts

The Buddha looks at the external causes of conflict as consequences derived from
a general orientation common to all living beings: avoiding harm and obtaining
happiness. Anything contrary to this would result in disturbing one's peace and lead to
conflict. If people want to live an ultimately happy life with no harms toward themselves
at all, the Buddha teaches, they should start with avoiding causing harm to others,
physically and verbally at the personal level, since people are afraid of physical violence
and resent harsh words; and the physical and verbal harm we inflict upon others usually
leads to hate and conflicts that, in turn, would bring harm to us and cost our happiness.
In Buddhist Scripture, Buddha said, He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he
robbed me in those who harbour such thoughts hatred is not appeased.
He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me in those who
do not harbour such thoughts hatred is appeased.
Bad words blaming others. Arrogant words humiliating others.
From these behaviours come hatred and resentment.
Hence conflicts arise, rendering in people malicious thoughts.

The Internal Causes of Violence and Conflicts
External verbal and physical wrongdoings as well as social injustice are causing
conflicts and violence, Buddhism contends that these behaviours and structures originate
all from the state of human mind, since the violence and injustice are responses toward
external stimuli produced by people's inner mind operation. That is, the deeper causes of
any conflict lie internally in the mental operations within each being. For example,

confronted with the threat of physical and verbal harm, it is natural for us to feel fear,
dislike, resentment, anger or hate. Out of this negative caste of mind, we would again
resort to a violent response, and hence a conflict arises.
Similarly, institutions or groups would respond to adversity with establishing
policies or laws trying to protect whatever interest they perceive to be under threat or
attack, which would cause conflicts since others' interest and well-being might be
undermined by these measures. Physical and structural violence are the product of
human mental status such as fear, anger, and hate, which are considered in Buddhism to
be the internal causes to violence and conflicts.
Even when no threat of personal safety or collective interest is in presence,
conflicts may occur, from the Buddhist perspective, as a result of our two major mental
attachments to, first, subjective views, opinions and, second, the desire for materials,
relationships. The stronger the attachment is, the more obsessive one would be, the more
extreme behaviors one would engage, and the more severe the conflict would become.
The attachment to views refers to insistence on the correctness of one's own views, ideas,
and ways of doing things.

The Root Cause of Violence and Conflicts
Behind the mental, behavioural and structural causes of violence and conflict,
Buddhism goes even further to the ultimate fundamental cause leading to all the suffering
inflicted by violence and conflict. Buddha attributes all our attachments, the resulting
harming behaviours and the suffering hence caused, to the human ignorance (avijja), that

is, we can not see the world as it is and see our self as such. We are ignorant to the
cosmic reality that everything in the world is inter-related, interdependent. Not adopting
the Buddhist worldview, we thought we are separate from others as an independent
entity: our views are different from theirs; our properties are certainly not theirs. Hence
we develop our attachments to views and desires through the reinforcing notions of "me"
and "mine." We are not impartial in looking at things. We tend to focus on the harm that
is done to us, instead of examining the whole event in its context with all the causes and
conditions conducive to its happening. This ignorance to the principle of dependent
origination alienates us from what really happens in the situation and the complex set of
conditions around any given event, and thus rids us of the possibility of making correct
assessment of the event and react accordingly in time. Without the lucidity to discern the
causes, development and effects of specific events, we are inevitably causing conflicts
and doing harm to others as well as ourselves all the time. Even wars between states
come out of great fear and the collective ignorance. This ignorance is what Buddhism
identifies as the very root cause of violence, conflict, and war, which prevents human
beings to live a peaceful life.

Story of Water War
Four years after Buddha's attainment of enlightenment, a war took place between
the city-state of Kapilavastu and that of Kilivastu over the use of water. Being told of this,
the Buddha hastened back to Kapilavastu and stood between the two great armies about
to start fighting. At the sight of Sakyamuni, there was a great commotion among the

warriors, who said, "Now that we see the World-Honored One, we cannot shoot the
arrows at our enemies," and they threw down their weapons. Summoning the chiefs of
the two armies, he asked them, "Why are you gathered here like this?" "To fight," was
their reply. "For what cause do you fight?" he queried. "To get water for irrigation." Then,
asked Sakyamuni again, "How much value do you think water has in comparison with the
lives of men?" "The value of water is very slight" was the reply. "Why do you destroy lives
which are valuable for valueless water?" he asked. Then, giving some allegories,
Sakyamuni taught them as follows: "Since people cause war through misunderstanding,
thereby harming and killing each other, they should try to understand each other in the
right manner." In other words, misunderstanding will lead all people to a tragic end, and
Sakyamuni exhorted them to pay attention to this. Thus the armies of the two city-states
were dissuaded from fighting each other.
Why does war happen? From where is it generated? A War arises because of Dosa
(hatred) and lobha (agreed) which are originated from Issa (jealousy) and Macchariya
(envy). These two also generated from improper attention (Ayonisomanasikra) which
arises from wrong thinking (micchasakappa). Wrong thinking (micchasakappa) arises
because of wrong view (micchadihi).
Lets look back the story of water war. Water War took placed not because of the
kings of two cities. It is started from farmers to village headmen, village headmen to city
headmen, city headmen to the ministers. And then ministers to kings. At last, the king
ordered to prepare for war. This is external appearance. Actually, Water War took placed
because of hatred of people of two-city-state of Kapilavastu and that of Kilivastu. What

leaded heated? It is headed by Iss (jealous) and Macchariya (envy). The farmers of two
cities are jealous on the other procession of water. It is a feeling of unhappiness and
anger because someone has something or someone that they want. And on the other
side, other farmers have envy in their mind. They dont want to share others water so that
they dont want to look up them when they are already developed. Why do they think
like that? In their mind, improper attention had been existed to happen so. They
pondered that if they share water to others, other city people will be more developed
then them. Such thinking rose as the wrong thinking. That wrong thinking ensued from
wrong view (lack of right view). Because of this wrong view, many terrible consequences
arise. Buddha pointed out it as a terrible consequence of bad action. Because of heated,
violence in mind and killing each other have been arisen. However, killing, never solves
anything. Killing generates again fear and anger, which generates more killing, more fear,
and more anger, in a vicious cycle without end. If you kill your enemy in this life, he is
reborn, seeks revenge, and kills you in the next life. When the people of one nation
invade and kill or subjugate the people of another nation, sooner or later the opportunity
will present itself for the people of the conquered nation to wreak their revenge upon the
conquerors. Has there ever been a war that has, in the long run, really resolved any
problem in a positive manner? In modern times the so-called 'war to end all wars' has
only led to progressively larger and more destructive wars. Like all of the major world
religions, at its core, Buddhism is a religion of peace. An early Buddhist collection of
verses on practice in everyday life, the Pali (Theravada) Dhammapada, makes this
abundantly clear. Verse five of the text (of 423 verses) states:

"Hatred is never appeased by hatred.
Hatred is only appeased by Love (or, non-enmity).
This is an eternal law."
The Pali term for "eternal law" here is dhamma, or the Buddhist teachings. So, this
verse on non-enmity has to do with a tenet of the Buddhist faith that is fundamental,
namely, peace and non-harm. (Moreover, though not often cited, the very last verses of
the Dhammapada condemn the class (varna) and other prejudicial distinctions that would
divide people.) Buddhist teachings tell us that hatred and aversion, like their opposites
desire and greed, all spring from a fundamental ignorance. That ignorance is our
mistaken notion of our own permanent, independent existence. In ignorance, we see
ourselves as separate beings, unconnected with others. Blinded to our true state of
interdependence and interconnectedness, it is this basic ignorance that keeps us divided.
Only practice that leads to overcoming such ignorance will help to free us from the
prisons we make for ourselves and for others.
We all harbour prejudices of various sorts. There is no exception to this fact. Not
one of us is completely freed of prejudicial attitudes. We don't like certain colours or
sounds; we're annoyed by certain circumstances, behaviours, or styles of doing things.
We are harsh critics even of ourselves. Having likes and dislikes is taken for granted.
Indeed, the ability to discriminate is considered an essential part of what makes us
human beings. After all, human beings, unlike other living creatures, can form judgments
and make choices. Free will and choice are taken as fundamental rights. So, one might
ask, what's the problem?

