Chairperson : Prof.

Neeru
Subject Coordinator : Prof. Sheena Pall
Course Leader : Prof. Sheena Pall

M.A. HISTORY SEMESTER III

PAPER III: Cultural History of Ancient India

CONTENT
 Introductory Letter (i)
 Syllabus (ii)

L. Title Author/ Page

No. Editor No.
Sanskrit Literature: Vedic Corpus, Shastras, Puranas Dr Ashish
1 1
and Epics Kumar
2 Pali Literature and Sangam Literature -do- 13
3 Mauryan Art -do- 24
4 Buddhist Architecture and Temple Architecture -do- 37

5 Sculptural Art (Mathura, Gandhara and Amravati -do- 50

School)
6 The Pallava Art, the Chola Bronze and the Paintings -do- 63
Indian Art- Various Theories; Study of the
7 Chitralakshana (in the Vishnudharmottara Purana) and -do- 77
the Natyashastra
Concepts and Terms
8 -do- 89

Vetted by: Prof. Sheena Pall

E-Mail of Department coordhist@pu.ac.in

Contact No. of Department 0172-2534329

1
 Introduction
Cultural History of Ancient India
The English term culture is derived from the Latin word ‘cult’, which means: cultivation.
The term culture thus means the cultivation of human life and living. It refers to
behavioral patterns socially acquired and socially transmitted generation after
generation. Culture continues as well as changes over a period of time with the
passing of knowledge from one generation to another. There are two approaches for
the study of culture. One approach considers the art, architecture, literature, aesthetics
and intellectual life alone as the main constituting elements of a culture. On the other
hand, the anthropologists and sociologists study the culture as a whole way of life
including food habits, dressing styles, kinship ties, and so forth. In context of Indian
culture, art, architecture, literature, aesthetics and intellectual life are suggested to be
the integral part of the Indian way of living. Therefore, Niharranjan Ray says: ‘Indian art
corresponds to a concrete Indian life, which was actually lived through the ages by the
people including artists, viewers, readers and listeners. Hence, a study of Indian
understanding of the meaning and purpose of art is required to grasp the core of Indian
culture.’
In Sanskrit, the terms krishthi (i.e., act of cultivation/agriculture) and samskriti/sanskriti
(i.e., improvement of one’s life) correspond to the English term culture, and both,
krishthi and samskriti/sanskriti refer to the development of an individual’s life at both
material and social levels. In Niharranjan Ray’s words: ‘When one speaks of the culture
of the body and the mind, meaning physical and spiritual life, one uses the term culture
in this very sense of cultivation of the soil of life with a view to improve the body and
the inner spirit of human beings.’ Thus, the terms, krishthi, samskriti/sanskriti and
culture, according to the Indian point of view, embrace the whole arena of human life.
In the Indian cultural traditions, the art aims to synthesize the spiritual and the material
worlds, and by doing that it not only provides sense pleasure and happiness to the
people but also lead them on the path of mental-spiritual freedom (moksha, nirvana
and anandam). The ancient Indian art combined in its personality both the mind and
the matter, that is, ideas and forms merged into one, often supported by technical
excellence. Art was not just for art’s sake in ancient India; rather, the urge to carve or
paint or write emerged from the deep sense of spirituality combined happily with the
intense desire to live a life of fulfillment in terms of materialistic enjoyments. Other-
worldliness was the ultimate goal; but worldliness was the immediate concern of
ancient Indian art.
Following these definitions of art and culture, this paper titled: ‘Cultural History of
Ancient India’, covers the themes of literature, sculpture and architecture, painting, and
performing arts by situating these in the wider socio-religious and political contexts of
the ancient India. The purpose of this paper is to make the students aware of the
richness of Indian culture and civilization, its origin and growth.

Coordinator, History
University School of Open Learning

2
 SYLLABUS

PAPERS –III & IV OPT. (I) CULTURAL HISTORY OF ANCIENT INDIA

COURSE CODE: HIS 432

Objective: To examine the cultural history of Ancient India

Pedagogy: Class room lectures, discussions, visits to museums and places of cultural
importance.
Note: The candidate will be evaluated on the basis of a written examination (80 marks) and
Internal Continuous Assessment (20 marks). In the written examination, the question paper will
have the following format:
The maximum marks in this paper/option will be 80 and duration of written examination will be
3 hours..
(i) There will be 9 questions in all. The candidate will be required to attempt 5
questions.
(ii) Question No.1 will be compulsory and carry 20 marks. It will consist of 15 short
questions from the list of concepts and terms given below. The candidate is
required to attempt any 10 short questions in 25-30 words each.. Each short
question carries 2 marks.
(iii) Remaining part of the question paper will be divided into four units, corresponding
to the four units of the syllabus for each option. The paper setter will set 2 essay
type questions from each unit. The candidate will attempt 4 essay type questions,
selecting one from each unit. Each essay type question will carry 15 marks.
(iv) The paper setter is expected to follow the Essential Readings and set questions on
the sub-themes or parts of a theme, rather than the topic as a whole.
Concepts and Terms: Vedas; Aranyakas; Upanishads; Vedangas; Pitikas; Dharmasutras;
Manusmriti; Arthashastra; Nayanar Saints; Alavar Saints; Puranas; Jatakas; Sangam
Literature; Stupa; Nataraja-Shiva; Chaitya; Vihara; Mathura Sculptural Art; Gandhara
Sculptural Art; Sanchi Stupa; Nagara Style Temple Architecture; Dravida style Temple
architecture; Chola Bronze; Buddhist cave paintings; Temple paintings; Ajanta; Ellora;
Natyashastra; Raga; Rasa; Bhava; Chitralakshana; Types of Abhinaya; Shakuntala.

Unit I:
Sanskrit and Pali Literature: Vedic Corpus (Vedas, Aranyakas, Brahmana, Upanishadas
and Vedangas), Shastras (Manusmriti, Arthashastra and Kamasutra), Puranas and Epic
(Mahabharata and Ramayana); Pali Literature (Vinayapitaka, Suttapitaka,
Abhidhammapitaka, and the Jatakas); Sangam Literature.

Unit II:
Art and Architecture: Mauryan Art; Buddhist Architecture (Stupa, Chaitya and Vihara);
Temple Architecture (Nagara and Dravida Temples).

Unit III:
Sculpture and Paintings: Sculptural Art (Mathura, Gandhara and Amravati School), the
Pallava Art and the Chola Bronze Art; Ajanta and Ellora Paintings.
Unit IV:

3
Interpretations and Perspectives: Indian Art- Various Theories; Study of the
Vishnudharmottara Purana Chitralakshana; Study of the Natyashastra (Natya, Nritya,
Rasa, Bhava, Types of Abhinaya, Regional Theatre).
Essential Readings
 Basham, A. L., The Wonder That Was India (A survey of the history and culture of the
Indian sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims), London: Picador an imprint of
Pan Macmillan Ltd, 2004 reprint.
 Dhar, Parul Pandya, ed. Indian Art History: Changing Perspectives, New Delhi: DK
Printworld and National Museum Institute, 2011.
 Gupta, S. P. and Asthana, S. Prabha, Elements of Indian Art (Including Temple
Architecture, Iconography and Iconometry), New Delhi: D. K. Printworld, 2007 reprint.
 Rangacharya, Adya, The Natyasastra, (English translation with critical notes), New
Delhi: Munshiram Manoharalal, 1999 (or Any other suitable translation).
 Sahu, B. P., A People’s History of India 7- Society and Culture in Post-Mauryan India, c.
200 BC- AD 300, (with a chapter on language and literature by Kesavan Veluthat), New
Delhi: Tulika Books, 2015.
 Shah, Priyabala, tr. Vishnudharmottara Purana, Delhi: Parimal Publications, 2002 (or
Any other suitable translation).
 Singh, Upinder, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From Stone Age to the
12th Century, Delhi: Pearson Longman, 2009.
Suggested Readings
 Agrawala, V. S., Indian Art [A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the
Third Century AD], Varanasi: Prithivi Prakashan, 1965.
 Dehejia, Vidya, ed. Representing the Body: Gender Issues in Indian Art, New Delhi: Kali
for Women and The Book Review Literary Trust, 1997.
 Deva, Krishna, Temples of North India, New Delhi: National Book Trust, 2010 reprint.
 Kaul, Shonaleeka, ed. Cultural History of Early South Asia, New Delhi: Orient
Blackswan, 2014.
 Sivaramamurti, C., Indian Painting, New Delhi: National Book Trust, 2013 reprint.
 Srinivasan, K. R., Temples of South India, New Delhi: National Book Trust, 2010
reprint.
 Winternitz, M., A History of Indian Literature- Vol. 1, 2, 7 3, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
1991 third edition.
 Zvelebil, Kamil V., A History of Indian Literature Vol. X: Tamil Literature, Wiesbaden:
Otto Harrassowitz, 1974.

4
 Chapter 1
Sanskrit Literature: Vedic Corpus, Shastras, Puranas and
Epics

Structure
1.0. Objectives
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Vedic Corpus
i. Rigveda
ii. Samaveda
iii. Yajurveda
iv. Atharvaveda
v. Brahmanas
vi. Aranyakas
vii. Upanishads
viii. Vedanga
1.3. Shastras
1.4. Indian Epics
1.5. Puranas
1.6. Summary
1.7. References & Further Readings
1.8. Model Questions

1.0. OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
 Understand the nature and diversity of early Indian Sanskrit literature.
 Acquire information about the Vedic Corpus.
 Gain knowledge regarding Shastras, Epics and Puranas.
 Understand how and why early Indian literature was composed?

1.1. INTRODUCTION
The literary works in Sanskrit language that deal with religious themes ranging from
mythical stories to philosophical discourses to code of conduct for the followers is
discussed in this chapter. The Brahmanical Sanskrit literature is divided into two
categories: shruti meaning heard and smriti meaning remembered. In shruti category
comes four Vedas. These are Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda
besides Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. It was believed that these were
heard by the sages while meditating or were revealed to them. In this way, according to
traditions, the shruti literature was not created by human beings rather descended
upon them. On the other hand texts like Vedanga, Puranas, epics and Shastras come
under the category of smriti.

1.2. VEDIC CORPUS

5
The term Veda is derived from the root vid literally meaning ‘to know.’ Hence it means
knowledge or wisdom. The Vedic literature belongs to the period from about 1500 to
600 BCE, and it consists of three different classes of literary works; and to each of
these three classes belongs also a large or small number of individual works, of which
some have been preserved but many have been also lost today. These three classes
are: Samhitas, i.e., ‘collections’ namely collections of hymns, prayers, magic songs,
benedictory words, sacrificial formulas and litanies. There are four Samhitas, which
differ sharply from one another and which are preserved to us in one or more
recessions. They are: Rigveda (i.e., ‘the veda or the knowledge of the praise-songs’),
Samaveda (i.e., ‘of the knowledge of the melodies’), Yajurveda (i.e., ‘of the knowledge
of the sacrificial formulas’), and Atharvaveda (i.e., ‘of the knowledge of the magic
formulas). The Brahmanas are extensive prose texts which contain theological
discussions, especially observations on the sacrifice and the practical or mystical
significance of the individual sacrificial rites and ceremonies. The Aranyakas (Forest
Texts) and Upanishads (secret teachings) are partly included in or appended to the
Brahmanas itself and partly are supposed to be independent works. They contain the
meditations of hermits in forests and ascetics on God, world and man. And in them a
good amount of Indian philosophy is contained.

i) Rigveda: The oldest Veda is Rigveda belonging to the period from about
1500 to 1000 BC. It contains ten mandalas or books comprising 1,028
hymns (suktas). The oldest sections of Rigveda are represented by books II-
VII. These are also called family books because by tradition they are
attributed, each one, to a family of reciters. These books are named after the
clan or family of poets (i.e. Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri,
Bharadvaja and Vasishtha) who composed these. The book VIII contains
hymns that are attributed to the recite-family of the Kanvas and that of the
Angiras. The book IXth is dedicated to soma, a famous intoxicating drink,
and it acquires a unitary character by the fact that it contains exclusively
hymns which glorify the Soma-drink and are dedicated to the Soma-god.
Soma is the name of a plant out of which an intoxicating juice is extracted,
which was considered as a drink welcome to the Gods and therefore played
a prominent role in the sacrifices of the ancient Indians. The Iranians called
it, Haoma. Soma is celebrated in the Rigveda not only as the sacrificial drink
dear to the gods but also as the moon, the king of the sky. The Ist and Xth
books of Rigveda are the latest addition. The Xth book for the first time has
mentioned about four-fold varna hierarchy. It also provided information about
farming. Rest of the three Vedas (Sama, Yajur, and Atharva) belong to the
period from about 1000 to 600 BC. In the 6th century BC was written a text
named Nirukta by Yaska on the etymology of the words in Rigveda. We have
only an exhaustive commentary from the 14 th century AD, which explains the
text of the Rigveda word for word. This is the famous commentary of
Sayana.

6
ii) Samveda: The best known Samhita of the Samaveda is of the Kauthumas,
which consists of two parts, the Archika or the collection of stanzas, and the
Uttararcika, the second collection of stanzas. Both parts consist of verses all
of which recur in the Rigveda. The Samaveda comprises of 1,810 hymns.
These hymns are mostly derived from Rigveda. Most of these verses are
composed in the Gayatri metre or in the Pragatha-stanzas made up of
Gayatri-and Jagati-lines. And the stanzas and songs compose in these
metres were doubtless meant to be sung during rituals. Therefore, it is
considered the earliest text on music ever composed in India. The first part
of Samadeva-Samhita, the Arcika consists of 585 individual stanzas, to
which the various hymn-melodies belong, which were used during the
sacrifice. O the other hand, the Uttararcika, the second part of the
Samadeva-Samhita consists of 400 songs, mostly of three stanzas each and
these were sung at the Vedic sacrifices. Whereas in the Archika the stanzas
appear arranged partly according to the meters and partly according to the
gods- and that in the order Agni, Indra, Soma- the songs in the Uttararcika
are arranged in the order of the chief sacrifices. It is usually presumed that
the Uttararcika is of a later origin than the Arcika. The melodies of the
Samaveda were considered as having magical powers, and there is a ritual
book of the Samaveda, i.e., Samavidhana Brahmana, whose second part is
a special hand book of magic, in which the use of various hymn-melodies for
purposes of magic is taught. Thus the Samaveda-Samhita is valuable to the
history of the Indian concept of sacrifice and magic, and also for the history
of music. The priests trained in the Samaveda were known as Udgatar.

iii) Yajurveda: The Yajurveda mainly deals with rituals meant to be performed
at different sacrifices. It comprises two texts, one- Black Yajurveda and
second- White Yajurveda. Contrary to it, White Yajurveda comprises only the
prayers and hymns without any explanations. And the priests trained in
Yajurveda were known as Adhvaryu. The main difference between the
Samhitas of the black Yajurveda and white Yajurveda lies in this that the
Vajasaneyi-Samhita contains only the mantras, i.e., the prayers and
sacrificial formulas which the Adhvaryu priest has to say, while the Samhitas
of the black Yajurveda contain, in addition to mantras, also a description of
the sacrificial rites together with discussion on them. Thus there is, in the
Samhitas of the black Yajurveda that which is called “Brahmana” or
“theological discussion”. As regards the prayers and sacrificial formulas
themselves, which form the main content of the Yajurveda-Samhita, they
consist partly of verses and partly of prose texts. It is the latter that are
termed as “Yajus” and from which the Yajurveda gets its name. What is
characteristic of the Yajurveda are the prose formulas and prayers. Many a
prayer formula of the Yajurveda is however nothing but magic charms in
prose. Even exorcisms and curses quite similar to those which we have
come across in the Atharvaveda, we find also in the prayers of the

7
 Yajurveda. For there are also sacrificial acts through which one can do harm
to an enemy. The majority of the sacrificial ceremonies in the Yajurveda do
not have the object of “venerating” the gods but of influencing them, of
forcing them, in order that they may fulfil the desires of the sacrifice.

iv) Atharveda: “Atharvaveda” means so to say “the Veda of the Atharvans” or

“the knowledge of the magic spells”. Originally however the word meant a
fire-priest and it is perhaps the oldest Indian name for “priest” as such. The
oldest name however by which this Veda is known n Indian Literature, is
known as Atharvangirasah, i.e., the Atharvans and the Angiras. The Angiras
are similarly a class of fire-priests and the word acquired, just like Atharvan,
the meaning of ‘magic-formulas and magic-spells’. But the two words
Atharvan and Angiras describe two different types of magic-formulas;
Atharvan is “sacred auspicious magic” whereas Angiras means “hostile,
black magic.” The magic formulas that serve to cure diseases for example
belong to the Atharvans while the curses on enemies, on rivals in love and
on wicked magicians, etc., belong to the Angiras. The old name
Atharvangirasah denotes there both these kinds of magic-formulas which
form the main theme of the Atharvaveda. The later name Atharvaveda is
only an abbreviation for “Veda of the Atharvans and Angiras.” In this way, the
Atharvaveda, besides comprising hymns, also contains magical charms and
spells to ward off diseases or ill-fate, to gain material success and to subdue
the enemies; and it reflects the popular beliefs and practices. The magic
songs of the Atharvaveda reveal to us a mind that is entirely different from
what we find in the hymns of the Rigveda. Here we move in an entirely
different world. There (in the Rigveda) the great gods of the heaven, who
personify the mighty natural phenomena which the singer glorifies and
praises, to whom he performs sacrifices and to whom he prays, strong,
obliging, partly sublime beings, mostly kind and shining deities – here (in the
Atharvaveda) the dark demonic powers which bring upon human beings
disease and misfortune, ghostly beings against which the magician hurls his
wild curses or which he wants to appease and banish with flattering
speeches. The Saunakiya/Shaunaka recession of Atharvaveda comprises
731 hymns, which contains about 6000 verses, divided into 20 books. It has
heavily borrowed verses from Rigveda particularly from the Xth book.

v) Brahmanas: The Brahmanas (different from brahmana varna) explain the

origin and meaning of various hymns of Samhitas (or Vedas). The word
Brahmana (neutral) means primarily an “explanation or expression of a
learned priest, a doctor of sacrificial science on some point of the ritual.”
Used collectively this word denotes then a collection of such
pronouncements and discussions of the priests on the science of sacrifice.
Sacrifice is the sole theme of Brahmanas, and it is sacrifice which is the
starting point of all discussions and around which everything revolves. And

8
 the Brahmanas treat one after another the great sacrifices which we have
found in the contents of the Vajasaneyi-Samhita, give rules for the individual
rites, and ceremonies, add to them observations on the relationships of the
individual sacrificial acts to one another and to the texts and prayers given
sometimes in full and sometimes abridged. Symbolic explanations and
speculative reasons for the ceremonies and for the connection with the
prayer-formulas follow them. Sometimes there is also the talk of the
differences in the ceremonies in different parts of the country as well as of
the modifications of certain sacrificial rites under special circumstances. They
never fail to mention in the case of every sacrifice, what the reward for the
priests, the Dakshina should consist in. Similarly the sacrifice is told clearly
what all advantages he can obtain through the various sacrificial rites in this
life or after death. In short, if we may be permitted to apply the word
“science” to theological knowledge, we can describe the Brahmanas at best
as texts, which deal with the “science of sacrifice”. Each Veda is associated
with one or more than one Brahmanas, for instance, the Rigveda (Aitareya
Brahmana and Kaushitaki or Sankhayana Brahmana), Samaveda (Tandya-
Maha-Brahmana and Jaiminiya Brahmana), Yajurveda (Taittiriya Brahmana
(black) and Shatapatha Brahmana (white)), and Atharvaveda (Gopatha
Brahmana).

vi) Aranyakas: According to the doctrine of Ashrama (stages of life) an

individual dvija’s life was divided into four stages- Brahmcharya, Grihastha,
Vanaprastha and Sanyasa. In this way, the ascetic and hermit life was made
an essential part of the brahmanical religious system. The doctrine consists
of the principle that every man belonging to one of the three highest castes,
who wishes to lead an ideal life, must pass through four stages of life. First,
as a pupil (Brahmcharin), he must live with a teacher and learn the Vedas;
when his period of training is accomplished, he must found a household, and
as a house-holder (Grihastha) beget children and offer the prescribed
sacrifices to the gods or cause such sacrifices to be offered. When ripe old
age approaches however, he may leave his house and as a forest-dweller
(vanaprashta) he may now perform sacrificial service only in a limited
manner, but to that extent meditate on the mystic and symbolic significance
of sacrifice. But only when he feels his end approach shall he give up even
this sacrifice and meditation, renounce all action-based piety and as a
recluse ascetic (Sanyasin) meditate only on Brahmana (Supreme Being), the
highest world-principle and strive for union with the same. The Aranyakas
(forest books) were supposed to be studied by hermits (Vanaprasthas) in the
forest, and the main contents of these Aranyakas are no longer the rules on
the performance of sacrifices and the explanation of ceremonies but the
sacrifices and the explanation of ceremonies but the sacrificial mysticism,
sacrificial symbolism and the priestly philosophy. They comprise knowledge
of the mysteries of spirit and rituals. It was believed that this knowledge

9
 could only be conveyed in the isolation of forests. Different Vedas are
associated with different Aryanyakas, for instance, Aitareya-Aranyaka and
Kaushitaki-Aranyaka (Rigveda), Taittiriya-Aranyaka (black Yajurveda),
Shatapatha-Aranyakas (white Yajurveda), and Chandogya-Aranyaka and
Tandya-Maha-Brahmana (Samveda).

vii) Upanishads: The term Upanishad is derived from upa-ni-sad i.e. ‘to sit down
near someone.’ It refers to a knowledge conveyed from one person to
another secretly. The Upnishads are 108 in number. They mainly contain
philosophical discourses revolving around atman (self) and
brahma/brahmana (Supreme Being). In the Upanishads not only kings but
also women and even people of low birth who take active part in the
philosophical efforts and are often in possession of the highest knowledge.
For instance, in the Brihadaranyka Upanishad, a woman Gargi, the daughter
of Vacaknu, is mentioned to have debated with sage Yajnavalkya on
philosophical matters. Maitreyi, wife of Yanjavalkya, appears in the
Brihadaranyka Upanishad as a recipient of higher philosophical knowledge.
In a same way, a person named Satyakama Jabala, who was son of a
woman Jabala and had no knowledge of his father, is mentioned to have
been accepted as a pupil by a brahmana teacher, Haridrumata, the Gautam.
Even a story informs us about a Shudra Raikva, who in spite of his low
status, had mastery over philosophical knowledge and taught this knowledge
to a rich donor Janashruti. King Janaka of Mithila also figures prominently in
the Upanishads as a repository of higher philosophical knowledge. Evidently,
the knowledge in Upanishads was not confined to the Brahmanas; rather, it
was accessible to all the sections of society including the Shudras and
women. It seems that while the Brahamans were indulging in their futile
sacrificial science, other circles were concerning themselves with the
philosophical questions that have been discussed in the Upanishads. From
these circles far from the priestly caste, were born the hermits and
wandering ascetics who not only renounced the world and its pleasures but
also did not associate themselves with the sacrifices and ceremonies of the
Brahmanas. However, if not all, but some Brahmanas did participate in the
philosophical debates and speculations. Like Brahmanas and Aranyakas,
Upanishads too were associated with different Vedas, for instance, Aitareya-
Upanishad and Kaushitaki-Upanishad (Rigveda), Taittiriya-Upanishad,
Maha-Narayana-Upanishad and Kathaka-Upanishad (black Yajurveda),
Brihadaranyaka-Upanishad and Isha-Upanishad (white Yajurveda), and
Chandogya-Upanishad and Kena-Upanishad also known as Talavakara-
Upanishad (Samaveda). The Upanishads named, Mundaka and Prashna
belong to the Atharvaveda. However, the six Upanishads, viz., Aitareya,
Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya, Kaushitaki and Kena represent the
earliest stage of development in the literature of the Upanishads.

10
 viii) Vedangas: At later stage supplementary texts called Vedangas (literally
meaning ‘limbs of Vedas’, circa 600 – 200 BC) were composed. The purpose
was to help in the proper recitation and understanding of the Vedas. There
are six Vedangas, which are: Shiksha (pronunciation), Kalpa (ritual),
Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda (meter), and Jyotisha
(astrology). Shiksha means actually “instruction”, then in particular
‘instruction in reciting’, i.e., in the correct pronunciation, intonation, etc., of
the Samhita texts. The Kalpa-sutra comprises Shrautasutras, Grihyasutras
and Dharmasutras. The sutra means thread. The Shrautasutras are related
to Vedic sacrifices while Grihyasutras to domestic rituals. The Shrautasutras
contain the rules for the inception of the three sacrificial fires- for the fire-
sacrifice (Agnihotra), for the new-moon and full-moon sacrifices, for the
seasonal offerings, for the animal sacrifice and in particular for the Soma-
sacrifice with its numerous derivations. On the other hand, Grihasutras
contain the rules for all customs, ceremonies and sacrifices through which
the life of an Indian, starting with the moment when he is received in his
mother’s womb up to the hour of his death and even beyond this by means
of the funeral rites and the soul-cult, receives a higher “initiation” which the
Indians call “samskara”. The knowledge of Vyakarana helped the priests to
understand the hymns and rituals better, and Nirukta explained the roots of
different words and their meanings of hymns/prayers. The Chhanda helped
the priests in the recitation of hymns at appropriate rhythms. And Jyotisha
facilitated the knowledge of appropriate time for the performance of rites and
sacrifices.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Write the names of Four Vedas.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

b. How the Aranyakas are different from the Upanishads?

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________

c. Write a note on the Brahmana texts.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________

1.3. SHASTRAS
The Dharmashastras are legal treatises providing rules and regulations for the conduct
of all the four varnas in society. The term Dharma is derived from the root dhri meaning

11
‘to maintain or support or sustain.’ According to Upinder Singh ‘…concept of dharma is
based on the idea that the universe is governed by a certain natural law and that the
moral law guiding people’s lives should be in consonance with that natural law.’ The
Dharmashastras is a term that refers to a group of legal treatises mainly comprising-
Dharmasutras, Smritis, Tikas and Nibandhas. The Dharmasutras were roughly
composed between circa 500 and 200 BC. Important Dharmasutras are Apastamba,
Baudhayana, Gautama and Vasistha. The Apastamba and Baudhayana are
considered to be the most ancient, while Gautama and Vasistha belonged to a later
period. They were followed by Smriti literature, composed between circa 200 BC and
900 AD. They further refined the varna based legal system. The Manusmriti, also
known as Manu Samhita or Manaya-Dharmashastra was one of the famous legal texts.
It was composed between 200 BC and 200 AD. Other Smritis like Yajnavalkya,
Narada, Katyayana and Brihaspati were composed in the first half of the first
millennium AD. They provide information about royal functions, administration, various
ministers, judicial machinery, and so forth. Several of Tikas (commentaries) and
Nibandhas (digests) have been composed on Dharmasutras and Smritis in a longer
period from 700 to 1800 AD. They basically explain the meaning of obscure provisions
mentioned in Dharmasutras and Smritis according to the need of their own time and
space.
The Manusmriti provided the rules related to education of the young, rites of
passage, rituals and religious ceremonies, marriage and marital rights as well as
obligations, dietary restrictions and food transactions, norms related to the professional
activities of different social groups, sins and expiations, king and administration of
justice, death and ancestral rites, and also rules related to crimes and punishments.
Overall the Manusmriti looked after the social-cultural life of the people. The
Arthashastra that was first discovered in 1905 by R. Shamasastry is the major ancient
Indian text on political economy and it was authored by Kautilya (also known as
Vishnugupta and Chanakya). It’s dated to the Mauryan period; but Thomas R.
Trautmann suggests that it belongs to a period between circa 300 BCE and 100/200
AD. This text deals with the science of polity comprising administration functions,
taxation, civil and criminal judiciary, training of princes, organization of military,
recruitment and duties of ministers, guild co-operations, and so forth. The nature of
Kamasutra, which was authored by Vatsyayana Mallanga, was entirely different from
the Manusmriti and the Arthashastra, and it a famous treatise on the art of living. Dated
to circa 300/400 AD, the Kamasutra talks about finding a partner, maintaining power in
marriage, committing adultery, living as or with courtesan, using drugs, and so forth.
The three categories of texts, corresponding to Dharma, Artha and Kama actually
translated the ideals of Purushartha (for aims of human life) into literary and normative
forms. An individual is expected in the Hindu social philosophy to contribute maximally
to his own self-perfection by achieving the four basic aims of his life or Purusartha. The
Sanskrit expression Purusartha literally means “aim of a person.” The term Purusa
means “person” or “man,” and Arth means “aim”, “goal” or “purpose”. The term
Purushartha thus refers to the fundamental aspirations, aims and purposes of an
individual, which he consciously pursued in his life. There are four aims according to

12
Brahmanical literature an individual is required to achieve: Dharma (morality or virtue),
Artha (means of life), Kama (pleasure) and Moksha (salvation). The attainment of
these goals results in the happiness and good life. Therefore, society needs to be
organized in a manner that it would provide required help to each individual in the
attainment of these aims of life.
Broadly the Dharma comprises duty, religion, religious merit, morality, social and
ritual obligations, the law and justice. The Artha refers to money, political power, and
success. The Kama on the other hand represents to not only sexual or sensual desire,
pleasure and happiness but also to a desire to enjoy good music, food, perfume,
clothes, paintings, poetry etc. Out of these four, Moksha or salvation is considered as
the highest aim of one’s life. But equally important is Dharma which regulates human
life. Without Dharma one would not attain other three other goals of life as it is Dharma
which makes possible a life according to the right principles. It is also mentioned in
both the epics –the Ramayana and the Mahabharata- that Dharma is the source of
Artha and Kama. Hence, the Hindu social philosophy maintains that the accumulation
of wealth and enjoyment of life should be according to Dharma.

