B.A. (Prog.

) Semester-III History

SKILL ENHANCEMENT COURSE (SEC)

Introduction to Art in the Indian Subcontinent
Study Material : Unit (1-4)

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

Department of History
Course Co-ordinator and Editor: Dr. Rajni Nanda Mathew
 Content Contributors

Dr. Meera Khare Prof. Seema Bawa

Associate Professor (Retired), Professor,
Department of History, PGDAV College (M) Department of History,
University of Delhi, Delhi University of Delhi, Delhi

Dr. Rajni Nanda Mathew Madhu Trivedi

Associate Professor, Associate Professor (Retired),
School of Open Learning, School of Open Learning,
University of Delhi, Delhi University of Delhi, Delhi

Dr. Vikas Kumar Verma Shubhra Sinha

Assistant Professor, Associate Professor,
Department of History, Department of History,
Ramjas College, Kamla Nehru College,
University of Delhi, Delhi University of Delhi, Delhi

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
5, Cavalry Lane, Delhi-110007
 Graduate Course

SKILL ENHANCEMENT COURSE

Introduction to Art in the Indian Subcontinent
Unit 1-4

Content
Unit 1 : Indian Art; historical Issues Meera Khare
Unit 2 : Sculpture
(a) Stone: Gandhara and Mathura Seema Bawa
(b) Metal: Chola Bronzes Seema Bawa
(c) Terracotta: Contemporary Meera Khare
Unit 3 : Architecture
Evolution of Temples
Nagar: Sun Temple, Konark Meera Khare
Dravida: Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram Rajni Nanda Mathew
(a) Mosques and Mausoleums
Quwwat al-Islam mosque, Delhi Meera Khare
Madhu Trivedi
Tajmahal, Agra Meera Khare
(b) Forts
Kumbhalgarh Fort Rajni Nanda Mathew
(c) Colonial
Rashtrapati Bhawan Meera Khare
Victoria Terminus Meera Khare
Unit 4 : Painting
(a) Mural Tradition: Ajanta Vikas Kumar Verma
(b) Miniature Tradition: Mughal and Rajput Shubhra Sinha
(c) Nationalist Tradition: Bengal School Shubhra Sinha
(d) Contemporary Tradition: Calender Art Shubhra Sinha

Course Co-ordinator and Editor

Dr. Rajni Nanda Mathew
 Introduction to Art in the Indian subcontinent
Course Objective:

The paper provides an overview of the art in the Indian Subcontinent right from ancient to
contemporary times. It includes various aspects of art such as sculpture, architecture and
paintings, so as to help students to gain a comprehensible insight into the most fascinating
areas of Indian art and learn to appreciate the various art forms.

Learning Outcome:

Upon successful completion of the course, students will be able to:

 distinguish between the different Schools of Art in Ancient India

 specify the technique used for making Pallava-Chola bronzes
 recognize the various architectural forms (temples, mosques, forts and colonial buildings)
which are part of the cultural heritage of India
 set apart the important traditions of paintings in India
 outline the various art forms.
 UNIT 1

Indian Art: Historiographical Issues

1.0 Objective
This unit familiarises the students with the historiographical issues related to the
study of Indian Art.

1.1 Introduction
Indian art goes back to pre-historic Paleolithic age. The subcontinent has been a home to
many migratory populations, many religious creeds, each contributing to the culturally rich
artistic forms that make up the Indian civilization.

1.1.1 Some General Observations

Religion across time and space has always propelled arts, religious ideals have
always been a stimulus to creativity and Indian art is no exception. Indian subcontinent
down the ages has produced some of the greatest Buddhist, Jain, Hindu and Islamicate art
forms that have materialized the various religious ideals.The great temples and other
religious shrines of ancient and early medieval Indiaembody the abstract philosophical
and religious ideasof these diverse cultural traditions of the subcontinent. Art historians
agree that Indian art works in a sense are not just aesthetic expressions of formbut are
visualizations of the transcendent, the absolute reality. All art activity traditionally was
considered a spiritual act and the shilpashastras, the technical treatises, emphasize on this
nature of the arts. All arts: performing, plastic, graphic or architectural were considered
divine and were perceived as interrelated.
Another characteristic of Indian art, as pointed out by ParthaMitter, is that the Indian
artist made no distinction between fine arts and decorative arts in the western sense.This
led to a great tradition of decorated utensils, for example. An intense decorative urge
leading to a profuse use of ornamentation on surfaces is also a distinctive feature of
Indian art and architecture.
Indian art has been critiqued for its lack of naturalism, being more linear and devoid
of a concern for faithfully imitating naturein its true sense. This arose obviously from the
foregoing discussion of arts being a reflection of the transcendent reality. Since the goal
of the Indian artist is to embody philosophical and humanistic ideals in his creation, as
arts are a spiritual activity, this leads him and the spectator to ultimately realize the
transcendent state in that creation. Realism to the Indian artist, therefore, has a different
meaning. Nature to him is transitory and elusive, as the only reality is the divine spirit,
the universal truth. This ultimate truth is realizedand experienced through the artist’s

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creation - his and the spectators’ ultimate goal. Further, this inner higher beauty in his art
form must be sought after subtly and not be achieved by imitating nature like his
counterpart in the west. A natural corollary of this was that true portraiture in sculpture or
painting was never the concern of the artist in ancient times. The paradigm shift came
with the coming of true portraiture in Mughal painting. This lack of anatomy-sense did
not happen because of any lack of skills, rather in the way the artist perceived his world
in the process of creating higher and more subtle types. Finally this also resulted in Indian
artist being largely unknown in ancient and medieval India, he being a part of the
collective consciousness of people.
However, this is not to say all Indian art is spiritual, secular art too was practiced
under royal patronage and other agencies. Palaces, forts, civic architecture, decorative
utensils, jewellery, textiles, folk and tribal art forms etc. too were created. Besides, motifs
and tropes were frequently borrowed from one religious tradition to another, from one
medium to another that often overlapped in various art forms. There is no identity of a
‘Hindu’ Architectureor a ‘Muslim’ Architecture. Interaction and adaptation is the key to
understanding Indian art, both secular and religious.
In recent times art historians have emphasized on the need to judge Indian art on its
own terms and not to apply the canons of western universal art history to evaluate it.
While reassessing Indian art, away from colonial readings, one should not look for artistic
teleology in the sense Indian art doesn’t move in a linear trajectory. There are multiple
discourses. There are no great or low moments; no pinnacles or classical golden ages nor
absolute nadir of art. However, this is not say there is no evolution of style in Indian art.
Rejecting the notion of linear development of art would further mean we need to
reject the primacy of any one historical formation, region, dynasty or patronage while
evaluating Indian art. There are no focal imperial centres, local and distant traditions
being just as vital in creating artistic forms. This also means instead of looking for
‘influences’, we need to concentrate on the processes of creation. Artistic creations are
multilayered and are overlapping with multiple meanings.
Finally, before we move on to the history of study of Indian art, we need to
appreciate that art is not just a study of form, nor exclusively a study of its decorative
elements or iconography or its technical aspects, but is a part of the larger dimension of
processes of state formation, politics and culture. All art is conditioned inits social and
political context.

1.2 The History of Indian Art History: Historiography

Indian art historiography has seen many paradigm shifts and changes since thefirst
histories of art and architecture were written by the colonists in the mid and laterpart of
the 19th century.Since then,many vantage points were presented to analyze and
understand Indian art. The concerning issues were how to devise a chronological

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framework for the study of Indian art and in the second instance was the issue of aesthetic
evaluation of arts. According to ParthaMitter, writings spanning the period 1874-1927
fiercely debatedthese issues and presented various theories.As amatter of fact, says
Mitter, much of Indian art historiography which we were familiar with till as late as 1973
was influenced by writings that appeared between 1874 and1927. He states that Henry
Cole’s publication of the catalogue of Indian art collection at the South Kensington
Museum (1874) represents the starting viewpoint ofappreciation of Indian art and the
other end comprises the prolific History of Indian and Indonesian Art (1927) by Ananda
Kentish Coomaraswamy. Between these two years, using largely tools of western
methodologies, these writings came to categorize approaches to the study of Indian art
into two sets of viewpoints. The two approaches, according to Mitter, can be termed as
‘archaeological’ and ‘transcendental’.
To the first group, the ‘archaeological’, European Graeco-Roman classical art had no
parallel and all Indian art was to be judged against that, not by its own distinctiveness as
it was a part of universal art history. For the second group, classical art was denied its
superiority as the best of Indian art was superior to the classical and it embodied high
notions of spiritual knowledge.

1.2.1 Archaeological or the Orientalist canon

India was virtually an unknown terrainto the west since coming into contact with
Europeans, from Vasco da Gama’s arrival (1498) till the middle of 18th century.
Knowledge of Indian art was fragmentary and at best looked down upon,religious
sculpture being perceived as representing monstrous creatures and forms. However, with
ideas of the 18th century Enlightenment and colonist expansion, interest was invoked in
studies oriental and thus began the formation of the Orientalist canon to understand South
Asian art. The basis of this, to the colonial power, was that to rule better it was important
to know the ruled better. Initially Ancient Indian Vedic and Buddhist texts in Sanskrit
were studied andlater monuments were surveyed and art was catalogued and collected in
museums under the colonial rulers. The underlying discourse was that ancient times were
a civilization of greatness, a golden age that declined with the onset of medieval Hindu
idolism. In the course of time, by early 19th century, Europeans’ own sense of pre-
eminence came to question India’s ancient greatness as well and concepts of the
Orientalist canon were shaped further, whose most classic and articulate example was
James Mill’s History of British India (9 volumes, London, 1820).
In the archaeological Orientalist canon, classical European art far surpassed any
other and all art came to be judged by itsuniversal western benchmarks. No doubt the Taj
Mahal was a piece of utmost beauty, far above anything that there was in the Africasor
the Pacifics but could not surpass the grandeur of the Greek Parthenon.This canon
presumed that the identity of these ‘barbarous’ and ‘rude’ people could only be
constructed by means of religion, caste or race. Societies were labelled ‘Hindu’ or

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‘Muslim’. Ancient Indian art was labelled ‘Hindu’, ‘Buddhist’ or ‘Jain’ and medieval art
was ‘Muslim’ or ‘Hindu’. Primacy of race too was emphasized. Indigenous Indians were
Dravidians, who were ousted by the superior Aryans, who came from outside. The debate
on Dravida versus Aryan became a significant trait of this approach. The Vedic and
Buddhist periods’ art and culture, being Aryan, was pure and pristine while the early
medieval Hindu idiom was decadent because of over the board ornately decorated
Dravidatemples.Buddhist art was par excellence because it was Aryan and was
influenced by Graeco-Bactrian forms.The Buddha icons from the GandharaSchoolfell in
this categorization. Gandharawas great because it was Greece-derived. The most
articulate votary of the foreign origin of Gandhara was Fergusson. And
asGandhara,Islamic art too was more rational and comprehensible because it came from
outside and was not bogged down by the tenets of Hindu caste system.
The most influential protagonists in this group, writing on the arts and culture of
India were R. Orme (18th century), Henry Cole (1874), George Birdwood (1888, 1891),
Henry T. Colebrooke (1807, 1817, 1858), Alexander Cunningham (his archaeological
surveys of monuments and their reports: 1871, 1873), James Fergusson (1876) and V. A.
Smith (1911).

1.2.2 Transcendental or the Nationalist Approach

By the beginning of 20th century, challenges began to come and superiority of
European art came to be questioned against the background of modernity and rise of
Indian nationalism. To this second group, the nationalist,Indian art was to be appreciated
for its own merits, on its own terms. The use of European classical standards to judge arts
was rejected. Ernest BinfieldHavell(1908, 1920) and Ananda K. Coomaraswamy (1913,
1927, 1934, 1948,1956) were towering figures for this approach. Havell, according to
Mitter,argued for an intrinsically ‘perceptual’ approach instead of a ‘conceptual’ one, so
favoured by the archaeologists.The failure of the western mind to appreciate India’s
religious,mythological and philosophical mind had led the archaeologists, inspite of their
contribution in accumulating impressive information, tonot truly appreciate Indian art,
which was ‘a living thing’. To Havell, it was within Indian tradition itself that tools for
evaluating Indian art were to be found. Within this paradigm, Havell re-evaluated the
Buddha image from Gandhara (Indian Sculpture and Painting, London, 1908; pp 41-44).
While referring to archaeologists’ viewpoint on Gandhara, he found the Buddha imagesat
Gandharanot the real representations of the Buddhist divine ideals and that they were
overvalued by the archaeologists. Instead to him, the soulless images of Gandhara
actually had no spiritual grace that was so reminiscent of the later Buddha icons. This was
because they were the work of inferior craftsmen who came from the dying art of Greece,
hired by Gandhara rulers, working under the orders of Indian Buddhist monks. For
Havell, the best of Gandhara did not have the spirituality of the true Indian ideal (p. 42),
seen later in Buddha images at Elephanta andEllora. Finally Havell thought the
GandharaSchool was not an example of Hellenistic influence upon Indian art, but the

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reverse: it showed Graeco-Roman art being gradually Indianized.ForHavell then, Indian
art is essentially idealistic,mystic, symbolic and transcendental. To him the Indian artist is
both a priest and a poet(p. 25).
Theoretically the concept of spirituality in arts is derived from the
Neoplatoniannotions of ‘idea’ and ‘spirit’.That art embodies an ‘idea’, an inner world of
beauty that has an intrinsic meaning, is a theory that had developed in the west from Plato
to Hegel. Havell was convinced that spirituality played a part in evolution of arts and not
imitation of nature, as envisaged in the archaeological standpoints. Thisapproach to
evaluate Indian art was further developed by A. K. Coomaraswamy. He too was
concerned with the spiritual quality of Indian art.To him too, Indian art was all spiritual,
imbued with Platonian notions of ‘idea’and ‘spirit’ and that all art was religion. He saw
unity in art, life and religion. For Coomaraswamy, nature is transcendentand exists on a
metaphysical plane in every artist’s mind. Thisinner vision of the artist is then
externalized and gets a materialrepresentation in his artistic creation. But what brings this
inner vision of the artist to life? Coomaraswamy’sanswer to this was the special
technique of vision brought forth by the practice of yoga, known to the traditional artist
(Transformation of Nature in Art, 1934).Yoga was the specialized technique that aided
the inner vision of the artist to materialize into an art form. Within this he even looked at
the form of dome as a work of imagination and spirituality rather than one of
technicality.This union of art and religion is central to Coomaraswamy’s theory of art.
We have already mentioned that ancient texts describe all art activities as spiritual.
Some of the other notable writings in this paradigm are by Stella Kramrisch (The
Hindu Temple, Calcutta, 1946) and Heinrich Zimmer (1933, 1984), not to mention a few
more.