The problem occurs as, unfortunately oftentimes is the case, when our own
individual likes and dislikes become reified and solidified; when we not only form
inflexible opinions, but take them as truths; when we form negative judgments about
other human beings and about ourselves and these judgments become for us the lenses
through which we view and experience ourselves, the world around us, and its
inhabitants. At this point, we have entered into the arena of prejudice of a quite
pernicious sort, the sort which causes harm and suffering both for ourselves and for
others. And whether it be friendships and loving personal relationships destroyed, or wars
fought over religion or contested territory, or one group of beings dominating another or
restraining their freedom of movement, at this point we cease being human beings at our
best.
Asokas Dhammathambha: A Guide to Historical and Canonical Analysis

Ashin Dhammacara

India is the land where the historic landmarks of the world are found. In 3
rd
Century B.C. Mauryan Emperor Asoka established pillars across Jambudpa now called
India. As principles of Dhamma are inscribed on the pillars, the edicts of Asoka are well-
known as Asokas Dhamma. It is no wonder that Asokas Pillar Edicts are overwhelmed
by the influences of Dhamma as India is the land where the concept of Dhamma
originated. However, it is significant that the most important concepts of Dhamma are
collectively found on Asokas Pillar Edicts named as Dhammathambha.
1
Asoka claimed
that the main purpose of the establishment of pillar edicts is the welfare and happiness of
the people
2
and it is true that principles of Dhamma can provide the real benefit and
good result for the people who abide by Dhamma.

Delhi-Topra Pillar Edict
Six pillars and four minor pillars of Asoka are found across India and these are
categorized as seven Pillar Edicts and six Minor Pillar Edicts. Out of six Pillars, Delhi-
Topra Pillar stands as a significant model and it is one and the only pillar upon which a
complete set of seven Pillar Edicts are inscribed. The original location of this Pillar is

1
PE.VII.
2
PE.VI.

77 Asokas Dhammathambha: A Guide to Historical and Canonical Analysis
Topra Kalan
3
and it is called Delhi-Topra Pillar Edict as it was shifted by Delhi Sultan
Firuz Shah Tughlaq (13511388 AD) to his palace in Delhi. Around 1785 it was found
by Captain Polier and James Prinsep read and translated this edict in 1873. The reading
and translation was published in Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal
4
and it is the first-
ever attempt in the history of the studies of Asokas Edicts.

Asoka Dhamma in Buddhist Perspective
There is no doubt that the principles of Dhamma inscribed in Delhi-Topra Pillar
are the fundamental concepts of Dhamma of Indian origin. By making these principles
harmonized for all mankind, Asoka set up the propagation of Dhamma all over
Jambudipa. Asoka intended to distinguish good and evil by promoting the moral
principles and he planned to escape from a mixture of faith and different kinds of sects
by revealing the genuine benevolence in the land of Dhamma.
This paper is intended for highlighting principles of Dhamma reflected in Pillar
Edict with the concept of Dhamma reflected in Pi Piaka Literature. As Buddhas
Dhamma is one of the major concepts of Dhamma which hold firm ground in India, it is
relevant to undertake the comparative study of Asokas Dhamma and Buddhas

3
Topra Kalan is one of the Villages in Radaur Mandal in Yamunanagar District in Haryana State. Topra
Kalan is 18.6 km far from its District Main City Yamunanagar and 86 km far from its State Main City
Chandigarh.
4
Jame Prinsep, Interpretation of the most ancient of the inscriptions on the pillar called the lat of Feroz
Shah, near Delhi, and of the Allahabad, Radhia and Mattiah pillar, or lat, inscriptions which agree
therewith, Jame Prinsep (ed.) Journal Of Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. VI, Calcutta: The Baptist Mission
Press, 1837, pp-566-576.

Dhamma. The important historical specifics can be achieved by evaluating the
archeological evidences and Canonical facts.
Delhi-Topra Pillar Edict contains forty six words of Dhamma. In this paper the
main focus is to analyze the terms combined with the word Dhamma such as
Dhamma-lipi found in Delhi-Topra Pillar Edict and to study these terms with the
equivalent or closely similar combination of Dhamma found in Pi Piaka Literature. By
explaining each and every parallel term, it is significant to cope with the principles of
Asokas Dhamma and the concepts of Buddhas Dhamma.

Dhammakmat
The term Dhamakmat is found two times in Pillar Edict I. In this edict,
Asoka stated that the benefits of this world and the next are difficult to achieve except by
love of Dhamma. Second, he stated that love of Dhamma had grown and would grow
because of his instruction.
In the term Dhammakma Dhamma varies according to position. In the phrase
Bhikkhu dhammakmo hoti
5
Dhamma refers to Buddhavacana which consists of
Tipiaka.
6
In the verse Dhammakmo bhava hoti
7
Dhamma refers to Dasa
kusakakammapatha.
8

5
A.III.276.
6
AA.III.291.
7
Sn.295.
8
SnA.I.150.

Dhammpekha
The term Dhampekha is found in Pillar Edict I. Asoka stated that desire for
Dhamma had grown and would grow because of his instruction.
Apekkh refers to Tah.
9
In the terms Dhammarga and Dhammanand Rga
and Nand refers to Sukhuma Apekkh toward Dhamma which relates with Samatha and
Vipassan.

Dhammayutta
Dhamayuta is found in two pillar edicts. In Pillar Edict IV Asoka stated that the
Ministers must understand what causes happiness and misery of the people of provinces
and they admonish them to deal with Dhamma. In Pillar Edict VII Asoka stated that he
has ordered the Ministers to exhort the people who are devoted to Dhamma as he
instructed.
Dhammayutta means Dhammpasahita.
10
In a pi verse, it says,
Soha cajissmi sahassappa,
Sutv gtha tava dhammyutta|
11

I give up a thousand of evil deeds only after I heard your verse dealing
with Dhamma.

Dhammacaraa

9
Apekk vuccanti tah (Ca. 242).
10
ThA.II.328.
11
Agulimla Sutta (M.II.303); Th.333.

The word Dhammacalana is found in Pillar Edict IV Asoka gave permission to
prisoners who received death sentence to do good merits in their last days for the
cultivation of Dhamma in the next life.
The word Dhammacr is massively emphasized in the Buddha-desan saying
Dhamma protects those who practice Dhamma.
12
Here Dhamma means ten kinds of
Kusalakammapatha.
13
Dhammacariya along with Samacariya has three types: Kya, Vac
and Mana which are categorized in three, four and three respectively. That also refers to
ten kinds of Kusalakammapatha. Caraadhamma
14
is found in Pi Piaka as the attributes
of the Buddha when Caraa stands along with Vijj.

Dhammavuddhi
The term Dhamavai is found in two pillar edicts.
15
In Pillar Edict VI Asoka
stated that he established these edicts for good and happiness of the people and the
growth of Dhamma will be achieved only if the edicts of Dhamma are well-maintained.
In Pillar Edict VII this term is found eight times. In this Edict Asoka stated that the people
did not advance in Dhamma though previous kings tried to find out the way to the
growth of Dhamma for them. In his time, he found out and set up a procedure which
included Dhammassavana and Dhammnussihi. In this way Dhammavuddhi for the
people would be achieved.

12
Th.272.
13
Dhammcr ti dassakusalakammapathacr (JA.VI.112).
14
Caraadhamm nma slasavaro indriyesu guttadvrat bhojane matta ut Jgariynuyogo satta
saddhamm cattri rpvacarajjhnni (D.I.84; CpA.293).
15
RE.V; PE.VI, VII.

In Pi Piaka, there are two types of Vuddhi: misavuddhi and Dhammavuddhi.
In fact, growth of materials is good. The growth of Dhamma is the best.
16
The Buddha
also urged his disciples to cultivate Dhamma as growth of material is lesser than the
other.
17

Dhammassavana
The term Dhamasvana is found in Pillar Edict VII. Asoka mentioned this term
three times. First, he stated that he has considered that discourses of Dhamma should be
preached in order to achieve Dhammavuddhi. Second, he stated that he ordered to
deliver Dhamasavana for this purpose. Third, he stated that Dhamasvana has been
proclaimed.
One of the thirty eight kinds of Magala is Dhammassavana which should be
applied in appropriate time.
18
Saddhammassavana
19
which is closely similar to
Dhammassavana is also mentioned in various cases in Pi Piaka literature.