1.4. INDIAN EPICS

The two great epics- the Mahabharata and the Ramayana- were written over a long
period. The Mahabharata of Vyasa, originally consisted of 8800 verses, was called jaya
or victory. When its verses were increased to 24000 it was named after a Vedic tribe
Bharata. At the time of its final compilation, it had 100,000 verses. And it was named
Mahabharata or the Shatasahasri Samhita. Its narrative portion, dealing with Kaurava-
Pandava war belongs to later Vedic period. Its descriptive portion belonged to post-
Vedic and didactic portion to post-Mauryan and Gupta periods. In Brahmana texts,
Bharata, mentioned as a son of king Dushyanta and Shakuntala, was an ancestor of a
royal lineage that ruled a region of upper Ganga and Yamuna. Kuru was a descendent
of Bharata, and his descendents were called Kuru or Kauravas, ruling a region named
after them, Kurushetra (land of the Kurus). A family feud in the house of Kurus resulted
in a bloody battle that almost entirely ruined the ruling house. This battle was narrated
in songs and poems, which were eventually combined by some unknown poets into a
lengthy heroic poem of the great battle. Over a period, a great mass of diverse poetry
was collected around the nucleus of the war. Numerous legends narrating the
adventures of heroes and kings were added that had hardly any link with the main
battle. Subsequently, legends of gods, mythologies of brahmanical origin, didactic
section referring to brahmanical philosophy and ethics and laws were added to it. The
epic thus helped in the propagation of brahmanical ideas. The mythology related to
Vishnu and Gita was also incorporated in the Mahabharata. The Mahabharata is
divided into 18 books (Parvans), to which a 19th book Harivamsa was added as a
supplement at a later date. It contains 1,00,000 verses (shlokas) assigned to a single
author Rishi Krishna Dvaipayana or Vyasa. The same Rishi is also held as a compiler
of four Vedas and the author of the Puranas. The Mahabharata is also called
Shatasahasri Samhita, i.e., collection of 100 thousand verses. The marriage of
Draupadi with five Pandavas indicates the preservation of some ancient custom related

13
to polyandry that was not acceptable in brahmanical system of marriage. The poem
mentions that Draupadi married five Pandavas in accordance with the ancient custom
of the Pandava family. It is noticeable that the female characters (Draupadi, Kunti,
Gandhari) are more warlike and vocal. The entire narrative of the Mahabharata
revolves around the Lunar lineage.
On the other hand, the Ramayana of Valmiki originally consisted of 6000 verses.
Subsequently the number of verses rose to 12000. And finally its number reached, at
the time of final compilation, to 24,000. The Mahabharata can be placed in between
circa 400 BC and 400 AD. The Ramayana on the other hand can be dated to the
period between circa 500/400 BC and 300 AD. According to some scholars the last
phase of interpolation in Ramayana ended by as late as 12th century AD. It has been
suggested that whereas Mahabharata epic reflects the geography of Indo-Gangetic
divide, Ramayana reflects the geography of mid-Ganga valley. In the Mahabharata, the
women characters are shown enjoying more freedom while in Ramayana they are
projected in subordination to the male authority. Hence, it suggests that Mahabharata
reflects to an earlier stage of social-political developments. The Ramayana on the
other hand shows a highly stratified monarchical state society of later period.
Therefore, an un-critical use of these epics for the study of ancient Indian society and
polity for any specific period is bound to provide erroneous results. Because, both the
epics reflect to a larger societal and political processes taking place in a longer period.
The Ramayana comprises Book II- Ayodhya Kanda (section of Ayodhya); Book
III- Aranya Kanda (forest section) departure from Ayodhya to forest; Book IV-
Kishkindha Kanda (Section of Kishkindha) Rama forges alliance with Monkeys; Book
V- Sundara Kanda (the beautiful section) Hanuman in Lanka; and Book VI- Yudha
Kanda (battle section) Rama and Ravana war and fire ordeal. These books were
composed between from 5th century AD and 1st century AD, and in the next phase
(form 1st century AD to 4th century AD) Book I- Balakanda (section of childhood) and
Book VII- Uttara Kanda (last section- a postscript on Ravana and Lava-Kusha section)
were added. The third phase (from 4th century AD to 12th century AD) saw minor
modifications and additions in the main narrative of the Ramayana. The Ramayana
initially was in oral form and transmitted from generation to generation in oral form- in
the circles of travelling singers like Lava and Kusha. These travelling singers kept on
either adding or elaborating parts of the legend over the period in accordance with the
taste of the audience. Female characters are docile and subdued (Sita, Kaushalya,
Kaikeyi). Valmiki presented through his poem the Brahmanical ideal of virtue exalting
the householder’s stage of life, and he provided a role model for all kinds of
relationship: father, son, mother, wife, brothers, friends, etc. The Book II- VI of the
Ramayana portrays Rama as a human hero. Book I and VII, Rama appears as the
incarnation of Vishnu. These two books appear to be interpolations. Rama was
transformed into Vishnu’s incarnation around the first-second centuries AD.

1.5. PURANAS
The Puranas according to R. C. Majumdar ‘…are a store-house of traditions,
legends, myths, dogmas, rituals, moral codes and religious and philosophical

14
principles.’ The term Purana means ‘old’. There are eighteen chief or Mahapuranas:
Mastsya, Vishnu, Markandeya, Bhagavata, Brahmanda, Bhavisya, Agni, Narada,
Garuda, Padma, Varaha, Kurma, Linga, Shiva, Skanda, Brahmavaivarta, Vamana,
and Brahma. There are various Upapuranas or supplementary works. Puranas were a
part of a long oral tradition. Though many of the Puranas were finally put into writings
by the end of Gupta period, there were still some, which were compiled quite late. In
fact, interpolations continued to be made in Puranas as late as the 19th century AD.
According to R. S. Sharma, though Puranas provide information about several
kshatriya lineages and dynasties these details are often fabricated. These were written
by the brahmanas for kshatriyas in return of land, wealth as well as other articles. The
Puranas deals with range of themes like grammar, geography, genealogy, astrology,
polity and also shed some light on society, economy, religion, tirthas and legal matters.
The topics of Puranas can be grouped into five-categories: creation of world (sarga),
re-creation of world (prati-sarga), eras of various Manus or Primeval men
(manvantaras), the genealogies of divine beings and sages (vamsha) and list of royal
dynasties (vamsanucharita). From historical point of view, vamsanucarita or
genealogical section of Puranas has special importance. It provides a list of mythical as
well as real ruling houses up to Gupta period. It also comprises the list of Suryavamshi
and Chandravamshi kings by tracing their origin from sun and moon respectively. The
Nandas and Mauryas are mentioned as shudras while Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians
(Pahalvas) and Kushanas have been given the status of vrta-kshatriyas (degenerated
kshatriyas) in Puranas. The Puranas mention Satavahanas as Andhras or Andhra-
Bhritiyas and held Simuka as the founder of the dynasty. It is suggested by Ranabir
Chakravarti that the Satavahanas possibly was a clan or branch of the Andhra tribe or
people who managed to gain political authority in the Deccan and western India. From
a geographical point of view, Puranas were centred in Ganga Valley, western and
northern India with almost no reference of South.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Write the names of Four Dharmasutras.

Answer._________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____________________

b. Explain the term Purushartha.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________

c. Who composed the Mahabharata?

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________

15
 d. Write the names of eighteen Maha-Puranas.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________

1.6. SUMMARY
The ancient Indian people composed variety of religious and non-religious texts
in Sanskrit language. Among these the four Vedas are considered the most ancient,
and also the source of later Brahmanical-Hindu texts including epics, and Puranas. The
study of the Sanskrit literature helps the scholars and students in understanding the
social, cultural and religious developments of the ancient India.

1.7. REFERENCES
Basham, A. L. (2004). The Wonder That Was India (A survey of the history and culture
of the Indian sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims). London: Picador an
imprint of Pan Macmillan Ltd.
Singh, Upinder. (2009). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone
Age to the 12 Century. Delhi: Pearson-Longman.

1.8. FURTHER READINGS

Winternitz, M. (1927). A History of Indian Literature: Vol. 1, Introduction, Veda, National
Epics, Puranas and Tantras. Calcutta: University of Calcutta.

1.9. MODEL QUESTIONS

Essay type questions:

1. How the Vedas are different from the Puranas?

2. Write an essay on the Upanishads.
3. Highlight the key features of Indian epic literature.
4. Discuss the differences between the Manusmriti and the Arthashastra.
5. Write an essay on the Puranas.

16
 Chapter 2
PALI LITERATURE AND SANGAM LITERATURE

Structure

2.0. Objectives
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Buddhist Literature
I. Dating
II. Vinaya Pitaka
III. Sutta Pitaka
IV. Abhidhamma Pitaka
2.3. Jatakas
i) Structure of Stories
ii) Nature of the Jataka Stories
2.4. Sangam Literature
i) The Five Landscapes
2.5. Summary
2.6. References
2.7. Further Readings
2.8. Model Questions

2.0. OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
 Understand the nature of the Buddhist canonical literature.
 Acquire information about the Jatakas.
 Gain knowledge regarding the Tamil Sangam literature.
 Understand social and cultural contexts of the Pali and the Sangam literature.

2.1. INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we will discuss the Pali Buddhist literature and the Tamil Sangam
literature. The Pali literature, whereas provides valuable light about the Buddhist
perspective to complex philosophical ideas but also the story literature that was
composed to spread Buddhism among the wider population. On the other hand,
Sangam literature was composed in Southern India in Tamil language, and it throws
valuable light on the historical processes that shaped the history of peninsular Indian
society. The Pali and the Sangam literature also allow the students and scholars to
understand their character that distinguishes it from the Sanskrit-Brahmanical-Hindu
literature.

2.2. BUDDHIST LITERATURE

Gautam Buddha was born about 480 BC and according to a reliable tradition he lived
for 80 years. As a young man of 29 years he is said to have taken to the life of a
wandering ascetic and thus begun to seek the path of salvation. As a mature man after
17
hard inner conflicts he began to proclaim what he had discovered. Thus the time
between 525 BC and 480 BC might be considered as the period of the Buddha’s
activity, the founding and propagating of that Indian religion of the world. It is reported
that a few weeks after the Buddha’s death in the town of Rajagriha (the present Rajgir)
a meeting of monks was held by the direct disciples of the Buddha- the so called first
Buddhist Council – in order to fix a cannon of religion (Dharma) and of orderly
discipline (Vinaya). However, a real canon of sacred texts was compiled probably only
during the third council, which is still in its essence certainly creditable, took place at
the time of the famous king Ashoka. The Buddhist community was even in those days,
already split into numerous sects and, therefore, it is probable that the need was felt to
compile a canon of texts for the strictly religious people- i.e., for those who wanted to
be considered as followers of the original doctrine of the Buddha. No less probable is
however, that such a compilation took place precisely during the reign of King Ashoka.
It seems that the orthodox Buddhists would feel the need of compiling a canon of
doctrines, monastic rules and authentic texts as a defence against the schismatic
tendencies, and therefore several Buddhist councils took place after the death of
Buddha. In these councils the Buddhist cannon were compiled and codified for
reference in future occasions. After the third Buddhist council, as it is evident from the
Buddhist legends, the Pali canons (Tripitakas) were introduced by Mahindra into Sri
Lanka, when he reached there on a Buddhists mission. Thus these texts reached Sri
Lanka; it seems that first the canons were handed down orally and at later date the
Singhalese king Vattagamani in the first century BC committed these to writing. It is
believed that the Pali canons that were compiled in the third Buddhist council at
Pataliputra (modern Patna, Bihar) under the Mauryan king Ashoka’s patronage were
brought to Sri Lanka by Mahindra and then after they were persevered in Sri Lanka
and these are known as the Pali Tripitakas (the Sutta Pitaka, the Vinaya Pitaka and the
Abhidhamma Pitaka). The term Pitaka simply means: Basket and Tripitaka means:
three baskets.

i) Dating
The canonical literature comprises works on monastic rules and regulations, code of
conduct for monks, nuns, and lay worshipers, and basic principles of the sect. The
Theravada Buddhist literature in Pali, which is commonly known as Tripitaka (three
baskets) consists of: Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. The
inscriptions and sculptures at Bharhut and Sanchi show the depiction of Jataka tales
and stories related to Buddha’s life and majority of these are dated to the second and
first Century BC. It suggests that sometime before the second century BC, there was
already a collection of Buddhist texts, which was called “Pitakas”, and these were
popular among the people. The same is suggested by the non-canonical text, the
Milindapanha (literally meaning, Questions of Milinda) which is dated to the first century
AD and it informs us about the Tri-Pitakas. Thus, the Vinaya and Sutta Pitakas were
written before 300 BC. And the Abhidhamma Pitaka and particularly Khuddaka Nikaya
were composed during the reign of king Ashoka. The Khuddaka Nikaya consists of the
Jatakas, Dhammapada and Therigatha. Interestingly, Therigatha (hymns of the nuns)

18
consisting about 522 hymns were composed by the female nuns. As it has already
mentioned above, these canons –Sutta, Vinaya and Abhidhamma Pitakas were
formulated in northern India. But these were put into written form in Sri Lanka at a later
date.

ii) Vinaya Pitaka

The inaya Pitaka is a collection of rules and regulations for monks and nuns. The
following texts belong to the Vinaya Pitaka: i) The Suttavibhanga comprising Parajika
and Pacittiya, ii) Khandakas comprising Mahavaga and Cullavagga. iii) Parivara or
Parivarapatha. The nucleus of the Vinayapitaka is the Patimokkha, which contains a
list of transgression against the rules of discipline of the Sangha and also the
corresponding atonements. The life of the monk was regulated by this code of rules,
which formed the bond holding the Buddhist community together. Its immense
significance as regards the stability of the Buddhist order becomes evident from a
speech attributed to Ananda in which he declares that through Buddha had not
appointed any one of his disciples as his successor nor invested him with the supreme
authority, the community of monks would continue, because Buddha had proclaimed
the Sikkhapada (ten commandments for the conduct of the monks) and the
Patimokkha to the monks.

In the light of Patimokkha rules, Buddhist monks used to assemble twice every month
in their monasteries on the new-moon and the full-moon days to perform the Upostha
ceremony. In this ceremony, monks recited the Patimokkha rules and admitted their
major and minor sins. According to their sins, they then performed atonements. The
Upostha ceremony was probably already instituted by Buddha himself in his lifetime.
The Suttavibhanga means “explanations of the Suttas” and in this case we should take
“Sutta” to mean the separate clauses or articles of the Patimokha. Each Sutta, i.e.,
each single article, is explained word for word and in an introduction it is related, where
and on what occasion the Buddha issued the decree in question. On the other hand,
the Khandhakas, i.e., “sections” which give the precepts for the various arrangements
of the Sangha and regulate the entire conduct of the monks and nuns in their daily life,
from a kind of continuation and supplement of the Suttavibhanga. Rules related to the
admission of individual into Sangha, the Upostha ceremony, and the life during the
rainy season, were included in the Khandakas. Even the rules for wearing of shoes,
use of medicines and even clothing of monks were formulated. Within a Sangha, the
life of the monks and nuns was governed by the rules included in the Khandhakas of
Vinaya Pitaka. In a same way, the first nine sections of the Chullavagga, i.e., the
“lesser section”, deal with the disciplinary methods in lesser matters, with various
atonements and penances, the settlement of disputes, the daily life of the monks,
dwellings and furnishing of dwellings, the duties of monks towards one another and the
exclusion from the Patimokkha ceremony. Section X of the Chullavagga deals with the
duties of the nuns.

iii) Sutta Pitaka

19
The Sutta Pitaka contains the teachings of Buddha and his close companions. Just as
the Vinaya Pitaka is our best source for the Sangha, i.e., the institution of ancient
Buddhist order, and the life of the monks, so also is the Suttapitaka, our most reliable
source for the Dhamma, i.e., the religion of the Buddha and of his early disciples. But in
the Suttapitaka we find also in the prose of the dialogues and stories as well as in the
sayings and songs the most significant literary works that Buddhism has produced. The
Sutta Pitaka consists of five Nikayas or “collections”, namely: i) Dighanikaya, ii)
Majjhimanikaya, iii) Samyuttanikaya, iv) Anguttaranikaya and v) Khuddakanikaya. The
Khuddakanikaya comprises texts such as Dhammapada, Theragatha, Therigatha,
Jatakas, Buddhavamsa and so forth. The first four Nikayas (Dighanikaya,
Majjhimanikaya, Samyuttanikaya and Anguttaranikaya) have for their contents the
doctrinary lectures, which are either speeches of Buddha or they are dialogues with
framework narratives (called Itihasa-samvada, itihasa dialogues). The ethical questions
connected with virtue (sila), concentration (Samadhi) and insight (panna), which leads
to the state of an arhat (i.e., the ideal of devout life) are discussed in the doctrinary
lectures. The ethical doctrines of the Buddha are frequently set up controversially as
against the teachings of the Brahmanas and of other religious leaders. In addition,
discussions on the futility of the desires, on the reprehensibility of the belief in the soul,
on the Nirvana, on the various kinds of meditation etc., are part of these Nikayas. On
the other hand, the Khuddakanikaya or the “collection of smaller pieces” usually
considered as the fifth Nikaya and therefore as part of the Sutta Pitaka should be more
properly called the “collection of Miscellanea.”

iv) Abhidhamma Pitaka

The Abhidhamma Pitaka is a work on Buddhist philosophy. As the word Abhidhamma
means “higher religion” or the “higher subtleties of religion”, it is used sometimes to be
translated by “metaphysics”. In reality however, Abhidhamma has nothing to do with
metaphysics, and as to philosophy, it has no more and no less connection with it than
the Dhamma as taught in the Suttapitaka. Indeed, the only difference between the
books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka and those of the Suttapitaka is, that the former are
most circumstantial, drier, more learned, in a word, more scholastic. Both treat the
same subject. Following are the books that are part of the Abhidhamma Pitaka:

 Book I- Dhamma-Samgani (Compendium of Dhammas): It deals with the

classification and definition of the Dhammas, i.e., the psychical conditions
and phenomena.
 Book II- Vibhanga (Classification): It is merely a continuation of Book I. It
presupposes the formulas and categories of the Dhamma-Samgani, but
new ones are added. Section I deals with the fundamental conceptions
and fundamental truths of Buddhism, with which the Dhamma-Samgani
begins. Section II deals with the knowledge of the sense impression up to
the highest knowledge of a Buddha and Section III with the things which
hinder knowledge. The last section, which deals with the various

20
 conditions in human and non-human existences, contains a considerable
mythological element.
 Book III- Dhatukatha (Discourses on the Elements): It is a short text in
questions and answers on the elements of psychical phenomena and
their mutual relations.
 Book IV- Puggalapannatti (Description of Human individuals): It is the
book that classifies individuals according to their ethical qualities.
 Book V- Kathavatthu (Subjects of Discourse): It is a book that focuses on
the history of Buddhism.
 Book VI – Patthana-Pakarana (Book of Causal Relationship) or the
Maha- Pakarana (The Great Book): The entire work deals with the
investigation of the 24 kinds of relationships which are assumed between
the (corporal and psychical) phenomenon: causal relationship,
relationship of the subject and object, relationship of the ruler and the
ruled, contiguity, co-existence, etc. With the sole exception of Nirvana,
which is absolute, there is nothing which is not in some sense relative,
i.e., which is not related to something else in one of the 24 ways.

2.3. JATAKAS
The Jataka texts consists the stories relating to the previous births of the Buddha.
These stories provide valuable information about social and economic life of ancient
India. ‘Primarily folktales, they speak of the duties of the king, administration of justice,
varnas and jatis and economic activities’. The Jatakas, a collection of 550 stories,
constitute a significant part of the Buddhist tradition. It is probably one of the most
widely known compendiums of the Buddhist world of which many of the stories form
part of the oral tradition. The Jatakas represent a genre of literature, possibly the only
one of its kind for early India that enables us to get a glimmer of the total experience of
men and women who inhabited the world. The Jatakas represent a genre of literature,
possibly the only one of its kind for early India that enables us to get a glimmer of the
total experience of men and women who inhabited the world for which the texts of high
tradition made rules. The Jatakas were composed over a long period of time. The core
literature was composed as early as 5th century BC and by second-third century BC
they began to be depicted in stone reliefs and paintings at Bharhut, Sanchi, Bagh and
Ajanata. Apparently by 300 AD the Jataka literature took its final form and by mid-600
AD elaborate commentary on the Jatakas was finalised. According to scholars, there
are different strands within the Jataka texts that are earlier and later; the core of the
narratives was widely known by the third century BC, by which time they were
sculpturally represented on Buddhist monuments and are identifiable by their titles
which are inscribed at the top end of the carvings. The portrayals clearly utilise a
grammar understood alike by the sculptor, the Buddhist monks and the general public
who congregated at these spots. By about the middle of the third century AD, some of
the Jataka stories were available in Chinese versions, and by roughly the middle of the
sixth century AD an elaborate commentary linking up various parts of narratives, which
was itself inherited as part of the Jataka legends from earlier times, had been finalised.
21
 i) Structure of Stories
A typical Jataka story is divided into four parts:
i) An introductory story (Paccuppannavatthu, i.e., Story of the Present), which is
located in the life span of the Buddha. In this story Buddha starts the tale and narrates
the story of Past.
ii) A prose narrative (Atitavatthu, i.e., Story of the Past) is related to Bodhisattva, a past
life of Buddha himself. It is intimately associated with the idea of re-incarnation or re-
birth. It gives an unusually flexible means of interlinking narratives of many different
kinds. In Jataka stories Buddha is the central character who appears invariably in all
the stories. The story of the present revolves around Buddha and the story of the past
revolves around the past life of Buddha. Bodhisattva, past life of Buddha, refers to a
person, who in spite of attaining enlightenment/salvation, decides to stay among
people or animals and aims to help others attain salvation. Hence Bodhisattva is
depicted in his various births in the form of humans (e.g., untouchable, merchant,
archer, warrior, musician, Brahmin, minister, etc.), animals (e.g., monkey, fish,
elephant, horse and mouse), serpent-king (naga/snake), and plants. In his different re-
births Bodhisattva is illustrated as having all ten qualities, viz., generosity, virtue or
restraints, renunciation, wisdom, effort, forbearance, truthfulness, determination, loving
kindness, and equanimity. These qualities enabled him not only to find a path to
enlightenment but to teach others too. Noticeably, in the end of the Story of the Past,
Bodhisattva dies to reborn again.
iii) The Gathas (stanzas), which as a rule form part of the “story of the past”, but which
are very often, too, a part of the “story of the present time”.
iv) Short commentary (Veyyakarana) in which the Gathas are explained word for word,
and it illustrates the essence or teaching of the story.
v) The “connexion” (Samodhana) in which, finally (again by Buddha himself) the
personages of the “story of the present” are identified with those of the “story of the
past”. In the other words, the tale, the Story of Present is linked to the Story of Past by
identifying characters of the Story of Present with the characters of the Story of Past.
The Buddha of the Story of Present in general is identified, for example, with the
Bodhisattva of the Story of Past.

ii) Nature of the Jataka Stories

The Jataka stories provide evidence of the broad characteristics of the society that was
the locus of the narratives. Sharp differences based on class and caste stratification
were deeply entrenched. Hierarchy and pollution taboos are themes that recur in the
narratives of the Jatakas. Further, the brahmana’s claim to pre-eminence, which is
running theme in the high Buddhist textual tradition, frequently appears in the Jatakas
too, only to be contested and exposed within the narrative rather than through rational
arguments of the Buddha as in texts of the high tradition. The Jatakas are marked by a
comparative looseness of structure and a somewhat dispersed ideological content,
even though the various strands are gathered up and held together within an overall
Buddhist worldview. The Buddhist worldview may be summed up as an emphasis on

22
the rejection of the claim of the brahmanas to social and intellectual pre-eminence
based on birth, and in its stead, the advocacy of acquired spiritual merit, potentially
available to all who are willing to strive for it. This emphasis on equality in the path of
salvation, however, went along with an acceptance of social inequalities (between rich
and poor, high-born and low-born) and a notion of karma, or the fruit of action, which
determined the status of an individual in society, but also made it possible for the same
individual to shape his/her ultimate destiny. The Jatakas are different from the Buddhist
canonical texts such as Sutta and Vinaya Pitakas. The Buddhist canonical texts deal
explicitly with points of doctrine, essentials of Buddhist philosophy and rules of
governance. They are characterised by a fairly tight structure and formal presentation
even while using a narrative mode. The Jatakas, on the other hand, hardly ever make
direct references to the central themes of Buddhist philosophy, but they do take up
Buddhist ethics and deal with them using a more popular idiom. The minimal presence
of philosophical content and the adoption of a narrative strategy make it possible for
more of everyday life to be represented in the Jatakas.

The majority of the Jatakas belong to that type of literary work which consists of a
mixture of prose and verse, a type which is such a favourite in Indian literature. The
Jataka stories were initially in oral form and are derived from folk tales famous among
people in different regions. As we know the Buddhist monks had come from different
regions, cultures and linguistic backgrounds, they brought with them stories famous in
different regions and gradually these stories were reframed, reshaped and modified to
suit Buddhist teachings. And then these were given a written form. According to Uma
Chakravarti, ‘The bhikkhu mediated between the folk tale and the canonical Buddhist
text to construct a unique set of narratives; he mediated also between the great and
little traditions within Buddhism which, as a peripatetic, he was ideally suited to do. The
bhikkhu was on the move constantly and through the daily alms-round, was placed in
close relationship with common folk, whatever his own origins may have been... the
bhikkhu straddled the divide between the common folk and the learned; functioning as
an active bearer of the little tradition upwards.’ The purpose was to spread the
message and teachings of Buddha among lay people through the medium of stories.
These stories are part of Pali canonical literature and are written in Pali language. The
Jataka stories highlight the notion of Karma based rebirth. It means good actions
(Karmas) leads to a birth in higher social groups and bad actions results in a birth in
lower social groups. Bad actions in one life lead to troubled and miserable life in next
birth.

The Jataka tales aim to spread the teachings of Buddhism among lay devotees who
cannot understand philosophical discourse easily; to such people difficult philosophical
teachings are transmitted though the medium of stories. Bodhisattva is depicted as
taking birth in animal forms (viz., monkey, fish, etc.); but these animals invariably
behave as a human being and show human emotions and virtues. Such stories, with
animal as a central character, reflect norms, values and attitude prevailing in the world
of humans. Thus the animal is depicted with internalised social values and norms in

23
these stories. Women as well as lower sections of society are also depicted in Jataka
stories. Patriarchal values reiterated in these stories and women, particularly of upper
classes (e.g., kings, gahapatis, merchants, etc.) are often depicted as indulged in
adultery, lazy and unfaithful. Hence an emphasis is laid on the wanton character of
women and therefore on the requirement to control them by men. Lower classes are
represented in the Jataka stories as engaged in agriculture, tending livestock, craft
manufacture and drudge labour. Poor are depicted generally indulged in labour work to
sustain their families. In this way Jataka stories provide information about different
sections of society and also illustrate the prevailing social hierarchy and gender
division.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Write a note on the Vinaya Pitaka?

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________

b. Write a note on the Suta Pitaka?

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________

c. Comment on the nature of the Jataka tales.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________

2.4. SANGAM LITERATURE

The Sangam or Tamil literature is represented by eight anthologies of lyrics, ten long
poems, and a work of grammar and poetics called the Tolkappiyam. According to
Kamil Veith Zvelebil, “What we have in the two super-anthologies are discontinuous
poems of breath-taking sophistication and of thrilling subject-matter, a literary corpus of
great homogeneity of language, diction, prosody and themes. To a great extent, the
key to this poetry is provided by a structure of conventions as set up in the
Tolkappiyam, the most ancient grammar of the Tamils….” The Sangam literature was
composed roughly between circa 300 BC and 300 AD. The earliest Tamil grammatical
text, Tolkapiyam (third section, named Porulatikaram) provides a brief framework to
Sangam poetry, which revolves around two themes: love (called Akam/Aham, i.e.,
‘inner part’ or ‘the interior’) and war (called Puram, i.e., ‘outer part’ or the exterior).
Akam poems whereas are love poems, Puram poems are all other kinds of poems,
usually about good and evil, action, community, kingdom and mainly war. Puram is the
‘heroic’ and ‘public’ poetry of the ancient Tamils, celebrating the ferocity and glory of
24
kings, lamenting the death of heroes, the poverty of poets. The Tolkappiyam, the most
important expository text for the understanding of early Tamil poetry, distinguishes
Akam and Puram conventions as follows: ‘In the five phases of Akam, no names of
persons should be mentioned. Particular names are appropriate only in Puram poetry.’
The love of man and woman is taken as the ideal expression of the ‘inner world’, and
Akam poetry is synonymous with love poetry in the Tamil tradition. Love in all its
variety- love in separation and in union, before and after marriage, in chastity and in
betrayal- is the theme of Akam. And both forced and loveless relationship (a man and
woman, mismatched in age, coming together for duty, convenience, or lust) on the one
hand and one sided affair, unrequited love or desire on the other hand are the themes
that do not find much space in the Akam poetry. These themes are considered
common, abnormal, undignified and fit only for servants. Most of the Akam anthologies
contain no poems of unrequited or mismatched love. In a same way, there are seven
themes, which are central to Puram poetry and these are: vetci (daring feat of
capturing cattle from enemy territory, or recapturing it back), vanci (taking up the
offensive in anticipation of aggression), ulinai (attack and defense of fort), tumbai (the
heart of the battle field), vahai (military glory of the king), kanci (other worldly glory after
death), and padan (glory of the patron). It is believed that in the three assemblies that
took place at Madurai under the Pandyan kings, Sangam poetry was recited and
composed by bards; however, it was compiled at much later date.