1.3 Other Approaches: Art in Society

There is no denying the role of religion in Indian art but mere metaphysics cannot
give true meaning to artforms. A simple archaeological reading of it cannot either,
however important it might be, to survey, document and archive it. Pure abstractness and
concepts of ‘idea’ and ‘spirit’ tend to deflect our attention from the actual meaning of arts
in practical terms.Collective metaphysical generalizations have no concrete application
instead a more individualistic humanistic approach will help us more to understand the
true meaning of arts. To reconstruct the precise relationship between art and religion itself
one needs to look at humanistic and social-political contexts. To know art, you have to
look at its sociological moorings, the individual specificities. Particular time and space
have to be worked out to understand its intrinsic meaning, as all art is embedded in its
individual social and political context. Art exists in society.
NiharRanjan Ray was an important intervention in this approach. His An Approach
to Indian Art, 1974 made an appeal for socio-economic forces at work in creating arts. He

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advocated that art has to be judged from specific individual contexts and contemporary
positions. In his works one could see the rejection of archaeological approach of the
colonial readings as well as the overdependence on spirituality of arts in the nationalist
approach.
Further studies emerged, following the sociological approach, like works on the role
of artists, patrons, public or gender issues etc. appeared. Writers of note, besides
Coomaraswamy and Kramrisch earlier, are B. N. Goswamy (1968, 1970, 1992),
R.N.Mishra, VidyaDahejia (1997) and Devangana Desai (1985).

1.4 Conclusion
From the above discussion it is clear that from simple biased colonial reading of
Indian art, the writings on the history of Indian art moved to over-emphasis on its
spiritualityto its sociological contexts. Patronage, artist-patron relations, public reception
of art, gendered readings, eroticism in art, theories of taste, a pan-Asian context of Indian
arts and a post-modernist approach to reconstruct meaning are some of the interesting
themes that have engaged present scholarship. These studies are going a long way in
enriching our knowledge about Indian arts.
Essential Readings
 Mitter, Partha, Much Maligned Monsters: History of European Reaction to Indian
Art, Oxford,1977, chapter VI.
 Tartakov, Gary M., ‘Changing Views of India’s Art History’, in Catherine B. Asher
and Thomas R. Metcalf eds, Perception of South Asia’s Visual Past, New Delhi,
1994, pp15-36.
Selected Reading
 Dhar, Parul Pandya, Indian Art History: Changing Perspectives, New Delhi, 2011,
Introduction, pp 1-32.

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 UNIT 2

Sculpture

2.0 Objective
Sculptures are the artistic expressions which reflect cultural traits. Indian
subcontinent has a rich tradition of sculptural art that dates back to the Neolithic period,
though archaeologically a continuous trajectory of its evolution can be traced only from
the 3rd century B.C. onwards. This unit deals with the sculptural remains in various forms
which have survived through the ages and bear testimony to the masterly skills of the
craftsmen.
After studying this unit you will be able to:
 explain the Shilpashastric normative tradition,
 identify the different Schools of Art in Ancient India
 explain the technique used for making Pallava-Chola bronzes.

2.1 Introduction
Various forms of arts in the Indian tradition were considered to be creations of the
gods, and therefore none was superior to the other. Just as dance and music was begotten
by Shiva, painting and sculpture was begotten by Vishnu and architecture by Rudra
Vishwakarman. Cultural creation was believed to be a reflection of the divine and
therefore saundarya or aesthetic pleasure was built into its production and consumption.
It is no wonder that the majority of ancient and medieval arts came up within a socio-
religious context. Art for its own sake was not known or created in either the classical or
the folk context. The artist was a sadhaka, a person who meditated upon his creation
using a number of prescriptive and ritual texts rather than an individual genius.
References to the existence of sacred sculptures antedate the material evidence. Early
texts call images -- pratima, sandrshi, prakriti or bimba, which later came to denote arca,
or religious objects of worship. The earliest reference to the attributes of gods comes
from the Vedic period where we have word pictures of various deities such as that of Shri
in the Shri Sukta though it is not archeologically proved. Panini, a grammarian belonging
to the sixth Century B.C however has referred to the existence as well as rituals
surrounding a prakriti or an image. Similarly Saunaka in his digest Brihat devata refers
to ten essential elements that help us identify a deity such as form, relationship, emblem,
vehicle, name, attribute, symbol etc. The Grhyasutras are unequivocal in the recognition
of pratima of icons and the domestic rituals involved in their worship.

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 However, creation of images comes into prominence only with the popularization of
bhakti as a religious doctrine amongst all sects, be it Buddhism, Jainism, Shivaism or
Vishnuism. The personal bond between the devotee and the ishtadevata or personal god
through the offering of obeisance, puja and archana required a direct and identifiable
object of worship as well as place of worship. This led to the creation of anthropomorphic
images as well as shrines to house them. Another impetus was the worship of popular
spirits such as yakshas, vrikshas (trees) and waters along with funerary remains of
Mahapurushas such as Buddha and Mahavira and their principal disciples. The third
stream that inspired early sculptures were the word images of deities found in Vedic
hymns that were translated into sculptures of various sectarian gods.

2.2 Shilpasatric Normative Tradition

An entire textual tradition exists, consisting of the Shilpashastras and the
Vastushastras that gives rules and regulations along with the description of numerically
increasing as well as progressively complex icons. These texts coincide with the creation
of the Pauranic tradition which is based on a variety of myths and of familial (such as the
families of Shiva or Vishnu) as well as sectarian relationships of the gods within a
pantheon for example the various avataras in Vaishnavism or the variety of subsidiary
deities such as Nandi, ganas etc. in Shaivism. The creation of icons corresponds to the
incorporation of deities and myths into the pantheon of Vishnu, starting from Matsya to
Kalki as is seen in sculptures on the Dasavatara temple at Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh.
Like the other shastric texts, the Shilpashastras lay down the exact prescriptions as
well as rituals, in this case for the creation of sculptures and buildings. These regulations
range from the “state of being” of the sculptor to the selection of stone or other media, the
preparation of the surface to the technique of sculpting and characteristics of the icon
itself. The texts also give exact measurements and proportions of each image, which is
known as iconometry which along with iconography lays down rules for making an icon.
Iconography literally means the study of icons, and includes within it the identification,
description, and the interpretation of the content of images. It can be interpreted as:
(a) Pictorial illustration of a subject (b) The collected representations illustrating a subject
or (c) a set of specified or traditional symbolic forms associated with the subject or theme
of a stylized work of art.
The Pratimalakshna of Naganjit was one such text that had a lasting impact on later
treatises such as the Brihatsmahita of Varahmira and of Utpala. Other texts like the
Vishvakarmavatarashastra, the Aprajitaprichha, the Samgrnaustradhara of King Bhoja,
Abhilashitarthacintamani of king Somesvaradeva of the Chalukayas, Manasara,
Manasollasa, Mayamata and Shilparatna of Shrikumara are some of the specialized texts
that fall under the category of the Shilpashastras. These were largely written between the
sixth to the thirteenth centuries.

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 The information contained within these is largely taken from religious texts such as
the Samhitas, Agamas and Tantras along with Puranas such as Agni Purana and Vayu
Purana. The most important of texts on iconography is an upapurana called the
Vishnudharmottarapurana that was composed in Kashmir somewhere during the late
seventh century. This text gives detailed descriptions of the form, attributes, colour of
most of the significant deities of north India. Similar texts belonging to both north and
south India continued to be composed during the medieval period and have made an
enormous contribution to our study and understanding of traditional Indian art and
architecture. However, this is not to suggest that Indian artists were bound only by the
formal prescription given in the texts and could not innovate or adapt these to their
individual genius or regional practices of which we have countless examples.

2.3 Classicism –Narrative and Sculptural

Free standing sculptures of local deities such as the Manibhadra Yaksha were
commissioned by individual merchants such as Kunika from the third century onwards.
These local spirits, called yakshas and yakshis in inscriptions as well as texts, were
guardian deities of cities, city gates, orchards, trees and waters. They were associated
with fertility and prosperity and the ability to fulfil the earthly aspirations of the devotee.
Some of the earliest examples are the Didarganj Yakshi and the Parkham Yaksha though
of course other such larger than life size figures are found all over north India during this
period. In terms of art, there is a remarkable uniformity of idiom and style in the
conception and execution of these huge sculptures from all over India, indicating a kind
of pan Indian religious belief system as well as mobility of ideas and of lay people.
Contemporary to the production of these images, the imperial art of the Mauryas also
flourished that centered on the production of polished columns and animal capitals.
However this was a short lived experiment because post Mauryan art that followed the
Mauryan experiment was largely corporate and narrative in character. The period
between 2nd centrury B.C and 3rd century A.D. is marked by the construction of
structural stupas at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Kausambi and Sanchi, alongwith rock cut
chaityas and bodhi grihas and viharas at Karle, Kanheri, Bhaja, Bhedsa, Pitalkhora and
Ghatokachha caves. Most of these early surviving examples of art are either Buddhist or
Jaina. The structures were embellished with bas relief sculptures of sectarian emblems
such as the triratna or dharmachakra along with lotuses and other auspicious (mangala)
symbols such as couples or mithunas. Alongside narratives from the life of Buddha in
previous births such as the Jataka stories or avadana stories were also presented for the
instruction of the pilgrim.
The earliest surviving example of narrative art comes from Bharhut, near Satna in
Madhya Pradesh. Only the great railing or the vedika running around the stupa and the

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gateways or toranas constructed on all four cardinal points survive from this site now.
Sanchi is a better preserved monument that showcases early narrative Buddhist art. Built
over many centuries, the main structure of the stupa, the vedika and torana may be dated
between 50 B.C. to A.D. 150. Relief sculptures on the stone gateways not only illustrate
episodes from the life and worship of the Buddha along with the inscriptions about the
donors, but also provide a glimpse onto the life, beliefs and structures of the period.
These inscriptions inform us that traders, householders, craftsmen, guilds, queens,
ministers, nuns and monks–ordinary and great men and women contributed to the
construction of this monument to Buddhist piety.
The early stupas are first examples of sculpture in hard stone while the earlier
tradition was to carve in softer surface of wood and ivory and this was the prototype for
stone carving, thus the relief is shallow and rather flat with little three dimensionality. In
the narratives the main character of the story is generally placed in the centre of the panel
with subsidiary figures on either side. The human figures are placed in a frontal pose, and
profile is very rare.
In these early carvings, the Buddha is represented by his symbols be it a throne, a
bodhi tree, a stupa or footprints but not in his human form as the art was made by monks
and lay people who followed the earlier form of Buddhism or Therevada where Buddha
is not worshipped in his human form. A large number of carvings at Sanchi depict
episodes from the life of Buddha particularly the Birth, the Great Renunciation,
Enlightenment, the First Sermon at Sarnath and the Parnirvana or death. One also finds
episodes from the Jatakas such the Vessanatara Jataka and Mahakapi Jataka. Other
episodes include the miracles performed by the Buddha such as walking on the Nilanjana
River and the conversion of the Kashyapa Brahmins. There are number of scenes of
worship of Buddha and his symbols.
The art of Sanchi is important for the study of narrative devices, one of the most
important being the invention of continuous narrative. Here in a single panel, the same
figure is shown three or four times, each showing a moment from the story such as the
story of the Buddha leaving his palace on the east gateway. On the left is the gate of city
and the palace (which gives us a fair idea of urban architecture) with the horse and
umbrella indicating the presence of the divine being. This is repeated four times till we
reach the extreme left where a set of footprints suggest that the Buddha has left the horse
and the umbrella to proceed towards meditation under the Bodhi tree. Under this we see a
horse without the umbrella being led back to the palace.
At Sanchi nature has been depicted not in a truly realistic manner but to suggest its
recognizable aspects. Thus water, especially the river, is depicted through horizontal
waves, with aquatic animals emphasizing the water environment. Trees are shown with
large leaves and fruits and with short trunks, generally surrounded by a platform.

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 The developments at Sanchi and elsewhere gave rise to three important schools of art
in India that flourished in north and the Deccan from the beginning of the Christian era to
the fourth century A.D.: in and around Mathura, north-western region of Gandhara and
near the Krishna river at Amaravati. The developments in sculpture in these regions laid
the foundation of classicism and iconographic canons in India.

Check your progress Exercise 1

A State ‘True’ or ‘False’:
(i) The yaksha and yakshi images in Indian art tradition are associated with fertility
and prosperity and the ability to fulfill the earthly aspirations of the devotee.
(ii) The study of icons is known as epigraphy.
(iii) The Shilpashastras lay down the exact prescriptions as well as for the creation
of sculptures and buildings.
(iv) In the early Buddhist art, Buddha is represented by his symbols and not in his
human form.
(v) One of the earliest surviving examples of narrative art comes from Bharhut
stupa in Madhya Pradesh.
B Short Notes:
1. Shilpasatric tradition.
2. The narrative art of Sanchi stupa.