Dhammnusihi
The term Dhamnusathi is found in Pillar Edict VII. The term is mentioned
two times. The first one is that Asoka considered giving Dhamma instructions and the

16
A.I.92.
17
A.I.14.
18
Kh.4.
19
Kicca saddhammassavana|(Dh.41).

second one is that he gave various Dhamma instructions. His main aim is only for
Dhammavuhi.
The Buddha preached Dhamma. His Dhamma widely varied as the persons to
whom he taught were different. However, this is the essence of Dhamma or teaching or
instruction:
Sabbappassa akarana, kusalassa upasampad,
Sacitta pariyodpana, eta buddhana ssana|
20

Not to do evil,
To cultivate good,
To purify ones mind
This is the teaching of the Buddhas.
In this verse Ssana means Anusihi.
21
The combination of two words Dhamma
and Anusihi is nowhere to find in Pi Piaka except only in Milindapa h.
22
In this
text Dhammnusihi appears to answer the question of King Milinda that the Buddha
taught only by mean of the Dhamma instruction and it is the righteous instruction.

Dhammamahmatta
The term Dhamamahmt is found three times in Pillar Edict VII.
Asoka stated that he created the post of Dhamamahmt in order to make the people
advanced in Dhamma. Dhamamahmt are employed as in charge of various kinds of

20
Dh.41.
21
Eta buddhna ssananti sabbabuddhna ayamanusihi (DhA.II.154).
22
Mil.184.

business such as matters of ascetics and householders. Dhamamahmt are also
employed among various kinds of congregation and as among all sects.
The title of Mahmatta is the highest level of the public administration in ancient
India. In the Pi Piaka literature there is no information about how Mahmattas were
appointed by Mahrj. However, there are different positions for Mahmatta such as
Gaakamahmatta,
23
Vinicchayamahmatta,
24
Sennyakamahmatta,
25

Vohrikamahmatta,
26
Sabbatthakamahmatta,
27
Mgadhamahmatta
28
and
Rjamahmatta.
29
Almost all these administrative duties for Mahmatta were set up in
Mgadha Kingdom at the time of the Buddha.

Dhammnupaipatti and Dhammapaipatti
The terms Dhamanupapat is found twice and Dhamapapat once in
Pillar Edict VII. Asoka stated that people might strictly follow the path laid down by
Dhamma when people have been made happy by him, providing various kinds of
facilities for comfort. Dhannamahmatta and the other officials were expected to be
occupied with the distributions of charities of his sons and queens sons in order to
promote strict adherence to Dhamma. After all, Asoka claimed that compassion,

23
D.III.53; DA.III.35.
24
DA.II.109; D.II.123.
25
V.III.104.
26
Ibid.
27
V.III.300.
28
V.III.317.
29
Ibid. 317, 327; A.I.151, II.114.

donation, truthfulness, purity, gentleness and goodness of people have grown by mean of
Dhamapapat.
In Piaka, Dhammnudhammapaipatti is one which provides to advance in
Kusaladhamma,
30
to advance in Pa ,
31
to benefit for Manussa
32
and to attain
Sotpattiphala.
33
This is the task which is difficult to carry out in Dhammavinaya.
34

Dhammappadhna
The term Dhampadna is found two times in Pillar Edict VII. Asoka stated
that Dhannamahmatta and the other officials were expected to be occupied with the
distributions of charities of his sons and queens sons for devotion to Dhamma. He also
pointed out that Dhammapadhna represents Day, Dna, Sacca, Socava, Madava and
Sdhava.
Dhammapadhna means determination to Dhamma.
35
Dhammappadhna means
exertion which supports Dhamma.
36

Dhammaniyama
The term Dhamaniyama is found four times in Pillar Edict VII. Asoka stated
that Dhammavuddhi has been achieved by the regulation of Dhamma. However

30
Dhammnudhammapaipatti atthi...Vuhiheva pikakh kusalesu dhammesu no parihni
(A.III.356).
31
A.I.567.
32
Ibid.
33
S.III.359.
34
S.II.456.
35
Dhammdhihna (VY.619).
36
Dhammna Upakrappadhno (Abhi.III.168).

Dhamaniyama could provide only a minimum effect. He revealed that
Dhammaniyama means refrain from killing such and such creatures and some other kinds
of Dhammaniyama which are laid down by him.
Niyama means five moral precepts which have to be preserved forever.
37

Niyamasla refers to ten moral precepts.
38
The combination of Dhamma and niyama is
not found in Piaka.

The King whose royal titles were Devnapiya Asoka, Devnapiya Piyadasi Rj
and Priyadasi Lj Mgadhe established Jambudpa as Kingdom of Dhammavijaya by the
constitution of Dhamma written as followed:
Es pi vidhi y iya dhamena plan dhamena vidhne dha-mena
sukhiyan dhamena gotti.
39

It is obviously one and the same with the Dhamma of Cakkavatti which says:
Idha, bhikkhu, rj cakkavatt dhimmiko dhammarj dhamma-yeva
nissya dhamma sakkaronto dhamma garu karonto dham-ma
apacyamno dhammadhajo dhammketu dhammdhipateyyo dhammika
rakkhvaraagutta savidahati antojanasmi.
40

37
Niyamesu ca savutoti Niyamasa i tesu ptiptveramanidsu niccapa caslesu savuto (ApA.
II.190).
38
Niyamaslavasena dasahi (S.I.341).
39
PE.I.
40
A.I.108, II.131.

After Kaliga war, the king whose title was unofficially changed from Chahsoka
to Dhammsoka
41
made his history the best at the length of thirty six to thirty seven years
of the reign. His attention to Dhamma turned the tide of faith in his kingdom and
become the significant milestone in the history of Buddhism. The works of Asoka as an
Emperor, religious reformer, and nation builder in the 3
rd
Century B.C. have been found
throughout the Continent of Asia in later centuries. His edicts of Dhamma played the
most momentous role in the history of mankind. A number of inscriptions have been
found in various places in India and neighboring area. The study of Asoka inscriptions
reaches the highest level among the historians who aim to discover the ancient Indian
history along with the works of Asoka. Of these studies, this paper is intended as a
humble attempt by highlighting Asokas Dhammathambha with the concepts of Dhamma
reflected in Pi Piaka Literature. It is strongly believed that the studies of Dhamma will
never end and the principles of Dhamma will prevail in every corner of India and the
world as Asoka wished.

41
Chahsokoti yittha, pubbe ppena kamunn.
Dhammasokoti yittha, pacch pu ena kammun. (Mhv.34).

ABBREVIATION

A. The Aguttara Nikya
AA. The Aguttara Nikya Ahakath
Abhi. The Abhidhamma Piaka k
ApA. The Apdna Ahakath
CpA. The Cariypiaka Ahakath
Ca. The Ca-niddesa
D. The Dgha Nikya
DA. The Dgha Nikya Ahakath
Dh. The Dhammapada
DhA. The Dhammapada Ahakath
D. The Dgha Nikya k
JA. The Jtaka Ahakath
Kh. The Khuddakaptha
M. The Mijjima Nikya
Mhv. The Mahvasa
Mil. The Milindapa h
PE. Pillar Edict of Asoka
RE. Rock Edict of Asoka
S. The Sayutta Nikya
Sn. The Sutta-Nipta
SnA. The Sutta-Nipta Ahakath
S. The Sayutta Nikya k
Th. The Theragth
ThA. The Theragth Ahakath
V. The Vinaya Piaka
V. The Vinaya Piaka k
VY. The Yojan

REFERENCE
Pi Texts and Translation

The Vinaya Piaka
5 vols. in Pi; Tr. I.B. Horner; The Book of the Discipline, 6 vols. London: Pali
Text Society, 1948.
The Dgha Nikya
3 vols. in Pi; Tr. T.W. & C.A.F. Rhys Davids; The Dialogues of the Buddha, 3
vols. London: Oxford University Press, 1899.