The Sangam poetry is divided into two groups of texts: a) Pattupattu (Pattu means
songs) and b) Ettuttohai/Ettuttokai (Tokai means poems).

a) Pattupattu – It comprises ten Idylls or Songs, Which are as follows:

 Porunararruppadai – It literally means, ‘The Long Guide for the Bard with the
Lute” and mainly focuses on the war (Puram) theme.
 Pattinappalai – It literally means, ‘On the City and Separation’ and focuses on
the love and war (Akam and Puram) theme.
 Perumbanarruppadai – It literally means ‘The Guide to the War-Bards’, and
main theme is war (Puram).
 Kurincippattu – It literally means ‘The Mountain Songs’ and the main theme is
love (Akam).
 Mullaippattu – It literally means ‘The Jasmine Song’ and both love and war
(Akam and Puram) are the main theme.
 Nedunalvadai- It literally means ‘The Good long Northern Wind’ and both love
and war (Akam and Puram) are the main theme.
 Tirumuruharruppadai – It literally means ‘The Guide to Lord Muruku’ and it main
theme is devotional (bhakti). It is the only song that is not associated with either
love or war theme.
 Madurai-k-kanchi- It literally ‘The Advice given in Kanchi’ and the main theme is
war (Puram).
 Malaipadu-Kadam- It literally means ‘The Mountain Echoes’ and the main theme
is love (Akam).
25
  Sirrupanarruppadai – It literally means ‘The Short guide for the Bard with the
Lute’ and the main theme is war (Puram).

b) Ettuttokai (Eight Anthologies)

 Ahananuru – It literally means ‘The Four Hundred Love’ and the poems focus on
the theme of love (Akam).
 Aingurunuru – It literally means ‘The Five Hundred Short Poems’ and both love
and war (Akam and Puram) are the main themes.
 Padirruppttu- It literally means ‘The Ten Tens’ and the main theme is war
(Puram).
 Kurundohai- It literally means ‘The Collection of Short Poems’ and the poems
focus on love (Akam) themes.
 Narrinai- It literally means ‘The Excellent Love Settings’ and love (Akam) is the
main theme.
 Purunanuru – It literally means ‘The Four Hundred Heroism’ and the war
(Puram) is the main theme.
 Kalittokai- It literally means ‘The Anthology in the Kali Meter’ and love (Akam)
is the main theme.
 Peripatal- It literally means ‘The Composition in Peripatal’ and both love and
war (Akam and Puram) are the main themes.

i) The Five Landscapes

The Sangam poetry and songs are set in five ecological zones (tinai or ain-tinai):
marudam (fertile plain), kurunchi (the hills), pallai (dry lands), neital (the coastal lands),
and mullai (the jungle and pastures). In different ecological settings, different
expressions of akam (love) and puram (war) are situated by bards in their poetry and
songs. For instance, kurunchi is considered suitable for union of lovers, and cattle
raids. In a same way, marudam is associated with post-nuptial love, sulking, wiles of
courtesans and seize in battle; pallai setting is suitable for separation of lovers and
victory in battle. Neital is suitable for brief parting of lovers and a pitched battle. On the
other hand, mullai is best suited for the poems/songs exhibiting patient waiting and
brief separation of lovers and also for invasion. The Tamil poets visualized their poetry
by contextualizing the main characters/acts within their immediate ecological setting,
and therefore, different landscapes have become an integral part of the Sangam
poems/songs. These five ecological zones are not simply a region or landscape, where
events took place; rather, they indicate a unity of ‘behavior-patterns’ and ‘appropriate
landscape’.

The Tamil poets believed that human behavior corresponds to their appropriate
ecological settings, and accordingly they composed their poems. The Akam poetry
comprises two coordinates: first, divisions into settings and phases of love. It implies
that a tinai or ecological zone comprises both appropriate landscape and the relative
behavior of people. Second refers to the structured content organization in strata, i.e.,
organization of space, time, native elements and human elements. It is believed that
26
human activities take place within this framework of different strata. Human elements
(i.e., psychosomatic behavior) are arranged in a time-sequence pattern (i.e., narrative
flow) in the Sangam poetry. Here it is noticeable that although nature is considered as
an essential element of the Akam poetry, but it never is treated as a central theme.
Rather, nature always appear as a subordinate to human conduct in the poetry/songs.
On the other hand, varied conceptualization of Eros (physical intimacy), for instance,
pre-nuptial, affection in love, sexual love, chastity, love-quarrels, dislike, sulking,
concubines or courtesans, wife or lover, mismatched love, and so forth dominates the
Akam poetry.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Write a note on the Tolkappiyam.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
b. Define the term Akam.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
c. Define the term Puram.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2.5. SUMMARY
In this chapter, we discussed the Buddhist canonical and non-canonical literature
written in Pali language. This literature was mainly composed in the northern India and
Buddhist monks played a key role in the composition of this literature. On the other
hand, the Sangam literature was composed in southern India and in Tamil language.
Bards and poets particularly played a key role in the composition of this literature with
the patronage of the Pandya rulers of the south. The Pali and the Tamil literature are
characteristically and thematically different from the Sanskrit-Brahmanical-Hindu
literature.

2.6. REFERENCES

Winternitz, Maurice. (1977). A History of Indian Literature: Vol. II, Buddhist Literature
and Jaina Literature. New Delhi; Oriental Books Reprint Corporation.
Zvelebil, K. V. (1974). A History of Indian Literature: Vol. X, Tamil Literature.
Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.

2.7. FURTHER READINGS

Basham, A. L., The Wonder That Was India (A survey of the history and culture of the
Indian sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims), London: Picador an imprint of
Pan Macmillan Ltd, 2004 reprint.
Dharwadker, Vinay. (2012). The Collected Essays of A. K. Ramanujan. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press (Chapter 10: Form of Classical Tamil Poetry), pp. 197-218.
27
Singh, Upinder, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From Stone Age to the
12th Century, Delhi: Pearson Longman, 2009.

2.8. Model Questions

Essay type questions:

6. Why were the Tripitakas composed? Discuss.

7. Write an essay on the internal structure of the Jataka tales.
8. What role five ecological zones (tinai or ain-tinai) in the composition of Sangam
poetry?
9. What role the themes, Akam and Puram play in the Sangam poetry?

28
 Chapter 3
MAURYAN ART

Structure
3.0. Objectives
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Court Art
I. Mauryan palace
II. Mauryan art under Ashoka
a) Stupas
b) Rock cut caves
c) Monolithic Pillars
d) Dhauli Elephants
3.3. Folk Art
3.4. Summary
3.5. Model Questions
3.6. Suggested Readings

3.0. OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

 understand the nature of the Mauryan art.

 acquire information about the role of the Mauryan rulers in the development of
art.
 gain knowledge regarding the folk art under the Mauryas.
 understand how stone became a medium of artistic expression with the royal
support?

3.1. INTRODUCTION
The Mauryan art is associated with the Mauryan ruling houses, which was established
by Chandragupta Maurya in 324 BC. The Mauryan art developed phenomenally under
the king Ashoka (c. 273-232 BC), and this phase of Indian art terminated with the end
of the Mauryan polity in about 185 BC. Strength and majesty were the hall-mark of
Mauryan polity and they are seen at best in monuments of Mauryan art. In this period,
we meet with two styles which may be clearly distinguished, viz., court-art as evident in
the building of the city of Pataliputra (modern Patna, Bihar), the palace with its
assembly hall of Chandragupta and the numerous monuments of the king Ashoka. The
other was a folk art tradition marked by some clay figurines but more conspicuously by
a group of free-standing statues of colossal Yakshas and Yakshis found at Mathura,
Vidisha, Varanashi, Pataliputra and Sisupalagrh in Odisha. The court art was based for
its ideas and execution on the inspiration of the emperors and they style is dominant
and original and marked by a perfection of carving. The planning of the monument is
so vast and grand that it has few parallels in World History. The folk art typifies an older

29
plastic tradition in clay and wood which was now put in stone, as seen in the massive
Yaksha statuary which are also of exceptional value as models of subsequent divine
images and human figurines.

3.2. COURT ART

The major change that the Mauryan rulers and artists introduced in the field of Indian
art in the fourth-third century BC was the first introduction of cut stone as a building
material in religious, no less than secular, architecture and sculpture. Prior to the
Mauryan era, the main raw material that was used in artistic and architectural works
was wood/timber. So in the Mauryan period, we first witness a transition from
wood/timber to stone in the field of art and architecture. Several foreign scholars, for
instance, Vincent A. Smith and F. R. Allchin and several others, credit the Persian
(Achaemenid) influence for the beginning of stone architecture and sculpture in India
during the Mauryan period. It is argued that the stimulus of the Achaemenid Empire
and the invasion of Alexander of Macedonia of India opened the way for travellers to
move between India and the countries to the west. Such contacts may have created a
climate for new ideas to be disseminated. This in turn may have coincided with the
emergence of a group of craftsmen who translated what had been either seen or heard
of elsewhere into actual craft skills, and into something peculiarly Indian. In support of
this foreign influence on the Mauryan art and architecture, it has been pointed out that
the words dipi and lipi occur in the inscriptions of the Persian king Darius as well as the
Mauryan king Ashoka. The inscriptions of both kings begin in the third person and then
move to the first person. Distinct Greek influence and even greater Persian influence
has been identified in the polished surface of the Ashokan pillars and the animal
capitals. The stiff, heraldic pose of the lions is seen as further evidence of western
influence. As far as this issue is concerned, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy pointed out
many years ago that India formed part of an ‘ancient east’- an area extending from the
Mediterranean Sea to the Ganga valley, which had some elements of a common
cultural heritage from very early times. There was plenty of interaction between ancient
India and ancient Iran, whether in the form trade or the conquest of Gandhara by the
Persian emperors. The use of the Aramaic script in certain Ashokan inscriptions in the
north-west and the emergence of Kharoshthi from this script were direct results of the
interactions between India and West Asia.

At the same time, Niharranjan Ray has drawn our attention to the many
differences between the Mauryan and Persian pillars. The pillars of the Kumrahar hall
do not have capitals, whereas those at the pillared hall at Persepolis (of the
Achaemenid rulers) have elaborate ones. The Persian pillars stand on bases, either
shaped like a ‘bell’ (i.e., inverted lotus), or a plain rectangular or circular block. In the
Mauryan pillars, on the other hand, the inverted lotus appears at the top of the shaft.
The shape and ornamentation of the Muaryan lotus is different from the Persian ones,
the bulge typical of the former being absent in the latter. Most of the Persian pillars
have a fluted surface, while the Mauryan pillars are smooth. The capitals of the Persian
columns are crowned with a cluster of stylized palm leaves and have two semi-bulls,

30
lions or unicorns seated back to back, or an upright or inverted cup, with double volutes
on the top. The Mauryan-type abacus and independent animals carved in the round
crowning the pillars are absent in the Persian context. While there may be some
similarities in specific features, the effect of the whole is completely different. Moreover,
by having pillars inscribed with the messages on dhamma, Ashoka transformed them
into epigraphic monuments of unique cultural meaning.

In Upinder Singh’s view: The issue of artistic ‘influence’ is a complex one. There is
no doubt that artist and artistic motifs, designs, and styles do travel- often over vast
distances. In some instances, a particular motif is so strikingly similar to another that
one seems to be inspired by the other. In other cases, there is some stylistic similarity,
but also certain striking differences and innovations. Sometimes, similar designs can
be associated with different meanings. And at still other times, there is similarity in the
choice of motifs, but not in the style in which they are executed, pointing to the
existence of a shared pool of symbols that were considered to have meaning and
significance in different cultures. If the Ashokan pillars cannot in their entirety be
attributed to Persian influence, they must have had an undocumented prehistory within
the Indian subcontinent, perhaps a tradition of wooden carving. But the transition from
stone to wood was made in one magnificent leap, no doubt spurred by the imperial
tastes and ambitions of the Mauryan emperors.

i) Mauryan Palace
The city named Pataliputra (identified with modern Patna in Bihar) was the capital of
the Mauryan rulers, who built magnificent structures here. The actual remains of the
city are found at Kumrahar and Bulandibagh areas of present day Patna city by D. B.
Spooner in 1912-17 and Manoranjan Ghosh in 1926-27. At Kumrahar remains of the
palace and to its north at Bulandibagh a portion of the city-wall for a length of 450 feet
have been exposed. The partial remains of the solid city-wall consists of two rows of
piles or stakes of Sala timber, each 18 feet high and 1 feet broad and both rows being
bonded together by layers of cross planks about 14 feet length with earth tightly
rammed in between them. The absence of polished stone suggests that the city-wall
(fortification wall) was entirely made of wood. The gap between the two parallel
wooden walls may have been a tunnel or it may have been packed entirely with mud.
The wooden wall was originally covered with mud up to a certain height and had a roof
of wooden beam. The remains of what may have been a gateway were also found.
Traces of wooden fortification wall have also been found at sites such as Gasain
Khanda, Rampur, and Bahadurpur, not far from Bulandibagh. Another interesting
discovery at Bulandibagh was a large spoked wooden chariot wheel with an iron rim.

On the other hand, at Kumrahar, sit of old Pataliputra, a mighty pillared hall of
Mauryan date has been found. The assembly hall discovered at Kumrahar was a
mighty and imposing structure without parallel in Indian art. The building consisted of
80 pillars arranged in 8 rows of 10 each aligned east-west with two extra pillars at the
eastern end most probably to accommodate the royal throne. Each pillar stood exactly

31
15 feet apart from the other. None of the pillars had any pedestals and the pillars
rested directly on the floor of the hall which together with the roof seems to have been
a timber construction of maximum finish and grandiose execution. The pillar seems to
have a height of about 21 feet and the girth as well as the shaft, which is smooth and
polished right down to the base, is like those of an Ashokan pillar. In some of the top-
fragments of pillars there are socket holes for metal bolts to hold the super-structure
which show signs of burstings due to fire action. Under the bottom of each pillar was
found in excavation a circle of deep ashes, pointing to the hypothesis that each pillar
was erected on a wooden basement embedded in the earth. This pillar hall, as it is
evident from the thick layers of ash, was destroyed in fire. In excavation, two water
tanks to the north and south of the palace have been found, and it shows that these
tanks were an integral part of the palace architecture under the Mauryans.

In sum, this pillared hall combines certain features which recall the pillared halls
of the Achaemenid palaces and others, which show a distinctly local improvisation. The
concept of a more or less square hall, raised on a plinth and approached up a
monumental ramp on one side appears to us to be distinctly Achaemenid; but the way
in which the structure was achieved suggests that it was the work of local craftsmen,
who had been given a description of the Persian halls and who created their own
solution while reproducing them on the alluvial banks of the Ganga. According to S. P.
Gupta, this pillared hall may have been a canal-side pavilion rather than one of the
formal halls of the palace.

ii) Mauryan art under Ashoka

The king Ashoka was a great idealist in the planning of human relationships, both
amongst his own people and also his foreign neighbours. The surviving monuments,
diverse as they are, show that he had in his mind the whole country or his vast empire.
The wide area of his empire, comprising entire Indian subcontinent except the
peninsular India, was within the orbit of his positive planning and therefore he situated
his fourteen rock-edicts at suitable points punctuating the perimeter of his kingdom.
The next point in his plan was to plot the holy-spots associated with Buddha and
Buddhism and to mark them with commemorative stone pillars (or columns). According
to Vasudeva S. Agrawala, Ashoka carefully selected the spots to erect the stone pillars
with his edicts, and he followed a two-fold plan for it.
 Ashoka erected pillars at Pataliputra, Lauria Nandangarh, Lauria Araraj, and
Bakhira to mark his movement as a pilgrim from Pataliptura to Lumbini, the
birth place of Buddha. At Lumbini, Ashoka raised a pillar with his definite
announcement about his visit to it, and nearby another pillar to
commemorate the enlargement of a previous Buddhist stupa (called,
Konakaman stupa) by him, was erected. In the same scheme, the stone
pillar at Sarnath marks the spot of Buddha’s Turning the Wheel of Law
(Dharma-chakra-parivartana). A pillar stood at Bodhgaya showing the place
of Buddha’s Enlightenment.

32
  The other plan included the pillars to mark the boundaries of Madhyadesha
and the capital of its principal Janapada divisions. For instance, Ashoka
established his pillars at Sankisha (Panchala janapada), Meerut and Delhi-
Topara (for Kurukshetra, the region of Kuru Janapada), at Sanchi for Chedi
Janapada on the grand route from Mathura to Pratishthana (Paithan), at
Shravasti in Basti district for Kosala Janapada, and at Kaushambi for Vatsa
Janapada. Thus the capital cities of different Janapadas (Mahajanapadas)
and the boundaries of the Aryavartha, the heart of the Mauryan Empire, were
clearly distinguished by establishing his pillars at key places.
The raw material for making these magnificent pillars with beautifully carved animal
capitals was sandstone, which was quarried at Chunar, near Mirzapur and Varanasi in
Uttar Pradesh. The archaeological survey of the Chunar area was undertaken by a
group of archaeologists from Banaras Hindu University in the late 1980s, and they
found roughly shaped blocks of stone, some cylindrical and some partly rounded in
section. They found also on the rocks a number of short Kharosthi inscriptions, and
realized that this must be the actual site of the long-famed Chunar quarries. Quarrying
of sandstone still goes on in the neighbourhood, and querns and grindstones are
widely distributed in the local markets. The archaeologists were able to reconstruct
much of the ancient technology. Rectangular blocks of stone were first removed from
the parent rock and then chiselled to cylindrical shape in the vicinity of the quarry. They
were then rolled down the gentle hillslopes to level ground in valleys from where they
were prepared to be transported to the Ganges bank for transhipment. It is probable
that the blocks for carving the capitals were similarly detached and roughly prepared at
the quarry and were only carved into their final forms when they had reached the
required site. This discovery is of considerable importance. It has long been apparent
that the successful transportation of Chunar sandstone pillars to sites as remote as
Lumbini and Sanchi, let alone Taxila, involved distances of hundreds of miles and
called for a remarkable logistical base and mobilisation of both human as well as
material resources. The monuments of Ashokan art as preserved comprise the
following:

a. Stupas of brick and mortar at Lumbini, Sanchi and Bharhut, etc.

b. Rock cut cave dwellings in the Barabar hill in Gaya district.
c. Monolithic stone pillars with large animal capitals.
d. An elephant carved from the rock at Dhauli in Odisha.

a) Stupas
Ashoka himself mentions in the Lumbini inscription that he had in addition to a stone
column also erected a stone railing there to a stupa, and he also claims to have
enlarged the original stupa dedicated to Kanaka Muni at Nigliva. The stupas at
Sarnath, Sanchi, and probably Bharhut also were enlarged in Ashoka’s time by adding
a brick casing round an earthen core, and in this way, small stupas were converted into
large ones. Ashoka had himself had lived at Vidisha and married the daughter of a
merchant there. He thus had a love for the Maha Chaitya at Sanchi and enlarged it by
33
providing a beautiful polished Chhatra Yashti (umbrella with a post) now preserved in
pieces in the Sanchi museum. A polished fragment of a monolithic railing at Sarnath is
usually assigned to the Mauryan period. Likewise, the vajrasana (throne of mediation)
at Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya is a large stone slab under the bodhi tree, and it is
made of Chunar sandstone. Its top surface is decorated with a carved geometric
pattern that looks like intersecting circles. On the sides are carved floral palmette
design and geese (hamsa), in a style similar to that of the carvings on the Ashokan
capitals.

b) Rock cut caves

The tradition of rock-cut architecture, which from the second century BC on to the end
of the first millennium AD was to become so characteristic a feature of Indian
architecture, has its roots in the Mauryan period. And Ashoka was the earliest Indian
ruler, who built rock-cut cave dwellings in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills. The interiors
of several of the caves bear the high polish which is commonly referred to as ‘Mauryan
polish’. There are three caves in Barabar, four in the Nagarjuni hills and together these
all are known as Sat-ghar. These were the gift of Ashoka and his grandson Dasharatha
to the Ajivika monks. In Barabar hill the first is Karna-chopar and second is Sudama
cave. The Sudama cave has two chambers, one circular and an outer apartment with a
vaulted roof. Both the roof and walls of the two caves are finished with a bright enamel-
like polish. The third rock cut cave is called the Lomas Rishi cave, which is similar to
Sudama cave in size and arrangement of the two chambers; but the interior of the
circular roof has been left rough and both the floor and the roof of the outer apartment
remain unfinished. Yet the straight wall has a typical Mauryan polish. The most
important feature of the Lomas Rishi cave is the doorway, a rectangular opening with
sloping jambs and beautified by an overhanging entrance porch, carved with
ornamental features. The Gopi cave in the Nagarjuni hill is like a tunnel in plan, with
two apsidal ends and a vaulted roof, excavated in the time of Ashoka’s grandson
Dasharatha and it shows a continuity of Ashokan tradition in later times.

c) Monolithic pillars
The following are the main Ashokan pillars: Sarnath (with a capital of four lions),
Sanchi (capital with four lions), Ramapurva (one with lion capital and second pillar with
bull-capital without inscription), Lauria Nandangarh (with lion capital), Lauria Araraj,
Allahabad (probably removed by Akbar from Kaushambi), Kosam (uninscribed but with
Mauryan polish), Rummindei, Nigliva, Bakhira (Vaishali, with lion capital), Sankisha
(uninscribed, with lion capital), and two pillars at Delhi removed by Sultan Firoz
Tughlak (originally stood at Meerut (UP) and the other one in Topra (Haryana)).
Evidently, the sculptures on the capitals comprise the four great animals, viz., Lion,
Elephant, Bull and Horse, which are the same as depicted on the abacus of Sarnath
capital. The Sarnatha capital, besides representing Buddhist symbols, expressed the
royal might of the Mauryan monarch. The lions symbolized Ashoka’s royal power. The
wheel, placed on the shoulders of the four lions, is connected to a Chakravartin in
Indian mythology. It suggested the spread of Ashoka’s power in all the four directions.

34
The pillars consist of a long tapering shaft ranging from 12 to 14 meter in length, and 1
to 1.25 meter in diameter at the base; a capital generally in the form of an animal, fixed
on the top of the shaft, both being carved out of single blocks of stone. The base of the
pillar was buried in the ground, to a depth of about 3 meters, and the lower part of the
shaft was left untrimmed, while the remainder was given a fine polish. In some cases
the base was surrounded by a brick or stone enclosure, with rock packing, resting on
bare rock, in other cases, where the soil was alluvial, it stood on a square stone slab.
The capital was attached to the shaft by a finely made biconical copper bolt, 62
centimetres in length, which fitted equally into the shaft and capital. The pillars
represent the highest skill of the Mauryan artists by their noble stature, pleasing
proportions, high finish, gloss-like polish and above all, by the magnificence of the
capitals executed with skilled mastery of long training. If analysed on the basis of form,
the whole monument, for instance in the case of Sarnath pillar, is comprised of the
following components:
 Undressed foundation-block, which supports the shaft, and into which a portion
of the shaft is inserted.
 The shaft (stambha-yashti) or the tall tapering column.
 A bell shaped or inverted lotus shaped capital
 Round drum or abacus carved with four great animals and four Chakra
 Four adorsed lions
 The Great Wheel (now broken).

It seems that the Sarnath capital is the product of a supreme religious symbolism in
which each part is a conscious conception in the aggregate. They must have been
chosen with great care, quite possibly by Ashoka himself. The four animals depicted on
the abacus, viz., Elephant, Bull, Lion and Horse, have symbolic value in Indian
tradition. In the Buddhist conception, they are considered as the guardians of four
directions. The four smaller wheels on the abacus face the four cardinal points and
they represent the wheel of a Chakravarti king rolling in four directions up to the end of
the earth. The chakra is also associated with the sovereignty and is mentioned (along
with the wheel, elephant, and horse) as one of the seven treasures of the chakravarti
king in the Mahasudassana Sutra. The four lions above the abacus are illustrative of
the royal power of a Chakravarti emperor like Ashoka himself. The Buddha also
combined in himself the two ideals, viz., that of Chakravarti and a Yogin and both of
them are juxtaposed in the Lion-capital. On the head of the lions was a Maha Dharma-
Chakra (Great Wheel) fixed by a tenon in a socket in the centre of the lion-heads. It
had 32 spokes but only half a dozen fragments bearing the same Mauryan polish have
been preserved which allow the original wheel to be reconstructed.

We have ample evidence in the various traditions of Indian art and literature that
the great wheel in this position was a symbol of deep meaning standing for Brahmand
Chakra, Kala Chakra, Dharma Chakra and so forth. Although the wheel occurs in Vedic
texts as a symbol of creation and time, on Ashokan capitals it is generally interpreted
35
as the dharmachakra- the wheel of dharma, representing the Buddha’s first sermon.
The lion is a solar symbol in many ancient traditions, but it can be noted that the
Buddha referred to as Shakya-Simha in Buddhist tradition. In a same way, the four
animals were connected with the four great events of the Buddha’s life: the bull
standing for his birth; the elephant for the conception in the womb of Maya, who saw a
great white elephant in her dream; the horse with the renunciation; and the Lion with
the Buddha himself as Shakya-Simha. The elephant also appears in the Brahmanical
tradition as the vehicle of the god Indra and is associated with the goddess Lakshmi in
her Gaja-Lakshmi form. The bull is a fertility symbol in many ancient cultures, and can
also be taken to represent the asterism of Rishabha, under which the Buddha was
born. In a same way, the lotus is a symbol of purity and fecundity in the Indian tradition.
Later Buddhist texts tell us that lotus flowers sprang up where Siddhartha took seven
steps soon after he was born. Taken together, all the symbols associated with the
Ashokan pillars had a special Buddhist significance, but they also blended into a wider
fabric of cultural meaning.

Evidently, it also appears that this symbolism was the result of an attempt to illustrate
Ashoka’s outlook and philosophy of human relationship that is known as Ashokan
‘Dhamma’. According to Vasudeva S. Agrawala, the crowning Dharma Chakra
symbolises Ashoka’s policy of Dharma Vijaya and the four seated lions represent the
majesty and power of the emperor as the supreme ruler of the land. The four animals
on abacus represent the divinity in the various orders of social organisations and the
Dharma Chakras illustrate its underlying unity as actually happened in the life of
Ashoka. Several of these pillars remained firmly stood several centuries later, when the
Chinese Buddhist pilgrims Fa-hsien (c. AD 400) and Xuan-zang (c. AD 630-45) India,
and both of these Buddhist pilgrims record about these pillars in their travel accounts.

d) Dhauli elephant
At Dhauli (Bhubaneshwar district, Odisha) there is a rock sculpture of the front part of
an elephant. His heavy trunk curls gracefully inwards. His right front leg is slightly tilted,
and the left one slightly bent, suggesting forward movement. It is a very naturalistic,
powerful portrayal of the animal, and the whole effect is such that it looks as if the
elephant is walking out of the rock.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Comment on the Persian influence on the Mauryan art.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

b. Highlight the key features of the Mauryan palace.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

c. Highlight the key features of the Ashokan pillars.

36
 Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3.3. FOLK ART

The tradition of folk art may be recognised in a group of free standing statues which
have been found at many places in north India, in Bihar and in Odisha. They are mostly
figures of Yakshas and Yakshis and they are symbol of power, impressive in their
sheer volume, powerful built, colossal size, proclaim unmistakably their divine
character. The noticeable feature of these sculptures is their three-dimensionality and
plasticity. The famous Didarganj Yakshi, having a shining smooth surface, is
discovered in a village near Pataliputra. With a slightly forward movement of upper
body, Didarganj Yakshi has a narrow waist, broad hips, full round breasts, a necklace
hanging around her neck and a flywhisk in right hand. These images are found at
Parkham village (in Mathura district), Baroda village (in Mathura district), Noh
(Bharatpur district), Besnagar (near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh), Pawaya (ancient
Padmavati, now in Gwalior museum), Didarganj (Patna, Bihar) and so forth. The
Yakshas and Yakshis were worshipped by the people as folk/rural cults, and they were
considered as wish-bestowing deities connected with fertility and fortune. As far as the
style of these images is concerned, they are of colossal size, massively built and
display muscular strength. They are usually carved in the round and therefore, they are
free-standing. The drapery consists of a turban on the head, and upper scarf thrown on
the shoulders and arms, or tied round the chest and a dhoti hanging below up to the
ankles and fastened with a girdle. The ornaments consist of heavy ear-rings, heavy
torque and a flat triangular necklace and also armlets with feathered projections. There
is a tendency to depict the Yakshas with pot-belly (for instance, Yaksha image from
Parkham, and Manibhadra Yaksha image from Pawaya). The Yakshas were deities
connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, and the wilderness. Yakshis were their
female counterparts and were originally benign deities connected with fertility. Yakshas
and Yakshi images of stone and terracotta have been found at many sites in the
subcontinent, indicating that their worship was an important part of popular religion in
ancient India.