2.4 Stone: Gandhara and Mathura Schools of Art in Ancient India

2.4.1 Gandhara School of Art
Gandhara art represents the art that developed and spread in the north western part of
India from the 1st Century B.C. to the 4th Century A.D. The major centers of art activity
of this school were in the kingdoms in this region such as Bactria, Kapisha, Swat and
Gandhara. The main material used in the Gandhara School is metal such as the gold used
in the Kanishka reliquary from Shah ji ki Dheri. Stone wherever used is usually blue or
grey schist and slate.
Style has naturalism in body form, drapery, and pictorial scale. The bodies are made
in the classical tradition with its emphasis on perfection of the human form. Therefore
they are usually shown as youthful and strong. The male figures are shown with
musculature and with a squarish torso. The rendering of drapery with sharp flowing folds
is similar to those seen on a Roman toga and is a distinctive feature of Gandharan art as
are wavy curled hair and sharp features.
Gandharan style was an amalgam of Hellenistic—Roman, Iranian and
indigenous art. A number of compositional traits were adapted from Roman mortuary art,

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while the divine attributes and decorative elements were taken from Hellenistic (Greek)
and Iranian roots. This interaction of artistic components was largely due to the
geographical position of the region which was at the cross roads of cultural exchange.
The area saw the advent of number of foreign powers and political configurations ranging
from the Greek, Bactrian to Kushana. It was also at the hub of economic activity based on
trade with the west through the great Silk route.

Buddha in Roman Toga (Graeco-Buddhist Style)

(Source:https://www.google.co.in/search?q=buddha+in+roman+toga+in+gandhar+school+of+art)

Sculptures of the school are usually found as part of architectural contexts with a
deliberate iconographic scheme or pattern. There is a standardization of composition,
pose of figures and other incidents from the life of Buddha which suggests that the
sculptors are following an established iconographic mode.
Most of the sculptures from this period are Buddhist, though some Hellenistic
sculptures also survive. Standing Buddha images are most characteristic feature of the
style. These figures have a uniformity of pose, costume, lakshana and other
characteristics. The Buddha is usually depicted standing frontally with one leg bent. He is
shown wearing a heavy robe that covers both shoulders, his left hand hangs down but the

12
right hand is raised in abhaya or varada mudra. There is an ushnisha or a top knot on the
head. He is not adorned with any other jewellery, though his elongated ear lobes suggest
that as a prince he did wear heavy ornaments. Behind the head a halo with lotus, etc can
be seen. Seated Buddha figure is shown in dharmachakramudra which is the gesture of
teaching or in dhyana mudra which suggests meditation.
Bodhisattva icons are another important category of sculpture found from Gandhara
region. These represent mahasattva bodhisattvas who embody the fulfilment of
bodhisattvahood that is the future Buddha hood and form one of the most important
elements of Mahayana Buddhism prevalent in this area. These male figures are shown
standing or seated and wear a dhoti like lower garment, the torso is bare except for the a
shawl-like length of cloth over the shoulder, the hairstyle is more elaborate with wavy
hair falling over the shoulder. They, like the Buddha images of the region have an urna
on the forehead and an ushnisha on the head with a halo behind. They are shown wearing
sandals, and sometimes like the Buddha, may sport a mustache. Distinct bodhisattvas are
recognized by their attributes, symbols and headdress, an example being Maitreya, the
personification of love who is depicted holding a vase. The figures are usually depicted as
royal figures with a profusion of ornaments and a crown. Influenced as they are by the
Graeco Roman tradition they are also shown as muscular with perfect and realistic
proportions.
Narrative panels relating to Jataka and Tushita phases of Sakyamuni’s life are also
found in Gandhara art. Of these the moment of Enlightenment and after are depicted in
great profusion. These narratives are based on the canonical (orthodox) Buddhist
literature and also on biographical texts such as the Buddhacarita of Asvagosha. The
Birth of Buddha by Mayadevi (his mother) under a sala tree, the enlightenment of the
Buddha, Mara Vijaya (victory over Mara), are some of the subjects that are popular in
Gandharan art. Naturalistic proportions, scale and poses are sought to be depicted and
composition is used to emphasize the central and key figure through a hierarchy of
scaling; that is the more important figure may have a larger size. One of the
distinguishing features of Gandharan art is the depiction of paradise such as Sukhavati
which was part of the Paradise cult within Buddhism prevalent in North West India
during the Kushana period. The cult centers on the belief that every devotee, through
accumulation of merit, seeks to be reborn into paradise where he can reside without
further rebirth and transmigration till he reaches nirvana.
Attendant deities other than Buddha and Boddhisattva were also created, such as
Kubera-Panchika and Hariti. The former is shown as a slightly corpulent royal personage
while the latter is shown with children all around her. Bacchanalian scenes showing grape
vine and wine drinking individuals are distinctly classical in their rendering.
Besides stone, some sculptures in stucco, especially busts of Greek and Roman
deities and princes, are an essential part of Gandharan art. Interestingly these were
painted, with red colour being used for the lips and black for the eyes and hair. Ivory is

13
another medium used to carve figures as is attested by large assemblage was found from
Begram in Kapisa region. A number of furniture pieces found in a secular palace complex
demonstrate that style was not limited to production of religious imagery but permeated
the cultural matrix of the area. Begram ivories are also interesting for the amalgamation
of classical and indigenous style. The preponderance of female figures in all kinds of
voluptuous poses is very reminiscent of the yakshi-shalabanjikas found on railing pillars
at Mathura.
The interaction between the art styles prevailing in northwest Indian, north and
central India was a dynamic process with many borrowings, assimilations and influences.
Gandhara style continued to influence Indian art upto the early medieval period as is seen
in Kashmir and parts of Himachal Pradesh.

Meditating Buddha in Gandhara Art

(Source:https://www.google.co.in/search?q=meditating+buddha+of+gandhara+art)

2.4.2 Mathura School of Art

Mathura art reflects the urban and sophisticated tastes of the inhabitants, patrons and
sculptors of the region who adapted the older forms of Bharhut-Sanchi and foreign
artistic influences of Bactro-Gandharan art to create a widely spread and influential art
style.

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 Mathura and the surrounding region have a long history though continuous political
history can be traced from the 6th century B.C. onwards when this became the capital of
the Surasena janapada. Later, it came under the control of the Magadhan kingdom under
the Nandas and Mauryas from whom it passed on to the Sungas under whom it was a
prosperous city as recorded by Patanjali in the 2nd century B.C. It continued to be under
the suzerainty of local chiefdoms such as the Mitras and Dattas whose coins have been
discovered form the region. It is in the middle of the 1st century B.C. that Mathura came
under the rule of Saka-Kshaptrapas whose rulers such as Rajula and his son Sodasha
issued the inscriptions of importance. It is under the Kushanas, especially under Kanishka
that Mathura became the eastern capital and emerged as a major centre of art activity. The
Kushanas ruled this region till about A.D. 250 after which there is a hiatus or gap here till
the rise of the Gupta in the 4th century B.C. though art activity continued in the
transitional period. This period saw an expanding urbanization and the rise of long-
distance trade. This led to an increased contact within larger areas of the Kushana
Empire. The art of this period also has a pronounced urbanized sensibility as the tastes
and desires of the lay city dwellers transformed.
By 2nd Century B.C. Mathura was both an important urban center as well as a center
for various faiths such as Buddhism, Jainism, Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Naga Cults.
The Bhagvata cult of Vishnu spread here in 1st-2nd century A.D. (Kushana Period).
Thus, during different period art derived from religion that flourished here. In the early
period large Yaksha and Yakshi images were carved. During the Shunga period worship
of gods through symbols such as the Bodhi tree, chakra etc continued. Later Jaina and
Buddhist stupas were built at Mathura along with the rest of central India.
The art of Mathura is characterized by the use of mottled red Sikri sandstone that is
found in the area around it. Majority of sculptures have been recovered from sites in and
around the city from various Buddhist, Jaina and other sectarian building. The important
Buddhist sites include Katra Keshavadeva, Jamalpur, Chaubara, Bhutesvara, Palikhera,
Maholi and Govindgarh, while the most famous Jaina site is at Kanakali Tila. Sonkh has
revealed the existence of apsidal structural temples belonging to naga cult along with
other antiquities. However, the influence of Mathura art was spread over most of north
India with specimens being discovered from Sarnath, Kausambi, Bodhgaya and Rajgir in
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, along with Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh and Chandraketugarh in
Bengal, Vadnagar in Gujarat and Taxila in Pakistan. From Ahicchatra and Sanghol in UP
and Punjab respectively a considerable quantity and variety of sculptures in Mathura style
have been discovered that provide proof of the export and popularity of the art beyond the
city itself.
The sculptures from the Mathura School have remarkable stylistic unity. The figures
have oval or roundish faces with open eyes, thick lips and sharp nose with a fleshy full
bodied figure are shown in a number of postures. Most of the female figures are
delineated in a voluptuous manner with heavy round breasts, narrow waist and broad

15
hips. The male figures are shown with slight V-shaped torsos. The figures are generally
shown wearing a diaphanous (almost transparent), clinging dhoti, while a scarf like
uttariya emerges from behind one shoulder over one forearm. The divine figures are
shown with one hand upraised in abhaya mudra and the other is placed on the waist near
the knot of waist band, with a canopy like halo atop and behind the head. Plants, leaves,
birds and animals were rendered in a realistic manner and much care has been to create
details of these on background as well as the reverse of many sculptures at Mathura. The
figure of the Buddha wears a samghati that covers only one shoulder, the hair are
arranged in small snail like curls or are gathered in a kapardin like top knot. A large halo
with scalloped edges representing a flame or light can be seen behind the head. Often
attendant deities such as bodhisattvas or Indra and Brahma are shown on both sides of the
Buddha.
The discovery of a number of dated donative inscriptions from the pedestals of the
Buddha and bodhisattva images from Mathura and surrounding areas have contributed
greatly to our understanding of the evolution of the Buddha image as well as the Buddhist
principles and tenets popular during the time. One of the best preserved specimens is
from Ahicchatra whose inscription reveals that it was a gift of the Bhikshu Virana for the
‘benefit and happiness of all teachers, together with elderly shramanas and disciples.”
The inscription is dated in the year thirty two, probably of the Kanishka era, i.e A.D.
152. In another example the sculpture of seated meditating Buddha found from Katra
informs us that it was dedicated by a Buddhist nun named Amoha-asi ‘for the welfare and
happiness of all sentient beings’. Such inclusive generosity is indicative of Mahayana
Buddhism which emphasizes the belief that merit or punya can be transferred from one to
another. The large number of sculptures of bodhisattvas is another indication of the
popularity of Mahayana Buddhism in the region. These were generally shown as standing
royal personages, lavishly be jeweled with a dhyani Buddha figure in their crown or
diadem. The attributes in their hands such as a purse or a lotus identifies them as a
particular bodhisattva such as Maitreya or Avalokiteshvara.
This early development of the identification of particular deities based on their
posture, attributes, vehicle and form are termed iconographic traits. These iconographic
traits are characteristic of the Mathura school of art and reflect the religious environment
of the post Mauryan era based as it was on bhakti and sectarian principles. Shaiva figures
were found from the region though their numbers are limited. Ekamukhalinga and
Chaturmukhalinga, linga icons with one of four faces of Shiva carved on four sides began
to be made during this period though the classic examples come from the subsequent
Gupta period. Karttikeya- Skanda is one of the more prolific deities with independent as
well as composite images being made of them. Of the latter, he is shown with Shashthi,
as well as with Ekanamsa and with Vishakha. The pancharatra cult of Vishnu seems to
have taken root here with a number of images being created such as Chaturvyuha Vishnu
that shows Vasudeva as the central figure and Samkarsana, Samba and Aniruddha as

16
emanations emerging from this main figure. Icons of Vishnu holding a mace and disc
were also found from the region along with Krishna and Balarama-Haladhara both of
whom evolved from independent pastoral and agricultural deities into becoming the
incarnations or avataars of Vishnu.
Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth is associated with Kubera-Panchika, the lord of
wealth and prosperity. They are seen not only in the Brahmanical context but also in the
Buddhist and local cults because their association with material well being and growth
was rooted in common cultural environment rather than in a particular sectarian creed.
Kubera is also shown in conjunction with Hariti, a yakshi-goddess who is associated with
children and their well being. In fact, small votive plaques of these two are found in
plenty from Mathura. Other deities such as the Matrikas or the Mothers, Naigamesha and
Skanda associated with children and having protective-destructive functions were created
and donated in large numbers during the post-Mauryan period at Mathura. The Jainas of
Mathura produced votive tablets called ayagapattas that contain auspicious marks of
worship such as fish couple or matsya yugala, the swatiska, shrivatsa, ratna-bhanda,
bhadraoptha, purna kumbha, divyamana, indrayasti and matsya.
The most distinctive feature of Mathura art is the plethora or abundance of female
figures in various poses carved on railing pillars and torana uprights engaged in activities
such as bathing under a waterfall, playing with swords or a ball and with a child, carrying
an offering basket, holding a lamp, tying a waist band, drinking from a cup, etc. They are
often shown standing on a dwarf yaksha or on a lotus or an incline. These figures wear
very transparent dhoti revealing the form beneath, a heavy waist band or mekhala and
other jewellery such as bangles, anklets, bracelets and the like. They sport different
coiffures and are generally voluptuous and sensuously delineated. These females derive
from the shalabhanjika and yakshi figures found on the early stupas and probably
conferred an element of fertility on the stupa and the devotee who visited these. Often
scenes from Jataka stories or lotuses are carved on the other side of the pillars such as at
Bhuteshvara.
Two sided panels with an offering bowl on top are another distinguishing specimen
of sculptural art from Mathura, whose precise function and meaning are still to be
ascertained. Perhaps alms and offering or water for ritual ablution were placed in these
bowls. These may have a tree carved on one side and a figural panel on the other or a
narrative passage on both sides such as the ‘Vasantsena panel’ from Maholi that depicts
moments from the play Mrichchhakatika or Kubera and attendants drinking wine from
Palikhera. Many scenes from royal life such as drinking and adorning the self seem to
have taken the fancy of sculptors and patrons in the area. These include the Sundari and
Nanda episode and kamaloka scenes of mithunas or couples in amorous play that are
depicted on the torana and railings of structures.
This is not to imply that narrative passages from Jataka katha and avadana katha
relating to the life of Buddha did not adorn the railings and other architectural elements of

17
stupa and vihara buildings, but only that they became less popular as newer subjects
came to the fore that catered to the sensibility of an increasingly urban society.
There was a strong royal cult also flourishing under the Kushanas where the royal
family was worshipped in a devakula or shrine. One such shrine has been discovered at
Surkh Kotal in Afghanistan and the other at Mat just outside the town of Mathura. Here
portrait sculptures of the first four kings have been discovered of whom Wima Kadphises
seated on a lion throne is very majestic and impressive. There is also the standing
headless figure of Kanishka wearing a stiff tunic and boots, holding a sword with a
makara symbol on the scabbard. A head from the site wearing a conical helmet gives an
idea of what a royal figure may have looked like at the time.
The art of Mathura of the Kushana period had a lasting impact on the subsequent art
of the Guptas. Many of the sectarian forms crystallized and got elaborated while other
such local deities lost popularity as we shall see below.