The Mijjima Nikya
3 vols. in Pi; Tr. Bhikkhu amoi and Bhikkhu Bodhi; The Middle Length
Discourse of the Buddha, 3 vols. 2
nd
Edition, Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2001.
The Sayutta Nikya
3 vols. in Pi; Tr. Bhikkhu Bodhi: The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, 5
vols. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000.
The Aguttara Nikya
3 vols. in Pi; Tr. F.L. Woodward, vol. I; E.M. Hare, vols. II, III, The Book of the
Gradual Sayings, 1
st
Indian Edition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private
Limited, 2006.
The Khuddakaptha
In Pi.
The Sutta-Nipta
In Pi; Tr. U Tin Oo: Suttanipta, Sagaing: Sitagu International Buddhist
Academy, 2002.
The Theragth
In Pi.
The Ca-niddesa
In Pi.
The Dhammapada
In Pi.
The Dgha Nikya Ahakath
The Sumagalavilsin, Buddhaghosas commentary on the Dgha Nikya, 3 vols.
in Pi.
The Aguttara Nikya Ahakath
The Manorathapran, Buddhaghosas commentary on the Aguttara Nikya, 3
vols. in Pi.
The Sutta-Nipta Ahakath
The Paramatthijotik, Buddhaghosas commentary on the Sutta-Nipta, in Pi.
The Theragth Ahakath
The Theragth Ahakath, Dhammaplas commentary on the Theragth, 2
vols. in Pi.
The Dhammapada Ahakath
The Dhammapada Ahakath, Buddhaghosas commentary on the Dhammapada,
2 vols. in Pi.
The Jtaka Ahakath
The Jtaka Ahakath, 7 vols. in Pi.
The Cariypiaka Ahakath
The Paramatthadpan, Dhammaplas commentary on the Cariypiaka, in Pi.
The Apdna Ahakath
The Visuddhajalavilsin, Rahaplas commentary on the Apdna, in Pi.
The Vinaya Piaka k

The Sratthadpan, sub-commentary on the Vinaya Piaka Ahakath, 3 vols. in
Pi.
The Dgha Nikya k
The Lnatthappaksan, sub-commentary on the Dgha Nikya Ahakath, 3 vols.
in Pi.
The Sayutta Nikya k
The Lnatthappaksan, sub-commentary on the Sayutta Nikya Ahakath, 5
vols. in Pi.
The Abhidhamma Piaka k
The Mlak, nandas sub-commentary on the Abhidhamma Piaka Ahakath,
3 vols. in Pi.
The Yojan
Jgaras commentary on the Vinaya Piaka Ahakath, 5 vols. in Pi.
The Milindapa h
In Pi; Tr. T.W. Rhys David, The Questions of King Milinda, Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1890.
The Mahvasa
In Pi.

*** All references to Pi Texts are from the editions of Chahasagayan CD-ROM,
Version-3, Igatpuri in India: Vipassan Research Institute, 1999.

Asokas Edicts and Translations

Mookerji, R.K., Asoka, reprinted, Delhi: Motila Banarsidass, 1972.
Prinsep, Jame (ed), Journal Of Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. VI, Calcutta: The Baptist
Mission Press, 1837.
Rastogi, N.P., Inscription of Asoka, Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, 1990.
Cunningham, A. Inscriptions of Asoka, Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent
Government Print, 1877.

Dictionaries

Pi-English Dictionary, T.W. Rhys Davids & W. Stede, (ed.) Chilstead: Pali Text Society,
1921-25; reprinted include: London: Luzac, 1966.
Tipiaka Pi-Myanmar Dictionary, 19 vols, Yangon: Religious Affair Department Press,
2007.
Abhidhnappadpik in Pi, Moggallna, Chahasagayan CD-ROM, Version-3,
Igatpuri in India: Vipassan Research Institute, 1999.

APPENDIX

Copies of Delhi-Topra Pillar Edict
42

42
Plate XVIII; XIX; XX (A. Cunningham, Inscriptions of Asoka, Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent
Government Print, 1877).



Punjabi University, Patiala: General History

Thaint (Myanmar)

Punjabi university Patiala, one of the premier institutions of higher education in the
north of India, was established on the 30
th
April, 1962 under Punjabi university Act.1961.
The Punjabi university Patiala is the second university in the after Hebrew university to be
named after a language. The university is also a member of the association of Indian
universities. The campus of the university is situated at Patiala at an area of 600 acres of
land.

My Opinion
The Punjabi university is located away from noise and situated in good environment
.People over here are very friendly and cooperative .Hostel facilities are very good. Rooms
are good and they have provided me a single room, taking into consideration my needs and
requirement. A mess is available for suitable food for me. Good security is provided 24 hours
in every department and hostels of this university, therefore we feel safe and protected and

94 Punjabi University, Patiala: General History
even A.C facility has been provided .There also a Botanical garden in front of our hostel so
we get fresh air. The T.V facility is also provided for entertainment of the students.
Transportation There is good transportation facilities provided in university .After
every 15 minutes a Bus comes around the university, up to our hostel to help students to
move to the city and from city to University.
Library- The main library has capacity of accommodating 400 people. It is fully A.C
and a lot of literature of all the subjects is available.
BANK- we are also provided with the facility of Bank. We can easily bank as ease of
access to use accounts through ATM machines.
Post office- Besides all the students is provided with the facility of post office through
which we can mail our letters and can also make Register and speed posts.
Wireless Internet - The entire university hostels and some important areas of campus
have an access to wireless internet. The university architecture has been beautifully
designed.
Dispensary- there is also a dispensary in the university for the students. Highly
qualified medical officers are present in the dispensary and in the emergency cases the
doctors come to the hostel to check the ill student.
GOL MARKET- A market is built in the university. It is round in shape. Almost all
things are available of basic necessities of students.
CANTEENS- There is also canteens in the university.

RELIGION- A Hindu, Muslim and Sikh temples have been built in the premises of the
university, keeping in the view the religious sentiments of all the students, students do visits
these temples exercising their right of freedom to religion.
PLAYGROUND- There is a large playground in the university where various athletic
and sports events take place at different time.
GREENRY- the best thing about the university is that there a lot of greenery in the
university.
PERSONAL REASONS- I have completed my M.A Buddhist studies from Guru
Gobind Singh religious department in Punjabi University, Patiala in 2008 to 2010 sessions. I
stood first position in the department and got the gold medal. This could be achieved only
through my teachers good teachings and guidelines. I have also made good friends over
here thereby I have got attach to this university. So I want to study in this same university.

Academic Approach

Overview of the Academic Essay
*

A clear sense of argument is essential to all forms of academic writing, for writing
is thought made visible. Insights and ideas that occur to us when we encounter the raw
material of the worldnatural phenomena like the behavior of genes, or cultural
phenomena, like texts, photographs and artifactsmust be ordered in some way so
others can receive them and respond in turn. This give and take is at the heart of the
scholarly enterprise, and makes possible that vast conversation known as civilization. Like
all human ventures, the conventions of the academic essay are both logical and playful.
They may vary in expression from discipline to discipline, but any good essay should
show us a mind developing a thesis, supporting that thesis with evidence, deftly
anticipating objections or counter-arguments, and maintaining the momentum of
discovery.

Motive and Idea
An essay has to have a purpose or motive; the mere existence of an assignment or
deadline is not sufficient. When you write an essay or research paper, you are never
simply transferring information from one place to another, or showing that you have
mastered a certain amount of material. That would be incredibly boringand besides, it

*
Copyright 1998, Kathy Duffin, for the Writing Center at Harvard University.

97 Overview of the Academic Essay
would be adding to the glut of pointless utterance. Instead, you should be trying to make
the best possible case for an original idea you have arrived at after a period of research.
Depending upon the field, your research may involve reading and rereading a text,
performing an experiment, or carefully observing an object or behavior.
By immersing yourself in the material, you begin to discover patterns and generate
insights, guided by a series of unfolding questions. From a number of possibilities, one
idea emerges as the most promising. You try to make sure it is original and of some
importance; there is no point arguing for something already known, trivial, or widely
accepted.

Thesis and Development
The essay's thesis is the main point you are trying to make, using the best evidence
you can marshall. Your thesis will evolve during the course of writing drafts, but
everything that happens in your essay is directed toward establishing its validity. A given
assignment may not tell you that you need to come up with a thesis and defend it, but
these are the unspoken requirements of any scholarly paper.
Deciding upon a thesis can generate considerable anxiety. Students may think,
"How can I have a new idea about a subject scholars have spent their whole lives
exploring? I just read a few books in the last few days, and now I'm supposed to be an
expert?" But you can be original on different scales. We can't possibly know everything
that has been, or is being, thought or written by everyone in the worldeven given the
vastness and speed of the Internet. What is required is a rigorous, good faith effort to

98
The Lions Outlook, Sitagu Students Research Journal
establish originality, given the demands of the assignment and the discipline. It is a good
exercise throughout the writing process to stop periodically and reformulate your thesis as
succinctly as possible so someone in another field could understand its meaning as well
as its importance. A thesis can be relatively complex, but you should be able to distill its
essence. This does not mean you have to give the game away right from the start. Guided
by a clear understanding of the point you wish to argue, you can spark your reader's
curiosity by first asking questionsthe very questions that may have guided you in your
researchand carefully building a case for the validity of your idea. Or you can start with
a provocative observation, inviting your audience to follow your own path of discovery.