Other important examples of stone sculptures include the torso of a nude male
figure found at Lohanipur in Patna. It is carved out of Chunar sandstone and has
polished surface. It is possible but no means certain that this figure depicts a Jain
tirthankar. The Didarganj Yakshi was found at Didarganj village in Patna. The figure
actually seems to be an attendant and a Yakshi. Some scholars think that its style,
refinement, and polished surface indicate a Mauryan association, while others think it
belongs to the second century AD. On the other hand, the terracotta art flourished with
the expansion of urban centres. The terracotta figurines of this period vary a great deal
in terms of theme, style, and possible significance, but they do give an important
insight into popular practices, beliefs, and aesthetics. They included male and female
figurines, animals, and carts. Some of them may have been toys, but others, especially
certain female figurines, may represent religious icons. In addition, several carved

37
ringstones (with hole in the centre) and discstones (without hole in the centre), i.e.,
round polished stones, less than three inches in diameter have been discovered. In
most of the cases stone employed for making these appear to be a spapstone or
metamorphosed shist. They occur at sites such as Patna, Taxila, Mathura, the Purana
Qila in Delhi, Kaushambi, Rajaghat, and Vaishali. The size of the discs varies between
about 10 centimetres in diameter for the larger variety, which often have a pierced
central hole, and 5-6 centimetres for a smaller, unpierced variety. They generally have
different sorts of carvings arranged within two or more concentric circles- animals such
as the lion, horse deer, birds, and the crocodile; female figures that may represent
goddesses; trees and floral designs; and geometric patterns. These ringstones and
disc stones may have had a religious or ritualistic significance. Folk art largely
patronized by non-royal people, mostly the rich, had a distinct character of its own and
it hardly replicated the royal art. Nevertheless, in post Mauryan period several artistic
and architectural developments, for instance, the rock cut art, was fully matured with
the popular support.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Comment on the sculptures of Yakshas.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

b. Highlight the key features of the terracotta figurines.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

c. Comment on the ring-stones.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3.4. SUMMARY
The Mauryan age witnessed the use of stone at large scale for the first time in Indian
subcontinent in art and architectural activities and the contribution of king Ashoka in the
development of Mauryan art is significant. The transition from wood to stone was fully
realized in artistic activities during the reign of Ashoka. The Mauryan art primarily was
a royal art due to the patronage it received from the Mauryan monarchs. In addition,
several free sanding images and statues were also built during the period under study.
Images of yakshas, yakshis, and terracotta figurines of the Mauryan period are
discovered, suggesting the prevalence of folk or popular art alongside the royal art.

3.5. REFERENCES
Agrawala, Vasudeva S. (1965). Indian Art [A History of Indian Art from the earliest
times up to the Third century AD]. Varanasi-India: Prithivi Prakashan.
Singh, Upinder, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From Stone Age to the
12th Century, Pearson Longman: Delhi, 2009.
38
3.6. FURTHER READING
Ray, Niharranjan, (1965), Maurya and Sunga Art. Calcutta: Indian Studies- Past &
Present.

3.7. MODEL QUESTIONS

Essay type questions:
1. Assess the role of Ashoka in the development of the Mauryan art.
2. Discuss the impact of Buddhism on the Mauryan art.
3. Highlight the import features of folk art under the Mauryan rulers.
4. How Sarnath capital display the royal power? Discuss.
5. How the royal art is different from the folk art? Discuss.

39
 Images

Sarnath Capital and its abacus showing elephant, lion, horse and bull

Ashokan Pillar at Lauriya- Nandangarh with Lion capital

40
Rock cut cave (Lomas Rishi) at Nagarjuni and Barabara Hills

Dhauli Elephant

41
Yaksha Image from Parkham

42
 CHAPTER 4
BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE AND TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

STRUCTURE
4.0. Objectives
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Buddhist Architecture
I. Stupa
II. Chaitya or Chaityagriha
III. Vihara
4.3. Temple Architecture
4.4. Nagara type
4.5. Dravida type
4.6. Summary
4.7. Model Questions
4.8. Suggested Readings

4.0. OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
 understand the nature of the Buddhist architecture.
 acquire information about the role of rulers and common masses in the
development of Buddhist architecture.
 gain knowledge regarding the temple architecture.
 understand how temple architecture has evolved in ancient India.

4.1. INTRODUCTION
The history of Buddhist architecture is intimately connected with the spread of
Buddhism across India and beyond India. In this chapter, we will discuss stupa, chaitya
and vihara architecture and these three main forms of Buddhist buildings/monuments
have begun to appear after the death of Gautam Buddha. But it was the patronage that
Buddhist community received from the Mauryan king Ashoka and the people of diverse
social-economic backgrounds including artisans, and merchants that facilitated the
construction of stupas, chaityas and viharas in different parts of India. In a same way,
the temples/shrines began to appear towards the end of the first millennium BC. The
earliest temples that are found in India are of apsidal forms; but during the Gupta
period new temple architecture evolved that in subsequent period fully developed with
the royal support. And two distinct regional temple architectural styles came into
existence: one in the northern (nagara) temple architecture, and two, the southern
(dravida) temple architecture. In spite of these regional variations in the temple
architecture, the key features of the Hindu temples remained the same.

4.2. BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE

In the Buddhist architecture, three monument types, viz., Stupa, Chaitya and Vihara
are included. The period, c. 200 BC -300 AD saw an expansion in the number of and
43
scale of Buddhist monastic complexes (known variously as sangharama, vihara or
lena) which included dwellings for monks, stupas and shrines (chaityas). The term
chaitya means a sacred space, but is more specifically used to refer to Buddhist
shrines. Many of the early Buddhist cave shrines contained a stupa as the object of
veneration, and large, independent stupas soon came to form an integral part of
Buddhist monasteries. The term vihara specifically referred to the dwellings of Buddhist
monks and nuns. The stupa monastic complexes were located close to urban centres
and along major trade and pilgrimage routes. Some marked places connected with
important events in the life of the Buddha. Most of the major stupa- monastery
complexes were located on the outskirts of the great cities of the time- Mrigadava
outside Kashi, the Dharmarajika stupa outside Taxila, Sanchi outside Vidisha, Amravati
outside Dharanikota (the Satavahana’s capital), and Nagarjunkonda outside Vijayapuri
(the Ikshvaku rulers’ capital).

i. Stupa
The stupa literally means a mound (Hindi thuha, Pali thubha), was sepulchral
monument generally made of earth on the site of the funeral pyre. Such original mound
of earth served as a core to be encased later by bricks and in the next stage by stone.
It means, first the earthen mounds were erected, and at later date to provide these
durability and stability these were encased with bricks or stones. The stupa
represented many things in the Buddhist tradition. It stood for the axis mundi (the
centre of universe); it symbolised the parinibbana of the Buddha; it was a repository of
relics of the Buddha and other monks; it was a place of veneration, worship, and
pilgrimage for monks and laity. The Mahaparinibbana Sutta suggests that the practice
of erecting funerary mounds over the bodily remains of kings pre-dated Buddhism.
However, there are no references to such a practice in Vedic literature, and the earliest
surviving stupas are in fact associated with Buddhism. These include the mud stupas
at Piprahwa and Vaishali. According to Buddhist legends, before his death Gautam
Buddha directed his favourite disciple Ananda to built a stupa on his remains at the
four crossroads, and his remains should be honoured like a Chakravarti king. In this
way, a stupa commemorates a Chakravarti king and also a Buddha. As an architectural
monument, the stupa comprises the following parts:
a. Pashana-kuttima- The stupa is built on the foundation of stone blocks, which are
called Pashana-kuttima.
b. Anda – On the foundation a hemispherical dome, which is called Anda, is
raised. This hemispherical dome appears like a bowl turned up-side-down or a
bell. The top of the hemisphere is truncated.
c. Harmika- On the flat surface of the hemispherical dome is built a modest
platform enclosed by a railing and it is called Harmika, which literally means,
mansion of the gods.
d. Yashti- In the centre of the Harmika is fixed a post, Yashti, surmounted by a
series of three parasols (trichhatra or Chhatravali). The parasols represented
the Three Jewels of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Law and the Community of

44
 monks. The parasols stood within a square railed enclosure (harmika) derived
from the ancient tradition of enclosing a sacred tree with a fence.
e. Vedika – In course of time, an enclosure wall called Vedika was added to the
hemispherical dome. In the case of the Bharhut and other stupas, the Vedika
consisted of a series of upright pillars (stambha); each pillar was fixed to the
ground by inserting its lower parts in the socket of a stone basement, buried
under the earth to serve as the foundation. Between each pair of upright posts
were fixed three narrower sides of the pillars. The top of the pillars was bounded
by a series of coping stones (ushnisha) which had on the bottom side-socket
holes to receive the tenons of the upright poles. Thus the four constituents, viz.,
the basement, upright pillar, cross bar and the coping were bonded together into
stable structure, which was called Vedika.
f. Torana- The railing (Vedika) was provided on four sides with four gateways
called torana facing the four cardinal points.
g. Pradakshina-patha – The path of circumambulation ran round the stupa on its
ground level inside the railing (vedika). Besides the ground railing another
Pradakshina-path was provided about the middle of the dome by erecting a
raised platform round the Stupa which was known as Medhi, a terrace. This high
terrace for the second Pradakshina-path was also provided with a railing of
smaller pillars. The third railing of which the pillars were even smaller was built
at the top round the Harmika.

ii. Chaitya or Chaityagriha

The covered structure or temple in which such sacred objects are kept for worship
is called cahityagriha or cahitya, sometimes the term bodhi-ghara is used for the
temple housing papal tree. The chaityagriha is an elongated building, structural or rock-
cut, with apsidal end. Near the apsidal end, stupa, a stupa with Buddha image, or
Buddha image in sitting or standing posture, etc., is erected with a path for
circumambulation (pradakshina). Usually the chaitya was excavated perpendicular to
the entrance, which meant that the worshipper would face the object of worship as
he/she entered the chaitya. The light from outside would also illuminate the entire
chamber, including the stupa. In a chaitya we see a colonnade or series of columns,
starting from near the entrance and passing behind the stupa and returning right up to
the entrance. It, therefore, leaves a lot of space in front of the stupa for the devotee in
the chaitya. This empty space in the front of the stupa is called nave. Since the entire
ceiling is ribbed, the architecture is certainly a copy of the wooden architecture; as a
matter of fact in the rock-cut chaitya the wooden ribs are still intact. One of the most
fascinating elements of the chaitya is the entrance which is richly carved particularly in
rock-cut caves. These are marked by huge windows, called gavakshas in the form of
ogee or pointed arches with flat ended base resting on the two inward tilted pillars of
the entrance. On the sides of the window-arch are depicted series (or Jala) of small
caitya windows and other decorations filling up vacant spaces.
The chaitya architecture has evolved over the centuries and scholars have identified
following stages in its development:

45
 i) The development of early cave architecture in India can be traced from the
early reference point of the Lomash Rishi and Sudama caves in the Barabar
hills. At that stage, the chaitya was cut parallel to the rock face and consisted
of a rectangular chamber leading into a small circular room. Both the
Lomash Rishi and Sudama caves were clearly modelled on wooden
architectural prototypes.
ii) The plan of the Kondivte cave (c. 100 BC) in the Western Ghat represents
the next stage. Here too there was a rectangular hall leading into a round
stupa chamber, with a narrow circumambulatory passage around the stupa.
But the chaitya was now excavated perpendicular to the entrance. This
meant that the worshipper would face the object of worship as he/she
entered the stupa.
iii) The next stage in the evolution of Buddhist cave architecture was when two
rows of pillars were introduced, following the line of the walls and extending
into the apse. This created a path for walking down an aisle,
circumambulating the rock-cut stupa in the apse, and walking back through
the other aisle. This is the typical Buddhist chaitya of western India. An
example of this is the large chaitya hall at Bhaja (100-70 BC), with its
impressive horseshoe-shaped entrance arch. The central hall has a high
barrel-vaulted roof, while the side aisles have lower half-vaulted ceilings.
Wooden ribs were added to the ceilings. This and the slightly leaning stone
pillars show the continuing imprint of wooden architecture.

iii. Vihara
The vihara, i.e., monastery for the residence of monks and nuns, is another
architectural form associated with Buddhism. A typical monastery comprised a square
central hall, having an entrance by a doorway and a porch in the front. Usually the
central hall was surrounded on the two or three sides by square cells, each serving as
the dwelling of a monk. Evidences of both structured and rock-cut viharas are found.
The early viharas in the Western Deccan were simple, and usually consisted of cells
arranged around a central hall with an open verandah in front. A few were two-
storeyed. Inside the monastic cell, there was a rock-cut bed and sometimes a rock-cut
pillow. Monks may have placed a lamp in the small wall niches. A few caves give
evidence of relief carving. Some of the narrative reliefs may represent Jataka stories,
while the gods Surya and Indra flank the entrance into the central chamber. The
remains of structured vihara are found at Sanchi and the rock cut vihara at Ajanta,
Ellora, Nasik and several other places in the western Deccan. Since the Buddhist
monks were required to stay at one place during the rainy (monsoon) season to avoid
bodily harm, fixed structural as well as rock-cut dwellings began to be built for them.
Gradually these places became permanent and monks from different areas could
gather here during rainy season and spent time in discussion, sharing of knowledge
and meditation.

46
These viharas were usually located near urban centres and on the inter-regional
trade/pilgrimage routes, and therefore they also provided lodging and medicinal
facilities traders/artisans besides the monks; these traders/artisans in return provided
resources for the maintenance of these settlements. According to Himanshu Prabha
Ray and Kathleen D. Morrison, the expansion of agriculture and trade as well as
artisanal activities in western Deccan under the Satavahana rulers in the early
centuries of the Common Era stimulated the establishment of Buddhist settlements in
western Deccan. In western Deccan, over 800 Buddhist rock-cut caves are known,
ranging from isolated structures to large and elaborate complexes. The most common
forms are viharas, or monasteries for monks and chaityas, areas of worship. The most
direct association between Buddhism and trade stems from the support given to
Buddhist institutions by traders and craft specialists, although a wide range of people
including agriculturalist, also have had made donations. Buddhist philosophy has also
been seen as more favourable to urban living and to long-distance trade than
Brahmanical philosophy, in that Buddhists do not face the same caste-based inter-
dining and food taboos as Brahmanical Hindus.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Comment on the Stupa architecture.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________

b. Highlight the key features of the Chaitya architecture.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________

c. Highlight the key features of the Vihara architecture.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________

4.3. TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

According to Himanshu Prabha Ray, the earliest temples possibly have been the
two elliptical shrines at Besnagar (Vidisha) and Nagari (district Chittor) dated to the
second century BC and first century BC respectively. The Besnagar Brahmi pillar
inscription (dated to second century BC) records the presence of a temple dedicated to
Vishnu at Besnagar and the same is attested by the discovery of temple remains in
excavations. An elliptical temple dated towards the end of the third century BC was
unearthed here during excavations; this temple had a brick plinth and a superstructure
of wood, thatch and mud, but was raised on an earthen platform. Two other elliptical
constructions of the same period are known from Dangwada in central India. One of
47
these with a plinth of boulders was identified as a Shiva temple and the other structure
built of mud as a Vishnu temple. Similarly remains of apsidal shrines dedicated to the
Naga cult (snake worship) are found at the site of Sonkh in Mathura district and are
dated to the first century AD. Thus the origins of the Hindu temple as established by
archaeological data certainly predate references in the Puranas and inscriptions. The
archaeological evidence from the Harappan site of Banawali in Haryana and the
chalcolithic site of Daimabad in Maharashtra also shows that the association of an
apsidal form with religious ritual/worship antedates the emergence of Hinduism and
has a protohistoric antiquity. So Hinduism seems to have drawn elements from older
traditions. Here it’s noticeable that not only in Hinduism but also in Buddhism apsidal
form of shrines were used for religious purposes. It was only from the fourth century
AD onwards a new form of shrines began to develop and these provided the
foundation to the later date grand Nagara and Dravida temple structures.

Generally speaking, a temple is a ‘Place of Worship’. It is also called the ‘House

of God’. However, for a Hindu, it is both and yet still more. It is the whole cosmos in the
miniature form. Stella Kramrisch defined temple as ‘monument of manifestation’ in her
book, The Hindu Temple. Hence its morphology is not arbitrary. From top to bottom the
Hindu temple seeks to represent everything of which the cosmic world (brahmanda),
the entire universe, is composed of: the earthly world (prithvi), the heavenly world
(akasha), the astral world (svarga), and the world below the waters (patala). That is
why on the walls of a Hindu temple one can see the representations of men, women,
children, animals, birds, pests, insects, reptiles, tree, rivers, flowers, seas, mountains,
houses, forts, palaces, villages, huts, etc., which constitute the earthly world. It includes
even copulation amongst men and among animals since it is through the mode of life
that creation takes place. The Hindu temple architecture, i.e., its morphology, follows
the requirements of man’s vision of the cosmos which he wants to recreate on the
earth; it is not the fancy of the architect. Visions differ, therefore, forms differ of temples
but forms are not experiments of architects.
The temple also contains the images of gods and goddesses as well as semi-
divine and mythical beings, including half-human and half-animal or half-bird and half-
reptile form, as described in Hindu mythologies contained in epics, Puranas, and
Kavya literature. The world of waters with fish, tortoise, crocodile, coral, plant, rocks,
etc., which constitute the life below the seas is also represented. Underlying all these
so simple yet to so complex ideas is the water cosmology (science of universe and
origin of universe), which means that water is the basis of all creation and sustainer. It
is for this very reason that from the Gupta times itself the temple pillars are shown
emerging from kalasha or water pot, and the finial or top is embellished with a kalasha.
A temple may be either in the form of a huge sculptured rock, called rock-cut
temple, or else it is a built-structure using bricks, or wood, or stone pieces; sometimes
even terracotta is used. However, it is not the material used which is important, what is
really important is the ‘form’ of the temple. The form is not one but many, depending
upon regional traditions. The early medieval period was marked by remarkable
developments in the spheres of art and architecture. Distinct regional architectural and

48
sculptural styles emerged in different areas, including Kashmir, Rajasthan, and Odisha.
In peninsular India, major edifies were built through the patronage of the Rashtrakuta,
early Western Chalukyas, Pallavas, Hoysalas, and Cholas. In this period, the remains
are dominated by Hindu temples. A number of architectural texts known as the
Shilpashastras were written in early medieval times. These texts refer to three major
styles of temple architecture- Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. The Nagara style is
associated with the land between the Himalayas and Vindhyas, the Dravida style with
the land between the Krishna and Kaveri rivers, while the Vesara style is sometimes
associated with the area between the Vindhyas and the Krishna River. The temples of
northern India generally belong to the category called ‘Nagara’, those of south India
called ‘Dravida’. Those belonging to the middle region (for instance, Karnataka,
Odisha) and of mixed types (Nagara and Dravida) are called Vesara or Besara form of
temple. A Nagara type temple is four-sided. The garbhagriha is perfect square, but the
whole temple plan could be oblong. Its elevation is marked by four-sided neck or griva
and atall tapering shikhara. A Dravida type temple, marked with terraces, is, on the
other hand hexagonal or octagonal from the plinth to the finial. Or else, it is marked by
hexagonal or octagonal griva or shikhara.
It may be noted that while the Nagara and Dravida are considered the pure
types, the Vesara type is considered mixed, in which the elements of both the pure
types are found mixed in a variety of ways. Thus, one can see a Vesara temple having
a square body at different talas but the griva and shikhara circular, octagonal or apsidal
in form. In the same way, the body of Vesara type temple may be oblong but the griva
and shikhara may be elliptical. The Vesara style is hybrid style (vesara literally means
‘mule’) that borrowed from the northern and southern elements may vary. Temples built
in the Deccan under the later Chalukya of Kalyani and Hoyasala rulers are considered
examples of this style. However it may be clearly noted that what is really important is
not so much the shape or form of the basal parts of temple, or even of the body, it is
the plan of the griva and shikhara components which is critical in this classification.

4.4. NAGARA STYLE

The temple remains found at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) shows it to be flat roof and
it is dated to the Gupta period (fifth century AD). During the same period but towards
the end of the century, perhaps at Deogarh, near Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, a slightly more
elaborate temple for Vishnu was built; in this temple the roof over the garbhagriha
became pyramidal, i.e., tall and pointed, resembling a mountain. It is called shikhara,
which is in fact the spire a tall structure that tapers to a point above. The two features,
one- the cruciform plan and second, curvilinear shikhara, are visible in northern
temples from the sixth century AD (the late Gupta period), for example in the
Dashavatara temple at Deogarh and the brick temple at Bhitargaon (both in Uttar
Pradesh). The beginning of the typical Nagara shikhara can be seen in the Mahadeva
temple at Nachna Kuthara (seventh century AD) and the brick Lakshmana temple at
Sirpur (both in Madhya Pradesh). The fully developed Nagara style is evident by the
eighth century.

49
 Usually, the shikhara, the walls and the pillars as well as the roofs over the
garbhagriha and the mandapa, are often decorated with floral and geometric patterns
as well as with the images of gods and goddesses and scenes from mythologies. In
subsequent centuries, a couple of more mandapas are found added, the narrow
covered area or the mandapa in front of the garbhagriha is called antarala or vestibule.
The large hall in front of the antarala is called mahamandapa or gudhamandapa. A
smaller mandapa in front of the mahamandapa is called ardhamandapa, or half porch,
which is reached by a dvara, i.e., doorway, with flights of steps. In this stage of
development, the garbhagriha is surrounded by a corridor or pradakshinapatha or
circumambulatory path, through which the devotees moved round the garbhagriha. At
times windows, called gavaksha were added at different points to allow light and air
pass through the entire inner space of temple structure.
A Hindu temple is also called Vastupurusha, i.e., an architectural piece
resembling the body of a human being. ‘Human being’ here stands for God or
‘Supreme Being’, since he is conceived in the form of man. Later this concept
developed into the mandala concept called Vastupurusha-mandala. Generally, a
Nagara style temple stands on a large and high platform, called jagati, made of stone
or bricks, with several mouldings. It represents the feet of man. Over this stands a
smaller platform of stones, called pitha. Over the pitha rises a still smaller platform,
called adhishthana or vedi-bandha, the immediate base of the superstructure of the
temple. It is on this platform that the pillars and walls of the temple are raised; the top
of the adhishthana or platform is the floor of the temple. Three parts of the temple
represent the ankle, lower feet and upper feet of the human body. The pillared area of
the temple forms the jangha or the thighs. On the gateway, at the top level of the
jangha is chadya or sun-shade, while on the top level of the pillars are mouldings
called varandhika. It is from this level that the shikhara or spire emerges. On the top of
this body of the temple is a constricted moulding, called skandha symbolising the
shoulder of the Vastupurusha, and it was followed by griva or neck. It is topped by a
large amalaka (shaped like cogged wheels or amala fruit). On the amalaka are a series
of discs, called candrika, over which lies a small amalaka, called amalaka-sarika and
on the top of all these is the kalasha with a coconut fruit called bijapuraka, inserted in
its mouth. The whole think represents the head of man and represents the finial. In this
way, a north Indian temple of Nagara style has three basic components:
i) Garbhagriha or sanctum sanctorum or central cella, with only one door, in
which the image of the main deity is placed,
ii) Mandapa or porch in front of the garbhagriha, usually open from three sides
for the worshippers to stand under shade to have darshana (a concept in
which the deity is revealing himself or herself and the devotee is perceiving it
within the depths of his or her inner most consciousness) or view the deity
and offer prayers while looking at the image and experiencing his or her
spiritual presence.
iii) Shikhara or spire is built above the Garbhagriha. At the top of the shikhara is
placed amalaka, shaped like cogged wheel, or amala fruit.

50
 A Nagara style temple has a highly decorated entrance door-frame, including the
threshold, with vertical and horizontal friezes, panels and runner. In the centre of the
lintel is placed the image of some good or goddess, called Lalata-bimba. The
doorjambs may have one, three, five or seven parallel vertical shakhas or offsets,
called dvara-shakhas each one decorated with friezes and panels depicting gods and
goddesses, floral and geometrical designs. At the bottom there may be panels
depicting either the dvarapalas, i.e., security guards, or Ganga and Yamuna, the two
sacred rivers.

In short, a north Indian temple is generally marked by a garbhagriha or room in

which the image of the main deity is placed and can be seen only from one door placed
in the front, generally facing east. In front of this room are one or more side-opened or
covered spaces, called mandapas. There is also a circumambulatory path or
pradakshinapatha for the devotees to go round the garbhagriha. This structure is
placed over a high platform called jagati. There is also a tall spire raised over the
garbhagriha which is called shikhara.

4.5. DRAVIDA STYLE

The basic concept of Dravida type temple is as same as that of the Nagara type
temple, and it comprises the key components for instance, garbhagriha, mandapa,
pradakshinapatha and so forth, which also are part of the Nagara type temple. The
most striking feature of the Dravida temple is its pyramidal shikhara, which consists of
progressively smaller and smaller storeys, culminating in a slender pinnacle
surmounted by a small dome (stupika). In a later stage, South Indian temples came to
be marked by huge gateways known as gopurams and by pillared halls and corridors.
The earliest traces of such features go back to the Gupta period and are not restricted
to the far south- e.g., they occur in northern and central India and the Deccan. They
can be seen in the Parvati temple at Nachna Kuthara and the Lad Khan, Kont Gudi,
and Meguti temples at Aihole. In temples built in the Dravida style, the square inner
sanctum is set within a large covered enclosure. The external walls are divided into
niches by pilasters. A general south Indian or Dravida type temple, communally called
‘Vimana type’, vimana means ship or boat, is based upon Agama texts and Shilpa texts
and, Vastu Shastras. It is marked by six major body parts or angas:
i. The Adhishthana: the base or pedestal or platform on which the whole
superstructure rests;
ii. The Pada: walls with pillars in between them which make and enclose the cell or
room, the garbhagriha, in which the main of presiding deity is placed;
iii. The Prastara: the architrave, i.e., the horizontal beam which marks the end of the
cella garbhagriha walls and the beginning of the spire of shikhara, on which is
constructed the sun-shade or cornice, i.e., eave, called kapota since on this
projection birds are seen sitting and resting in rows.
iv. The Griva: the neck or clerestory, i.e., the upper row of windows or the recessed
part of the beginning of the spire or shikhara. It is the clerestory over the sanctum
(garbhagriha) terrace and entablature.

51
v. The shikhara: the spire or pyramidal roof covering the top of the clerestory of griva;
and
vi. The stupid: the finial in the form of a small stupa or bulbous pot, a Kalasha
crowning the top of the shikhara.

Such a simple construction may be ekatala or single storeyed temple or multi-

storeyed type, bahutala, each succeeding storey diminishing in dimensions, making the
whole structure pointed or pyramidal. Each storey or tala consists of two major parts: a)
harmya, or body, and b) prastara, i.e., architrave. In the south Indian Shilpa texts, we
get the mention of as many as sixteen-storeyed vimana, each rising storey called jati
vimana, the longest one, the first one, the bottom one, is called mukhya vimana. It
makes clear that a typical south Indian temple is marked by distinctly made storeys or
flat floors. In the beginning these storeys were functional, i.e., one could go on them
and move around on the roof, but very soon this became only notional, a design of the
spire or shikhara, a form, a style and no one could actually go to them separately and
move about freely.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Comment on the Nagara temple architecture.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

b. Highlight the key features of the Dravida temple architecture.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

c. Comment on the concept of Vastupurusha.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4.6. SUMMARY
The Buddhist and the temple architecture have evolved over a period of several
centuries in Indian subcontinent with the main support of the rulers, artisans and
merchants. Since the artisans and merchants had been assigned a lower social status
in Brahmanical varna-jati hierarchy, they extended their patronage to Buddhism in
return of a higher social status and recognition of their professional activities. Several
apsidal shrines housing idols of folk deities like yakshas, yakshis, nagas and nagis,
and also of Hindu deities began to appear towards the end of the first millennium BC
with the people’s support. However, it was the royal patronage of the Guptas, the
Vakatakas and several other early medieval dynasties played in the development of
temple architecture with identifiable regional variations. In spite of having common key
features (e.g., garbhagriha, mandapa, pradakshina-patha), the north Indian temples
developed some architectural features that differentiated these from the temples of
southern India. In the north Indian temples, shikara consisting of progressively smaller
52
and samller storeys, culminating in a slender pinnacle surmounted by a small dome
(stupika), was the key feature that was absent in the temples of southern India. In
temples built in the Dravida style, the square inner sanctum is set within a large
covered enclosure. The external walls are divided into niches by pilasters. A general
south Indian or Dravida type temple has a spire commonly called ‘Vimana type’
(vimana means ship or boat) above garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) and huge
gateways known as gopurams as well as mandapas (pillared halls).

4.7. REFERENCES

Agrawala, Vasudeva S. (1965). Indian Art [A History of Indian Art from the earliest
times up to the Third century AD]. Varanasi-India: Prithivi Prakashan.
Gupta, S. P. and Asthana, S. Prabha, Elements of Indian Art (Including Temple
Architecture, Iconography and Iconometry), New Delhi: D. K. Printworld, 2007
reprint.

4.8. FURTHER READINGS

Deva, Krishna, Temples of North India, New Delhi: National Book Trust, 2010
reprint.
Singh, Upinder, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From Stone Age to
the 12th Century, Pearson Longman: Delhi, 2009.
Srinivasan, K. R., Temples of South India, New Delhi: National Book Trust, 2010
reprint.

4.9. MODEL QUESTIONS

Essay type questions:

1. Discuss the key features of Stupa architecture in detail.

2. Discuss the key features of Chaitya architecture in detail.
3. Highlight the differences and similarities between north Indian and south Indian
temple architecture.
4. Discuss the Vihara architecture in detail.