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 (Source:http://www.indianetzone.com/42/mathura_school_art.htm)

2.5 Metal: Chola Bronzes

Though the Pallavas and Cholas were prolific builders of temples and generous
patrons of arts, their art is identified with the magnificent bronzes. These great pieces of
workmanship were made primarily for processions on festive occasions in temples
though some were also made for private worship. Derived from earlier clay images, this
form while deemed to be folk art incorporates all aspects of classical art.
These bronzes are cast in the cire perdue or lost wax process. The image is first
made in wax; it is then given several coats of fine clay and then dried in the shade. Then
two holes are made on the top and the bottom, and next the whole is heated so that the
wax melt away leaving a hollow mould into which molten metal is poured. The clay
mould is broken off after the metals solidified. Final dressing is done by hand with a
chisel and abrasive material.
The rule of the Pallavas and Cholas between the 7th to the 13th centuries saw the
high-watermark of bronze sculpture. Pallava art form manifested itself around the 7th
century and probably derived inspiration from the Amaravati School. While there was a
foreign influence in the form of Yavana or Roman influences and the presence of Roman
artifacts, the bronzes are believed to be largely an indigenous art form. The patronage for
these art objects too comes from Pallava rulers like Mahendravarman and others. These
bronzes have a resemblance to the lithic (stone) sculpture of the period. The development
of the Pallava bronzes can be divided into four phases viz.
1st Phase (Phase upto the 7th Century A.D) termed Mahendra Phase named after
Mahendravarman.
2nd Phase (1st half of 8th Century) termed Rajsimha Phase named after the builder of
Mammalapuram and Kanchi (AD 700-730).
3rd Phase (Second half of 8th Century 750-800A.D.) named after Nandivarman II.
4th Phase (Ninth Century 795-845) named after Dantivarman.
The latter half of the ninth century marks the transition towards the Chola type of
bronzes (Rajaraja Chola establishing himself around AD 850). In terms of the bronzes

19
itself the early bold forms gradually change to slender rounded ones that are delicate and
more refined with the contours of the figures being softer. The Kalayansundrammurti
(depicting the wedding of Shiva and Parvati) from Vadakalattur is a fine example of
Chola bronze art. During the Chola period a large number of temples of stone were
transformed into grand and complex buildings as can be seen from the temples at
Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram and the large stately Gopurams of Chidambaram.
The Chola period saw elaborate festivals with music dance and processions. The bronze
images are intended as manifestations of the main deity enshrined in the garbha-griha
when taken out in procession were worshipped with adoration.
Chola bronzes can be divided into four distinct phases:
1st Phase (Phase upto the first half of the10th Century A.D) named after Aditya
Chola
2nd Phase (last quarter of 10th century) named after Sembiyan Mahadevi.
3rd Phase (11th centuryAD) named after Rajaraja I
4th Phase (12th century) called Later Chola.
It was during the 10th and 11th centuries that the epitome of artistic excellence was
reached by the bronzes where great emphasize was placed on graceful depiction, bhavas,
flowing lines and supple contours.
It may be noted that dance forms and poses, karnas, influenced the form of the
images. The Agamic and Vastu literature were also sources of inspiration for the creation
of these images. Some of the more popular icons created by the sculptors are
Kalayanasundarmurti of Shiva and Parvati who are also seen in the Somaskanda
depiction. Shiva as Ardhanarishvara, Nataraja and Vrishabhavanamurti as well in
Sukahasana were popular subjects. Some portrait sculpture of saints such as
Manikavachakar and the royal patrons such as Rajendra Chola and Sembiyan Mahadevi
also exist. Besides Hindu icons, Buddhist and Jaina images were also cast in bronze
during the period. The Chola bronze tradition continued to inspire artists well into the
medieval period as is attested by Vijayanagar bronzes.
The contributions of the Pallavas and the Cholas (7th-13th centuries A.D.) in the form
of bronze sculptures marked a magnificent chapter in the history of Indian art.
Essential Readings:
 Banerjea, J.N. (1975). The Development of Hindu Iconography. New Delhi: Munshi
Ram Manohar Lal.
 Dehejia, Vidya et al. (2007). Chola: Sacred Bronzes of Southern India. London:
Royal Academy.
 Huyler, Stephen P. (1996). Gifts of Earth; Terracottas & Clay Sculptures of India.
New Delhi: IGNCA.

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2.6 Terracotta: Contemporary
2.6.1 Introduction
One of the earliest artistic formsthat mankind created were terracotta objects. The
word terracotta is derived from the Latin that means ‘baked earth’. Simply put, the art of
terracotta entails glazed or unglazedporous objects that are made from clay or earth. The
objects can be types of sculptures, unglazed ceramics or they can be in the form of a
decorative architecture; the basic material of all being porous, coarse clay. The material is
versatile, easily given to creativity and is cheap and durable.
Mankind learnt this art early. From very early times, clay was moulded, dried and
then fired to be fashioned into desired objects.Religious figurines, statues, trading seals,
housing, decorative tablets, utility earthenware, toys, terracotta bricks and jewelleryhave
been found in the Neolithic pre-Harappa sitesof Mehrgarh, Bhirranaand Rakhigarhiin the
Indian subcontinent as early as 7000BCE (Fig. 1). The art continues to flourish, as India
today is a home to over 3 lakh potters making objects for daily use and ritualistic
purposes.

Figure 1: Mehrgarh Terracotta Figures

Source:https://image.invaluable.com/housePhotos/artemisgallery/79/675779/H4404-
L214258074.jpg

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2.6.2 Technology
In the past, the clay objects were fashioned by pressure of hands. Later mouldscame
to be used to shape these artifacts.After the moulding is done, the shaped clay is then
dried and fired at high temperatures of 1000degrees centigrade.It is then cooled by a sand
covering. As we see them, in ancient sites and today, the terracotta objects show variety
of colours like orange, yellow, ochre, burnt sienna, grayand black. This depends on the
colour of clay that is obtained from local water bodies, sites or river beds. Ways of firing
also determines the colour. If the vents of the kiln are open when the process of firing
takes place, the objects retain their original colours of earth like red, orange or sienna.
Black or gray is obtained when the craftsman decides to close the vents. A good unbroken
terracotta object is judged by the precise clank ring sound that it will make when lightly
struck. The tools used in this process are simply made from leather, wood or stone along
with the humble potters’ wheel.

2.6.3 History
In the Indian subcontinent, pre-Harappa and Harappa sites from Balochistan and
Haryana throw a rich tradition of terracotta art. Cart frames and wheels, mother goddess
figures, birds and animal figurines, Yaksha figures, toys and jewellery dating to 1000
BCEhave been excavated at Mehrgarh, Rakhigarhi, Bhiranna, Kurukshetra and Sugh.
Terracotta art continued in the historical period as well, both at the rural and urban
settlement levels. Museum collections display rich variety of terracotta objects from
Mauryan, Gupta and later times.

2.6.3.1 Functional and Ritualistic Context of Terracotta Objects

Throughout history, terracotta objects have been used in the subcontinent for both
religious and functional purposes. Figures of mother goddesses and male gods have been
represented as earth objects since as early as the dawn of civilization. It is believed that
these embody the five elements of earth, water, air, fire and ether. Clay pots have a
significant role to play in the everyday life of most people. They have been used for
ritualistic purposes as much as items for daily use. In ancient times clay tablets were used
as seals for trading aswell (Fig. 2).And in certain regions, terracotta was used in
architecture too. The 6th century Gupta temple at Bhitargaon in U.P. displays terracotta
panels of the Puranic pantheon. Similarly the brick and terracotta temples of
Bishnupurunder the Malla kings in Bankura district of West Bengal are known for
terracotta sculptures and engravings. The scarcity of stone and wood in the area led to use
of brick in architecture that was embellished with terracotta figures.

22
 Figure 2: Harappa Seal
Source: https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/slides/deity-seal_0.jpg
Terracotta has been in use in other parts of the world too. Mesopotamian, Egyptian
and later Graeco-Roman world too used terracotta and clay objects for trading, religious
and ritualistic purposes. The famous terracotta army figures from 210BCE Qin dynasty
China is a well-known example. There are examples of use of terracotta in later
architecture in the western world as well.

2.6.4 Terracotta Art in Contemporary India

The art in its folk/tribal/ modern form continues to flourish in present day India.
Who hasn’t seen theearthern lamps, religious idols, bells, decorative wall hangings,
statues, vases, votive plates and other artifacts that are sold during festivals and other
regular times (Fig. 3)?Craft fairs abound in these items and at times the humble potters
display their skills in practice at these sites. Most Indian homes use terracotta items for
ritualistic and utility purposes. And India is a leading country in exports of unglazed
terracotta items as well.

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 Figure 3: A Terracotta-ware Shop
Source: https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/z/handmade-terracotta-vases-cups-pottery-shop-avanos-
rustic-brown-ceramic-clay-souvenirs-handycraft-market-cappadocia-173587461.jpg
Every region in India has its own traditions in creating these beautiful formsof baked
earth and local variations of colour and design are the hallmarks of these objects. Sources
of clay, firing material and techniques vary from region to region and creating beauty
from a lump of clay has been mastered down the centuries with regional specificities.
Almost every village is a home to potters and artisans and every city has a potters’ colony
(Fig. 4).The art survives in full form. Terracotta art actually does not belong to the realm
of ‘high art’ but today brand houses are manufacturing high end pottery and sculpted
decorative items that are much in demand and are exported.

Figure 4: A Potter at Work

Source: https://previews.123rf.com/images/grthirteen/grthirteen1807/grthirteen180700061/
104603182-potter-at-work-workshop-place.jpg

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 One almost a universal terracotta figure of horses has been very popular across
regions in India. Vividly coloured terracotta horses from Darbhanga in Bihar elicit our
attention. The region, interestingly, also has a tradition of putting elephant figures on roof
tops, indicating an auspicious occasion. The art of terracotta working goes back here to
Mauryan times. Another interesting tradition is the use of large terracotta horses guarding
the villages in the state of Tamil Nadu. Tradition has it that the horse is a companion to
Lord Ayyanar, the local God. His statues are flanked by large terracotta horses and
elephants and at times he is representedriding them. The clay mixture for these figures is
prepared by mixing it with sand and straw and clay covered wood is used as legs. The
different pieces of the animal figure aremade separately and later joined together and
fired in a straw and cow dung kiln covered with mud. These horses are very popular and
in modern times more efficient mouldshave begun to be used.Examples of beautiful
terracotta horses abound, like the Bankurahorse from West Bengal is well known for its
exquisite moulding (Figs 5, 6).

Figure 5: Terracotta Ayyanar Horses

Source: https://theurgetowander.files.wordpress.com/2015/11/dsc_7296-copy1.jpg

Figure 6: Bankura Horses

Source: https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-OSAbKKXqRtE/WdDyAw6GrmI/AAAAAAAAI_U/
Z6P4UiEZ2nQdZ_6rQ1zg_6vxEQ6Lj3xwQCLcBGAs/s1600/5.jpg

25
 As pointed out earlier, almost every region in India has a tradition of terracotta and
clay art that produces objects for ritualistic and utility purposes. Gujarat artisans produce
designs very similar to Harappa examples like the geometric patterns of painted clay pots.
This is especially true of artifacts from Gundiyali in Bhuj district. Dome shaped
structures of Dhabus are made in clay to house the spirits of the dead. The region also
makes figures of animals and insects to be offered or placed in shrines.
The state of Haryana from Harappa times shows a rich tradition of terracotta art at
Sugh, Birrhana, Kurukshetra. Today it makes toys, jewellery, lamps, human and animal
figures, vases, hangings etc in monochromes or multitoned palette. Similarly, red, white
and black pottery of incised patterns is a speciality of artisans and potters from Himachal
Pradesh.
Ladakhmakes beautifully moulded Buddhist votive figures and icons in terracotta for
use in monasteries. The region is also well known for creating vividly hued terracotta
objects for secular use like kettles, lamps, wine pots and kitchen stoves. Clay masks are
made here combining clay with paper, cloth, flour and glue (Fig.7).

Figure 7: A Clay Mask from Ladakh

Source: https://i.pinimg.com/originals/6e/e9/07/6ee907800893d61d32e604bea62fcd9c.jpg

26
 The state of Odisha throws its own specific artistic sensibility. Original colour of the
clay is retained in the animal figurines of horses, elephants, bulls, tea cups, saucers, pots,
vases tiles and jewellery items of bangles, ear and neck pieces, made by the tribal
artisans. The art here goes back to 4th century BCE.The Odishan artisan uses a wooden
stick to rotate his wheel and a hollow tube, hammer and a slab to pulp the clay. Ash and
sand are then mixed before moulding the mixture into exquisite shapes in natural colours
(Fig. 8).

Figure 8: Traditional Clay Pottery of Odisha

Source: https://d3i71xaburhd42.cloudfront.net/0d738bf4dd60c9442700772324fd7dbd8904871c/
5-Figure3-1.png
The terracotta and clay tradition of Rajasthan is variegated too. The generally dry
region extensively uses terracotta pots for carrying water from distant places from time
immemorial, while other clay pottery and items are used for ritualistic and other daily
uses. Animal figurines, serpent figures, local worship icons, toys, pottery are some of the
items made. Pokhran region is famous for its red and white terracotta with incised
geometrical patterns. Pottery painted with lac colours comes from Bikaner, while Alwar
is known for its earthernKagzi pottery or paper thin pottery. The earliest site for terracotta
objects here in this region is the Harappa site of Kalibangan. Clay from local water bodies
is mixed with donkey dung in this region to make it more malleable.