The Tension of Argument
Argument implies tension but not combative fireworks. This tension comes from
the fundamental asymmetry between the one who wishes to persuade and those who
must be persuaded. The common ground they share is reason. Your objective is to make
a case so that any reasonable person would be convinced of the reasonableness of your
thesis. The first task, even before you start to write, is gathering and ordering evidence,
classifying it by kind and strength. You might decide to move from the smallest piece of
evidence to the most impressive. Or you might start with the most convincing, then
mention other supporting details afterward. You could hold back a surprising piece of
evidence until the very end.
In any case, it is important to review evidence that could be used against your
idea and generate responses to anticipated objections. This is the crucial concept of

99 Overview of the Academic Essay
counter-argument. If nothing can be said against an idea, it is probably obvious or
vacuous. (And if too much can be said against it, it's time for another thesis.) By not
indicating an awareness of possible objections, you might seem to be hiding something,
and your argument will be weaker as a consequence. You should also become familiar
with the various fallacies that can undermine an argumentthe "straw man" fallacy,
fallacies of causation and of analogy, etc.and strive to avoid them.

The Structure of Argument
The heart of the academic essay is persuasion, and the structure of your argument
plays a vital role in this. To persuade, you must set the stage, provide a context, and
decide how to reveal your evidence. Of course, if you are addressing a community of
specialists, some aspects of a shared context can be taken for granted. But clarity is
always a virtue. The essay's objective should be described swiftly, by posing a question
that will lead to your thesis, or making a thesis statement. There is considerable flexibility
about when and where this happens, but within the first page or two, we should know
where we are going, even if some welcome suspense is preserved. In the body of the
paper, merely listing evidence without any discernible logic of presentation is a common
mistake. What might suffice in conversation is too informal for an essay. If the point being
made is lost in a welter of specifics, the argument falters.
The most common argumentative structure in English prose is deductive: starting
off with a generalization or assertion, and then providing support for it. This pattern can
be used to order a paragraph as well as an entire essay. Another possible structure is

100
The Lions Outlook, Sitagu Students Research Journal
inductive: facts, instances or observations can be reviewed, and the conclusion to be
drawn from them follows. There is no blueprint for a successful essay; the best ones show
us a focused mind making sense of some manageable aspect of the world, a mind where
insightfulness, reason, and clarity are joined.

Outlining
*

Trying to devise a structure for your essay can be one of the most difficult parts of
the writing process. Making a detailed outline before you begin writing is a good way to
make sure your ideas come across in a clear and logical order. A good outline will also
save you time in the revision process, reducing the possibility that your ideas will need to
be rearranged once you've written them.

The First Steps
Before you can begin outlining, you need to have a sense of what you will argue
in the essay. From your analysis and close readings of primary and/or secondary sources
you should have notes, ideas, and possible quotes to cite as evidence. Let's say you are
writing about the 1999 Republican Primary and you want to prove that each candidate's
financial resources were the most important element in the race. At this point, your notes
probably lack much coherent order. Most likely, your ideas are still in the order in which
they occurred to you; your notes and possible quotes probably still adhere to the
chronology of the sources you've examined. Your goal is to rearrange your ideas, notes,
and quotesthe raw material of your essayinto an order that best supports your

*
Copyright 2000, David Kornhaber, for the Writing Center at Harvard University

102 Outlining
argument, not the arguments you've read in other people's works. To do this, you have to
group your notes into categories and then arrange these categories in a logical order.

Generalizing
The first step is to look over each individual piece of information that you've
written and assign it to a general category. Ask yourself, "If I were to file this in a database,
what would I file it under?" If, using the example of the Republican Primary, you wrote
down an observation about John McCain's views on health care, you might list it under
the general category of "Health care policy." As you go through your notes, try to reuse
categories whenever possible. Your goal is to reduce your notes to no more than a page
of category listings.
Now examine your category headings. Do any seem repetitive? Do any go
together? "McCain's expenditure on ads" and "Bush's expenditure on ads," while not
exactly repetitive, could easily combine into a more general category like "Candidates'
expenditures on ads." Also, keep an eye out for categories that no longer seem to relate
to your argument. Individual pieces of information that at first seemed important can
begin to appear irrelevant when grouped into a general category.
Now it's time to generalize again. Examine all your categories and look for
common themes. Go through each category and ask yourself, "If I were to place this
piece of information in a file cabinet, what would I label that cabinet?" Again, try to reuse
labels as often as possible: "Health Care," "Foreign Policy," and "Immigration" can all be

contained under "Policy Initiatives." Make these larger categories as general as possible so
that there are no more than three or four for a 7-10 page paper.

Ordering
With your notes grouped into generalized categories, the process of ordering them
should be easier. To begin, look at your most general categories. With your thesis in
mind, try to find a way that the labels might be arranged in a sentence or two that
supports your argument. Let's say your thesis is that financial resources played the most
important role in the 1999 Republican Primary. Your four most general categories are
"Policy Initiatives," "Financial Resources," "Voters' Concerns," and "Voters' Loyalty." You
might come up with the following sentence: Although McCain's policy initiatives were
closest to the voters' concerns, Bush's financial resources won the voters' loyalty. This
sentence should reveal the order of your most general categories. You will begin with an
examination of McCain's and Bush's views on important issues and compare them to the
voters' top concerns. Then you'll look at both candidates' financial resources and show
how Bush could win voters' loyalty through effective use of his resources, despite his less
popular policy ideas.
With your most general categories in order, you now must order the smaller
categories. To do so, arrange each smaller category into a sentence or two that will
support the more general sentence you've just devised. Under the category of "Financial
Resources," for instance, you might have the smaller categories of "Ad Expenditure,"
"Campaign Contributions" and "Fundraising." A sentence that supports your general

104 Outlining
argument might read: "Bush's early emphasis on fundraising led to greater campaign
contributions, allowing him to have a greater ad expenditure than McCain."
The final step of the outlining process is to repeat this procedure on the smallest
level, with the original notes that you took for your essay. To order what probably was an
unwieldy and disorganized set of information at the beginning of this process, you need
now only think of a sentence or two to support your general argument. Under the
category "Fundraising," for example, you might have quotes about each candidate's
estimation of its importance, statistics about the amount of time each candidate spent
fundraising, and an idea about how the importance of fundraising never can be
overestimated. Sentences to support your general argument might read: "No candidate
has ever raised too much money [your idea]. While both McCain and Bush
acknowledged the importance of fundraising [your quotes], the numbers clearly point to
Bush as the superior fundraiser [your statistics]." The arrangement of your ideas, quotes,
and statistics now should come naturally.

Putting It All Together
With these sentences, you have essentially constructed an outline for your essay.
The most general ideas, which you organized in your first sentence, constitute the essay's
sections. They follow the order in which you placed them in your sentence. The order of
the smaller categories within each larger category (determined by your secondary
sentences) indicates the order of the paragraphs within each section. Finally, your last set
of sentences about your specific notes should show the order of the sentences within

each paragraph. An outline for the essay about the 1999 Republican Primary (showing
only the sections worked out here) would look something like this:

I. POLICY INITIATIVES
II. VOTERS' CONCERNS
III. FINANCIAL RESOURCES
A. Fundraising
a. Original Idea
b. McCain Quote/Bush Quote
c. McCain Statistics/Bush Statistics
B. Campaign Contributions
C. Ad Expenditure
IV. VOTERS' LOYALTY

Beginning the Academic Essay
*

The writer of the academic essay aims to persuade readers of an idea based on
evidence. The beginning of the essay is a crucial first step in this process. In order to
engage readers and establish your authority, the beginning of your essay has to
accomplish certain business. Your beginning should introduce the essay, focus it, and
orient readers.
Introduce the Essay. The beginning lets your readers know what the essay is about,
the topic. The essay's topic does not exist in a vacuum, however; part of letting readers
know what your essay is about means establishing the essay's context, the frame within
which you will approach your topic. For instance, in an essay about the First Amendment
guarantee of freedom of speech, the context may be a particular legal theory about the
speech right; it may be historical information concerning the writing of the amendment;
it may be a contemporary dispute over flag burning; or it may be a question raised by the
text itself. The point here is that, in establishing the essay's context, you are also limiting
your topic. That is, you are framing an approach to your topic that necessarily eliminates
other approaches. Thus, when you determine your context, you simultaneously narrow
your topic and take a big step toward focusing your essay. Here's an example.