53
 Images

Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh)

Buddhist Chaitya (Ajanta, Maharashtra)

Vihara (Monastery Layout; Ajanta, Maharashtra)

54
Temple Architecture

55
 CHAPTER 5
SCULPTURAL ART (MATHURA, GANDHARA AND
AMRAVATI SCHOOL)

STRUCTURE
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Gandhara School
5.3 The Mathura School
i. Buddhist Sculptures
ii. Jain Sculptures
iii. Hindu Sculptures
iv. Sculptures of Kushana Rulers
v. Shalabhanjikas, Yakshas and Nagas
5.4 Amravati School
5.5 Summary
5.6 References
5.7 Further Readings
5.8 Model Questions

5.0. OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

 understand the nature of the Mathura sculptural art.

 acquire information about the Gandhara sculptural art.
 gain knowledge regarding the Amravati sculptural art.
 understand how sculptural art has evolved in ancient India.

5.1. INTRODUCTION
The northwest India was an area of cultural confluence and the intermixture of
sculptural styles. During the Kushana period (late first century – third century AD), the
Afghanistan-Gandhara region and Mathura emerged as two major centres of artistic
activity. The stone sculptures include some royal portraits, but most of them have
religious themes. There are stylistic similarities as well as variations, reflecting the
hands of different ateliers.

5.2. GANDHARA SCHOOL

The river Indus divided the Gandhara region into two portions, the eastern
Purva-Gandhara, with capital at Taxila in Rawalpindi district and the western Apara-
Gandhara, with capital at Pushkalavati. The importance of this region was derived from
the ancient route called Uttarapatha which connected Mathura, Shakala, Taxila,
Pushkalavati, Nagarahara, Kapishi and Bahlika. The Gandhara School flourished
between the fist and the fifth centuries AD; it continued till the seventh century AD in
56
parts of Kashmir and Afghanistan. It was a great centre of Mahayana Buddhist art and
architecture. The Buddha and bodhisattva images and narrative scenes in low and high
relief show that while the subject-matter was by and large Buddhist, there are few
Shaiva and Vaishnava images, the costumes and coiffure were mixed: Indian, classical
and Bactrian. The initial impetus probably came during the Indo-Bactrian period, but
the peak of activity was in the first two centuries AD. Most of the Gandhara sculptures
are made of stone. In the beginning blue schist and green phyllite were the main
materials used by sculptors. Stucco (lime plaster) began to be used in the first century
AD, and it had almost completely replaced stone by the third century AD. The
Gandhara School shows a marked syncretism. Its themes were Indian but its style
Greaco-Roman. Images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were favourite themes; hence it
is sometimes referred to as Graeco-Buddhist art. The Graeco-Roman influence is clear
in the facial features and curly wavy hair, the muscular body, and the fine, deeply
delineated folds of the robes. According to one view, even the clean-shaved oval face
with youthful countenance of the Buddha was modelled after the image of sun-god
Apollo. However, after the works of Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, it is now generally
agreed that the radiant face with spiritual element in it could be produced only in India,
perhaps at Mathura where there was a long tradition of carving out Yaksha images and
where the philosophical background of Buddhism of Mahasanghika School was
prevalent. In the Gandhara School the standing Buddha images are very common and
usually have the following features:
i. The Buddha stands barefoot, with one leg slightly bent.
ii. His robe covers both shoulders.
iii. His left hand is by his side and seems to be holding his robe, while the right
one is bent and has the palm rose in protection-granting abhaya mudra.
iv. His curly hair is piled on top of his head in a knot (known as the ushnisha).
v. His elongated earlobes recall his earlier life as a prince, when they were
weighed down by ear ornaments.
vi. A halo encircles his head, symbolising his status of a divine or enlightened
person.

There are also seated Buddha images. The mudras, include the dharmachakra
mudra (the teaching pose), and the dhyana mudra (the meditative pose), in which
seated Buddha is depicted. Some of the Buddha figures have a moustache. The
Gandhara school also produced many images of Buddha seated in meditation. Apart
from Buddha figures, the Gandhara artists also carved bodhisattva images. Although it
is not possible to identity them all, bodhisattva Maitreya seems to have been portrayed
most often. Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (Padmapani) was another popular figure.
Maitreya can be identified by the vase he holds in his left hand, while Padmapani holds
a lotus. A bodhisattva is a ‘Buddha-to-be’, a being capable of enlightenment, who in
compassion for mankind delays his entry into the state of Buddhahood in order to
minister to others striving for that goal. Amongst Bodhisattvas Maitreya and
Avalokiteshvara are depicted in Gandhara art but Gautama himself has a two-fold form
in his Bodhisattva stage; firstly, when he was a prince in royal palace wearing

57
ornaments and royal costumes, and secondly, after his renunciation until
enlightenment wearing the monk’s dress. The depression in the forehead marked the
Urna that was once set with a precious stone. The fingers of the hand show traces of
webbing. The curls of the hair are straight and parallel surmounted by a bump of
wisdom and the very heavy folds. The larger halo indicates the period when the artists
of Gandhara took their inspiration from the Mathura school in the Kushana age
producing such colossal images as the Sarnath and Maholi Bodhisattvas. Before
meditating under the Bodhi tree and attaining enlightenment, Siddhartha himself was a
bodhisattva. Since bodhisattva has not attained Buddhahood, he is always shown in
royal attire, and it symbolised his active presence in the material world. On the other
hand, Buddha due his attainment of enlightenment is shown as a yogi, who had
snapped his links with the material world. Unlike the Buddha figures, therefore, the
bodhisattvas are in general heavily ornamented, have elaborate hairdos and/or
turbans, and wear sandals. Many of them have been depicted with moustache in the
Gandharan art.
The most important of the monuments at Taxila is the Dharmarajika Stupa or
Chir Tope so-called from the cleft driven through it. The main structure is circular at the
base with a raised terrace, which was ascended by four flights of steps on the four
sides. The original Dharmarajika Stupa was first erected in the reign of Ashoka, then
enlarged in the time of the Shaka kings, and finally finished off with stone probably in
the fifth century. This great Stupa was surrounded by several smaller stupas and had a
monastery nearby with a large courtyard. Many freestanding sculptures and Buddhist
statues including scenes from Buddha’s life, birth, enlightenment, first sermon,
parinirvana, casting of horoscope by Asita, Dipankara Jataka, the conversion of
Kashyapa, submission of Nalagiri elephant, Kubera and Hariti and statues of
Boddhisattva were found in situ in an ancient stupa at a place called Sahri-bahlol on
the ancient trade route. According to Vasudeva A. Agrawala: ‘Ichnographically the art
of Gandhara accepted the life-story of Buddha, images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas,
Jataka scenes, Hellenistic scenes and gods and goddesses, other Indian male and
female deities, foreign architectural elements, Indian decorative motifs, and
miscellaneous figures and designs from Iran, Bactria, and India.’
Sculptures and relief panels depict scenes from the life of Gautama Buddha as
well as Jataka scenes. While the Gandhara artists carved many of the scenes that had
engaged the artists of the early Buddhist sites of central India and Andhra, they tackled
these themes in different ways. For instance, in the Gandhara reliefs, the scene of the
Buddha’s birth is represented by Maya gasping the boughs of a sal tree, the child
emerging from her right side or standing near her feet. The god Indra stands ready to
receive the baby and many attendants are present. Other frequently depicted
sculptural themes include the king of the Yakshas, Panchika, and his consort, Hariti.
Panchika was associated with wealth and Hariti was a Yakhsi who, according to
Buddhist tradition, was transformed from a child devourer to a protectress of children
due to the Buddha’s intervention. The few metal sculptures of the Gandhara School
include a metal reliquary found in a large destroyed stupa at Shah-ji-ki-dheri (near
Peshwar), the site of Kanishka’s capital Kanishkapura. The lid of the box bears three

58
figures- a Buddha sitting on a lotus, flanked by Indra and Brahma. The casket has
images of seated Buddhas flanked by Indra and Brahma and a standing figure that
may perhaps represent Kanishka. Kanishka’s name is inscribed on it and it is likely that
this casket was once enshrined in a grand stupa in the capital city during the time of
the Kushana king. According to Vasudeva A. Agrawala: ‘The Gandhara art was
naturally a blend of Indian, Iranian and Greco-Roman art elements. Among the Iranian
motifs found may be mentioned the Fire Temple at Jandiyal, Goddess Nani or Anahita
with star-fangled crown, stepped merlon (i.e., battlement), winged lion, capitals with
adorned bull and lions with or without wings and fantastic animals with human heads.
The Greco-Roman motifs are more common, such as Corinthian, Ionic, and Doric
pillars, cupids, garland-festoons, atlantes, tritons, marine deities, Demeter-Hariti
holding cornucopia, Amohini-Yakshas, Athena-Roma, Harpocrates, the Centaur,
Silenus, Satyr, Garuda and Ganymede.’

Self Assessment questions.

1. Define the Gandhara region.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
______________
2. Write the name of two Bodhisattvas.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
______________
3. What type of stone was used for making Gandhara sculptures?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
______________

5.3. MATHURA SCHOOL

Mathura was one of the pre-eminent cities of north India. It was an important city
under the Kushanas and an important centre of crafts and trade, religious activity, and
artistic production. The sculptors of this area used red sandstone quarried as Sikari,
nor far away. Mathura was an important pacesetter of artistic style in north India, and
images made in this area were exported to other cities such as Sanghol in Punjab and
Kaushambi, Ahichchhatra, and Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh, right up to Mahasthangarh (in
Bangladesh) in the east. The Mathura sculptures share iconographic similarities with
those of the northwest, but the style is very different. It is completely indigenous and
shows no trace of foreign influence. The Mathura style can be seen as a further
development of the traditions of sculpture of sites such as Besnagar, Sanchi, and
Bharhut. The themes were varied, including yakshas, yakshis, nagas, nagis, Buddhas,
and bodhisattvas, Jain tirthankaras, and the Hindu deities. Here at Mathura, Buddhism,
Brahmanism and Jainism had their respective centres and places of pilgrimage and
naturally all three of them inspired their own sculptures, images and architectural
stupas, or shrines. According to Vasudeva S. Agarawala: ‘The artists of Mathura had

59
taken their cue from the master craftsmen working at Bharhut and Sanchi; but adopting
the ancient art traditions and motifs they developed a new enthusiasm and technique
with the result that creative genius of the Mathura masters fructified into one of the
greatest schools of Indian sculpture of which the contents, motifs, style and
characteristic features are comprehensive and of the highest aesthetic quality. The
Mathura artists derived the fullest advantage from the traditional stock of three and
animal motifs that were known to their predecessors at Sanchi and Bharhut. But they
have added many new things of their own. Nature is freely represented and partakes in
a real manner of the joys and emotions of human beings. Decorative designs are also
varied, some taken from the older stock and others improvised for the first time.’

i. Buddhist Sculptures
Extant specimens of the Mathura school include several seated Buddha images.
Although there are variations, the Buddha usually sits cross-legged on a throne (in
some cases simhasana i.e., lion throne), with his right hand raised in the abhaya
mudra. His head is shaved or has curly hair, and he has a coiled ushnisha (a
protuberance or a topknot of hair), which looks like a seashell. He wears a transparent
dhoti, one end of which is draped across his chest and goes over his left shoulder. His
head is surrounded by a halo with scalloped edges, above which is the carving of a
papal tree. He is flanked either by two small bodhisattvas or by the gods Indra and
Brahma. There are separate images of the bodhisattvas, especially Matreya,
Vajrapani, and Avalokiteshvara. The Mathura artists also carved reliefs of scenes from
the Buddha’s life. With a seated figure of the Buddha of the mid-second century, we
come to what must be considered the masterpiece of the Mathura sculpture. Carved
from the local red sandstone, the figure is seated on a lion throne. It is found in the
Katra mound at Mathura and is an excellent early example of an entirely Indian Buddha
image. Unlike the majority of static Roman-influenced Buddhas of Gandhara, wrapped
in their toga-like sanghatis, this Buddha of a warmer climate is dressed as a true
Indian, in a transparent muslin garment that covers only one shoulder and gathers in
small ringed folds along the upper left arm. This rendering of gathered, transparent
textiles, which was also apparent on the two Bodhisattva figures, is a distinctive
Mathuran feature. Seated as a yogi, on a lion throne under the Bodhi tree, the Buddha
is backed by a large scalloped halo and attended by heavenly beings and fly-whisk-
bearers. His aggressively performed abhaya mudra and the alert angled arm, resting
on his left knee, lend an air of activity to a creation which has no parallel in Gandharan
art. Wheels symbolic of Dharma are displayed on the right palm and on the two
exposed feet. Of particular interest is the ushnisha, or cranial protuberance, which
appears as a single massed whorl of hair.

ii. Jain Sculptures

A large number of Jaina images were found in Kankali Tila in Mathura. These
included a pillar fragment with four standing tirthankaras with long arms carved on the
four sides. There was a seated thirthankara image, its head broken. The tirthankara
images share some similarities with the Buddha images. Like the Buddhas, they have

60
long earlobes and some of them share an auspicious mark known as an urna between
the eyebrows. The differences lie in their nudity and the emblems on their chest. A
number of sculptures and architectural pieces, which once belonged to the two Stupas
at that site, are also discovered. A very early Jain Stupa existed at Mathura which as
we know from the inscriptions was called Devanirmita Stupa may probably be assigned
to the third century BC. The word Devanirmita points to an extremely early tradition
attributing the Stupas to a divine origin. The original stupa probably a small one was a
mound of earth which concealed a miniature stupa of gold and gems. Later on, as the
tradition says it was converted into a brick stupa. In the third stage the same was
transformed into a stone stupa together with the addition of a large stone railing.
Several images of Jain tirthankaras and beautiful Ayagapatas (or Tables of Homage)
are found in excavation. The word ‘ayaga’ is from Sanskrit ‘Aryaka’, meaning
worshipful. These Ayagapatas were installed round the stupa to receive offerings and
worship somewhat corresponding to the platforms for flower-offerings and worship.
Ayagapata actually illustrates their position round the stupa where worshippers are
offering flowers heaped on these platforms. The Jaina Ayagapatas are thing of joy and
beauty with perfect workmanship. They illustrate the continuity of symbol worship
amongst the Jains and also the introduction of image worship as combined with the
symbols. The strong belief in the significance of symbols and powerful influence which
the symbols exercised on religious worship are made manifest on these Ayagapata as
nowhere else. They belong to a transitional period when symbols were as much
meaningful as the Tirthankara image and the two were equally balanced in harmony
with each other.
The sculptures from the second Jaina Stupa of Kankali Tila show a good
number of Tirthankara images. They are of four kinds: i) standing images, ii) seated
images, iii) four-fold images in standing posture, and iv) the same in seated posture. In
the Mathura sculpture, Tirthankara Adinatha or Rishabhanatha is shown with a couple
of loose locks falling on shoulder and another Tirthankara Suparshvanatha is shown
standing under a canopy of serpent hoods. On the pedestal of these images we find
the figures of lions and a Dharmachakra in front. Generally we find the devotees
including men, women and children depicted as worshippers. From the point of view of
art these images are rather stiff as required by their contemplative mood (Samadhi)
and austere penance (tapas). The Tirthankara images are distinguished by the
Shrivatsa symbol in the centre of the chest and haloes round their head except, where
there is a canopy of Naga hoods. On the pedestals we see either a chakra either alone
or placed on pillar or a seated Jina or a lion figure. It should be noted that Shrivatsa
symbol is found only on Jaina images and never on Buddha images. The Jainas had
adopted quite early the Shirvatsa as their distinctive sign, and in seated Tirthankara
figures we find only one mudra, i.e., dhyana mudra (meditative pose).

iii. Hindu Sculptures

The iconographic conventions of images of many Hindu deities were established in the
early centuries AD. The many stone sculptures discovered in the Mathura area include
images of Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Durga and Lakshmi. A seated Surya image found at

61
Kankali Tila shows West Asian influence in his moustache, tunic, boots, and ringed
crown. Shaiva images represent the god in anthropomorphic or linga form, as well as in
mukha-linga and vigraha-lingas. Mention was made earlier of an architectural fragment
found at Bhuteshvara near Mathura, which shows a Shiva linga under a tree,
surrounded by a railing and worshipped by winged creatures. The early Shiva images
from the area already show a diverse, though formative, iconographic base. They show
Shiva alone or with the Nandi bull, Shiva with his consort Parvati, and in various forms
including the Chaturvyuha Shiva (Shiva with his three emanations), Adhanarishvara
(the god who is half woman), and Harihara (a combination of Vishnu and Shiva). The
early centuries AD marked an explosion in number and variety of Vaishnava images
produced in the Mathura area. Doris M. Srinivasan points out that during this period,
Mathura became the premier centre of the dissemination of Vaishnava sculptural art.
The sculptures included kinship triads depicting Vasudeva Krishna, his brother
Baladeva, and their sister Ekanamsha. There are many independent images of
Vasudeva Krishna, but also some of Vishnu (four-armed), Vishnu on garuda, and in
anthropomorphic boar form. The avatara concept was clearly in its infancy and the idea
of the chaturvyuha (the four emanations of Vishnu) became evident in the late
Kushana period. Mention may also be made of a colossal Narayana image found at
Mathura. Among the goddesses at Mathura, apart from anonymous female deities,
Matrikas and Yakshis, it is Lakshmi and Durga who stand out. Mention may be made of
a beautiful image, generally identified as Shri Lakshmi. The figure stands on two lotus
buds that emerge out of a vase of plenty (purna-ghata), and represents the idea of
fecundity and nourishment.

iv. Sculptures of Kushana Rulers

The ruined site of Mat (or Tokri Tila as it is called by the local villagers), which is
located near Mathura, remains of a Kushana royal shrine are found and stone figures
of Kushana rulers and deities on a brick-paved plinth are discovered here. Like other
sculptures at Mathura, these images are carved from Sikri sandstone, which is red-
mottled-with-cream spots and is unique to the area. Mat’s two most intriguing pieces
are fragmentary portraits of an enthroned King Vima Kadphises and a standing king
Kanishka. The huge Vima Kadphises (even now 6 feet 10 inches) is headless,
shattered across the knees, and completely fractured through the waist. Vividly intact,
however, is the regal presence, which is emphasised by an impatient left arm angled to
the waist and a right arm posed to the upper chest. The high, heavy boots and long
tunic unmistakably mark the figure as Kushan. Such details as the alert lions flanking
the throne and the elevated foot-rest contribute to the image’s royal authority. The
distinctive red sandstone has been carved with a direct simplicity that imbues the figure
with a primitive vigour which is the constant characteristic of Mathuran sculpture. One
feels, however, that the artist has created, or perhaps copied, an unfamiliar icon: this is
most obvious in the treatment of the heavy clothing, seemingly alien to a sculptor
raised under the warm Indian sun. These stylistic characteristics are also present in the
towering and also headless figure of Kanishka. The king’s arms are lost but the broken
hands remain positioned on the waist, aggressively holding a sword and massive club.

62
The long coat falls stiffly from the waist and spreads almost to the ankles. There thickly
padded boots emerge, splayed outward, on a plinth upon which rests Kanishka’s heavy
club, ending in a makara. The rippling folds across the front of the inner tunic are a
completely stylized motif which reveals that the sculptor misunderstood the problem; or
perhaps the solution was not included in his carving repertoire. Across the lower area,
composed of the tunic and coat flaps, is carved at Kharoshthi inscription reading ‘the
great King, the King of Kings, the Son of God, Kanishka’.

v. Shalabhanjikas, Yakshas and Nagas

As regards style the artists left behind the rigid conventions of the laws of frontality in
representing human and animal figures. They show better competence in the handling
of the human figure and take delight in representing the female from in many new
poses and at all angles. The forms are elegant and the use of ornaments and drapery
is kept at a minimum. Female beauty is the strong point of the Mathura sculptures and
one of the best examples are the standing figures of Shalabhanjika women on the
railing pillars. The term Shalabhanjika originally denoted a female sport implying the
gathering of shala flowers by women standing under blossoming shala trees. They are
engaged in various pastimes and garden and water sports and enjoying a free life
under the open sky and sunshine. The figures on railings have been carved in bold
relief and in several planes. The motif of the woman plucking flowers from a distended
bough is met with on the torana of Bharhut and Sanchi in the Shunga period and is
continued on the railing pillars of Mathura in the early centuries of the Common Era.
The Mathura railing pillars present a rich canvas of these scenes which are made
permanent in stone as reflecting the joyous feeling and buoyancy of life in that age.
The depiction of woman standing under an ashoka tree and bending low its branch
with her left hand touches its stem with the left foot. The scene evidently illustrates the
belief referred to in old Indian poetry that an ashoka tree could made to blossom when
kicked by a maiden with her left foot. Images of folk divinities, for instance, yakshas,
yakshis, nagas and nagis are also found and its shows the popularity of these wish-
bestowing folk deities among the people.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Comment on Kanishaka’s statue.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

b. What type of stone was used for making Mathura sculptures?

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

5.4. AMRAVATI SCHOOL

South in the Deccan, in an area between the Krishna and the Godavari rivers, with the
support of the Satavahana rulers from the second century BC through the third century
AD, a series of significant Buddhist complexes came into existence. In the creation of
63
the Amravati monuments the geographical factor was quite a compelling one. The
Vengi country stretching between the deltas of Krishna and Godavari rivers
commanded towards its face the entire Indian Ocean and towards its back was master
of the five important trade routes which spread like the fanning figures of the hand.
Along these routes the most important Buddhist monuments were sited: i) on the road
to Kalinga were amongst others Pithapuram and Sankarama, ii) on the road to the
south or Dravida were Ghantashala and Bhattiprolu, iii) on the road to the Karnataka
country were Amravati, Goli and Nagarjunkonda, iv) on the road to Maharashtra were
Guntapalle, which was the oldest of the entire group of about thirty monuments. Thus
from all sides the wealth of a thriving commerce poured into the coffers of Vengi
merchants, whose munificence took a visible from in the cluster of the Buddhist stupas
found along these routes.
The remains of Buddhist monuments including stupas are discovered at places,
for instance, Jaggayyapeta, Nagarjunakonda, and Amravati. Fortunately, many reliefs
and a number of sculptures in the round have survived as testimony of the greatest
flowering of sculptural art in what is generally known as the Amravati school. Although
long abandoned, the stupas at Amravati, encased by slabs of a distinctive white-green
marble, had survived into the early nineteenth century. Then they were all but
destroyed by a greedy landowner who saw their ample supply of carved marble as a
source for plaster and began reducing it in lime-kilns. A desperate last-minute rescue
took place, and most of the surviving sculptures are now in the different Museums in
India and Britain. The Great Stupa at Amravati was the most splendid and the largest
of the stupas in the Deccan. It was begun as a brick-cored shrine at about the time of
Christ, but received its final carved facings and railings from about AD 150 to 200. Its
representation on numerous reliefs gives an impression of its elaborate qualities. The
drum below the dome was 162 feet in diameter, and was encircled at distance of 15
feet by an outer railing, making a total diameter of 192 feet. The railing was richly
carved both inside and out. Reliefs also covered a projecting base around the drum,
the top of which provided a second, higher, level for circumambulation. This upper
processional path, embellished with an additional sculpture gallery, stood about 20 feet
above the ground and interrupted at each of the four railing entrances by an offset
panel unit surmounted by five lofty columns. The columns in effect take the place of
toranas, which were absent.
According to Stella Kramrisch: ‘In the last two centuries BC, the delicacy of the
modelling, the slimness of the over-elongated limbs, the powerful character of the
bodies, and with it all a sensibility and keenness of movement, were distinctly of local
origin. Later, by about the first century AD, a heavy and spreading plastic form in some
reliefs precludes linear fineness. This trend is fully unfolded in Nagarjunikonda, in the
second century AD, and later, whereas in Amravati it is disciplined in future and
swayed by linear rhythms.’ In the Amravati school, the reliefs are deprived of nature
and more focus is on the human bodies. Whereas perchance rocks, trees and water
are shown, they indicate locality or their own symbolical meaning and help to fill the
relief; artistically the trees, be they Bodhi trees or other, have mostly dwindled into inert
signs of lost interest. But whenever the scene takes place it teams with human figures.

64
They sit, stand, dance and fly with the same abandonment. The preferred appearance
of the figures in their vigour and elegance is that of youth where it is nearest maturity;
but, the face as a spiritual physiognomy is yet unknown. There is no enlightenment, no
liberation, in any of them. Face is a part of a body, without expressive of its passion,
fatigue and elation. By the second century AD, the linear compositions became more
flexible and became the part of the movement of entire single body to an extent that
the rhythmical, i.e., compositional or dynamic, movement of each figure seems to
transcend its bodily movement. The dynamic movements of the human figures
transcend them; their sway, their curves and even the tremulous and disintegrating
outline, especially of the later reliefs from Vengi, are attempts at escape with the help
of the body, and from its limitations. Therefore, in Stella Kramrisch’s view: ‘In the
sculpture of Vengi transcendentalism is rendered in terms of locality; the movement of
figures and compositions exceeds their actual extension.
The mature art of the Amaravati region, therefore, is one of India’s major and
distinct styles considered by many critics to be the finest school of Indian sculpture.
Even a non-partisan viewer can easily appreciate the reliefs, peopled by a host of
graceful, elongated figures who imbue the sculptured scenes with a sense of life and
action that is unique in Indian art. Not only is each figure animated by an internal
vitality, but the quality of the surfaces further enhances the action by having a fluid
quality reminiscent of water-worn pebbles. As in other early Buddhist sculpture, the
Buddha’s presence is at first only symbolized. A relief of about AD 140 from the Great
Stupa shows female devotees paying homage to an empty throne marked with the
Lord’s footprints. Very shortly afterwards, however, about AD 180-200- perhaps due to
influence from Mathura in the North, the figure of the Buddha suddenly appears at
Amravati. A roundel from one of the Great Stupa’s railings, dating from the beginning of
the third century AD, shows the Buddha in human form subduing a maddened elephant
which had been sent by his jealous cousin Devadatta, to attack him. The narrative
includes both the enraged elephant’s charge, tossing bystanders aside with its trunk,
and the scene where it kneels humbly, pacified before the sacred presence of the
Buddha. The work is superb example of the mature Amravati School; the
representation of action is remarkable, as is the organization of space which amply
accommodates the story and the wealth of architectural and human detail. The figure
of the Buddha indicates cultural and theological influence from the Kushans, who were
now the dominant dynasty in Northern India. A marble head of the third century AD
shows the Amravati style applied to sculpture in the round. It is a sophisticated
production by a master sculptor; and the slight damage in no way detracts from the
sure and subtle modulation of the flowering sculptural volume and the illusion of life,
both hallmark of late Amravati art.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Comment on the sites associated with Amravati school of sculptural art.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

65
 b. What type of stone was used for making Amravati sculptures?
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

5.5. SUMMARY
Above discussion shows that three distinct regional schools of sculptural art
came into existence towards the end of the first millennium BC, and they flourished
widely in the early centuries of the Christian era. In the north-western India, Gandhara
region witnessed the formation of an artistic style that displays a marked influence of
the Greek-Roman and also Iranian art traditions. In Mathura and adjacent areas a
distinct sculptural art evolved from local traditions, and in a same way, the area
between the Krishna and the Godavari rivers saw the rise of an indigenous style of
sculptural art. In these three regional styles, Buddhism appears to have been more
influential; but the presence of Hindu and Jain images is also underlined by the
scholars on the basis of archaeological evidences.

5.6. REFERENCES

Agrawala, Vasudeva S. (1965). Indian Art [A History of Indian Art from the earliest
times up to the Third century AD]. Varanasi-India: Prithivi Prakashan.
Gupta, S. P. and Asthana, S. Prabha, Elements of Indian Art (Including Temple
Architecture, Iconography and Iconometry), New Delhi: D. K. Printworld, 2007 reprint.

5.7. FURTHER READINGS

Basham, A. L., The Wonder That Was India (A survey of the history and culture of the
Indian sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims), London: Picador an imprint of
Pan Macmillan Ltd, 2004 reprint.
Singh, Upinder, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From Stone Age to the
12th Century, Pearson Longman: Delhi, 2009.

5.8. MODEL QUESTIONS

Essay type questions:

6 Discuss the key features of Gandhara sculptural art in detail.

7 Discuss the key features of Mathura sculptural art in detail.
8 Discuss the key features of Amravati sculptural art in detail.
9 Write an essay on the similarities and differences between Gandhara, Mathura and
Amravati sculptures.

66
 Images

Buddha (Gandhara)

Buddha (Mathura)

67
 Kanishka Statue

Buddha (symbolised as empty throne and dharma-chakra), Amravati

68
 CHAPTER 6
THE PALLAVA ART, THE CHOLA BRONZE AND THE
PAINTINGS

STRUCTURE

6.0. Objectives
6.1. Introduction
6.2. The Pallava Art
i. Rock Cut Shrines
ii. Ratha Temples
iii. Tirtham or open-air carving
iv. Structural Temples
6.3. The Chola Bronze
i) Lost-wax or cire-perdue process
ii) Shiva’s Ananda Tandava
iii) Dating of Metal Images
6.4. Paintings in Ancient India
ii) Ajanta
a. Technique of paintings
b. Themes of the paintings
iii) Ellora
a. Kailasa Temple
b. Jain Caves
6.5. Summary
6.6. Model Questions
6.7. Suggested Readings

6.0. OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

 understand the nature of the Pallava rulers’ role in the development of rock cut
art and architecture.
 acquire information about the Chola Bronze.
 gain knowledge regarding the Ajanta and Ellora paintings.
 understand cultural significance of the mural paintings.