27
 In Tamil Nadu, besides the terracotta horses that guard the villages, daily use items
are also made along with religious shrine figures like serpents and local icons. Here too,
the potters(kuyavar/velar), like the potters from other areas trace their origins to Lord
Vishwakarma, the celestial master craftsman.
After Bankura, other well knowncentres for terracotta sculpture in West Bengal are
Murshidabad, Birbhaum, Digha, Hooghly and Jessore. Artisans create pots, religious
figurines of snakes, goddesses, gods, animal figures, decorative and utility items. We
have seen that the 16th century Vaishnavite movement created terracotta relief work in
temples in Bishnupur (Fig 9). Variety of clays are taken from local water bodies and fired
with fuel of locally available firewood, dry leaves and twigs.

Figure 9: Brick Temple of Bishnupur with Terracotta Panels

Source: https://www.trodly.com/pictures/attraction/4579.jpg
The Bastar and Jhabua tribes of Madhya Pradesh are known for terracotta pottery as
well. The tribal artisans here make clay temples called Dhabhas to place religious icons.
The cultural context of giving gifts of clay pots is well articulated by Stephen P.
Huylerin his book: Gifts of Earth: Terracotta and Clay Sculptures of India, 1996.
According to him, the ephemeral nature and short life of pots, and the need for unpolluted
pots for ceremonies and rituals ensures the survival of the pottery profession in India.
India is a land where pots are used on every occasion, from birth to death. Huyler adds:
“Clay vessels, made of sacred and purified earth, serve as mediums in the rituals that are
basic to every facet of life in traditional India” (p. 27). The mundane and the consecrated
are combined in the potters’ craft. Terracotta and clay are used both for functional and
ritualistic use. Potters are both craftsmen and links to Gods. Use of clay pots for daily use
and in various rituals, myths, festivals and prayers stands for the contextual diversity of
terracotta objects. And it is no wonder the art has survived.

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2.7 Conclusion
Today skills to make terracotta and clay objects is fast becoming an engaging
pastime and hobby for urban folks and many craft institutes offer courses in terracotta
pottery making. Children are exposed to pottery making kits that are available as hobby
toys. Terracotta continues to be used as a humble water clay pot and is fashioned and
sculpted into elaborate door panels, decorative items, ritualistic statues etc. Today
terracotta decorative figures, table and kitchenware has been taken to absolute new levels
by corporate brands. It continues to thrive in modern India as a folk/tribal craft industry
as well as in its modern versions.
Further Reading
 Huyler, Stephen P., Gifts of Earth: Terracotta and Clay Sculptures of India, Mapin
Publishing, 1996.

29
 UNIT 3

Architecture

3.0 Objective
Architectural forms are the most visible discourses of past civilizations. Indian
civilization presents a very rich and diversified architectural tradition. The objective of
this unit is to familiarize the students with the various architectural forms in the Indian
culture.

3.1 Introduction
Architecture: Meaning, Form and Context
In common parlance, architecture is a study of forms: about plans, designs, motifs
and how they have evolved over time. But built spaces are a medium to study societies as
well. Architectural spaces, both sacred and secular have a functional aspect, in the sense
that they fulfill the need for what they were created. A temple or a mosque is a house of
worship and a king’s tomb or a palace has royal connotations, a commemorative edifice
proclaims what it is meant to, and houses are built to protect people and communities.
Through these physical types, we get to know the technical knowhow of the times, the
processes of their creation, patterns of patronage, and a given society’s metaphysical
system as the architectural forms draw upon contemporary cultural and philosophical
discourses. Power and authority are as much reflected in these built spaces as are notions
of aestheticism that are otherwise embodied in contemporary literature.
Architecture is also a medium to study society because built spaces delineate
communities, give them a sense of belonging and a cultural identity. Architectural forms
become spaces where various identities and groups are formed, in which some are
included, while ‘others’ are not. Often these spaces become sites of contestations,
conflicts, state formation, assimilation and exclusion—generating multiple meanings.
They are lived spaces with firm social moorings. At the same time, monuments, even
religious structures have multilayered histories and not belong to one monolithic
community or compact power structures. They are always shared spaces where different
individuals and communities come together to create it. They have multiple affiliations.
Architectural forms therefore, are not just a study of forms, the pure exotica, but they are
a part of a larger social cultural history.
With this backdrop of what ‘architecture’ should mean and by drawing from recent
writings, we shall try to unveil some architectural forms and their meanings from India’s
cultural past.

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3.2 Evolution of Temples
Buddhism was the earliest Indian religion to require large communal spaces for
worship. This led to three types of architectural forms: the stupa, the vihara and the
chaitya. Many religious Buddhist shrines came up between the 1stcentury BCE -
1stcentury CE. Stupa, originally the focus of a popular cult of the dead, is a large burial
mound containing a relic of the Buddha. It celebrates the Buddha’s parinirvana (end of
cycle of suffering), symbolizes his eternal body, and is an object of worship. Not many
stupas have survived from these early times but the Great Stupa at Sanchi in Madhya
Pradesh with its majestic four gateways (1stcentury BCE/CE) has survived intact. There is
evidence of community patronage of landowners, merchants, officials, monks, nuns and
artisans associated with these Buddhist projects.
Along with stupa architecture, a novel cave architecture or rock-cut architecture too
developed in most parts. Most of Hinayana Buddhist rock-cut prayer halls/chapels
(chaitya) and monasteries (viharas) came up in the Deccan region (120 BCE – 400 CE),
along ancient trade routes that had excellent quality of rock. The best known are Karle
(50 - 70 CE) and Ajanta (cave 9 and 10 in the c.2ndcentury BCE). Again after a gap of
some 250 years, innumerable shrines and monasteries were cut into hills and rocks where
Buddhist, Jain and Hindu monks could live and pray. Archaeological data suggests that
both the Buddhist chaitya and the Hindu rock-cut temple were contemporaneous in the
3rd - 1stcentury BCE. Some of the finest examples can be seen in western Deccan from the
5th century CE to almost for over 300 years. To this latter phase belongs the Kailashnath
temple at Ellora caves (760 CE), built under the patronage of the Rashtrakutas (753 - 982
CE), to be followed by the rock-cut temples of Elephanta (c.500 – 760 CE). Rock-cut
shrines were emerging elsewhere south of the Deccan as well.
Meanwhile free-standing shrines or structural temples started to develop as well. The
earliest were small structures of brick and wood as the one that exists at Bairat, near
Jaipur (c.250 BCE). Early structural temples of stone are found in the hilly tracts of
Madhya Pradesh, on the southern fringes of the Gupta Empire (350 – 500 CE). They
belong to the late Gupta period (c.400 CE). The area is rich in stone, unlike northern
Madhya Pradesh, where most temples would have been of brick and hence have perished.
But even among the stone shrines, less than a score remain, and none has an intact
superstructure. These early Gupta temples are flat roofed small structures with ornate
pillars. Like the elegant flat roofed Sanchi temple with a pillared porch and a walled
sanctum, resembling a Greek shrine, is one of the earliest. But the Gupta Vishnu temple
at Deogarh (c.500 CE) near Jhansi has a small tower on the sanctum. The Bhitargaon
temple near Kanpur, the sole survivor among many brick temples too, has a definite
curvilinear spire.
These simple structures, in the early medieval period, from the 6th - 13thcentury CE,
began to expand, horizontally and vertically. This period in Indian history is marked by

31
great temple building activity. The shrines, dedicated to various deities from the
Hindu/Jain pantheon were a product of Bhakti or devotional Hinduism, the characteristic
ideology of the early medieval centuries. Down the years, these temples became more
institutionalized. Like around the 7th century CE, there was a significant change in the
nature of the temple in peninsular India, as its organization became more complex. Rich
donations of land, cash and other riches were made to these shrines that became the hub
of social and economic activities. They were great craft and cultural centres and fostered
many traditional performing arts. Many of them, as tirthas (pilgrimage centres) were
located on trade routes, which in turn led to urbanization in early Medieval South India.
Each region experimented and responded in its own local way and the temple forms with
what we are familiar today emerged more definitive. Three distinctive styles, often
overlapping, can be discerned, confirming that there was no all India uniform style.
The Hindu temple is the enshrined deity’s house (devalaya), and his or her palace
(prasada), where the priests cater to his or her daily needs. The temple is a holy site
(tirtha) where the devotees come to perform the circumbulation (pradakshina) to earn
religious merit. The heart of the temple is the garbhagriha (literally, the ‘embryo
chamber’), the sanctum sanctorum, where one is meant to feel the presence of the deity.
The installation rituals of Hindu deities go back to the late Gupta text, the Brihatsamhita.
The development of the Agamas, ritual texts, and especially the Pancharatra (tantric)
system in the 5th century CE, led to elaborate temple rituals with metaphysical
interpretations. These worship ritual texts, went hand in hand with the rise of Tantricism,
a major movement that challenged Bhakti. Gradually, more functional buildings were
added to the basic structure. These were the pillared halls (mandapa), the added portico
(ardhmandapa), a connecting vestibule (antaral) to the sanctum sanctorum, and
surmounting the garbhagriha, the spire (shikhara).
Regional variations led to Hindu temples being broadly classified into the northern
type (Nagara), belonging to the area between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas and the
southern type (Dravida), falling in the region between river Krishna to Kanyakumari. A
third one, taking the features of both these types is the Vesara, located between the
Vindhyas and the Krishna. However, these are at times only arbitrary classifications as
Nagara temples are found in Kurnool district in Andhra Pradesh and Dravida can be seen
at Ellora in the Deccan. The distinction rests on the shape of the tower, the ground plan
and the elevation. The Nagara tower (shikhara) has a curvilinear slope with a fluted disc
(amalaka) at the pinnacle. The Dravida tower (vimana) is pyramidal, follows a dome and
cornice pattern with diminishing stories (tala), and is crowned by a square, polygonal or a
round dome. The Nagara elevation consists of a series of projections (rathas) and
recesses, whereas the walls of the Dravidian type are relieved by enshrined images in
recesses at regular intervals. In south India, temples are enclosed within enclosure walls
having gate towers (gopuras), marking the entrances. The Vesara or the Chalukyan (also
called the Karnataka - Dravida tradition) is the mixed type, located in the Deccan region.

32
The Chalukyan, actually speaking has the same source of inspiration as the Dravidian, the
earliest examples being at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal in the Bijapur district in
Karnataka. Aihole alone has as many as 70 temples. Temples in the regions of Bengal,
Kashmir and Kerala evolved their own local variation, while subscribing to either of the
styles.
The most striking feature of the Hindu temple is the profuse use of ornamentation on
its surface. This ranges from narrative stone reliefs to depiction of figural, floral, animal,
geometrical and other foliated designs. In the northern variation, the repetitive motif of
the gavaksa (arch shaped window), derived from the Buddhist chaitya, is transmuted into
intricate honeycomb patterns, creating a rich lace like surface texture. The South used
variation on the gavaksa known as kuta, nasi, panjara or the sala (barrel-vaulted
chaitya). The north was ingenious in the use of shikhara and the amalaka. These
repetitive motifs follow clear geometrical rules and are conceived three dimensionally.
The vast technical-canonical literature on architecture, the Vastushastras describe the
temple as a standing primeval man, the purusha. Each component of the temple matches
the human body, such as the head, neck, shoulders, trunk, arms, thighs and feet. The
centre stands for the nucleus of energy from where the cardinal directions emerge. At the
centre of every temple is a vastupurusha, who presides over the temple site and protects
it. The square ground plan is a perfect shape for the Hindu temple, according to canonical
literature. The Brihatsamhita, one of the earliest works, selects two ideal ground plans
(vastupurusha mandala), based on the grid system of 64 and 81 squares. The work
mentions rare cases of circular and octagonal temples.
The symbolism behind the Hindu temple has been explained by Coomaraswamy. He
interprets the temple not only as a building providing shelter to the image and the
worshipper, but also as the image of the cosmos. The temple in this metaphysics is the
house of God and his body, representing in its parts, the drama of disintegration and
reintegration, which is an essential theme of Indian thought. Stella Kramrisch, in her
mammoth work, The Hindu Temple (1946), further fine-tuned this concept that every
element of the temple, its structure, sculpture, design and motifs are all imbued with
intrinsic meaning. She argues that the temple is the cosmos, embodying the universe in its
entire form. The statue enshrined is the manifestation of the deity from which divine
energy radiates in different directions from the garbhagriha. The fragmentation and
proliferation of motifs on the surface may be seen as the external expression of this
emanation. Kramrisch also sees movement in the temple structure, which is both upward
and downward, experienced by the spectator in the unfolding of the architectural forms as
he moves towards mystical union. To the spectator, both the temple and the statue are a
means to attain moksha (release from suffering).
Moving away from the symbolism of the temple, what has been the point of much
debate in recent times is the issue of regionalization of art and architecture, as seen in the
various temple types at this time in Indian history. The issue is wound up with the larger

33
debate of the interpretation of early medieval Indian centuries. Devangana Desai in her
writings treats the regionalization of art and architecture at this time against the backdrop
of the feudalism hypothesis. According to her, numerous local centres of art emerged as
religious donations increased with the proliferation of local rulers and feudatories. In the
closed economy and localism of the feudal structure, art was increasingly conditioned by
regionalism and canonization. Folk elements and tantric iconography in temples is seen
against the background of a deprived urban milieu and patronage coming mainly from a
rural aristocracy. The chief function of art was to glorify the status of opulent patrons,
thereby failing to convey higher qualities, though apparently it was in the service of
religion.
An alternative approach to comprehend the regionalization of culture is suggested by
B.D. Chattopadhyaya, who views this change in terms of the historical processes of local
state formation against the backdrop of political, social and cultural dimensions of early
medieval India. Chattopadhyaya emphasizes on the factor of legitimization of temporal
authority as the most significant ideological dimension of the period. The need to link
one’s royal origins to religious and divine forces led to extraordinary temple building in
this period. His writings further explore the spatial contexts and social linkages of the
sacred spaces. He discusses the fluctuating patterns of regional powers, their relationship
to their spiritual mentors, and their need for legitimization of their newly acquired power
in the form of temple building.
We shall now move on to describe some select examples.
3.2.1 Nagara: Sun Temple, Konark
Of all the developments of the Nagara style that of Orissa is one of the most
remarkable. The building activity centred round the sacred city of Bhuvaneshwara, a
temple town which alone contains hundreds of temples, large and small. According to
Fergusson these temples form ‘one of the most compact and homogeneous architectural
groups in India’ and may be said to represent, to some extent ‘a pure form of the original
Nagara style’. They remain nearest to the original archetype (model). One important
feature which imparts distinction to the Orissan temple is the fact that Orissa had its own
canon of architecture conformed by the local craftsmen. They refined and elaborated the
plain early form of the Nagara temple into a typically Orissan one. There was an extra
emphasis on decorative details which consisted of ‘rich and elegant mouldings, pilasters,
niches and figures - human, animal, and composite’. The majestic temple of Lingaraja at
Bhuvaneshwara represents the Orissan type of temple in its full maturity and highly
appreciated for its majestic grandeur, proportions, its elegant carvings, and height and
volume. The famous temple of Jagannatha is another impressive and massive example of
the typically Orissan style.
The Sun Temple at Konark was built by the Eastern Ganga ruler, Narasimhadeva I
(1238-64) in c.1250. The site is thirty two kilometres in the north-east direction from the