*
Copyright 1999, Patricia Kain, for the Writing Center at Harvard University

107 Beginning the Academic Essay
When Kate Chopin's novel The Awakening was published in 1899,
critics condemned the book as immoral. One typical critic, writing in
the Providence Journal, feared that the novel might "fall into the hands
of youth, leading them to dwell on things that only matured persons
can understand, and promoting unholy imaginations and unclean
desires" (150). A reviewer in the St. Louis Post- Dispatch wrote that
"there is much that is very improper in it, not to say positively
unseemly."
The paragraph goes on. But as you can see, Chopin's novel (the topic) is introduced in
the context of the critical and moral controversy its publication engendered.
Focus the Essay. Beyond introducing your topic, your beginning must also let
readers know what the central issue is. What question or problem will you be thinking
about? You can pose a question that will lead to your idea (in which case, your idea will
be the answer to your question), or you can make a thesis statement. Or you can do
both: you can ask a question and immediately suggest the answer that your essay will
argue. Here's an example from an essay about Memorial Hall.
Further analysis of Memorial Hall, and of the archival sources that
describe the process of building it, suggests that the past may not be
the central subject of the hall but only a medium. What message, then,
does the building convey, and why are the fallen soldiers of such
importance to the alumni who built it? Part of the answer, it seems, is

that Memorial Hall is an educational tool, an attempt by the Harvard
community of the 1870s to influence the future by shaping our
memory of their times. The commemoration of those students and
graduates who died for the Union during the Civil War is one aspect of
this alumni message to the future, but it may not be the central idea.
The fullness of your idea will not emerge until your conclusion, but your beginning must
clearly indicate the direction your idea will take, must set your essay on that road. And
whether you focus your essay by posing a question, stating a thesis, or combining these
approaches, by the end of your beginning, readers should know what you're writing
about, and whyand why they might want to read on.
Orient Readers. Orienting readers, locating them in your discussion, means
providing information and explanations wherever necessary for your readers'
understanding. Orienting is important throughout your essay, but it is crucial in the
beginning. Readers who don't have the information they need to follow your discussion
will get lost and quit reading. (Your teachers, of course, will trudge on.) Supplying the
necessary information to orient your readers may be as simple as answering the
journalist's questions of who, what, where, when, how, and why. It may mean providing
a brief overview of events or a summary of the text you'll be analyzing. If the source text
is brief, such as the First Amendment, you might just quote it. If the text is well known,
your summary, for most audiences, won't need to be more than an identifying phrase or
two:

109 Beginning the Academic Essay
In Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare's tragedy of `star-crossed lovers'
destroyed by the blood feud between their two families, the minor
characters . . .
Often, however, you will want to summarize your source more fully so that readers can
follow your analysis of it.
Questions of Length and Order. How long should the beginning be? The length
should be proportionate to the length and complexity of the whole essay. For instance, if
you're writing a five-page essay analyzing a single text, your beginning should be brief, no
more than one or two paragraphs. On the other hand, it may take a couple of pages to
set up a ten-page essay.
Does the business of the beginning have to be addressed in a particular order?
No, but the order should be logical. Usually, for instance, the question or statement that
focuses the essay comes at the end of the beginning, where it serves as the jumping-off
point for the middle, or main body, of the essay. Topic and context are often intertwined,
but the context may be established before the particular topic is introduced. In other
words, the order in which you accomplish the business of the beginning is flexible and
should be determined by your purpose.
Opening Strategies. There is still the further question of how to start. What makes a
good opening? You can start with specific facts and information, a keynote quotation, a
question, an anecdote, or an image. But whatever sort of opening you choose, it should
be directly related to your focus. A snappy quotation that doesn't help establish the

context for your essay or that later plays no part in your thinking will only mislead readers
and blur your focus. Be as direct and specific as you can be. This means you should avoid
two types of openings:
The history-of-the-world (or long-distance) opening, which aims to establish a
context for the essay by getting a long running start: "Ever since the dawn of
civilized life, societies have struggled to reconcile the need for change with the
need for order." What are we talking about here, political revolution or a new
brand of soft drink? Get to it.
The funnel opening (a variation on the same theme), which starts with something
broad and general and "funnels" its way down to a specific topic. If your essay is
an argument about state-mandated prayer in public schools, don't start by
generalizing about religion; start with the specific topic at hand.
Remember. After working your way through the whole draft, testing your thinking
against the evidence, perhaps changing direction or modifying the idea you started with,
go back to your beginning and make sure it still provides a clear focus for the essay. Then
clarify and sharpen your focus as needed. Clear, direct beginnings rarely present
themselves ready-made; they must be written, and rewritten, into the sort of sharp-eyed
clarity that engages readers and establishes your authority.

Developing A Thesis
*

Think of yourself as a member of a jury, listening to a lawyer who is presenting an
opening argument. You'll want to know very soon whether the lawyer believes the
accused to be guilty or not guilty, and how the lawyer plans to convince you. Readers of
academic essays are like jury members: before they have read too far, they want to know
what the essay argues as well as how the writer plans to make the argument. After
reading your thesis statement, the reader should think, "This essay is going to try to
convince me of something. I'm not convinced yet, but I'm interested to see how I might
be."
An effective thesis cannot be answered with a simple "yes" or "no." A thesis is not a
topic; nor is it a fact; nor is it an opinion. "Reasons for the fall of communism" is a topic.
"Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe" is a fact known by educated people. "The fall
of communism is the best thing that ever happened in Europe" is an opinion.
(Superlatives like "the best" almost always lead to trouble. It's impossible to weigh every
"thing" that ever happened in Europe. And what about the fall of Hitler? Couldn't that be
"the best thing"?)

*
Copyright 1999, Maxine Rodburg and The Tutors of the Writing Center at Harvard University.

112 Developing A Thesis
A good thesis has two parts. It should tell what you plan to argue, and it should
"telegraph" how you plan to arguethat is, what particular support for your claim is going
where in your essay.
Steps in Constructing a Thesis
First, analyze your primary sources. Look for tension, interest, ambiguity,
controversy, and/or complication. Does the author contradict himself or herself? Is a
point made and later reversed? What are the deeper implications of the author's
argument? Figuring out the why to one or more of these questions, or to related
questions, will put you on the path to developing a working thesis. (Without the why, you
probably have only come up with an observationthat there are, for instance, many
different metaphors in such-and-such a poemwhich is not a thesis.)
Once you have a working thesis, write it down. There is nothing as frustrating as
hitting on a great idea for a thesis, then forgetting it when you lose concentration. And by
writing down your thesis you will be forced to think of it clearly, logically, and concisely.
You probably will not be able to write out a final-draft version of your thesis the first time
you try, but you'll get yourself on the right track by writing down what you have.
Keep your thesis prominent in your introduction. A good, standard place for your
thesis statement is at the end of an introductory paragraph, especially in shorter (5-15
page) essays. Readers are used to finding theses there, so they automatically pay more
attention when they read the last sentence of your introduction. Although this is not
required in all academic essays, it is a good rule of thumb.

Anticipate the counter-arguments. Once you have a working thesis, you should
think about what might be said against it. This will help you to refine your thesis, and it
will also make you think of the arguments that you'll need to refute later on in your essay.
(Every argument has a counter-argument. If yours doesn't, then it's not an argumentit
may be a fact, or an opinion, but it is not an argument.)
Michael Dukakis lost the 1988 presidential election because he failed
to campaign vigorously after the Democratic National Convention.
This statement is on its way to being a thesis. However, it is too easy to imagine possible
counter- arguments. For example, a political observer might believe that Dukakis lost
because he suffered from a "soft-on-crime" image. If you complicate your thesis by
anticipating the counter-argument, you'll strengthen your argument, as shown in the
sentence below.
While Dukakis' "soft-on-crime" image hurt his chances in the 1988
election, his failure to campaign vigorously after the Democratic
National Convention bore a greater responsibility for his defeat.