6.1. INTRODUCTION
In the mid-and the late first millennium AD temple and rock-cut architecture
developed in different parts of India and particularly in the peninsular India the Pallava
rulers patronised the construction of rock-cut caves and temples and also structural
temples. In western Deccan with the support of the Vakatakas, the Chalukyas and the
Rashtrakutas rock cut shrines dedicated to Hindu deities, Jainism and Buddhism came
into existence with beautiful mural paintings. In the south, under the Chola rulers the
69
bronze image making art developed considerably and a large number of bronze
images of the Hindu deities and Bhakti saints were manufactured.

6.2. THE PALLAVA ART

Apart from a few earlier specimens, the history of stone architecture in South India
appears to have begun only in the 7th century AD under the Pallava kings, and it can
be connected with the increasing popularity of the bhakti cults. The Pallavas appears to
have started their career in the sixth century at Vengi, with a still earlier beginning, but
it is in the seventh century that Mahamalla created some of the most magnificent rock-
cut temples at Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram. The Pallavas gave us three types of
monuments:
a) The first type is mandapas, or rock-cut caves, such as the Adi-Varaha cave.
b) The second includes five rock-cut ratha temples, each one free-standing. These
are the text-book examples of Indian rock-cut temple art and architecture.
c) The third type is called tirtham or open-air carving on the face of a rock.
d) Structural temples in Dravidian style

The Pallava kings, especially Mahendravarman I (circa 600- 625 AD),

Narasimhavarman I (circa 625- 670 AD), and Narsimhavarman II Rajasimha (circa 700-
728 AD), were great patrons of the arts. The remains of the architecture of the Pallava
period are mostly found at Mamalapuram and Kanchipuram. They comprise cave
temples, monolithic temples, and structural temples. Pallava sculpture has a distinctive
style that is different from the Gupta period sculptures of north India. According to S. P.
Gupta and Shashi Prabha Asthana, the forms of human bodies in the Pallava art
shows greater slenderness; the faces are near oval; the faces have high cheek-bones;
the humans are infinitely gracious; the animals excel the rest of the figures.

i) Rock cut cave shrines

The Pallava cave shrines are smaller and less complex in plan than those at Ajanta
and Ellora. The relatively plain caves are represented by the Lakshitayatana temple at
Mandgappattu, Lalitankura’s cave at Tiruchirapalli, and some of those at
Mamallapuram (also known as Mahabalipuram). The massive pillars in these caves are
square at the bottom and top, and chamfered into an octagonal shape in between. The
cave facade is generally plain, dvarapalas usually marking the two ends. The larger
caves have columns inside as well, leading into a sanctum guarded by dvarapalas and
dvarapalikas. The sanctum contains a linga or images of Shiva, Vishnu, or Brahma.
Representations of these and other deities are also carved on the walls of the hall.
Some of the relief carving, for instance the scene of Shiva receiving Ganga on his head
in the Tiruchirapalli cave, is exceptionally fine. The more elaborate Pallava period
caves are located at the port city of Mamalapuram, named after the Pallava king
Narsimha I, also known as Mahamalla (great hero). The columns in these caves are
comparatively slender. Their shaft is multi-faceted, sometimes fluted or round, with
cushion-shaped capitals and seated lions at the base. Some of the caves, such as the
Adi-Varaha cave are preceded by a tank. The rock-cut caves at Mamallapuram contain

70
many striking mythological scenes carved in relief. These include Vishnu rescuing the
earth (Boar incarnation), Vishnu taking three strides (Vamana incarnation), Gaja-
Lakshmi and Durga (in Adi-Varaha cave), Mahishasuramardini in the Durga cave, and
Krishna lifting Govardhana mountain (in the Pancha-Pandava cave). The relief carving
of the Pallava cave shrines is generally shallower than that in the Deccan. The main
figures are slender, delicate, and elegant. Their headdresses and crowns are quite
plain, and they wear little or no jewellery.

ii) Ratha temples

The other group of architectural remains at Mamallapuram are nine rock-cut temples,
of which five are clustered together. The name of the great Pallava builder king
Mamalla was in later times misunderstood as referring to the five Pandava heroes, and
the five temples at Mamallapuram came to be known after the legendry Pandavas, and
their wife Draupadi. The shrines are often referred to as the five rathas. Rathas means
a chariot and the reference to temples as rathas may have been based on the idea that
they were representations of the celestial chariots that the deities were supposed to
move around in. The rathas are known as the Dharmaraj, Bhima, Draupadi, Arjuna,
and Sahadeva rathas. It is interesting to note that although located in close proximity to
each other, these shrines display very different architectural features. The Dharmaraj
ratha is square in plan. It has open porches and a terraced pyramidal tower. Its pillar
shafts are supported by seated lions. The Dharmaraja ratha is the highest and is
known for the second example of a Hindu king getting his portrait sculptured; earlier to
this only his father Mahendravarman had his and his two queens’ effigies carved in
Adi-Varaha cave. They were in the position of devotees. The Bhima ratha is
longitudinal in shape with a barrel-vaulted roof. The Draupadi ratha is a very small
square structure with a curvilinear roof. And this ratha temple is known for its roof being
merely single cell of parnashala type where the roof is a copy of thatched hut. The
Arjuna ratha is incomplete; it may have been abandoned due to the rock not being able
to withstand the pressure of carving. The Sahadeva ratha too is incomplete. The outer
walls of the Mamallapuram temples are decorated with scenes from Hindu mythology.
The south face of the Dharmaraja ratha has a portrait which an inscription identifies as
king Narasimhavarman Mamalla I.

iii) Tirtham or open-air carving

The most dramatic of all the reliefs of this period is the gigantic open-air relief at
Mamallapuram carved across two boulders, about 15 meters high and 30 meters long.
On the rock face are a profusion of figures- people, animals including elephants – all in
near life size dimensions. On special occasions, water probably flowed from a cistern
on the summit into the natural cleft between the two rocks, in which are carved a naga
and a nagini figure. The scene represented in this relief has been interpreted in two
different ways- as the descent of the Ganga on earth or as Arjuna’s penance. The
penance is part of a story in the Mahabharata and forms the theme of the ancient
Indian kavya-text, the Kiratarjunia. In this story, Arjuna performs a penance to obtain
Shiva’s weapons. A boar is sent by some asuras to kill him. Shiva intervenes to protect

71
Arjuna, disguised as a kirata (hunter). Both claim to have shot the boar, and a conflict
erupts. Shiva wins and reveals his true self to Arjuna.

iv) Structural Temples

During the reign of Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha, the rock-cut technique of temple
building was replaced by structural temples. The shore temple at Mamallapuram is
assigned to the reign of Rajasimha, but additions may have been made in later times.
This has three shrine areas containing a stone Shiva linga, Somaskanda (Shiva with
Uma and Skanda, a popular theme in the Pallava period), and Vishnu resting on the
serpent Ananta. The two shikharas are terraced and slender in a Dravidian style. The
relief sculptures of the temple are much eroded due to the effects of the sea breeze
and sand. The Rajasimheshvara or Kailashanath temple at Kanchipuram is also
assigned to the reign of Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha. Within a large rectangular
enclosure is a complex consisting of a main shrine and over 50 subsidiary shrines. The
main temple consists of a square sanctum enshrining a linga, with an enclosed
circumambulatory passage. It is surrounded by nine small shrines. The shikhara is in
the typical southern style. The pillared hall and verandah preceding the shrine may
have been added later. The enclosure walls of the complex have gopuras. The
Kailashanath temple is more heavily ornamented with sculptures than other structures
of the Pallava period. Representations of Somaskanda are very frequent, and lions are
recurring motif on the enclosure wall. This temple marks an important stage in the
evolution of the South Indian temple architecture.

6.3. THE CHOLA BRONZE

The Chola period is well known for the aesthetic and technical finesse of its metal
sculpture. Tanjavur was a major centre of the production of such images. The metal
images of north India tend to be hollow, while those of South India were solid. Both
were, however, made through the lost wax method.

i) Lost-wax or cire-perdue process

The Chola art is known for perfecting the technique of lost –wax or cire- perdue
process of bronze casting, which, of course, was first initiated in India in the Indus-
Sarasvati times, some 5000 years ago, but then lost to us for over a millennium. And it
reappeared again in the Mauryan-Shunga period. Following are the stages involved in
the lost –wax or cire- perdue process:
a) In this technique the image is first made in wax;
b) It is then coated in several fine clay coats and dried in shade;
c) It was followed by making two holes, one on the top and the other on the
bottom.
d) It is then put into fire; due to heat the wax runs off through the hole.
e) Thus was created a hollow mould. Then this mould was filled up with molten
metal.
f) It was allowed to cool down and then the clay mould was broken to obtain the
metal image.

72
 g) Then the metal image went through a process of final dressing at the hands of
specialised craftsmen.

The Chola bronzes are marked by not only soft modelling, graceful flowing
contours and tasteful ornaments but also by serenity which goes with the inner ‘bliss’ of
the gods and goddesses transmitted to the bhaktas or devotees. Poise and gaiety are
also marked in them. That is why these are so very delicate, sophisticated and
charming to look at. And this applies not only to Devi images but also the male images,
such as those of go-palaka Krishna. The Bhakti movement and the activities of the
Bhakti saints (Alvars and Nayanmars) stimulated the production of the bronze images.
Traditionally, the northern images are supposed to be made out of an alloy of
eight metals (gold, silver, tin, lead, iron, mercury, zinc, and copper), while the southern
ones are supposed to be made of an alloy of five metals (copper, silver, gold, tin and
lead). The analysis of actual images indicates that these formulae were not always
followed. The iconography and style of metal images were similar to those of their
stone counterparts. The images were clothed and ornamented and formed part of
temple rituals and ceremonials. Many of the southern images were carried about in
processions. The images of Shiva as Nataraja (i.e., Lord of the Dance) appear
frequently among Chola metal sculpture. Other themes include Krishna and the Alvar
as well as Nayanmar saints. There are a few Buddhist images as well. According to S.
P. Gupta and Shashi Prabha Asthana, the Chola Nataraja images solved one of the
greatest problems facing Indian art: how to express the cosmic metaphysical concept
of Motion and Rest, which lies under the very foundation of creation myths. The Chola
bronzes are slim but firm in shape, with enliven but restrained expressions and a
harmonious disposition of plain and ornamented surfaces. Linearism is an important
characteristic of these images.

ii) Shiva’s Ananda Tandava

Many Shiva temples of South India have a separate natana-sabha, where the image of
Nataraja is placed. This can be seen, for instance, in the temple at Chidambaram. The
dancing Shiva was of two types - angry and pacific. According to the Hindu legend,
once in the Tarangam forest dwelt multitudes of heretical ascetics associated with the
Mimamsa philosophy. There Shiva appeared to confuse them. At first these ascetics
violently disputed among themselves, and after seeing Shiva, they directed their anger
towards Shiva. The ascetics first created a tiger from sacrificial fire and it attacked
Shiva. Shiva seized the tiger and stripped of his skin by using his finger-nail, and he
wrapped himself with tiger’s skin. Then the ascetics produced a fierce serpent which
too was subdued by Shiva. Then these ascetics created a dwarf monster, called
Muyalaka, who attacked Shiva. Shiva became angry and began dancing, and then
placed his feet on the dwarf. The demon writhed upon the ground due to a broken
spine. Shiva continued his dance, which was witnessed by gods and ascetics. The
Nataraja image represents this cosmic dance. Shiva’s this cosmic dance symbolizes
the cyclical creation and destruction of the universe, and its elements have been
interpreted in various ways. In his ‘dance of bliss’ (ananda tandava), Shiva usually has

73
four arms. He wears a snake as an ornament. His front left arm is in a pose referred to
as danda-hasta (staff hand) or gaja-hasta (elephant hand). In his rear left hand, he
holds a flame, in his rear right hand a drum; his front right hand is in the release-
granting abhaya pose. The drum symbolizes creation, the fire symbolizes destruction.
The hand of the gaja-hasta points to his lifted foot, which is the refuse of the world.
Shiva’s left leg is thrust out across his body. He usually dances on a dwarf demon,
Muyalaka, who signifies ignorance or evil. The god’s locks of hair, which cradle the
goddess Ganga, radiate out into the surrounding rim of flames. The attributes of
Natarajas of South India are different from the equally impressive images of the
dancing Shiva found in other parts of the subcontinent such as at Ellora or Badami.
There are differences in the expression, ornamentation, the number of arms, and in the
attendant figures.

iii) Dating of Metal Images

iv) Ancient Hindu metal images rarely have inscriptions, and scholars tend to
date them in relation to the stone sculptures found in temples with datable
inscriptions. The oldest three-dimensional stone Nataraja figures are found in
temples built by the Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi, for instance the
image in the mid-10th century Kailasanathaswami temple. According to some
scholars, the bronze Nataraja also emerged during this period. However,
Sharada Srinivasan’s analysis of the archaeometric, iconographic, and
literary evidence shows that bronze representations of Shiva’s ananda-
tandava first appeared in the Pallava period, between the 7 th and the mid-9th
century AD. There is no foolproof method for dating solid metal artefacts.
However, lead isotope ration analysis and trace element analysis can be
used to identify similar or different sources of the metals. This can be
combined with an analysis of style to indicate which images constitute a
group. Srinivasan’s analysis of several metal images revealed that the metal
artefacts of the Pallava and the Chola periods show different archaeometric
results. On this basis, she argues that two Nataraja bronzes- one found at
Kunniyar in Tanjavur district and another currently housed in the British
museum- that have traditionally been described as “Chola bronzes” were in
fact in all likelihood made during the Pallava period.

The early Pallava bronze representations of Nataraja are metal translations of wooden
images. The limbs are close set, the sash hands downwards, and the rim of fire is
elliptical. Later in the Chola period, craftspeople recognised the greater tensile strength
of metal in comparison with wood. In the Chola bronzes, the limbs, sash, and locks
flare out towards a circular rim. According to Srinivasan, well-rounded stone Natarajas
came to the fore during the reign of Sembiyan Mahadevi, several centuries after the
earliest metal images of the Pallava period. This may have been due to the poor tensile
strength of stone in comparison to metal, which initially made it difficult, for instance, for
stone carvers to carve the raised left leg of the dancing Shiva. Sculptors rendered
Shiva’s ecstatic and powerful dance in stone and bronze, while poets described it in

74
words of wonder. For instance, Manikkavachakar’s Tiruvachakam says: “Let us praise
the Dancer who in good Tillai’s hall dances with fire, who sports, creating, destroying,
this heaven and earth and all else.”

Self Assessment questions.

a. Write a note on the Ratha temples?

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

b. Write a note on the Tirtham or open-air carving.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

c. Comment on the Lost-wax or cire-perdue process.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

6.5. PAINTINGS IN ANCIENT INDIA

i) Ajanta
The Ajanta rock cut caves are located in the district of Aurangabad (Maharashtra) at
the inter-regional trade routes and both rulers as well as merchants had contributed in
the making of these Buddhist caves. There are 29 caves at Ajanta. Cave number 9, 10,
19, and 26 are chaityas and rest of the caves are Viharas (monasteries). The mural
paintings (frescoes) are found in cave number 1, 2, 9, 10, 16, and 17. These rock cut
caves came into existence in the period of the Satavahana rulers and under the
Hinayana school’s influence cave number 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15-A were built between
circa 200 BC and 100 AD. These caves remained inhabited in subsequent period and
witnessed the presence of Buddhist monks here. The construction again took place
during the Vakataka ruler Harisena from about mid-fifth to mid-sixth century AD. In the
second phase of construction, the predominant influence of the Mahayana school is
quite evident. The images of both the phases (Satavahana and the Vakatakas) are
found.

a. Technique of paintings
The Vakataka traditions as seen at Ajanta are derived from the earlier Satavahana
period. This can be clearly seen in several echoes of the painted figures here from
those of Amravati. It is mainly the decorative elements, chiefly composed of pearls and
ribbons, so characteristic of the Gupta-Vakataka age, that distinguish them from the
simpler but nobler art of the Satavahanas. The mode of paintings at Ajanta is the
tempera and the materials used are very simple. The five colours usually described in
all the silpa texts are found here- red ochre, yellow ochre, lamp black, lapis lazuli, and
white. The first coating on the surface of the rock was of clay mixed with rice husk and
75
gum. A coat of lime was applied over this, carefully smoothed and polished. On this
ground the paintings were created. The outline drawing was in dark brown or black and
subsequently colours were added. Effects of light and shade were achieved by the
process of streaks and dots illustrating the methods of patravartan, stippling and
hatching mentioned in the silpa texts. The lines composing the figures painted at
Ajanta are sure, sinuous, rich in form and depth. There are excellent illustrations in
these paintings at Ajanta of the six limbs (shadanga) of painting:
i. Rupabheda – variety of form
ii. Pramana – proper proportion
iii. Bhava- depiction of emotion six limbs (shadanga) of painting
iv. Lavanya yojana – infusion of grace
v. Sadrisya –likeness
vi. Varnikabhanga – mixing of colours to produce an effect of modelling.

The painters here mastered the vast complex of human, animal, and plant form in
addition to giving free scope to their imagination and were creating designs galore. The
master at Ajanta has control over not only the proportions of individual figures but also
has the ability to group them and he has designed excellent compositions. Emotion is
at its best in the narration of scenes from the legends; the grace in some of the figures
bespeaks lavanya-yojana. While figures are repeated as the Vesantara Jataka, the
element of portraiture is clearly made manifest and sadrisya is very obvious. The
painter’s colour technique easily helps us to pay him a tribute for his capacity in
varnikabhanga.

b. Themes of the paintings

The paintings completely cover the walls, pillars and ceilings at Ajanata. They
constitute a great gallery of Buddhist art illustrating scenes from the life of the Gautam
Buddha, his previous lives comprising the Jataka and Avadana tales. Images of
Buddha and Bodhisattvas appear quite prominently in the Ajanta paintings. Another
theme that has been identified by scholars connected with the fabulous beings, for
instance, Yakshas, Yakshis, Nagas, Nagis, Apsaras, Gandharavas and so forth. They
appear in the Ajanta paintings in diverse contexts particularly connected with different
Jataka and Avadana stories. Besides this, natural patterns (floral designs and animals,
e.g., elephants, horse) and decorative designs are also depicted in the paintings.
The painter at Ajanta has studied life around him and natural scenes of great
beauty with intense sympathy and appreciation. Plant and animal life has interested
him considerably. He has lovingly treated such themes of flora and fauna as he has
chosen to depict. The elephants under the banyan tree in Cave 10, the geese in the
Hamsa Jataka from Cave 17, the deer in the Miga Jataka, also from the same cave,
may be cited as a few examples of the tender approach of the painter to the themes of
animals and birds. He has been equally at home in ably representing the dazzling
magnificence of the royal court, the simplicity of rural life and the hermit’s tranquil life
amidst sylvan surroundings. The Vessantara Jataka illustrates the prince as the very
picture of magnificence, as also the simplicity of the hermit and the poor Brahmin as an

76
inexorable beggar. The scene in Cave 27 of prince Vessantara, with his consort,
driving on the main road, depicting different merchants in pursuit of their trade, is a
beautiful picture of economic life in ancient India. The landing in Sri Lanka is a splendid
representation of royal glory in Cave 17. The interior of the palace giving a glimpse of
the king and the queen in the harem or in the garden reveals that nothing was hidden
from the gaze of the court painter.
The imagination of the painter in portraying the celestials has probably no better
examples to proclaim its eminence as the divine musicians floating in the air from Cave
17. The gay theme of dampati, or loving couples, has excellent examples at Ajanta. Of
this a whole row is above the entrance doorway of Cave 17. The versatility of the
Vakataka painter in creating diverse poses is here evident in the several seated
dampati (couple). The artists could so elevate themselves mentally as to be able to
depict magnificently such noble themes as Maradharshana in Cave I, Buddha’s
descent from heaven at Sankisa in Cave 17, and prince Siddhartha and Yasodhara in
Cave 1, all magnificent representations of the Gautam Buddha in different attitudes.
The long panels and borders from the ceilings of swans and birds, Vidyadhara couples,
auspicious conches and lotuses as well as sinuous rhizomes and stalks, with lotuses in
bud and bloom, and leaves covering large areas reveals the capacity of the artist to
create diverse patterns of great artistic value.

ii) Ellora
The ancient name of the village was Elapura, from which the present name
Verul (Marathi) and Ellora, its anglicised form, are derived. Rock-cutting activity at
Ellora began in the middle of the sixth century, when work at nearby Ajanata was
almost complete. The Hindus were the first to excavate caves at Ellora. It was probably
during the reign of the Kalachuris that work began at Ellora Caves 28, 29, and 19,
which are modest excavations without any artistic pretensions. Next, work began at
what is now Cave 29 (Dumar cave), a very ambitious project that resembles the main
cave at Elephanta in plan and other essential details, especially the sculptures. Almost
simultaneously, Caves 20 and 26 were also excavated. But far more exquisite and
aesthetically superior is Cave 21 (Rameshwar) which was also taken up at that time. It
was towards the close of the sixth century that the excavation of the Buddhist caves at
Ellora began. The Buddhist activity, however, came to an end by the close of the
seventh century and the eighth century is marked by vigorous Hindu activity in the
area. Their grandest edifice at Ellora is Cave 16 (Kailasa) which can be assigned to the
latter half of the eighth century. Work on the Jaina caves started towards the close of
the eighth century and continued in full swing in the ninth and tenth century. Ellora was
thus buzzing with art activity for nearly four centuries (circa 550- 950 AD).

a. Kailasa temple
The Kailasa temple was fashioned after the Pattadakal temples which in turn were
executed by a great sutradhari named Sarvasiddhicharya of the southern country, the
subjugated area from Kanchi. There are remarkable similarities in the Kailasa temples
at Ellora and Kanchi. The Paintings at Ellora cover the ceilings and walls of the

77
mandapas and represent not only the iconographic forms but also the lovely floral
designs and animals and birds entwining in the patterns. The beautiful elephant amidst
a lotus pattern in gorgeous colour now partially faded is as lively as probably some of
the other figure drawings. Most of these paintings are based on Hindu mythological
scenes, and are found in a Sabha-Mandapa also known as Rang-Mahala section of the
temple.
 The Nataraja here is a splendid example of the Chalukya type and has to be
compared with the earlier one at Badami. The figure is multi-armed and the
dance is in the chatura pose. The anatomy of figure, the details and the
ornamentation closely follow that of sculpture, including such minute details as
the pattern of the jatamakuta, the elaboration of decoration and so forth. It is one
of the most beautifully preserved panels at Ellora.
 A panel depicts the scene of flying gods and their consorts amidst the clouds as
making adoration with their joined hands to Siva, the presiding deity of the
shrine. The most prominent among the gods, is the one riding on Yali (a
fabulous animal with the beak of an eagle, the horn of the ram and the body of a
lion). The depiction amidst clouds suggests flying mood. It suggests an
atmosphere which is essentially celestial.
 Another panel depicts four-armed Vishnu on his mount Garuda in the air. His
figure is elegantly slim and crowned with a head-gear. Here Gruda is shown
winged and flying in the sky and he, too, is crowned, presumably to indicate that
he is the king of his class. The flying female figure, fair in color, is depicted to
the left of the Vishnu in adoring pose. The figure of Lakshminarayana on Garuda
is interesting. In this can be noticed the peculiar eyes and the pointed nose in
the three-quarter view which later became a distinguishing feature of the
western Indian paintings from Gujarat of the fourteenth-fifteenth centuries AD.
 Another panel depict Ganesha on a rat which, in spite of its heavy load, is
shown galloping.
 Flying Vidyadharas with their consorts, against a back-ground of trailing clouds,
musical figures and other themes closely follow the earlier Chalukya tradition. A
comparison of these Vidyadhara figures with similar ones from the Badami
caves of an earlier date would clearly reveal this. The colour patterns, the
composing of one dark against another fair, the muktayajnopavita of the male
and the elaborate dhammilla of the female figure, the flying attitude, etc., are all
incomparable.
 Another scene depicts Siva riding on a bull with Parvati, while members of his
retinue are found to be accompanying him in the march. The figures suggest
movement of bodies.
 Another panel depicts Lingodhava (Siva coming out of a Linga). He is shown
with Brahma and Vishnu on either side.

b. Jain Cave
The Jain cave towards the end of the group of caves at Ellora has its entire surface of
ceiling and wall covered with paintings with a wealth of detail. There are scenes
78
illustrating Jain texts and decorative patterns with exuberant floral, animal, and bird
designs. These, along with the cave, are to be dated a century after the Kailasa
temple, the great monument of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna. The Jain caves at Ellora
belong to the ninth and tenth centuries. They all belong to the Digambara (sky-clad)
sect and the figures are not shown wearing any clothes. The other sect, Shvetambara-
those who wear white garments- is not represented at Ellora. The Jain group at Ellora
was probably excavated during the reign of the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha (819-
81 AD) who was a great patron of Jainism and the work may have continued later. The
remains of paintings are found in Cave 32 (‘Indra Sabha’) and Cave 33 (‘Jagannath
Sabha’). Cave 32 got the appellation Indra Sabha (Indra’s court) probably because it is
highly ornate and also because of the sculpture of Matanga on an elephant, which was
wrongly identified as that of Indra. The main structure is double-storied. It is noteworthy
that the entire cave was formally painted with a variety of motifs that have been
blackened by the passage of time but have been chemically cleaned. Surface of the
ceiling and the wall is covered with paintings illustrating stories from the Jaina texts and
designs associated with Jain rituals/beliefs. One panel of the ceiling depicts Yama with
his consort on a buffalo, preceded and followed by the members of his retinue. The
depiction of clouds and wide opened eyes of figures is noticeable. In the Cave 33 at
Ellora, which is known locally as Jagannath Sabha (literally meaning, ‘the court of the
lord of the world’), is a complex of caves, with an upper floor. In the upper floor, there
are paintings on the ceiling and also on the walls, wherever space was available. The
paintings generally comprise geometric patterns and Jain Tirthankaras with their
devotees.
By the time paintings were made at Ellora, a change had taken place in the
techniques of paintings. One finds a disappearance of Ajanta like smooth curves and
lines (delineating the figures) in the paintings at Ellora. In place of curves and lines,
somewhat acute angles became quite prominent. The eyes of the figures are wide
open and lower lips are curved. Unlike the Ajanata paintings, that exhibits the
‘forthcoming element’, at Ellora images are arranged laterally. If one looks at the
paintings at Ajanta, these figures of the paintings appear to be moving inside out
towards the spectator. On the other hand, in Ellora paintings images appear to move
from one side to another side, and the ‘forthcoming element’ is entirely missing. In
Ellora paintings images provide a visual pattern, both in line and colour, and clouds
particularly in the Ellora paintings provide a sense of movement from side to side, and
they are depicted in almost all the paintings at Ellora. Most of the figures depicted
amidst clouds at Ellora, which gives a sense of weightlessness and flying mood.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Write a note on the themes of Ajanta paintings.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
b. Write a note on the themes of Ellora paintings.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
79
 c. Comment on the six limbs (shadanga) of painting.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

6.6. SUMMARY
The rulers of ancient India, including the Pallavas, the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas,
the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas and the Cholas have played a significant role in the
development of art and architecture in the western Deccan and the peninsular India.
Without a constant support of the different ruling houses, construction of grand rock-cut
shrines, structural temples and the Chola Bronze images could not have been
possible. Above discussion shows that the Buddhist, the Hindu and the Jain myths and
legends influenced the artists immensely, and based on these same themes, early
Indian artists have made paintings, sculptures and stone-relief panels.

6.7. REFERENCES
Gupta, S. P. and Asthana, S. Prabha, (2007 reprint). Elements of Indian Art (Including
Temple Architecture, Iconography and Iconometry), New Delhi: D. K. Printworld.
Sivaramamurti, C., (2013 reprint). Indian Painting, New Delhi: National Book Trust.

6.8. FURTHER READINGS

Singh, Upinder, (2009). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From Stone
Age to the 12th Century, Delhi: Pearson Longman.

6.9. MODEL QUESTIONS

Essay type questions:

1. Discuss the key features of the Pallava architecture.

2. Write an essay on the themes of Chola bronze with a special reference to
Nataraja-Shiva.
3. Highlight the key features of the Ajanta paintings.
4. Highlight the key features of the Ellora paintings.

80
 Images

Dharmaraja Ratha Temple (Mahabalipuram)

Tirtham or open-air carving on the face of a rock (Mahabalipuram)

Chola Bronze (Nataraja Shiva)

81
Bodhisattva Padampani (Ajanta Painting)

82
 CHAPTER 7
INDIAN ART- VARIOUS THEORIES; STUDY OF THE
CHITRALAKSHANA AND THE NATYASHASTRA

STRUCTURE

7.0. Objectives
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Indian Art- Various Theories
i. Colonial Approach
ii. Nationalist Approach
iii. Social History Approach
7.3. The Chitralakshana
i) A Manual of Painting
7.4. Natyashastra
i. Natya
ii. Nritya
iii. Rasa
iv. Bhava
v. Types of Abhinava
vi. Regional Theatre
7.5. Summary
7.6. References
7.7. Further Readings
7.8. Model Questions

7.0. OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
 understand the various approaches to Indian art.
 acquire information about the main features of Indian paintings based on the
Chitrasutra.
 gain knowledge regarding the Natyashastra.
 understand the cultural significance of the Chitrasutra and the Natyashastra
traditions.