34
town of Puri in Orissa. The temple lies along the coast of Bay of Bengal, on along stretch
of sand. Both the Sun Temple and the Puri shrine, because of their locations along the
coast probably served as beacon lights for sea-farers in olden times. Much of the shrine,
however, lies in ruins today. According to Percy Brown, “...it has become a deserted ruin,
a great mass of masonry, rising like a pyramidal mound of stone above the sand-dunes,
and forming from the sea a prominent landmark known as the Black Pagoda.” But from
its conjectural re-construction it is a piece of art par excellence. The edifice is not just an
architectural marvel but it represents the best in sculptural arts as well. Konark, infact
represents the pinnacle of Orissa (Kalinga) architecture of the Indo-Aryan / Nagara type.
From a reconstruction of its remains, the temple surpasses the beauty of Lingarajaat
Bhubaneshwar and Jagannatha at Puri. In some ways Konark is the crown jewel of
Kalinga architecture in the Nagara style.
The name Konark is derived from arka or Sun of the kona or corner. Many founding
myths are attached with the temple in the Puranas. Among the many, one of them
associates it to the great Surya temple at Multan. The copper plate inscriptions of the
Ganga dynasty record king Narasimhadeva as its builder, who probably built the shrine
on an earlier existing temple on a site that was known as a centre for Sun worship. The
area would have also been important because it fell on vital commercial routes, along the
coastline. The shrine’s fame and importance in its time can also be judged by late
sixteenth century Mughal historian Abul Fazl visiting it and mentioning its amazing
qualities.
Among the extant structures of the Sun Temple complex, the main temple, Temple I
is bereft of its tower, the shikhara of the main sanctuary and there is no presiding deity in
whatever remains of the shrine. Many reasons have been put forward for this: the tower
or the shikhara fell because technically it might have been inadequate; it could have
fallen due to calamities of earthquake or lightening; or was desecrated by invaders or
simply that the project was so ambitious that it was never completed. Most probably it
gradually crumbled due to many factors. In the process of conservation of the temple,
when the debris was cleared around the sanctuary, there was no presiding deity.
Speculations were rife that the presiding image was like that at Jagannatha Puri of wood
and hence perished with times. Some conjectured that a disk represented the deity and
collapsed when the shikhara caved in and then decayed in the debris. It was also
conjectured that the deity was taken to Puri to escape the invading armies. Once the
shrine had no presiding deity, the complex would have further fallen into a state of decay.
Another blow struck the complex when the facing stones of the porch, the jagamohana
and some sculptures of the main temple were despoiled by the neighbouring raja of
Khurda and other locals. Further in the eighteenth century, the Marathas removed the
Aruna-stambha from the site and re-erected it at Puri in front of the Jagannatha Temple.

35
The Sun Temple Complex
Inspite of the ravages of time, some man-made, some natural, Konark is one of the
greatest achievements of the Nagara style of architecture. Built mostly in laterite rock,
being darkish, it was called the Black Pagoda by sailors and travellers as a counter to the
Jagannatha Puri temple, the White Pagoda. The layout of the temple is unique and
imaginative in the shape of a massive chariot that is driven by seven galloping horses
(Fig. 1). The twelve-wheeled chariot is the vehicle of Lord Surya, to whom the shrine is
dedicated. In traditional iconography of Lord Surya of the Hindu pantheon, he rides a
chariot that straddles across the skies. The rest of the shrine, besides this unique chariot
design, however, follows the typical Orissa Nagara style of architecture.

Figure 1: Conjectural Reconstruction of Konark

(Source:https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/proxy/pD-DcQdNCX7cOPDA8eaWKiw1d
TbHuMijvSzwC7CT2oqM4pK7Dji0IziljJC2iFegIp0y9cNSarZngaMN4yE3GMp9iwuQ06O982noSqV4E0
ybzb0mcN0f1jNotX2nw9ROigs)

The Orissa Nagara style Temple Architecture: Basic Components

The sanctuary, with its garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) and shikhara (tower) is
called deul in the region of Kalinga. The main sanctuary is called a rekhadeul or
badadeul. It is usually surmounted by a curvilinear tower, the shikhara in Nagara style.
The front porch (assembly hallor the mandapa) in a straight axis in the Orissa variant is
the jagamohana or bhadradeul. The jagamohana is a pidhadeul. The pidhadeul is made
up of pidhas or horizontal slabs or stages and resolves into a pyramidal roof. From inside,
both the rekhadeul and the pidhadeul are square in shape (Fig. 2).

36
 Figure 2: Components of Orissa Temple
(Source:https://www.archinomy.com/wp-content/uploads/case-studies/2011/deul-jagamohan-parts.jpg

The exterior of these temple forms resolves into projections called rathas or pagas.
These can have different plans, ek-ratha, tri-ratha, panch-ratha, sapt-rathaornava-ratha
plan (Fig. 2). The central projection or ratha is called raha and is the more pronounced
one as compared to the other two smaller projections, the anurathas and it stands out
from other smaller projections as well. The rahapaga usually forms the entrances. The
projections with recesses in between them create voids and fills that are adorned with
beautifully crafted sculptures. These friezes appear all over the facades of Orissa temples.

37
 In Orissa temple architecture, both the rekhadeul (main sanctuary) and the pidhadeul
(jagamohana, porch) are divided into four parts, vertically up. The pishta is the platform.
Next is the vertical wall called the bada. The gandi is the curvilinear tower in the
rekhadeul and it is a pyramidal tower in the pidhadeul. The fourth part of the Orissa
temple is the mastaka, the head or the crowning parts. All these nomenclatures validate
the fact that the Indian temple was conceived as a human body; in fact the rekhadeul is
taken as a male temple, while the pidhadeul is considered as the female principle (Fig. 2).
Till the basement wall, the bada, both the structures are same. But with the gandis or
roofing, they begin to differ: one curvilinear and the other pyramidal in horizontal bands.
The curvilinear form of the roof distinguishes the main sanctuary (rekhadeul) from the
stepped pyramidal roofing of the porch (pidhadeul / jagamohana - assembly hall), that
narrows at the top. The stepped form has tiers called potalas, separated by recesses called
kanti.
The mastaka or the crowning part of the gandi of the jagamohana comprises of the
beki or beka (neck), sri / ghanta (ribbed bell shaped form), amlabeki, amla (fluted like the
amalaka fruit), khapuri (skull shaped flattish bell shaped member). kalasha (water pot),
and ayudha (weapon or emblem of a deity, Fig. 2). The last two, the gandi and the
mastaka are not extant in the Sun temple main sanctuary. It is therefore, open to the skies.
All these components and forms are represented in the Sun Temple and the structure
is the most finished form of Orissa temple architecture.

The Complex
Main Temple—The main temple, what the archaeologists have named, Temple I consists
of the main sanctuary that has fallen and an attached porch, the jagamohana. Both stand
on a platform. The third, a detached pillared structure is the bhog-mandapa (the hall of
offerings). We shall discuss the various parts of the main temple in a manner that Debala
Mitra categorises them in her text on Konark.
Upana—Upana is the lowest most area of the staircases leading up to the platform. The
wide flights of stairs are on three sides facing north, south and east doors of the
jagamohana. The surfaces of the stairs are carved in friezes of vignettes of life. There are
depicted elephants in all their activities: in jungles, walking in files; being playful or
uprooting trees. Armies in procession are depicted with cavalry and infantry. Interestingly
chariots are missing here. There are bullock carts, rows of athletes, bandits and household
chores of women cooking etc., that are depicted. Among the animals depicted is a figure
of giraffe on the southern side staircase.
The Platform—The sanctuary and the porch stand on a four metres high platform that is
rich in sculptural figures. The base of the platform is beautifully moulded in all its
divisions of the lower jangha, bandhana and upper jangha. Here are figures of women,
composite animals, amorous couples, mythical beings and Vaishnav, Sakta and Shaiva

38
deities among others. Family scenes, panch-ratha pilasters, courtly activities like a royal
figure seated on an elephant receiving gifts that includes a giraffe are some of the other
themes. Flowers, creepers, animals and processions are some other subjects chosen for
sculpture (Fig. 3).
The Wheels—The twelve giant wheels of nearly four metres height are the crowning
glory of this temple. They are carved on the jagamohana platform and are realistically
portrayed with the axle kept in position by a pin. The centres of the wheels have beaded
rings and a row of lotus petals, sometimes sculpted with musicians and dancers. The
spokes of the wheels are both thin and broad, depicted alternately. Thin ones have beads
and discs while the broad ones widen further near the hub to become diamond shaped.
The broader spokes have carved medallions of amorous couples, deities and women
figures. The axle too is beautifully decorated (Fig. 3).

Figure 3: Wheels on the Platform

(Source:https://i2.wp.com/exploremyways.com/wpcontent/uploads/2017/09/
DSC0350.jpg?resize=810%2C474&ssl=1)
Jagamohana—It is the most well preserved structure of the complex. It is a square of
thirty metres side. Its height too from base to the top is thirty metres. It is in a panch-
ratha plan with the central projection, the raha, resolving into entrances of doors and
steps on the north, south and eastern sides. The west side opens into the main sanctuary
through a vestibule, the antaral. It is built on a low platform, the pishta, that consists of
two mouldings with a recess that has motifs of animals, flowers, leaves and Buddhist
chaitya (horse shoe shaped) windows (Fig.4).

39
 Figure 4: The Jagamohana
(Source:https://images.newindianexpress.com/uploads/user/imagelibrary/2020/9/2/
w1200X800/Konark_Sun_temple.jpg)
The bada of the structure, the vertical wall, as in all Orissa temples has five divisions
here. Carved mouldings of beaded borders further divide these divisions. Embellishment
here depicts miniature shrines of framed niches (khakhara, pidha and vajramundis),
housing figures often of erotic couples and courtly activities. The bada also has framed
niches of free standing sculptures in chlorite. In particular, mention should be made of
eight guardians of eight directions, the dikpalas, namely Indra, Agni and Vayu etc. that at
one time adorned these walls.
The chlorite architraves (lower part of entablature; main beam on top of doors) of the
three doors at one time were embellished with front face sculptures, two of them now
missing. Part of the eastern doorframe is a nava-graha panel that earlier had an image of
Surya in an oblong niche. This nine planet panel is worshipped even today. The eastern
door frame is the most ornate of all three. Designed in beautiful eight receding planes, it
is carved with foliated leaves, bands, niches housing erotic sculptures, hooded serpent
couples, figure of Lakshmi (goddess of wealth) and among other themes is a bearded
figure in deep meditation.
The roof of the edifice, a stepped pyramid has receding tiers (potalas), each
separated by a recessed vertical wall (kanti, Fig. 4). Processions of armies, graceful
women figures, dancing Martand Bhairav, a fierce form of Shiva are the frieze themes.
Life size images of female musicians playing different instruments like the veena,
pakhawaj, dholak and cymbals are the spectacular sculptures here on the tower.

40
 The mastaka of the jagamohana, above the gandi has a missing crowning kalash.
Eight figures seated supporting the amla on their backs are ingeniously shown here.
The interior of the structure is inaccessible as its ceiling caved in 1848 and was filled
up in 1904. The interior of this square structure is in a striking contrast to its exterior, for
it is reported to be plain and plastered.
A tall free standing Aruna-stambha, a chlorite pillar with Aruna, the god of dawn and
the charioteer of Surya on its crown once stood in front of the east staircase of the porch.
It now stands at the main gate of the Jagannatha Puri temple, apparently taken away in
turbulent times.
The Sanctuary—The shikhara, the curvilinear spire of the rekhadeul along with the
upper part of the bada of the main sanctuary have both fallen. From the remains of other
parts of the main sanctuary, it seems the height of the shikhara would have been between
42.67 and 45.72 metres and that of the total sanctuary might have been at least sixty one
metres. The extant raha has fabulous sculptures of boars, herds of deer on the east face of
the south raha. The niches inside are sculpted with kingly activities along with other
themes.
Outside faces of the rahas have beautifully carved chlorite parsva-devatas (attendant
deities occupying the niches of central projections of a sanctuary). None of them,
however, are in their original niches today. Representing Surya, his attendant deities are
majestic and pulsating sculptures. Their ornaments and drapery are extremely realistic.
A larger than life figure of Surya stands in the southern niche. Bejeweled on a
chariot of seven horses with attendant figures of females, deities and a royal donor, this
sculpture is a masterpiece (Fig. 5). Another Surya image in the western niche appears
here with a tilak and a rich crown.

41
 Figure 5: The Image of Surya
(Source:https://c8.alamy.com/comp/B8KKKE/image-of-surya-sun-god-front-view-from-west-konark-sun-
temple-orissa-B8KKKE.jpg)

42
 A chlorite platform that once contained the presiding deity on a pedestal is on the
west side of the sanctuary. In the course of conservation, the pedestal had no image when
the debris was removed, as mentioned earlier. There are other sculpted figures here too.
There is a kneeling moustached king in the company of priests depicted here, probably
the donor of the temple. Legend says the small image of Surya called Virinchi, housed in
the Virinchi temple at Puri may have been the original presiding deity of Konark that was
brought to Puri during turbulent times.
The chlorite floor and the embellished doorway of the passage to the sanctum
sanctorum are the other features of note of the sanctuary.
The Colossi—The porch, the jagamohana originally had colossal animals guarding it.
Two giant lions rampant on crouching elephants guarded the east staircase. Two richly
decorated harnessed elephants were represented on the north side, while two war horses
would have guarded the south staircase. All the three staircases were guarded by these
lively animals in stone. But these were later re-installed. Two of them now are in front of
the eastern staircase of the bhoga-mandapa, facing the porch (Fig. 6).