Some Caveats and Some Examples
A thesis is never a question. Readers of academic essays expect to have questions
discussed, explored, or even answered. A question ("Why did communism collapse in
Eastern Europe?") is not an argument, and without an argument, a thesis is dead in the
water.

114 Developing A Thesis
A thesis is never a list. "For political, economic, social and cultural reasons,
communism collapsed in Eastern Europe" does a good job of "telegraphing" the reader
what to expect in the essaya section about political reasons, a section about economic
reasons, a section about social reasons, and a section about cultural reasons. However,
political, economic, social and cultural reasons are pretty much the only possible reasons
why communism could collapse. This sentence lacks tension and doesn't advance an
argument. Everyone knows that politics, economics, and culture are important.
A thesis should never be vague, combative or confrontational. An ineffective thesis
would be, "Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe because communism is evil." This is
hard to argue (evil from whose perspective? what does evil mean?) and it is likely to mark
you as moralistic and judgmental rather than rational and thorough. It also may spark a
defensive reaction from readers sympathetic to communism. If readers strongly disagree
with you right off the bat, they may stop reading.
An effective thesis has a definable, arguable claim. "While cultural forces
contributed to the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, the disintegration of
economies played the key role in driving its decline" is an effective thesis sentence that
"telegraphs," so that the reader expects the essay to have a section about cultural forces
and another about the disintegration of economies. This thesis makes a definite, arguable
claim: that the disintegration of economies played a more important role than cultural
forces in defeating communism in Eastern Europe. The reader would react to this
statement by thinking, "Perhaps what the author says is true, but I am not convinced. I
want to read further to see how the author argues this claim."

A thesis should be as clear and specific as possible. Avoid overused, general terms
and abstractions. For example, "Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe because of the
ruling elite's inability to address the economic concerns of the people" is more powerful
than "Communism collapsed due to societal discontent."

Ending the Essay: Conclusions
*

So much is at stake in writing a conclusion. This is, after all, your last chance to
persuade your readers to your point of view, to impress yourself upon them as a writer
and thinker. And the impression you create in your conclusion will shape the impression
that stays with your readers after they've finished the essay.
The end of an essay should therefore convey a sense of completeness and closure
as well as a sense of the lingering possibilities of the topic, its larger meaning, its
implications: the final paragraph should close the discussion without closing it off.

To establish a sense of closure, you might do one or more of the following:
Conclude by linking the last paragraph to the first, perhaps by reiterating a word
or phrase you used at the beginning.
Conclude with a sentence composed mainly of one-syllable words. Simple
language can help create an effect of understated drama.
Conclude with a sentence that's compound or parallel in structure; such sentences
can establish a sense of balance or order that may feel just right at the end of a
complex discussion.

*
Copyright 1998, Pat Bellanca, for the Writing Center at Harvard University

117 Ending the Essay: Conclusion
To close the discussion without closing it off, you might do one or more of the following:
Conclude with a quotation from or reference to a primary or secondary source,
one that amplifies your main point or puts it in a different perspective. A
quotation from, say, the novel or poem you're writing about can add texture and
specificity to your discussion; a critic or scholar can help confirm or complicate
your final point.
For example, you might conclude an essay on the idea of home in James Joyce's
short story collection, Dubliners, with information about Joyce's own complex
feelings towards Dublin, his home. Or you might end with a biographer's
statement about Joyce's attitude toward Dublin, which could illuminate his
characters' responses to the city. Just be cautious, especially about using secondary
material: make sure that you get the last word.
Conclude by setting your discussion into a different, perhaps larger, context. For
example, you might end an essay on nineteenth-century muckraking journalism
by linking it to a current newsmagazine program like 60 Minutes.
Conclude by redefining one of the key terms of your argument.
For example, an essay on Marx's treatment of the conflict between wage labour
and capital might begin with Marx's claim that the "capitalist economy is . . . a
gigantic enterprise of dehumanization"; the essay might end by suggesting that
Marxist analysis is itself dehumanizing because it construes everything in
economic rather than moral or ethical terms.

118 The Lions Outlook, Siagu Students Research Journal
Conclude by considering the implications of your argument (or analysis or
discussion).
What does your argument imply, or involve, or suggest? For example, an essay on
the novel Ambiguous Adventure, by the Senegalese writer Cheikh Hamidou Kane,
might open with the idea that the protagonist's development suggests Kane's belief
in the need to integrate Western materialism and Sufi spirituality in modern
Senegal. The conclusion might make the new but related point that the novel on
the whole suggests that such an integration is (or isn't) possible.

Finally, some advice on how not to end an essay:
Don't simply summarize your essay. A brief summary of your argument may be
useful, especially if your essay is long more than ten pages or so. But shorter essays
tend not to require a restatement of your main ideas.
Avoid phrases like "in conclusion," "to conclude," "in summary," and "to sum up."
These phrases can be useful even welcome in oral presentations. But readers can
see, by the tell-tale compression of the pages, when an essay is about to end.
You'll irritate your audience if you belabour the obvious.
Resist the urge to apologize. If you've immersed yourself in your subject, you now
know a good deal more about it than you can possibly include in a five- or ten- or
20-page essay. As a result, by the time you've finished writing, you may be having
some doubts about what you've produced. (And if you haven't immersed yourself
in your subject, you may be feeling even more doubtful about your essay as you

119 Ending the Essay: Conclusion
approach the conclusion.) Repress those doubts. Don't undercut your authority by
saying things like, "this is just one approach to the subject; there may be other,
better approaches. . ."

Summary
*

Summary is indispensable in preparing for and writing an argumentative essay.
When you summarize a text (or describe visual material), you distil the ideas of another
source for use in your own essay. Summarizing primary sources allows you to keep track
of your observations. It helps make your analysis of these sources convincing, because it
is based on careful observation of fact rather than on hazy or inaccurate recollection.
Summarizing critical sources is particularly useful during the research and note-taking
stages of writing. It gives you a record of what you've read and helps you distinguish your
ideas from those of your sources.
Summaries you write to prepare for an essay will generally be longer and more
detailed than those you include in the essay itself. (Only when you've established your
thesis will you know the elements most important to retain.) It is crucial to remember,
though, that the purpose of an analytical essay is only partly to demonstrate that you
know and can summarize the work of others. The greater task is to showcase your ideas,
your analysis of the source material. Thus all forms of summary (there are several) should
be tools in your essay rather than its entirety.

True Summary

*
Copyright 2000, Elizabeth Abrams, for the Writing Center at Harvard University

121 Summary
True summary always concisely recaps the main point and key supporting points
of an analytical source, the overall arc and most important turns of a narrative, or the
main subject and key features of a visual source. True summary neither quotes nor judges
the source, concentrating instead on giving a fair picture of it. True summary may also
outline past work done in a field; it sums up the history of that work as a narrative.
Consider including true summaryoften just a few sentences, rarely more than a
paragraphin your essay when you introduce a new source. That way, you inform your
readers of an author's argument before you analyze it.
Immediately after his introduction to an essay on Whittaker Chambers, a key
player in the start of the Cold War, Bradley Nash included four sentences summarizing
the foreword to his main source, Chambers's autobiography. Nash characterizes the
genre and tone of the foreword in the first two sentences before swiftly describing, in the
next two, the movement of its ideas:
The foreword to Chambers's autobiography is written in the form of "A
Letter to My Children." In this introduction, Chambers establishes the
spiritual tone that dominates the body of his book. He initially
characterizes the Cold War in a more or less standard fashion, invoking
the language of politics and describing the conflict as one between
"Communism and Freedom." But as the foreword progresses,
Chambers introduces a religious element that serves to cast the struggle
between communism and capitalism as a kind of holy war.

Every essay also requires snippets of true summary along the way to "orient"
readersto introduce them to characters or critics they haven't yet met, to remind them
of items they need to recall to understand your point. (The underlined phrase in the
paragraph introducing Nash's summary is an example of orienting information.) True
summary is also necessary to establish a context for your claims, the frame of reference
you create in your introduction. An essay examining the "usable past" created by the
Vietnam Veterans Memorial, for example, might begin by briefly summarizing the history
of the idea of a usable past, or by summarizing the view of a leading theorist on the topic.