7.1. INTRODUCTION
Indian art has been studied from diverse perspectives, and in this chapter three
major approaches to Indian art – colonial, nationalist and social history, are discussed.
Besides, this chapter deals with the theme Chitralakshana (characteristics of painting)
that is associated with the third Khanda (section), known as the Chitrasutra, of the
Vishnudharmottara Purana. We will discuss the various technical and theoretical
aspects of Indian paintings through the study of the Chitrasutra. The key concepts of
the Indian Drama (Natya) are discussed in this chapter through the study of the
Natyashastra- an earliest treatise on the Drama in India.
83
7.2. INDIAN ART- VARIOUS THEORIES
i. Colonial Approach
The study of ancient and medieval Indian art and architecture emerged as a
nascent pursuit about two centuries ago. In the late 18th and through a major part of the
19th century, it grew out of a keen and unrelenting interest in Indian antiquities- as
curiosities, as admirable ‘handicrafts’, as mysterious ‘monstrosities’, and above all, as
‘artefacts’ or sources of past histories of a country then colonized by the British. The
setting up of the Asiatic Society (of Bengal) in 1784 by William Jones had
institutionalised the study of India’s past. Art and architecture remains received some
attention as part of the regional surveys undertaken to understand the geography,
history, customs, languages, literature, and folklore of a people. Important work
emerged from individual initiatives such as those of Colin Mackenzie (1754-1821).
Working with a team of draftsmen and learned Indians or Pundits, Mackenzie acquired
translations of inscriptions and manuscripts and had detailed maps and drawings of
some southern Indian sites prepared. His efforts at documenting Amravati stupa and
site are of particular art historical significance. Descriptions of ancient and medieval
Indian monuments had been part of the travelogues of European travellers during the
16th-17th centuries. Visual records of India’s built heritage and landscape found
representation in the aquatints and paintings of artists such as William Hodges (1744-
1787) and the Daniells (1795-1808). Picturesque views of Indian monuments in ruins,
or those covered in dense forests of prolonged neglect, were favourite subjects that
were painted, published and displayed at exhibitions in Europe. The ‘Picturesque’ as a
style of visual representation lent itself well to conjure the mystery, beauty, and
romance of India’s past and to project the contrast of her impoverished present.
Among those who pioneered a methodological study of Indian architecture,
James Fergusson (1808-1886) is well-known for his systematic study of Indian
architectural history and Alexander Cunningham (1814-1893) is remembered for laying
the foundations of Indian archaeology. Both believed in the superiority of Western
aesthetics, techniques, and canons, and categorized the material remains of India’s
past within colonial construct. Fergusson attempted to understand the Indian
architecture in a global context and wrote: History of Architecture in All Countries
(1867) and Historical Enquiry into the True Principles of Beauty in Art, especially with
reference to Architecture (1849). He documented and attempted to ‘read’ the
monument to its last detail, treating it as a ‘fixed’ and hence the most reliable source of
cultural interpretation. He believed in the Anglo-Saxon superiority vis-a-vis Asians, and
adopted racial (Aryan – non-Aryan) and religious (Buddhist- Hindu- Jain-
Muhammadan) classifications for art periods and styles, which have had a persistent
presence in Indian art historical discourse. He was also convinced of the progressive
degeneration of India art, the best being represented by ancient Buddhist art. The
yardstick for judgement was always ‘western’. The most glaring omission in much of
the colonial writings was the neglect of Indian texts and contexts in interpreting Indian
art and architecture.

84
 Even though Fergusson and other colonial scholars paid attention to ‘form’ and
‘style’ in Indian architecture, Indian sculpture and painting did not figure as ‘fine art’
until the early decades of the 20th century and were considered useful mainly as visual
records of the ‘debased’ customs, manners, religious beliefs, and other aspects of
India’s past. Indian sculpture was viewed through the lens of a classical Western
standard epitomised by the Greek arts of antiquity. The lack of ‘realism’ or ‘naturalism’,
the absence of a sense of perspective and proportion, the many heads and multiple
arms of Indian divinities, animal-headed gods, explicitly sexual scenes on temple walls,
and such other representations evoked several derogatory responses to Indian art. A.
Foucher studied the Gandhara sculptures and explained its origin due to the Greco-
Roman influence. In his view, the Indian sculptural art has evolved due to the Greco-
Roman impact, and even the Buddha image had have originated from the Greco-
Roman art. Colonial conviction in the Greco-Roman affiliations of all that was the
earliest and best in Indian art was only strengthened by the continued excavations in
the North-western India during John Marshall’s time as Director-General of the
Archaeological Survey of India (1902-1928).
In sum, art historical methods of formalistic and stylistic analyses as well as
historical and cultural interpretations of art were attempted but were often entrenched
in colonial constructs of race and religion or categorized to emphasize the derivative
nature of Indian art. The biological model of the origins, growth, and decay of a style
was chronologically inverted in the case of India – the best being the most ancient
(Buddhist) and of derivative (Indo-Grecian) character.

ii. Nationalist Approach

The nationalist response to colonial prejudices translated as a quest for
researching the origins, rationale, ‘inner meaning’, and above all, the ‘Indian-ness’ of
Indian art. The aesthetic appreciation of Indian art, beyond its usefulness as a visual
document of Indian history, was also in evidence. To meet these objectives,
methodological approaches came to be rooted at first in symbolism, iconography, and
iconology. This in turn led to a concerted engagement with texts during the first half of
the twentieth century. The search for meaning required an understanding of cultural
contexts- myth, religion, literature, the language of gesture and posture, technical
treatises, literary texts, and local culture. To the Western scholars, this knowledge
seemed more remote and difficult to cultivate than to apply the already evolved
Western art historical methods to an interpretation of form and style.
Ananda K. Coomaraswamy (1877-1947) was at the forefront of ‘Nationalist’
responses to colonial constructions of Indian art history during the colonial period. He
placed the text-image relationship at the centre of his relentless investigations into the
roots and rationale of India’s artistic past. He sourced Vedic and post-Vedic texts,
Buddhist and Jain literature, treatises on art and architecture, varied genres of Indian
literary writings, as also a few epigraphic and numismatic sources to marshal evidence
towards his objectives. He engaged with inter-relationships between the creation, form,
function, and symbolism of Indian art, harnessing a range of sources- textual and
visual – in an attempt to free it from colonial prejudices. A shared substratum of ideas

85
and beliefs in an essentially Asian cultural matrix, and the notion of Greater India found
a strong proponent in him. Coomaraswamy approached the study of Indian
architecture from the historical-technical as well as from the metaphysical and
theoretical viewpoints. Equally or even more so, he was concerned with the
metaphysical, religious, and symbolic underpinning of Indian art and architecture. His
relentless search for the non-derivative or ‘original’ nature of Indian art is typified in the
debate on the Indian origin of the Buddha image, where he also establishes its
development from early Indian Yaksha prototypes, as a counterpoint to Foucher’s
thesis that accorded an exclusive Gandharan (and hence Greco-Roman) derivation to
the Buddha image. To him, the formal or representational in art was of interest in so far
as it signified an inner meaning that almost always reverberated with a spiritual quality.
In his view, the outer form of art (for instance, sculpture) allows to approach the beauty
and purpose of its inner meanings.
Indian scholars for instance, T. A. Gopinath Rao, Benoytosh Bhattacharya and
several others studied extensively the iconographic texts dealing in the visualization of
Indian deities, and developed the culture-specific readings of the meanings embedded
in Indian images. Studies in Indian iconography (pratima-lakshana) and iconology
(pratima-vijnana) thus focused mainly in these writings on identifications, terminology,
and classifications based on the intense and meticulous text-image studies. These
text-image studies were undertaken specifically in relation to the plethora of religious
imagery, classified in accordance with their varied body positions, attributes and
weapons, stances, postures, hand gestures, colours and so forth. In this way, texts
became a medium to know the inner meaning of the sculptures as well as monuments.
In a same way, the discovery of the Chitrasutra of the Vishnudharmottara Purana (6th-
7th century AD) helped the nationalist scholars to develop an Indian perspective on the
art of Painting. The creative process in ancient Indian art was understood by
Coomaraswamy as the visualisation of form through meditative internalization (yoga)
and its subsequent realization by the artist in accordance with aesthetic and
iconomatric injunctions. It was in this light that he explained specific cultural
connotations of the cannons of Indian art as given in the Chitrasutra and interpreted
the Indian approach to the art of painting.
In sum, the nationalist scholars explained the indigenous origin of Indian art through
their studies of text-image relationship and thus proved the foreign origin (from the
Greco-Roman culture) of Indian artistic tradition in ancient India.

iii. Social History Approach

The over-arching emphasis on the abstract, conceptual, and aesthetic basis of
Indian art had to find a balance in understanding the more humanistic and social forces
at work in determining its means, methods, and motivations. Colonial
misrepresentations of Indian art had for long been critiqued by Nationalists, who rose in
its defence and in doing so, reiterated the ‘other-worldliness’ of Indian art, often to the
exclusion of more practical and earthly concerns. Niharranjan Ray emphasised the
need to move away from a perspective that constantly felt the need to defend Indian art
forms on the basis of their religious and metaphysical content. He favoured sociological

86
method as a corrective and focused on establishing for Indian art a firm humanistic,
artistic, and social basis. Resultantly, the artists’ identity, role, status, organization, and
migrations in relation to patrons and society were pursued since the mid-1960s and
1970s onwards.
Notable and path-breaking works in this field are by S. Settar for southern Indian
and ancient Indian artists, R. N. Misra for ancient and medieval northern Indian artists,
and B. N. Goswamy for the miniature painters of medieval northern Indian hill states.
Settar’s approach moves away from earlier trends of archaeological reporting,
iconographic descriptions, and textual interpretations in Indian art historical studies to
highlight the importance of inscriptional interpretation in ways that go well beyond the
obsessive preoccupation with chronology. By analysing the use of script and language
used circumstantially by artisans, he establishes the linguistic and geographical
identities of the migrating artists from the North-western regions of the Mauryan Empire
to the Gangetic valley on the one hand and to the Deccan-Karnataka region on the
other. On the other hand, R. N. Misra draws a distinction between the guild-like
organizations of artisan groups practising occupations such as pottery, carpentry,
weaving, and smithy, and the loose collectives or cadres of sculptors and architects.
His research indicates that in the case of ancient and early medieval sculptors and
architects, artists’ cadres, rather than their guilds seem to emerge prominently in their
organizational set up and in professional activity. Misra shows that hierarchy (e.g.,
master and apprentice), varying levels of expertise within the group, and the work-
driven itinerant nature of the artists often precluded any long-lasting professional guild-
like formations. The researches of Settar and Misra indicate intense competitions,
rivalries and claims of supremacy among artists in search of prestige and patrons.
The study of Indian art from feminist perspective was first developed by Vidya
Dehejia, who drew attention to methodological concerns related to the modes of
representation of the female in art in the Indian context. Dehejia questioned the
rationale of applying Western feminist critique to Indian art because much of ancient
Indian art is encountered in a sacred context. Specific issues of ‘gaze’, ‘representation’,
‘agency’, women artists, male sexuality, spectatorship and femininity in the Indian
context were discussed. Scholars like Seema Bawa argues to study Indian art not
through the Euro-centric or post-modernist approach, but in available historical and
cultural sources located in the early historical Indian tradition. The Indian artists
employed the then available cultural norms and practices to produce their art works,
and therefore, to study the Indian art a fine balance needs to be maintained between
both the material and metaphysical aspects. According to Devangana Desai, the Indian
art needs to be studied as a social process, in which the artist, the work of art and the
art public function as interacting elements.
In sum, the social history of art explores the dynamics of the relationship
between the patron/public, the artist and the work of art in the context of the social
formation of a given period of history. The dynamics of this relationship changes
according to the changes in the economic base of the society. The social history of art
thus appears to be an interdisciplinary study combining the areas of art historical and
social historical research of the period concerned.

87
Self Assessment questions.
a. Write a note on James Fergusson’s approach to Indian art?
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

b. Write a note on Ananda K. Coomaraswamy’s approach to Indian art?

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

c. Comment on S. Settar’s views on ancient Indian artists.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

7.3. CHITRALAKSHANA
The Chitralakshana is associated with the Chitrasutra (Khanda III) of the
Vishnudharmottara Purana, and it refers to the key features of the art of painting that is
discussed in detail in the Chitrasutra. The text of Vishnudharmottara Purana was first
published by Venkateshvara Press Bombay, in 1913 and it was the art historians,
Stella Kramrisch, who drew attention of the scholars to this important work. She even
published an English translation of the portion pertaining to Painting in 1924 of it. The
Vishnudharmottara Purana is divided into three khandas and it’s the third khanda that
contains short treatises on Sanskrit and Prakrit grammar, on lexicography, metrics,
poetics, dancing, singing and instrumental music as well as detailed instructions for
sculptors and painters and architects. These instructions cover the fields of
iconography and temple-architecture. It also discusses materials for building temples
as well as for preparing ground for paintings, etc. The Vishnudharmottara Purana is
considered as a part of the Vishnu Purana. Since Al Beruni (973-1048 AD) has quoted
passages from the Vishnudharmottara Purana in his Al-Hind, this text appears to have
come into existence before the 11th century AD. A closure examination of the text
shows that it has borrowed material from the Natyashastra (not later than the 4th
century AD), and the Vishnudharmottara Purana displays similarities with Danidin’s
Kayadarsha (8th century AD) and Bhamaha’s Kavyalamkara (7th century AD). Thus, the
Vishnudharmottara Purana is placed roughly dated to the sixth-seventh century AD. As
far as the authorship is concerned, it is attributed to sage Vedavyasa.
The Chitrasutra (Khanda III) of the Vishnudharmottara Purana constitute an
important cluster in the larger concern of this Purana on both the nature of art, artistic
expression and communication as also its insistence on establishing a meaningful
interdependence and inter-relationship between and amongst the arts. Since the
Puranic methodology is in narrative form, the story about a dialogue between king
Vajra and sage Markandeya embodies the essence of the theoretical position of the
composer of the Vishnudharmottara Purana. The narrative starts with a request of king
Vajra to sage Markandeya to accept him as his disciple and teach him the art of icon-
making, so that he may worship the deities in their proper forms. The sage replies that
one cannot understand the principles of image-making without the knowledge of

88
painting. The king wishes for instruction in the art of painting and is told that, unless he
is accomplished as a dancer, he cannot grasp even the rudiments of painting. The king
requests that he be taught dancing, whereupon the sage replies that, without a keen
sense of rhythm or the knowledge of instrumental music, proficiency in dance is
impossible. Once again king requests that he be taught these subjects; to which the
sage replies that a mastery of vocal music is necessary before one can be proficient in
instrumental music; and so finally the sage takes the king through all these stages
before he is taught the art of inconography. Explicitly, all the art forms – painting,
dance, music, singing and image making are suggested to be inter-related and inter-
dependent. The main purpose of art forms including painting is held to be a close
observation and reproduction of the world around us in as charming a style as
possible.

i. A Manual of Painting
The legend in the Chitrasutra section of the Vishnudharmottara Purana
attributes the credit for introducing the art of painting to sage Narayana Muni. Once
Narayana Muni was meditating and beautiful apsaras of heaven approached him to
interrupt his meditation. Then to deceive these apsaras, Narayana Muni took the juice
of the mango tree and created the image of the most beautiful woman, named Urvasi,
in the world. After seeing this beautiful image of Urvasi, the apsarras of heaven
became ashamed and went away. In this way, the legend says the art of Chitra with all
the characteristics was created. From sage Narayana Muni the knowledge of painting
was passed on to Vishvakarma.
Four types of paintings, for instance, i) Satya (true of life), ii) Vainika, iii) Nagara
and iv) Mishra (mixed) are mentioned in the Chitrasutra section of the
Vishnudharmottara Purana. The Satya type of painting is like a natural world, and it is
tall, proportionate and tenderly drawn on a nice background. The Vainika painting is
drawn on a square canvas; it is nicely finished according to the strict proportion. This
type of painting is not very long or phlegmatic (showing emotions) in figure. The
Nagara type of painting is round in shape, and images are with firm and well developed
limbs, and are shown with scanty garlands and ornaments. On the other hand, Mishra
type of paintings combine elements of Satya, Vainika and Nagara paintings. The
Chitrasutra talks about the five types of human (man and woman) figures. First, Hamsa
type of man was supposed to have a height of 108 angulas (fingers), and is to be
shown with white complexion, sweet eyes, hands like serpents, nice waist, beautiful
face and gait like swan. It is suitable for the representation of gods in a painting.
Second, Bhadra type of man is instructed to be shown with a height of 100 angulas
(fingers), lotus like complexion, forehead covered with hair, gait like elephant, arms
fully grown up, tapering and round. It is suggested to be suitable for the representation
of sages, gandharvas, vidyadharas, daityas, danavas, ministers, brahmanas and
priests. Third, Malavya is shown with a height of 104 angulas (fingers), dark
complexion, beautiful slender waist, hands reach to knees, massive shoulders, broad
jaw, and elephant like nose. And Malavya type is suitable for the depiction of kinnaras,
rakshas and nagas. Fourth, Rucaka type, which is shown having a height of 100

89
angulas (fingers), autumn white complexion, conch like neck, high soled and very
strong in stature. It is suitable for the representation of yakshas, and vaishyas. And the
fifth, Sasaka type is suggested to be of 90 angulas (fingers) height, and shown with
reddish dark complexion, full cheeks, and sweet eyes. It is suitable for the
representation of chiefs and shudras. All the five types of man have their same type of
woman counterparts (i.e., Hamsa, Bhadra, Malavya, Rucaka and Sasaka); but they are
to be depicted in shorter height, with thinner waist and broader buttocks.
The Chitrasutra talks about nine types of positions, auspicious forms and
gestures that a painter is directed to use for drawing/painting images. These are: i)
Rijvagata (straight position), ii) Anrju (non-straight position), iii) Sacikrita (bend body
position), iv) Ardha-Vilocana (half eye position), v) Parshvagata (side view position), vi)
Paravritta (cheeks turned position), vii) Prishtagata (back position), viii) Parivritta (body
is depicted as if turned backward), and ix) Samanata (completely bent position). In this
way, human beings (both man and woman) are suggested to be shown in diverse
positions in a painting, and in a same way, different seasons are associated with
different human activities. Spring was associated with blooming of trees, cuckoos,
swarming of bees, merry men and women. In context of summer season, tired men,
deer seeking the shade of trees, buffaloes smeared in mud and dried pond are to be
shown. Rain was connected with clouds, rainbows, lightening, birds hiding in trees, and
lions and tigers sheltered in caves. Winter is to be painted by showing frost, shivering
men and women, delighted crows and elephants. In this way, the Chitrasutra directs
the painter to unify the natural environment with the human world in paintings. Human
beings depicted in the paintings are supposed to express emotions, such as, Shringara
(erotic), Hasya (humor), Karuna (pathetic), Vira (heroic), Raudra (furious), Bhayanaka
(fearful), Bibhatsa (disgusting), Adbhuta (amazement), and Shanta (peace). As far as
colours are concerned, then five primary colours (e.g., white, black, blue, green, and
yellow) are mentioned and it is suggested that by mixing primary colours in different
degrees painters are directed to prepare secondary colours.
Sage Markandaya suggests eight good qualities including proper position,
proportion, spacing, gracefulness, articulation, resemblance, decrease and increase of
a good painting; in a same way, painting that lacks proper position, and appropriate
Rasa, and also those that are hazy with darkness are considered as a bad painting. It
is maintained that a good painting brings prosperity and removes adversity, and
anxiety; it increases good future and causes delight; and a good painting also destroys
evils of bad dreams and pleases the household deity. According to sage Markandeya:
“He who paints sleeping persons having life-movements and the dead devoid of life-
movements and one portion of the body lower than the other, is a real painter.” He
further adds: “He who paints waves, flames, smoke and streamers fluttering in the air,
according to the movement of the wind should be considered a great painter.” The
Chitrasutra maintains that a good painting helps in the achievement of artha, kama and
dharma.

7.4. NATYASHASTRA

90
The Natyashastra is authored by Bharata Muni (c. 200-400 AD) and it is divided into
thirty-six chapters; it is also considered the fifth Veda. It is the earliest treatise on
Dramaturgy in India. It’s written in Sanskrit.

i. Natya
According to Natyashastra, drama (Natya) refers to entire limitless range of human
nature with its joys and sorrows that can be depicted through gestures, etc. Drama
represents the ways of the world, the picture of our people’s speech and manners; it is
the Veda accessible to all the castes in society. However, unlike the four Vedas, it is
not confined to the realm of wisdom alone; it provides entertainment too.” According to
traditions, Natya is created by Brahma by taking words from the Rigveda; music from
the Samaveda; movement and makeup from the Yajurveda; and emotional acting from
the Atharvaveda. From Brahma it was passed on to Bharata Muni, who is credited with
further developments in it. The Natya represents all the three worlds: Divine, Human
and Demonic. Three types of stages for the performance of Natya are mentioned, and
these are of oblong, square, and triangular shapes. In the Natya, four modes (i.e.,
physical, verbal, material and emotional) are suggested to be used in the performance.

ii. Nritya
Dance is an essential part of Indian Natya and in Natya the peculiar feature of dance is
described as ‘angika-abhinaya’. Both angikabhinaya (gestures), and vachikabhinaya
(speech), etc., are important in Natya. Nritya means gesticulations, when are
performed in relation to the words sung in a musical melody. A form of dance, called
Nritta corresponds to the movements that are executed for its own sake by a dancer.
Nritta expresses no mood (bhava) and does not convey any meaning. There are two
types of dancing: first, Tandava that is associated with Shiva. It is vigorous, energetic
and bold in nature, and it is generally associated with masculinity. Second is Lasya
derived from Parvati. It is Graceful, gentle and feminine in nature. According to the
Natyashastra, principles governing Natya are also applied to Nritya.

iii. Rasa
According to the Natyashastra, there are eight types of Rasa: Shringara (Erotic), Hasya
(Humour), Karuna (Pathetic), Raudra (Terror), Vira (Heroic), Bhayanaka (Fear),
Bibhatsa (Disgust), and Adbhuta (Amazement). The Rasa is the cumulative result of
Vibhava (stimulus or it leads to perception), anubhava (involuntary reaction) and
vyabhicaribhava (voluntary reaction). A sensitive spectator after enjoying the various
emotions expressed by the actors through words, gestures, and feelings, experience
pleasure, etc. The final feeling that a spectator experience at the end of Natya is the
sum total of various Rasas that is invoked by the Natya. The Shringara (Erotic, Love) is
considered to be pure, holy, resplendent, luxurious, etc. The Hasya (Humour,
Laughter) is stimulated by disfigurement of dress, decoration, impudence, greediness,
incoherent speech, deformed appearance, mistakes, etc. The Karuna (Pathos, grief)
stimulated by pain, curse, calamity, separation from dear ones, loss of wealth, killing,
panic, injury, misery, etc. The Raudra (Anger) is associated with evil characters or

91
violent nature, and it is stimulated by anger, boldness, abuse, insult, lies, provocation,
harsh words, cruelty, etc. The Vira (Heroic, Energy) is related to noble and brave
characters. It is stimulated by courage, determination, justice, chivalry, strength,
bravery, brilliance, etc. The Bhayanaka (Fear) is stimulated by seeing or hearing
words, sounds, & objects, or by fear of Jackals, or owls, or by going into empty houses
or lonely forests, or by seeing or listening stories of dead persons, etc. The Bibhatsa
(Disgust) is stimulated by seeing or hearing whatever is undesirable, ugly, evil. The
Adbhuta (Surprise, Amazement) is stimulated by the sight of divine persons, by sudden
achievement of whatever desired, by going to parks, temples & assembles, by tricks
and magic, etc.

iv. Bhava
Bhava primarily means a mental state. There are three types of Bhava: i) Sthayi
(having two forms Vibhava and Anubhava), ii) Vyabhichari, and iii) Sattviki. According
to Bharata Muni, rasa is produced from bhava; bhava is produced from rasa; and
therefore, they mutually cause each other. The production of sentiments (Rasas) from
moods (Bhavas) is seen and not vice versa. Just as the combination of spices and
vegetables lead to the flavor of food so also the Bhavas and Rasas mutually produce
each other. It is believed that the sentiments are the root from which all the moods are
decided. There are eight types of Sthayi Bhavas: Sringara/Rati (Love, Pleasure),
Hasya (Laughter, Smile, etc.), Raudra (Anger), Karuna (Grief), Vira (Heroic, Energetic),
Adbhuta (Amazement, Extreme Joy, etc.), Bibhatsa (Disgust), and Bhayanaka (Fear).
Vibhava (Stimulus, Determinants) leads to perception, and it is caused by the use of
words, gestures and facial expressions. Different meanings dependent on words,
gestures and facial expressions are perceived/understood by it. Anubhava (Involuntary
reaction, Consequents) is associated with the performer’s gestures and other means to
express the emotional states. A meaning is conveyed with the help of word, gesture &
facial expression. The Vyabhichari Bhava refers to complementary psychological
states (depression, suspicion, jealousy, etc) and these are executed according to Time
and Place in their proper contexts by an actor. Vyabhicari is also known as Sancari
Bhava.

v. Types of Abhinaya
According to the Natyashastra, there are two forms of gesticulations: Angika (Physical)
and Vacika (Verbal). Angikaabhinaya is of two types: Natyadharmi and Lokadharmi.
The lokadharmi is more realistic in practice; Natural behavior corresponding to the
worldly ways; it is devoid of graceful artificial movements of the limbs and it is based on
natural acting based on men and women of various types. On the other hand, in the
Natyadharmi speech, acting and states are extra-ordinary in accordance with the
poet’s imagination. It involves graceful dance movements, dramatic conventions, and
unrealistic/non-natural representation of men and women. In Abhinaya, movements of
the Limbs are divided into sharira (those belonging to body); mukhya (those belonging
to face); and Cestakarta (those resulting from the movement of entire body). Human
limbs are divided into two groups: a). Major limbs (Head, hands, breast/chest, sides,

92
waist, and legs) and b). Minor limbs (Eyes, eyebrows, nose, lower-lips, cheeks and
chin). The Abhinaya, according to the Natyashastra, is based on the diverse artistic
movements of different body limbs.

vi. Regional Theatre

The Natya (drama) is divided in accordance with its regional forms or styles (called,
Pravrittis). There are four types of Pravrittis mentioned in the Natyashastra: i) Avanti
(western), ii) Dakshinatya (southern), iii) Panchali (northern) and iv) Odramagadhi
(eastern). Four types of production styles (Vrittis) are mentioned in the Natyashastra,
and these are: i) Graceful (Kaiseki), ii) Grand (Sathavati), iii) Energetic (Arbhati), and
iv) Verbal (Bharati). In a same way, in a Natya acting (Abhinaya) described as
Gestures (Angika), Vocal (Vachika), Costume, make-up, stage properties (Aharya),
and involuntary temperament and eEmotions (Sattvika). It is maintained that the
Pravritti of Natya differs from region to region and this variation is evident from their
distinct dresses, languages, customs and styles. Different regions are grouped under
different categories according to common features, and these are as follows:
i. Dakshinatya (Kosala, Tosala, Kalinga, Mosula, Dravida, Andhra, Vainya,
Vanavasa)
ii. Panchala (Panchala, Surasena, Kashmir, Hastinapura, Bahlika, Sakala,
Madra, Usinara)
iii. Avanti (Avanti, Vidisha, Saurashtra, Malava, Sindhu, Sauvira, Anarta,
Dasarna, Tripura, Mrittikavata)
iv. Odramagadha (Anga, Vanga, Ut-kalinga, Paundra, Nepala, Antargiri,
Bahirgiri, Mahendra, Malada, Malavartaka, Brahmottara, Bhargava, Pulinda,
Videha, Tamaralipta).
In different regions, different types of Vrittis (modes of production) were prevalent. The
Dakhsinatya Pravritti is associated with Kaishiki Vritti; Panchala with Sattvati and
Arabhativrittis; Avanti is associated with Sattvati and Kaishiki; and Odramagadhi is
connected with Bharati and Arabhativrittis. The Vritti defines the type of play and it
differentiates one type of play from another.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Write a note on the Vishnudharmottara Purana.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

b. Comment on the types of paintings described in the Chitrasutra.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

c. Write a note on the Natyashastra.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7.5. SUMMARY

93
 Above discussion shows that the history of Indian art that started in the 18 th-19th
century under the colonial authority, when the European scholars encountered the past
remains of monuments and sculptures in different parts of India; it further developed
with the introduction of nationalist and social history perspective to Indian art in the
twentieth century. In the course of these developments, several ancient texts, including
the Vishnudharmottara Purana and the Natyashastra were discovered and translated
in different European and Indian languages. The study of different sections of the
Vishnudharmottara Purana and the Natyashastra provides an insight in the socio-
cultural contexts of ancient India within which the art of painting (chitra) and the drama
(natya) developed.

7.6. REFERENCES
Dhar, Parul Pandya, ed. (2011) Indian Art History: Changing Perspectives, New Delhi:
DK Printworld and National Museum Institute.
Rangacharya, Adya, (1999). The Natyasastra, (English translation with critical notes),
New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharalal (or any other suitable translation).

Shah, Priyabala, tr. (2002), Vishnudharmottara Purana, Delhi: Parimal Publications, (or
Any other suitable translation).

7.7. FURTHER READINGS

Dehejia, Vidya, ed. Representing the Body: Gender Issues in Indian Art, New Delhi:
Kali for Women and The Book Review Literary Trust, 1997.
Kaul, Shonaleeka, ed. Cultural History of Early South Asia, New Delhi: Orient
Blackswan, 2014.
Basham, A. L., The Wonder That Was India (A survey of the history and culture of the
Indian sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims), London: Picador an imprint of
Pan Macmillan Ltd, 2004 reprint.