Figure 6: Main entrance to the Bhoga-mandapa

(Source:https://static.toiimg.com/photo/msid-76076488,width-96,height-65.cms)

Bhoga-mandapa—The third extant structure of the complex is a pillared hall on a plinth,

in front of the eastern staircase of the porch. Sculptures of dancers and musicians are
depicted here on the hall’s façade, walls and pillars (Fig.7). Because of this, it was

43
believed to be the nat-mandapa (festive hall). It is also known as the bhoga-mandapa
(hall of offerings), because it’s southern staircase faces the kitchen area and also it is
similar to the Lingaraja bhog-mandapa (Fig.8).
The platform of this structure has miniature shrines, in their niches are forms of
women and erotic couples. The corner niches have guardians of directions (dikpalas). The
rest have animals, army processions and deities etc.
A flight of stairs leads up to the top of the mandapa that has no roof. The outer
façade has three horizontal divisions with recesses in between them that are adorned with
niches with women figures and lions rampant on elephants. The central part of the hall
has four large pillars arranged in a square formation with rich carvings.
The structure has no roof but a part of the missing ceiling survives in a beautiful
carved stone piece. The piece shows a full blooming lotus with figure of Surya sitting
cross-legged on a seat drawn by seven horses with female attendants and accompanying
figures of dancers, who are also playing musical instruments.

Figure 7: Dancing Figures at the Bhog-mandapa

(Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Stone_work_at_Konark_Orissa_India.jpg)

44
 Figure 8: Bhog-mandapa
(Source:https://c8.alamy.com/comp/C68X62/bhoga-mandapa-or-offerings-hall-konark-sun-temple-orissa-
india-unesco-C68X62.jpg)

Subsidiary Structures
The complex has subsidiary structures like the adjoining Mayadevi temple, dedicated
to one of the wives of Surya. This Temple 2 was built earlier than the main temple. Here
too presiding deity is missing, as it is in another shrine in the south-west, a small
Vaishnava temple of large bricks (Temple 3). This shows that religious eclecticism was
practiced here with the existence of the Vaishnava shrine, much like in the Khajuraho
group of temples.
The huge complex had some more structures, as evidenced by stray plinths that exist
in the area. A kitchen like structure with wells, khondalite slabs and platforms is extant in
a ruinous state. All these were enclosed within a wall. An enclosure wall of mostly
khondalite, partly of laterite and bricks, probably like the Puri temple surrounded the
complex, as evidenced by the debris. The total area enclosed would have been a courtyard
of approximately 865 feet by 540 feet. Two small gateways, one serving as the main
entrance to the temple facing the south staircase and one facing the bhoga-mandapacan
also be identified.

Conclusion: Technical Aspects

Three types of rocks have been used for the complex: chlorite, laterite and
khondalite. Door-frames and few sculptures use chlorite. Laterite was used for the core of
the platform and staircases that house the sanctuary and the porch. The foundation too
was of laterite. Khondalite was used for the rest of the structural parts. These three stone

45
types are easily given to weather vagaries and that may explain the ruinous state of the
temple. They are also not available locally. Through rafts plying in rivers, the blocks of
stone would have been transported from far distances and pulled up by pulleys and
wooden wheels. The ashlar masonry was finely employed. The courses of stone were not
bonded withmortar, and like the indigenous form of masonry it uses the time tested
method of counterpoising of weight, the weight of one stone acting against the pressure
of another. Sculptural reliefs were carved after the stones had been put in place.
Readings:
 Brown, Percy, Indian Architecture: (Buddhist and Hindu Periods), D. B.
Taraporevala Sons and Co. Private Ltd., Bombay, 1959.
 Mitra, Debala, Konarak, World Heritage Series, ASI, New Delhi, 2003.

3.2.2 Dravida: Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram

Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram (also known as Thillai Nataraja Temple), is situated
in the state of Tamil Nadu. It is a Hindu temple devoted to Lord Shiva. Of the Pancha
Bhootha Sthalams of Lord Shiva, each of which represents one of the five elements
(namely ether, water, earth, fire and wind) of the Indic cosmology, Chidambaram
represents ether. Lord Nataraja is believed to have performed the cosmic dance (Ananda
Tandava) at the site of the temple. The temple houses several deities representing major
themes from Vaishnavism, Shaktism and others, although Shiva is the main deity of the
temple. Lord Vishnu as Lord Govindaraja Perumal is also enshrined and worshipped
here. What is unique about the ‘bejewelled image of Lord Nataraja’ is that the big toe in
this image is believed to be the Centre Point of World‘s Magnetic Equator.

medium.com
(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/a8fPuLzN7YU1qVLs6)

46
Temple History
The Chidambaram Nataraja Temple is one of the most ancient temples in India
whose origin is lost in antiquity. Although a lot of research and study has been done on
this temple, the exact period of its construction is still unidentifiable. However, there is a
collection of legends and hymns popularly known as the mahatmyam which provides a
fair idea about the origins of Chidambaram temple and the evolution of the Nataraja cult.
From these legends we get to know that in ancient times Chidambaram was known by
different names such as Tillai Ponnambalam, Vyaghrapuram and Chitambaram.
According to one legend, it was the son of Madhyandina Rishi, who found a self
manifested Shivalinga under a banyan tree in the forest of Tillai (Thillai) and prayed to
god by daily offering flowers which he plucked for worship even before bees could taste
their honey. While doing so his legs used to get injured by the thorns and rough surfaces
of the trees. Pleased with his devotion, Shiva granted him a boon of tiger’s feet and claws
to climb up trees. He thus became Vyaghrapada meaning one endowed with tigers' feet. If
this legend is to be believed, a Shiva shrine existed at the site even before Chidambaram
came into being in its present form or in other words, when the town was still known as
Thillai.
That the temple has mythical roots is evident from another fascinating legend related
to the performance of Shiva‘s first ever dance at Chidambaram. According to the legend,
once Lord Shiva strolled into the Thillai Vanam. In the Thillai forests resided a group of
arrogant saints or ‘rishis’. These saints were of the belief that God they could control God
by rituals and ‘mantras’ or magical words. Lord Shiva decided to destroy the arrogance of
these ‘rishis’ and teach them a lesson. Assuming the form of a simple mendicant seeking
alms (Bhiksatana), and accompanied by Vishnu disguised as Mohini, Shiva went to
Thillai Vanam. On seeing their womenfolk spellbound by the beauty of the divine couple,
the rishis got enraged and invoked scores of 'serpents' (Sanskrit: Nāga and denoting such
evil traits as egoism) by performing magical rituals. As the story goes, ‘the Lord as the
mendicant lifted the serpents and wore them as ornaments on his matted locks, neck and
waist’. Then the sages raised a sacrificial fire from which emerged a tiger (representing
their beast-nature or untamed mind) which pounced on Shiva. But Shiva pulled off the
skin of the tiger and wrapped it around his waist. Subsequently, gathering all their
spiritual strength, the sages invoked a powerful demon Muyalaka who symbolized
complete arrogance and ignorance. The Lord pinned him down and performed the
Ánanda Tandava (the dance of eternal bliss) and disclosed his true form. Realizing their
folly, the rishis surrendered at the feet of the Lord.
According to the legend, Lord Vishnu narrated the grandeur of Shiva’s cosmic dance
to Aadi Sesha, the serpent god. Filled with irrepressible desire to witness the dance in
person at Chidambaram, Aadi Sesha descended to the earth as Patanjali. He was joined at
the Thillai forest by Vyaghrapada and both together began to worship Lord Shiva. Sages
Patanjali and Vyaghrapada performed penance in the Thillai (mangrove) forest to the

47
Lingam now worshipped as Thirumulanathar to have a darshan of God Nataraja who
appeared before them. At the appointed hour when Shiva was to perform the dance before
his devotees, Bhadra Kali (the guardian deity of the place) appeared and stopped him from
performing. Thereupon a dance contest ensued between the two at the end of which, Shiva
after defeating Kali took possession of the place. Subsequently Shiva performed his
Cosmic Dance of Bliss to the accompaniments of music played by several divine
personalities in the Hindu pantheon. The Govindaraja shrine in the Nataraja Temple
commemorates the fact that this Dance of Bliss (also known as Nadanta besides Anand
Tandava) was also witnessed by Lord Vishnu.
The legend describing the dispute between Shiva’s consort Kali (representative of
matriarchal society) and Shiva himself (symbolizing patriarchal society) and Kali’s defeat
can be viewed in the context of subjugation of matriarchal society and the dominance of
patriarchy.
The legends started accumulating when the Chola state began to emerge. The temple
traditions at Chidambaram show that all Chola Kings were devotees of Lord Nataraja,
who maintained intimate associations with Chidambaram. ‘The Chola patronage of the
Chidambaram temple dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja and the production of numerous
representations of Nataraja during the Chola period signify that the icon had a a special
meaning in Chola times’. The Chola monarchs by patronizing Chidambaram temple
legitimized their power. Patronage to Nataraja cult is reflective of change which occurred
in the idea of kingship of Chola Empire. There was a shift from the cult of royal linga to a
Pan-India sanskritized God which offered Cholas a more universal legitimacy. The
performance of Ananda Tandava dance in Chidambaram for both Chola kings and
bhaktas is indicative of the increasing importance of bhakti in society. With the bhakti
movement the lower class rejected the orthodox Brahman dominance.
The temple is believed to be largely, a product of the reign of Kulottunga 1 (1070-
1122) and his immediate successors. Thereafter rulers of several dynasties, the notable
among them being the Pandyas, the Cheras and the Vijayanagara, undertook temple
renovation. In the Sangam literature we find reference to Viduvelvidugu Perumtaccan, the
chief architect of the early temple renovation. The present structure of the temple
apparently belongs to the 12th and 13th centuries AD. In the following section we will
briefly discuss the temple architecture which clearly represents the link between arts and
spirituality.

Temple Architecture
Accurate detailed plans of the Chidambaram temple have never been drawn.
However, it is evident that the Chidambaram temple represents Dravidian architecture
and consists of all the important features of a typical south Indian temple such as the
vimanam (roof of the sanctum sanctorum), mandapams (halls which cover and precede
the door leading to the sanctum), gopurams (gate-pyramids, the principal feature of the

48
temple seen from outside) and the temple tanks for water called theertham, etc., which
had come to be well established by the late Chola period. The temple complex is spread
over an area of about 55 acres and as has been mentioned earlier, is dedicated to Lord
Shiva Nataraja and Lord Govindaraja Perumal, the former being the principal deity.
According to Susan Huntington, ‘The temple measures more than 350 meters by about
315 meters along the (fourth) prakara (prakaram) which in the case of the Nataraja
temple, defines the boundary wall. However, it is at the third enclosure that the sacred
precinct of the temple properly begins’. Within the compound are shrines, halls, temples,
ornamental gateways, and a large ritual bathing pool, known as a Siva Ganga tank, which
is surrounded by covered passages.
The main edifices of the temple are the five sabhas or halls known as Chit Sabha,
Kanaka Sabha, Deva Sabha, Nritya Sabha and Raja Sabha. At the centre of the temple is
situated the sanctum sanctorum called the Chit sabha or Chit ambalam which means the
hall of wisdom. It is the main shrine. Shaivites believe that a visit to Chidambaram leads
to liberation as Lord Nataraja is a symbolic representation of the supreme bliss or ananda
tandavam
The word Chidambaram is made up of two words ‘Chit’ and ‘ambaram’ meaning
‘consciousness’ and ‘sky’ respectively and signifies the sky of consciousness, which most
believe is the ultimate state (that of supreme bliss or ananda ) that one should attempt to
attain. Another theory is that it is derived from chit + ambalam, whereby ambalam denotes
a “stage” for performing arts.

Sanctum sanctorum : Chit Sabha

(source: https://images.app.goo.gl/g9ya5FAHpxeugXWM6)

The Lord is represented in three forms viz. the anthropomorphic form of Lord
Nataraja, called the Sakala thirumeni; the semi-anthropomorphic form as Crystal linga
Chandramouleswara, the Sakala nishkala thirumeni and the ‘formless’ as the Space in
Chidambara Rahasyam, an empty space within the sanctum sanctorum, the Nishkala
thirumeni, in the gold-roofed stage or dancing hall. At a philosophical level, this caters to

49
the three avasthas (states of consciousness) in humans. The five pillars of the Chit Sabha
indicate the five senses. The Kanaka sabha is the frontal complement to the Chit sabha
and it is from here that the daily rituals are conducted. The five main steps
(Panchachhara padi – pancha meaning 5, achhara – indestructible syllables – “SI VA
YA NA MA”, from a raised anterior dias – the Kanakasaba) at the entrance to the shrine
stand between the devotees and the image of Shiva, covered in silver. They are the five
seed words or syllables of the Panchakshara mantra, a holy mantra which negates
egoism (ahamkara) by making one realize that all belongs to Shiva.