Interpretive Summary
Sometimes your essays will call for interpretive summarysummary or description
that simultaneously informs your reader of the content of your source and makes a point
about it. Interpretive summary differs from true summary by putting a "spin" on the
materials, giving the reader hints about your assessment of the source. It is thus best
suited to descriptions of primary sources that you plan to analyse. (If you put an
interpretive spin on a critical source when you initially address it, you risk distorting it in
the eyes of your reader: a form of academic dishonesty.)
The interpretive summary below comes from an essay examining a Civil War
photograph in light of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. The essayist, Dara Horn, knew she
needed to describe the photo but that simply "walking through" its details would bewilder
and bore her readers. So she revealed the point of her description in a pair of topic

123 Summary
sentences (solid underline), summarized the details of the photo (double underline), and
gave the description some interpretive "spin" (throughout).
As skeptical moderns, we often have trouble accepting drawings or
paintings as historical records, but we tend to believe in photographs the
way that we believe in mirrors; we simply accept them as the truth.
Alexander Gardner's photograph Trossel's House, Battle-Field of
Gettysburg, July, 1863 might therefore be viewed as evidence rather than
commentary. Unlike some of Gardner's other "sketches," this picture
includes no perfectly positioned rifles, no artistically angled river, no well-
posed men in uniformindeed, no people at all. The photograph's
composition could barely be more prosaic; the horizon slashes the picture
in half, and the subject, a white colonial-style house, sits smack in the
center. Yet this straightforward, almost innocent perspective sets the viewer
up for the photograph's stealthy horror. At first glance, the photograph
appears to be a portrait of a house, perhaps even a poor portrait of a
house; in a sketch book of war, one might flip right by it to the gory
pictures before and after. But the terror in this photograph lies in its
delayed shock, the gut-wrenching surprise when the light on the house
leads the eye to the light on the fence and the viewer notices that the
backyard fence is broken, and then that the backyard is a mess, littered
withwhat are those?horses, dead horses, twelve dead horses. What
must have happened to topple twelve nine-hundred-pound horses, and

where are the people who rode them? Crushed underneath? The viewer
doesn't know, because Gardner's picture doesn't tell us. All we see is a
house, a broken fence, twelve dead horses, and an empty sky.

Some Cautions
Remember that an essay that argues (rather than simply describes) uses summary
only sparingly, to remind readers periodically of crucial points. Summary should always
help build your argument. When teachers write "too much summarymore analysis
needed" in the margin, generally they mean that the essay reports what you've studied
rather than argues something about it. Two linked problems give rise to this situation. The
first is a thesis that isn't really a thesis but rather a statement of something obvious about
your subjecta description. (The obvious cannot be argued.) A statement of the obvious
tends to force further description, which leads to the second problem, a structure that
either follows the chronology of the source text from beginning to end or simply lists
examples from the source. Neither approach builds an argument.

Revising the Draft
*

Having drafted your essay, you have gained the perspective of hindsight. Was the
subject matter more complex than you anticipated? Did your preconceived ideas prove
less interesting than discoveries you made while writing? Would you like to revise, but
feel uncertain about how to do so?

How to revise:
Put your draft aside. Time away from your essay will allow for more objective self-
evaluation.
Get feedback. Since you already know what you're trying to say, you aren't always
the best judge of where the draft is clear or unclear. Let another reader tell you.
Then discuss aloud what you were trying to achieve. In articulating for someone
else what you meant to argue, you will clarify ideas for yourself.
Construct a backward-outline of your essay. Identify the main idea(s) in each
paragraph. Rank their importance in advancing your thesis. Consider connections
between and among ideas.
Rethink your thesis. Based on what you did in the previous step, restructure your
argument: reorder your points, cut irrelevancies or redundancies, add
complications and implications. You may want to return to the text for additional
evidence.
Now that you know what you're really arguing, work on the introduction and
conclusion. Make sure to begin your paragraphs with topic sentences, linking
idea(s) in each paragraph to those proposed in the thesis.

*
Copyright Laura Saltz, 1998, and the President and Fellows of Harvard College, for the Writing Center
at Harvard University.

126 Revising the Draft
Proofread. Aim for precision and economy in language. Read aloud so you can
hear stylistic infelicities. (Your ear will pick up what your eye has missed.)

An example of revision:
In 1969, E. B. White wrote a one-paragraph comment on the first moon walk.
Eventually, White took the comment through six drafts. On the next page of this hand-
out, you can see his third and sixth drafts. White's main points are underlined. In Draft 6,
White gets right to the point. He states the problem he's addressing"the moon is a poor
place for flags"in his third sentence. In Draft 3, he does not suggest this until the
sentence that begins "Yet," and never directly; it is the sum of the large amount of
underlined material. Revision enabled White to be clearer by articulating concisely and
directly an idea that was earlier implied; correspondingly, revision let him move an idea
that was clear by the middle or end of an early draft to the beginning. He also cut his
introductory device, the beach trip. The amount of space he devotes to it in draft 3
suggests that White was attached to this example. But it prevents him from getting to the
point. So he substitutes the bouncy dance, which preserves the playfulness of the trip to
the beach but is more economical.

Draft 3:
Planning a trip to the moon differs in no essential respect from planning a trip to
the beach. You have to decide what to take along, what to leave behind. Should the
thermos jug go? The child's rubber horse? The dill pickles? These are the sometimes
fateful decisions on which the success or failure of the whole outing turns. Something
goes along that spoils everything because it is always in the way; something gets left
behind that is desperately needed for comfort or for safety. The men who drew up the
moon list for the astronauts planned long and hard and well. (Should the vacuum cleaner
go, to suck up moondust?) Among the items they sent along, of course, was the little
jointed flagpoles and the flag that could be stiffened to the breeze that did not blow. (It is
traditional among explorers to plant the flag.) Yet the two men who stepped out on the

surface of the moon were in a class by themselves and should have been equipped
accordingly: they were of the new breed of men, those who had seen the earth whole.
When, following instructions, they colored the moon red, white, and blue, they were
fumbling with the pastor so it seemed to us, who watched, trembling with awe and
admiration and pride. This moon plant was the last scene in the long book of nationalism,
one that could have well been omitted. The moon still holds the key to madness, which
is universal, still controls the tides that lap on shores everywhere, still guards lovers that
kiss in every land under no banner but the sky. What a pity we couldn't have forsworn
our little Iwo Jima scene and planted instead a banner acceptable to alla simple white
handkerchief, perhaps, symbol of the common cold, which, like the moon, affects us all!

Draft 6:
The moon, it turns out, is a great place for men. One-sixth gravity must be a lot of
fun, and when Armstrong and Aldrin went into their bouncy little dance, like two happy
children, it was a moment not only of triumph but of gaiety. The moon, on the other
hand, is a poor place for flags. Ours looked stiff and awkward, trying to float on the
breeze that does not blow. (There must be a lesson here somewhere.) It is traditional, of
course, for explorers to plant the flag, but it struck us, as we watched with awe and
admiration and pride, that our two fellows were universal men, not national men, and
should have been equipped accordingly. Like every great river and every great sea, the
moon belongs to none and belongs to all. It still holds the key to madness, still controls
the tides that lap on shores everywhere, still guards the lovers that kiss in every land
under no banner but the sky. What a pity that in our moment of triumph we did not
forswear the familiar Iwo Jima scene and plant instead a device acceptable to all: a limp
white handkerchief, perhaps, symbol of the common cold, which, like the moon, affect
us all, unites us all!

As you revise your own work, keep the following principles in mind:

128 Revising the Draft
Revision entails rethinking your thesis. Because clarity of vision is the result of
experience, it is unreasonable to expect to come up with the best thesis
possibleone that clearly accounts for the complexities of the issue at hand
before beginning a draft, or even during a first draft. The best theses evolve; they
are the products of the kind of precise thinking that is only possible to achieve by
writing. Successful revision involves bringing your thesis into focusor, changing it
altogether.
Revision entails making structural changes. Drafting is usually a process of
discovering an idea or argument. Your argument will not become clearer if you
only tinker with individual sentences. Successful revision involves bringing the
strongest ideas to the front of the essay, reordering the main points, cutting
irrelevant sections, adding implications. It also involves making the argument's
structure visible by strengthening topic sentences and transitions.
Revision takes time. Avoid shortcuts: the reward for sustained effort is a clearer,
more persuasive, more sophisticated essay than a first draft can be.

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