7.8. MODEL QUESTIONS

Essay type questions:

5. Highlight the differences between the colonial and the nationalist approach to
Indian art.
6. Write an essay on the rules of paintings as described in the Chitrasutra.
7. How rasa are different from bhava? Discuss.
8. Discuss the key differences between different regional theatres.

94
 CHAPTER 8
CONCEPTS AND TERMS
STRUCTURE
8.0. Objectives
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Concepts and Terms
8.3. References
8.4. Further Readings
8.5. Model Questions

8.0. OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter you will be able to:
 learn about the ancient Indian literature.
 understand the Mauryan art and architecture.
 critically analyze the developments in the sculptural art and architecture.
 understand the art of Painting and the Natyashastra tradition.

8.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter focuses on the important terms and concepts, which would help
students to understand the ancient Indian history in a more nuanced way. These
concepts and terms are taken from all the four units of the syllabus, and provide an
insight into the history of ancient India.

8.2. CONCEPTS AND TERMS

 Vedas - The term Veda is derived from the root vid literally meaning ‘to know.’
Hence it means knowledge or wisdom. The Vedic literature belongs to the
period from about 1500 to 600 BC, and it consists of the Rigveda, the
Samaveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda. It was believed that these four
Vedas were heard by the sages while meditating or were revealed to them.

 Aranyakas - The Aranyakas (forest books) were supposed to be studied by

hermits (Vanaprasthas) in the forest, and the main contents of these Aranyakas
are no longer the rules on the performance of sacrifices and the explanation of
ceremonies but the sacrifices and the explanation of ceremonies but the
sacrificial mysticism, sacrificial symbolism and the priestly philosophy. They
comprise knowledge of the mysteries of spirit and rituals. It was believed that
this knowledge could only be conveyed in the isolation of forests.

 Upanishads - The term Upanishad is derived from upa-ni-sad i.e. ‘to sit down
near someone.’ It refers to a knowledge conveyed from one person to another
secretly. The Upnishads are 108 in number. They mainly contain philosophical
discourses revolving around atman (self) and brahma/brahmana (Supreme
Being). In the Upanishads not only kings but also women and even people of

95
 low birth who take active part in the philosophical efforts and are often in
possession of the highest knowledge.

 Vedangas – At later stage supplementary texts called Vedangas (literally

meaning ‘limbs of Vedas’, circa 600 – 200 BC) were composed. The purpose
was to help in the proper recitation and understanding of the Vedas. There are
six Vedangas, which are: Shiksha (pronunciation), Kalpa (ritual), Vyakarana
(grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda (meter), and Jyotisha (astrology).
Shiksha means actually “instruction”, then in particular ‘instruction in reciting’,
i.e., in the correct pronunciation, intonation, etc., of the Samhita texts. The
Kalpa-sutra comprises Shrautasutras, Grihyasutras and Dharmasutras. The
knowledge of Vyakarana helped the priests to understand the hymns and rituals
better, and Nirukta explained the roots of different words and their meanings of
hymns/prayers. The Chhanda helped the priests in the recitation of hymns at
appropriate rhythms. And Jyotisha facilitated the knowledge of appropriate time
for the performance of rites and sacrifices.

 Pitikas – The term Pitika (literally meaning ‘basket’) refers to the Buddhist
canonical literature comprises works on monastic rules and regulations, code of
conduct for monks, nuns, and lay worshipers, and basic principles of the sect.
The Theravada Buddhist literature in Pali, which is commonly known as
Tripitaka (three baskets) consists of: Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and
Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Vinaya and Sutta Pitakas were written before 300 BC.
And the Abhidhamma Pitaka and particularly Khuddaka Nikaya were composed
during the reign of king Ashoka. The Khuddaka Nikaya consists of the Jatakas,
Dhammapada and Therigatha. Interestingly, Therigatha (hymns of the nuns)
consisting about 522 hymns were composed by the female nuns. As it has
already mentioned above, these canons –Sutta, Vinaya and Abhidhamma
Pitakas were formulated in northern India.

 Dharmasutras - The term Dharma is derived from the root dhri meaning ‘to
maintain or support or sustain.’ According to Upinder Singh ‘…concept of
dharma is based on the idea that the universe is governed by a certain natural
law and that the moral law guiding people’s lives should be in consonance with
that natural law.’ The Dharmasutras were roughly composed between circa 500
and 200 BC. Important Dharmasutras are Apastamba, Baudhayana, Gautama
and Vasistha. The Apastamba and Baudhayana are considered to be the most
ancient, while Gautama and Vasistha belonged to a later period.

 Manusmriti - The Manusmriti, also known as Manu Samhita or Manaya-

Dharmashastra was one of the famous legal texts. It was composed between
200 BC and 200 AD. The Manusmriti provided the rules related to education of
the young, rites of passage, rituals and religious ceremonies, marriage and
marital rights as well as obligations, dietary restrictions and food transactions,
96
 norms related to the professional activities of different social groups, sins and
expiations, king and administration of justice, death and ancestral rites, and also
rules related to crimes and punishments. Overall the Manusmriti looked after the
social-cultural life of the people.

 Arthashastra – The Arthashastra that was first discovered in 1905 by R.

Shamasastry is the major ancient Indian text on political economy and it was
authored by Kautilya (also known as Vishnugupta and Chanakya). It’s dated to
the Mauryan period; but Thomas R. Trautmann suggests that it belongs to a
period between circa 300 BC and 100/200 AD. This text deals with the science
of polity comprising administration functions, taxation, civil and criminal
judiciary, training of princes, organization of military, recruitment and duties of
ministers, guild co-operations, and so forth. According to the Arthashastra,
“Agriculture, cattle breeding and trade constitute Varta. It is most useful in that it
brings in grain, cattle, gold, forest produce, and free labour. It is by the means of
treasury and army obtained solely through Varta that the King can hold under
his control both his and enemy’s party.”

 Nayanar Saints - The Nayanar saints belonged to the Bhakti tradition of South
India. According to traditions, sixty three Nayanar saints lived in South India and
popularised the Bhakti of Shiva. Important Nayanar saints are: Campantar,
Appar and Cuntarar, etc. They composed their poetry in the language of people
(i.e., Tamil). The most important composition of the Nayanar saints is the
Manikkavacakar’s Tirvuvacakam (literally meaning ‘speech’). Not only man but
female too became saint, and Karaikkal Ammaiyar (c. 550-600 AD) is a famous
Nayanar saint. They composed their poetry in the praise of Shiva and defined
their relation with the god as of servant and master.

 Alvar Saints – The Alavar saints belong to the south Indian Bhakti tradition, and
according to traditions their number is twelve. They worshipped Vishnu and his
various incarnations. They composed their poetry in mostly people’s language
(i.e., Tamil), and the important Alvar saints are: Poykai, Putam, and Pey, etc.
The most important Alvar’s poetry composition is Nammalvar’s Tiruvaymoli
(literally meaning, ‘the Sacred Spoken Word’). The Alvar saints defined their
relation with the god as of lover and beloved, or wife and husband.

 Puranas – The Puranas according to R. C. Majumdar ‘…are a store-house of

traditions, legends, myths, dogmas, rituals, moral codes and religious and
philosophical principles.’ The term Purana means ‘old’. There are eighteen chief
or Mahapuranas: Mastsya, Vishnu, Markandeya, Bhagavata, Brahmanda,
Bhavisya, Agni, Narada, Garuda, Padma, Varaha, Kurma, Linga, Shiva,
Skanda, Brahmavaivarta, Vamana, and Brahma. There are various Upapuranas
or supplementary works. Puranas were a part of a long oral tradition. Though
many of the Puranas were finally put into writings by the end of Gupta period,
97
 there were still some, which were compiled quite late. According to R. S.
Sharma, though Puranas provide information about several kshatriya lineages
and dynasties these details are often fabricated. These were written by the
brahmanas for kshatriyas in return of land, wealth as well as other articles.

 Jatakas - The Jataka texts consist the stories relating to the previous births of
the Buddha. Their composition possibly took place sometime between circa 3rd
century BC and 2nd century AD. These stories provide valuable information
about social and economic life of ancient India. ‘Primarily folktales, they speak of
the duties of the king, administration of justice, varnas and jatis and economic
activities’. The Jatakas, a collection of 550 stories, constitute a significant part of
the Buddhist tradition. The Jatakas were composed over a long period of time.
The core literature was composed as early as 5th century BC and by second-
third century BC they began to be depicted in stone reliefs and paintings at
Bharut, Sanchi, Bagh and Ajanata. Apparently by 300 AD the Jataka literature
took its final form and by mid-600 AD elaborate commentary on the Jatakas was
finalised.

 Sangam Literature – The Sangam or Tamil literature is represented by eight

anthologies of lyrics, ten long poems, and a work of grammar and poetics called
the Tolkappiyam. The Sangam literature was composed between circa 100 BC
and 250 AD. The earliest Tamil grammatical text, Tolkapiyam (third section,
named Porulatikaram) provides a brief framework to Sangam poetry, which
revolves around two themes: love (called Akam/Aham, i.e., ‘inner part’ or ‘the
interior’) and war (called Puram, i.e., ‘outer part’ or the exterior). Akam poems
whereas are love poems, Puram poems are all other kinds of poems, usually
about good and evil, action, community, kingdom and mainly war. Puram is the
‘heroic’ and ‘public’ poetry of the ancient Tamils, celebrating the ferocity and
glory of kings, lamenting the death of heroes, the poverty of poets. The Sangam
poetry is divided into two groups of texts: i) Pattupattu (Pattu means songs) and
ii) Ettuttohai/Ettuttokai (Tokai means poems).

Self Assessment questions.

a. Comment on the four Vedas.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
b. Write a note on Puranas.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
c. Comment on Jatakas.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
d. Write a note on the Pali Tripitakas.

98
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

e. Comment on South Indian Bhakti saints.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

 Stupa - The stupa literally means a mound (Hindi thuha, Pali thubha), was
sepulchral monument generally made of earth on the site of the funeral pyre.
Such original mound of earth served as a core to be encased later by bricks and
in the next stage by stone. It means, first the earthen mounds were erected, and
at later date to provide these durability and stability these were encased with
bricks or stones. The stupa represented many things in the Buddhist tradition. It
stood for the axis mundi (the centre of universe); it symbolised the parinibbana
of the Buddha; it was a repository of relics of the Buddha and other monks; it
was a place of veneration, worship, and pilgrimage for monks and laity. As an
architectural monument, the stupa comprises the following parts: Pashana-
kuttima (foundation of stone blocks), Anda (a hemispherical dome), Harmika (a
modest platform enclosed by a railing), Yashti (a post with a series of three
parasols), Vedika (an enclosure wall), Torana (gateways), and Pradakshina-
patha (circumambulation path).

 Nataraja-Shiva- Many Shiva temples of South India have a separate natana-

sabha, where the image of Nataraja is placed. This can be seen, for instance, in
the temple at Chidambaram. The dancing Shiva was of two types - angry and
pacific. The Nataraja image represents this cosmic dance. Shiva’s this cosmic
dance symbolizes the cyclical creation and destruction of the universe, and its
elements have been interpreted in various ways. In his ‘dance of bliss’ (ananda
tandava), Shiva usually has four arms. He wears a snake as an ornament. His
front left arm is in a pose referred to as danda-hasta (staff hand) or gaja-hasta
(elephant hand). In his rear left hand, he holds a flame, in his rear right hand a
drum; his front right hand is in the release-granting abhaya pose. The drum
symbolizes creation, the fire symbolizes destruction. The hand of the gaja-hasta
points to his lifted foot, which is the refuse of the world. Shiva’s left leg is thrust
out across his body. He usually dances on a dwarf demon, Muyalaka, who
signifies ignorance or evil. The god’s locks of hair, which cradle the goddess
Ganga, radiate out into the surrounding rim of flames.

 Chaitya - The covered structure or temple in which such sacred objects are kept
for worship is called cahityagriha or cahitya, sometimes the term bodhi-ghara is
used for the temple housing papal tree. The chaityagriha is an elongated
building, structural or rock-cut, with apsidal end. Usually the chaitya was
excavated perpendicular to the entrance, which meant that the worshipper
would face the object of worship as he/she entered the chaitya. The light from
99
 outside would also illuminate the entire chamber, including the stupa. In a
chaitya we see a colonnade or series of columns, starting from near the
entrance and passing behind the stupa and returning right up to the entrance. It,
therefore, leaves a lot of space in front of the stupa for the devetee in the
chaitya. This empty space in the front of the stupa is called nave. Since the
entire ceiling is ribbed, the architecture is certainly a copy of the wooden
architecture; as a matter of fact in the rock-cut chaitya the wooden ribs are still
intact. One of the most fascinating elements of the chaitya is the entrance which
is richly carved particularly in rock-cut caves.

 Vihara - The vihara, i.e., monastery for the residence of monks and nuns, is
another architectural form associated with Buddhism. A typical monastery
comprised a square central hall, having an entrance by a doorway and a porch
in the front. Usually the central hall was surrounded on the two or three sides by
square cells, each serving as the dwelling of a monk. Evidences of both
structured and rock-cut viharas are found. The early viharas in the Western
Deccan were simple, and usually consisted of cells arranged around a central
hall with an open verandah in front. A few were two-storeyed. Inside the
monastic cell, there was a rock-cut bed and sometimes a rock-cut pillow. Monks
may have placed a lamp in the small wall niches. A few caves give evidence of
relief carving. The remains of structured vihara are found at Sanchi and the rock
cut vihara at Ajanta, Ellora, Nasik and several other places in the western
Deccan. Since the Buddhist monks were required to stay at one place during the
rainy (monsoon) season to avoid bodily harm, fixed structural as well as rockcut
dwellings began to be built for them. Gradually these places became permanent
and monks from different areas could gather here during rainy season and spent
time in discussion, sharing of knowledge and meditation.

 Mathura Sculptural Art – Mathura was one of the pre-eminent cities of north
India. It was the southern capital of the Kushanas and an important centre of
crafts and trade, religious activity, and artistic production. The sculptors of this
area used red sandstone quarried as Sikari, nor far away. Mathura was an
important pacesetter of artistic style in north India, and images made in this area
were exported to other cities such as Sanghol in Punjab and Kaushambi,
Ahichchhatra, and Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh, right up to Mahasthangarh (in
Bangladesh) in the east. The Mathura sculptures share iconographic similarities
with those of the northwest, but the style is very different. It is completely
indigenous and shows no trace of foreign influence. The Mathura style can be
seen as a further development of the traditions of sculpture of sites such as
Besnagar, Sanchi, and Bharhut. The themes were varied, including yakshas,
yakshis, nagas, nagis, Buddhas, and bodhisattvas, Jain tirthankaras, and the
Hindu deities. Here at Mathura, Buddhism, Brahmanism and Jainism had their
respective centres and places of pilgrimage and naturally all three of them
inspired their own sculptures, images and architectural stupas, or shrines.
100
 Gandhara Sculptural Art - The Gandhara School flourished between the fist and
the fifth centuries AD; it continued till the seventh century AD in parts of Kashmir
and Afghanistan. It was a great centre of Mahayana Buddhist art and
architecture. The Buddha and bodhisattva images and narrative scenes in low
and high relief show that while the subject-matter was by and large Buddhist,
there are few Shaiva and Vaishnava images, the consumes and coiffure were
mixed: Indian, classical and Bactrian. The initial impetus probably came during
the Indo-Bactrian period, but the peak of activity was in the first two centuries
AD. Most of the Gandhara sculptures are made of stone. In the beginning blue
schist and green phyllite were the main materials used by sculptors. Stucco
(lime plaster) began to be used in the first century AD, and it had almost
completely replaced stone by the third century AD. The Gandhara School shows
a marked syncretism. Its themes were Indian but its style Greaco-Roman.
Images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were favourite themes; hence it is
sometimes referred to as Graeco-Buddhist art. The Graeco-Roman influence is
clear in the facial features and curly wavy hair, the muscular body, and the fine,
deeply delineated folds of the robes.

 Sanchi Stupa- The Sanchi stupa is situated in a village named Sanchi at a

distance of about five and half miles from Vidisha on the confluence of the rivers
Bes and Betwa (Vetravati) in Madhya Pradesh. According to the Mahavamsa,
when Ashoka was appointed a governor of Ujjain, he halted at Vidisha and
married Devi, daughter of a merchant. She bore him two children: Mahendra
and Sangamitra. Building activities started at Sanchi during the time of Ashoka,
who is mentioned to have raised a brick stupa here. During the Shunga-
Satavahana times, five gateways and the railings were added to the stupa with
the patronage of diverse social groups (artisans, merchants, rulers), and in this
way the stupa was enlarged and stone encasing was made to it; even stairways
and harmika were added along with railings.

 Nagara Style Temple Architecture - The temple remains found at Sanchi

(Madhya Pradesh) shows it to be flat roof and it is dated to the Gupta period
(fifth century AD). During the same period but towards the end of the century,
perhaps at Deogarh, near Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, a slightly more elaborate
temple for Vishnu was built; in this temple the roof over the garbhagriha became
pyramidal, i.e., tall and pointed, resembling a mountain. It is called shikhara,
which is in fact the spire a tall structure that tapers to a point above. The two
features, one- the cruciform plan and second, curvilinear shikhara, are visible in
northern temples from the sixth century AD (the late Gupta period), for example
in the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh and the brick temple at Bhitargaon (both
in Uttar Pradesh). The beginning of the typical Nagara shikhara can be seen in
the Mahadeva temple at Nachna Kuthara (seventh century AD) and the brick

101
 Lakshmana temple at Sirpur (both in Madhya Pradesh). The fully developed
Nagara style is evident by the eighth century.

 Dravida Style Temple Architecture - The basic concept of Dravida type temple is
as same as that of the Nagara type temple, and it comprises the key
components for instance, garbhagriha, mandapa, pradakshinapatha and so
forth, which also are part of the Nagara type temple. The most stricking feature
of the Dravida temple is its pyramidal shikhara, which consists of progressively
smaller and samller storeys, culminating in a slender pinnacle surmounted by a
small dome (stupika). In a later stage, South Indian temples came to be marked
by huge gateways known as gopurams and by pillared halls and corridors. In
temples built in the Dravida style, the square inner sanctum is set within a large
covered enclosure. The external walls are divided into niches by pilasters. A
general south Indian or Dravida type temple, communally called ‘Vimana type’,
vimana means ship or boat, is based upon Agama texts and Shilpa texts and,
Vastu Shastras.

 Chola Bronze – The Chola period is well known for the aesthetic and technical
finesse of its metal sculpture. Tanjavur was a major centre of the production of
such images. The metal images of north India tend to be hollow, while those of
South India were solid. Both were, however, made through the lost wax method.
The Chola art is known for perfecting the technique of lost –wax or cire- perdue
process of bronze casting, which, of course, was first initiated in India in the
Indus-Sarasvati times, some 5000 years ago, but then lost to us for over a
millennium. And it reappeared again in the Mauryan-Shunga period. The Chola
bronzes are marked by not only soft modelling, graceful flowing contours and
tasteful ornaments but also by serenity which goes with the inner ‘bliss’ of the
gods and goddesses transmitted to the bhaktas or devotees. Poise and gaiety
are also marked in them. That is why these are so very delicate, sophisticated
and charming to look at.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Comment on Buddhist architecture.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

b. Write a note on the Nataraja Shiva.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

c. Comment on temple architecture.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

102
d. Write a note on Sanchi Stupa.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

e. Comment on the Chola Bronze.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

 Buddhist Cave Paintings – The Buddhist cave paintings are found at Ajanta,
Bagh and several similar places. At Ajanta paintings were made in the
Satavahana (c. 200 BC- 100 AD) and the Vakataka (mid-500 to mid-600 AD)
periods. On the other hand, Bagh witnessed the making of paintings in the 400-
600 AD. The subjects of the paintings include portraits of Buddha and
Bodhisattvas (e.g., Padampanni, Avalokiteshvara), fabulous beings and
creatures (yakshas, nagas, gandharvas, apsaras, etc), and natural patterns and
decorative designs (flowers, trees, animals, etc). At Ajanta paintings (frescoes)
are found in caves number 1, 2, 9, 10, 16, and 17. At Bagh total 9 caves are
present and paintings are made on walls and ceilings. Walls and ceilings were
covered with a thick mud plaster in brownish orange colour. Over this plaser
there was executed lime-priming (coating). Once the surface dried, drawings
were made. One of the most famous paintings at Bagh is the Hallisaka Dance,
which depict a musical drama acted by a troupe of women led by a man. They
are depicted elaborately dressed, singing and dancing with considerable
freedom.

 Temple Paintings – Temple paintings are found at Ellora, Panamalai,

Kanchipuram and Sittanavasal. At Ellora, remains of mural paintings have
survived in the Kailash temple (c. 800 AD), minor group of Ganesha caves (c.
800-1100 AD) and Indrasabha section at Jain cave temples (c. 800-10th century
AD). In the temples and Ganesha caves, paintings are based on Hindu
mythology; and in the Jain temples stories and themes related to Jain
tirthankaras are painted on the walls and ceiling of Indrasabha section. In the
Ellora paintings, divinities are shown amidst clouds, and it gives a sense of
weightlessness as well as flying mood. In Pannamalai and Kailashnath temple
at Kanchipuram, paintings are based on Hindu mythologies and these are
placed in distinct panels. Execution of figures is more angular and less curved.
At Sittanavasal, paintings display compactness and pleasing distribution of
colours, e.g., the pink lotuses, white buds, green leaves, dark elephants, deep
red and bright yellow men, etc. And one finds the presence of geometrical
patterns in painted canopies such as square, cross and trishula, of the figures of
gods and semi-gods.

103
 Ajanta - The Ajanta rock cut caves are located in the district of Aurangabad
(Maharashtra) at the inter-regional trade routes and both rulers as well as
merchants had contributed in the making of these Buddhist caves. There are 29
caves at Ajanta. Cave number 9, 10, 19, and 26 are chaityas and rest of the
caves are Viharas (monasteries). The mural paintings (frescoes) are found in
cave number 1, 2, 9, 10, 16, and 17. These rock cut caves came into existence
in the period of the Satavahana rulers and under the Hinayana school’s
influence cave number 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15-A were built between circa 200 BC
and 100 AD. These caves remained inhabited in subsequent period and
witnessed the presence of Buddhist monks here. The construction again took
place during the Vakataka ruler Harisena from about mid-fifth to mid-sixth
century AD. In the second phase of construction, the predominant influence of
the Mahayana school is quite evident. The images of both the phases
(Satavahana and the Vakatakas) are found.

 Ellora – The ancient name of the village was Elapura, from which the present
name Verul (Marathi) and Ellora, its anglicised form, are derived. Rock-cutting
activity at Ellora began in the middle of the sixth century, when work at nearby
Ajanata was almost complete. The Hindus were the first to excavate caves at
Ellora. It was probably during the reign of the Kalachuris that work began at
Ellora Caves 28, 29, and 19, which are modest excavations without any artistic
pretensions. Next, work began at what is now Cave 29 (Dumar cave), a very
ambitious project that resembles the main cave at Elephanta in plan and other
essential details, especially the sculptures. Almost simultaneously, Caves 20
and 26 were also excavated. But far more exquisite and aesthetically superior is
Cave 21 (Rameshwar) which was also taken up at that time. It was towards the
close of the sixth century that the excavation of the Buddhist caves at Ellora
began. The Buddhist activity, however, came to an end by the close of the
seventh century and the eighth century is marked by vigorous Hindu activity in
the area. Their grandest edifice at Ellora is Cave 16 (Kailasa) which can be
assigned to the latter half of the eighth century. Work on the Jaina caves started
towards the close of the eighth century and continued in full swing in the ninth
and tenth century. Ellora was thus buzzing with art activity for nearly four
centuries (circa 550- 950 AD).

 Natyashastra – The Natyashastra is authored by Bharata Muni (c. 200-400 AD)

and it is divided into thirty-six chapters; it is also considered the fifth Veda. It is
the earliest treatise on Dramaturgy in India. It’s written in Sanskrit. The original
work, the text says in its first chapter, was composed by God Brahma for the
celestial immortals ruled by Indra. It is believed that in the Natyashastra the
drama represents the ways of the world, the picture of our people’s speech and
manners; the Natyashastra is the Veda accessible to all the castes in society.
However, unlike the four Vedas, it is not confined to the realm of wisdom alone;
it provides entertainment too. According to traditions, God Brahma created the
104
 Natya (Drama) by borrowing words from the Rigveda, music from the
Samaveda, movement and makeup from the Yajurveda and emotions from the
Atharvaveda. The Natya (drama) represents, according to the Natyashastra, all
the three worlds: human, divine and demonic.

 Raga – The Raga means passions, and different Ragas excite different
emotions and feelings. The Ragas display the most exquisite form of musical
conception. They are rich, heavy, melodious and of a highly classical order, and
a devotional vein of spirituality is found in all of them. They touch the deepest
emotional chord of the human soul, and transport one to a higher and nobler
realm. The number of Ragas in Indian musical tradition is six: Bhairon, Hindole,
Dipak, Shri and Megh, which are believed to have originated from Shiva. And
the sixth Raga, i.e., Malkus, is believed to have originated from Parvati. The
Ragas are sung in proper time and season with a perfect knowledge of the
science. The Raga-Bhairon is played in the months of September and October,
and its performed from early dawn to sunrise. Shri Raga is played in the month
of November and December and the house of its performance is the evening.
Raga-Malkaus is sung in January and February and performed in past-mid
night. Raga Hindol is played in March and April, and its performed late in the
night. Raga Dipak is a tune of fire, and is played in the months of May and June,
and its performed in dusk (when days ends and night begins). Raga Megh is
played in July and August, and it may be performed at all time of the rainy
season.

 Rasa - According to the Natyashastra, there are eight types of Rasa: Shringara
(Erotic), Hasya (Humour), Karuna (Pathetic), Raudra (Terror), Vira (Heroic),
Bhayanaka (Fear), Bibhatsa (Disgust), and Adbhuta (Amazement). The Rasa is
the cumulative result of Vibhava (stimulus that leads to perception), anubhava
(involuntary reaction) and vyabhicaribhava (voluntary reaction). A sensitive
spectator after enjoying the various emotions expressed by the actors through
words, gestures, and feelings, experience pleasure, etc. The final feeling that a
spectator experience at the end of Natya is the sum total of various Rasas that
is invoked by the Natya.

 Bhava- Bhava primarily means a mental state. There are three types of Bhava:
i) Sthayi (having two forms Vibhava and Anubhava), ii) Vyabhichari, and iii)
Sattviki. According to Bharata Muni, rasa is produced from bhava; bhava is
produced from rasa; and therefore, they mutually cause each other. The
production of sentiments (Rasas) from moods (Bhavas) is seen and not vice
versa. Just as the combination of spices and vegetables lead to the flavor of
food so also the Bhavas and Rasas mutually produce each other. It is believed
that the sentiments are the root from which all the moods are decided.

105
 Chitralakshana – The Chitralakshana is associated with the Chitrasutra (Khanda
III) of the Vishnudharmottara Purana, and it refers to the key features of the art
of painting that is discussed in detail in the Chitrasutra. The Chitrasutra
constitute an important cluster in the larger concern of this Purana on both the
nature of art, artistic expression and communication as also its insistence on
establishing a meaningful interdependence and inter-relationship between and
amongst the arts. Since the Puranic methodology is in narrative form, the story
about a dialogue between king Vajra and sage Markandeya embodies the
essence of the theoretical position of the composer of the Vishnudharmottara
Purana.

 Types of Abhinaya - According to the Natyashastra, there are two forms of

gesticulations: Angika (Physical) and Vacika (Verbal). Angikaabhinaya is of two
types: Natyadharmi and Lokadharmi. The lokadharmi is more realistic in
practice; Natural behavior corresponding to the worldly ways; it is devoid of
graceful artificial movements of the limbs and it is based on natural acting based
on men and women of various types. On the other hand, in the Natyadharmi
speech, acting and states are extra-ordinary in accordance with the poet’s
imagination. It involves graceful dance movements, dramatic conventions, and
unrealistic/non-natural representation of men and women.

 Shakuntala – Shakuntala is one of the main characters of the play/drama

Abhijnana-Shakuntalam of Kalidasa. She is a daughter of sage Vishmamitra and
an apsara Menaka. When Menaka, on the direction of god Indra, disturbed the
penance of Vishvamitra, then Shakuntala was born of her relation with sage
Vishvamitra. Both Vishvamitra and Menaka abandon her, and she is adopted by
sage Kanva as her daughter. When she grows young, she marries the king
Duhsanta of Hastinapur, and from their marriage a son named Bharata was
born.

Self Assessment questions.

a. Comment on the Ajanta paintings.
Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

b. Write a note on the Natyashastra.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

c. Comment on the Chitralakshna.

Answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

106
8.3. REFERENCES
 Agrawala, Vasudeva S. (1965). Indian Art [A History of Indian Art from the
earliest times up to the Third century AD]. Varanasi-India: Prithivi Prakashan.
 Winternitz, Maurice. (1977). A History of Indian Literature: Vol. I and II. New
Delhi; Oriental Books Reprint Corporation.

8.4. FURTHER READINGS

 Basham, A. L. (2004). The Wonder That Was India (A survey of the history and
culture of the Indian sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims). London:
Picador an imprint of Pan Macmillan Ltd.
 Singh, Upinder, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From Stone Age
to the 12th Century, Pearson Longman: Delhi, 2009.

8.5. MODEL QUESTIONS

1. Comment on Buddhist cave paintings.
2. Comment on Temple paintings.
3. Write a note on the concept of Rasa.
4. Write a note on the concept of Bhava.
5. Write a note on the concept of Raga.
6. Comment on Types of Abhinaya.

107