Chidambara Rahasyam or Chidambara Ragasiyam

Behind the image of Nataraja, separated from it by a veil is Akasha Linga – the
celebrated secret of Chidambaram. The screen of golden Bilva leaves which hangs to the
right of Nataraja when moved aside reveals empty space that represents Akasha or Space.
The removal of the screen is the removal of ignorance and behind the veil is the real truth
– Sat, Chit and Ananda – which is the subtle ethereal form of Nataraja. This is known as
the Chidambara Rahasyam or Chidambara Ragasiyam. There is a belief that Lord Shiva
and Parvati are present at this place, but not all can have the Darshan of Chidambara
Ragasiyam which is possible only when priests open the curtain for special poojas and
then too, people can merely see golden bilva leaves signifying the presence of Lord Shiva
and Parvati in front of them.
The Nritya sabha or Natya sabha lies to the south of the temple’s flag mast (or kodi
maram or dwaja sthambam which denotes the sushumna nadi connecting the mind and
soul of a person) where the Lord is said to have established His supremacy after dancing
with Goddess Kali (an embodiment of energy). The Nritya Sabha (Nritta sabha or Natya
sabha) or the hall of Dance is the most aesthetically designed artistic structure which is a
‘mandapa that takes the form of a temple cart’ (a feature that began to be prevalent in the
south Indian temples of the 12th-13th centuries). This edifice known to have been built by
Kulottunga Chola is a graceful hall with 56 pillars decorated with figures representing
various moods and manifestations of Lord Nataraja.
The Raja sabha or the 1000-pillared hall symbolizes the Sahasrara Chakra (which
in yoga is a 'chakra' at the crown of the head and is a seat where the soul unites with God.
Meditating by concentrating at the Sahasrara Chakra, represented as a 1000-petalled
lotus is said to lead to a state of union with the Divine force, the culmination of yogic
practice).
The Pancha moorthis (pancha - five, moorthis - deities, namely the deities of Lord
Ganesh - the remover of hurdles, Lord Somaskanda, a form where the Lord is in a seated
posture with his grace and consort, the Lord’s consort Sivananda nayaki, the Lord
Muruga and the deity of Chandikeswarar - the principal and chief of the devotees of the
Lord) are housed in the Deva sabha.

50
 We know that at by the late Chola period, the basic components of developing south
Indian temple were well established, and included the principal temple, gateways, and
subsidiary structures. We shall now briefly study the gateways. In all there are nine major
gateways (gopuras) that are believed to signify the 9 orifices in the human body. Of these
four imposing gateways of the third prakara (in all the four cardinal directions) were
conceived at one time, were part of an overall scheme, and relatively close in date. TThese
and the Nritya sabha (dance hall) seemingly belong to the late Chola period.
period All four
Gopuras,, likened to the feet, as resembling a person who is lying on the back with the toe
up, are almost uniform in size, structure and form.

Gopuram of Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram

(Source:https://www.alamy.com/colorful
https://www.alamy.com/colorful-gopuram-of-nataraja-temple-chidambaram
chidambaram-tamil-
nadu-india-image209867575.html)

51
 After the twelfth century the gopuras had become the most important structures in
the Indian architecture, surpassing the vimanas as the most dominant visual element of
the south Indian temple complex. So was the case at Chidambaram. The massive granite
and brick east gopura dominates the site but there are three other gopuras on the north,
south and west sides (the earliest). All of them are 7-storeyed and 135 feet tall with 13
Copper Kalashas on them. They are uniformly 90 feet long and 60 feet wide at the
bottom and the entrances are 40 feet high. ‘The corbelled roofs diminish as the structures
rise and are finally topped with the usual barrel-vaulted roof (sala), the eastern gopura
also having a row of 13 decorative finials. The east gopura has a proper interior floor at
each of its nine levels and there is an interior staircase which climbs to the very top of the
building. All the four gopuras have false windows on their facades, typical for this kind
of structure, and pairs of pilaster columns set at regular intervals. The second floor of
each gopura also has a passageway which worshippers ritually walked around. The
entrance archways all have coffered ceilings decorated with relief panels.’ (Harle, James
C. 1963)
It has been observed that each of the four gopuras is built of stone up to the main
cornice, above which the structure is of brick and plaster. The seven-storeyed
superstructure consists of salas, pavilions and other features that were by this time
common to both vimanas and gopuras. All gopuras have sculptures depicting various
dance postures. Iconographically, every form of Shiva known at that time is depicted. ‘At
the entranceway to each gopura, a series of pilasters is subdivided into rectangular units
that contain sculptures of dance poses illustrating the dance text known as the
Natyashastras, evidently as a corollary to the dedication of the temple to Shiva as Lord of
Dance (Nataraja)’. (Huntington, 1999, p. 531)
Interestingly these four gopuras are not arranged to be opposite to each other. The
west and the east gopuras are placed south of center on their sides, possibly to align them
with the central shrines, which are off centre from the third prakara (itself not perfectly
rectangular in shape). As has been pointed out by Huntington, ‘some of the irregularity of
the overall plan of the temple complex may be due to the accommodation of the two
shrines’.
Several water bodies can be found within and around the Chidambaram temple
complex. Of these, Sivaganga tank and Paramanandha koobham deserve a mention.
While Sivaganga tank is located in the third corridor of the temple opposite to the shrine
of Shivagami and can be accessed by flights of stone steps leading from the shrine,
Paramanandha koobham is located on the eastern side of the Chitsabha hall. Water for
sacred purposes is drawn from Paramanandha koobham.

52
 Temple Tank in Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram
Source:https://images.app.goo.gl/XeDj5KEaiJ1E3KrV9

Chidambaram temple and its likeness to the human body

The Chidambaram temple follows the typical structure of a Shaivite temple and is
laid out as a Purusha or a human body with all its subtleties. It is designed with five
concentric Prakaras or circumbulatory temple courtyards. Prakara in Indian architecture
refers to an outer part or precinct around the Hindu temple sanctum. The five walls
encircling one another are believed to symbolize the five koshas (sheaths) namely the
Annamaya kosha, the Pranamaya kosha, the Manomaya kosha, the Vignyana maya kosha
and the Ananda maya kosha of human existence. While the outermost is the Annamaya
kosha, symbolizing the material body, the fifth and innermost is the Ananda maya kosha,
symbolizing the sheath of Bliss. This innermost prakara houses the sanctum sanctorum
(karuvarai in Tamil). In it sits Shiva, the supreme Lord seated as the Jiva within us.
While, some temples may have only three prakaras that represent the sthoola, sukshma
and karana sareeras (bodies) of a human being, some other temples may have only one
prakara.
The Nataraja shrine at Chidambaram being the most honoured is referred to as
Ponnambalam, meaning golden temple and Kanakasabha, meaning the golden dancing
hall where Nataraja, as Kanakasabhapati, Lord of the Golden Hall, performs his Dance of
Bliss, the Ananda tandava. A gold plated roof adorns the sanctum sanctorum. The golden
roof is made of 21600 tiles (with the five indestructible syllables – “SI VA YA NA MA”
inscribed on them) signifying the number of breaths of a human being in a day, and fixed
with 72,000 golden nails indicative of the 72,000 visible and invisible nerves /
nadis (channels of prana) of a human body. The roof has a set of 9 sacred pots or kalasas
on the top which represent the 9 forms of energy, the nine Matrikas or goddesses.
According to some, these also symbolize the 9 dwaras (gateways) in the human body
(namely 2 eyes, 2 nostrils, 2 ears, mouth, rectum, genitals). The 28 pillars holding the
Ponnambalam or the Sanctum sanctorum represent the 28 agamas or set methodologies

53
for the worship of the Lord Shiva. 64 beams and several cross-beams that hold the roof
are indicative of the 64 forms of art and the innumerable blood vessels respectively. Just
as the human heart is not in the centre, the sanctum in Chidambaram is also aligned
slightly leftward. One can notice this if you view the Nataraja statue from within the two
horns of the Nandikeshvara (Shiva’s vehicle). Also, one can notice that the entrance paths
to the sanctum sanctorum are not straight as is the case in most of the temples. Instead,
entrance paths are through the sides representing the fact that human blood circulates only
through the sides of the heart and not straight.

Decoding/ Understanding the Ananda Tandava posture

(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/7VTyzSYD4HJQKEYX7)
(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/yR9AQnwhRnokNZPj7)

The Ananda Tandava posture of Lord Shiva is well renowned around the world and
variously interpreted by scholars. The Ananda Tandava or the 'dance of bliss' is the dance
that represents all movement, flow, rhythm, creation, manifestation and transformation of
life. In essence it symbolizes the continuous cycle of creation and destruction. It carries
many meanings, messages and metaphors. It has to be borne in mind that the Nataraja
statue may have symbolized different things to different people at different points of time
and in different contexts, but the popular belief was that the Ananda Tandava of Shiva
symbolizes five divine arts known as Panchakritya – Srishti (creation), Sthiti
(preservation, continued maintenance), Samhara (destruction, involution), Tirobhava
(veiling, incarnation), and Anugraha (release, salvation). The ring of fire at the back or in
other words, the circular or elliptical frame surrounding Shiva signifies the universe and
represents the cosmic fire that both creates and destroys everything. The drum known as
a damaru in Sanskrit and held in a damaru-hasta mudra, in the upper right hand of
Nataraja symbolises time and rhythm and suggests that he is the savior and protector of
the world. The skin wrapped round his waist signifies the annihilation of Aham (ego). He
holds agni (fire) in one hand (the upper left hand), again representing the forces of
creation and destruction. Another hand (lower right forearm) is wrapped with a snake and
gesturing an Abhaya or ‘fear not’ mudra. The fourth hand (the second left hand) points
towards the raised foot. The right leg trampling the demon (shown as a dwarf signifying

54
ignorance) implies the destruction of evil. He is shown standing on a lotus pedestal which
represents the center of our heart. His long, matted tresses are shown to be loose and
flying out in thin strands during the dance, spread into a fan behind his head, because of
the wildness and ecstasy of the dance.
Nataraja, states James Lochtefeld, symbolizes "the connection between religion and
the arts", and it represents Shiva as the lord of dance, encompassing all "creation,
destruction and all things in between". The Nataraja iconography incorporates contrasting
elements, a fearless celebration of the joys of dance while being surrounded by fire,
untouched by forces of ignorance and evil, signifying a spirituality that transcends all
duality. The Ananda Tandava depicts him as the enjoyer of his creation - the universe.

Conclusion
Thus we find that among the many shrine temples dedicated to Nataraja, the most
venerated is the magnificent shrine at Chidambaram where Shiva is known to have
performed Ananda Tandava or the ‘dance of Bliss’. The Chidambaram Temple is unique
since the presiding deity worshipped is a metal icon of Lord Nataraja in contrast to
statues of deities made of stone found in other temples. But in the same sanctum, the
ethereal or Akasha linga is present and is worshipped along with the Nataraja. There is
also a Spatika Linga for which the six daily kala poojas are done.

Readings:
 Lochtefeld, James G. (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, New York:
Rosen Publishing Group.
 Huntington, Susan L. (1999). The Art of Ancient India: Hindu, Buddhist, Jain. New
York: Weather Hill.
 Harle, James C. (1963). Temple Gateways in South india: The Architecture and
Iconography of the Cidambaram Gopuras, Oxford: Bruno Cassirer.

3.3 Mosques and Mausoleums

3.3.1 The coming of Islam and new architectural forms
The coming of Islam brought in new architectural forms. The Arab conquest of Sind
in the year 712 CE changed the power equations in the Indian sub-continent. Thereafter
from the 10thcentury onwards many raids and sieges were undertaken by newly emerging
powerful Turkish rulers of areas in present day Afghanistan and Central Asia. The
campaigns of Sultan Mahmud Ghazni from late 10th-11thcentury, culminated in the
Turkish conquest of north India in late 12thcentury under Sultan Muiz ud-Din Mohammad
Ghur and his commanders.
Political conquest, however, did not introduce new architectural forms, associated
with the new religion of Islam. Mosques had already been built in Sind in the 8thcentury

55
and Muslim traders had managed to build their places of worship and funerary structures
of tombs in the port of Bhadreswar in Gujarat (c.1160). These structures, instead of being
arcuate, and hence ‘Muslim’, are low ‘Hindu’ trabeate constructions, using Indic column
orders with iconographical details of half-lotus and bead-and-reel bands, derived from
local traditions. The label ‘Muslim’ and ‘Islamic’, therefore, needs to be questioned as a
distinctive category, right from the start. For, when the forms of arch and dome are used
in Hindu/Buddhist/Jain temples or when the beam, lintel or pillars are used in mosques,
tombs and palaces of Muslim rulers, these architectural forms are never single monolithic
cultural categories and do not belong to one religious community. We have seen this
earlier as well. This is because architectural forms are socially rooted at all times and go
through a process of adaptation and transformation.
The Delhi Sultans, after the establishment of the Sultanate in 1206, were prolific
builders who first introduced the architectural forms of masjids (mosques) and maqbaras
(tombs), madrasas (centres of learning), tanks, waterworks and caravan serais (inns) on a
large scale under royal patronage. Secular architecture of palaces, citadels underwent
modification, while new treatment of spaces was introduced. All this was possible
because the Turks introduced the use of lime mortar. Built landscape started changing and
turrets of mosques could be seen with temple spires. New forms of ornamentation of
calligraphy, geometrical and arabesque patterns came to adorn their buildings of the
times. Provincial Sultanates from 14thcentury in different regions as well came up with
ingenious mosques and tombs, drawing immensely from local regional traditions. The
Mughals, coming to power in 1526 in the subcontinent, further added to the rich
architectural heritage and introduced their own innovations in design and ornamentation,
in techniques and building types. The introduction of the Persian garden architecture is
associated with them.
The initial process of adaption of the new forms with the local tradition is best
exemplified in the mosques at Delhi (Quwwat ul-Islam, 12th - 13thcentury) and Ajmer
(Adhai Din ka Jhompara, 12th-13thcentury). The arches here are corbelled and not ‘true’,
domes are low and conical and the decoration is derived from the temple architecture of
the vicinity. The mosques visually represent the ‘symbolic appropriation of land’ by the
invaders. However, the structures, at the same time, appropriate and use the past tradition
and its visual forms. This is against the backdrop of the historical processes of conquest
and interaction of politically antagonistic cultures. Material used in these mosques is both
old and new. Hindu artisans under their Muslim patrons seem to have even created new
forms and patterns, as evidenced from the visual forms. These mosques actually,
represent the beginning of a movement towards unity and fusion of two different
architectural traditions of the conqueror and the conquered. What in the end crystallized
into a distinctive Indo-Islamic architectural style, the harmonious balance of Islamic
traditions of purity of line and form and the indigenous sculptural quality of architecture,
is seen in its formative stages in these structures.

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3.3.2 Quwwat al-Islam mosque, Delhi
Qutb Complex has a host of structures that enjoy eminence not only for initiating a
building style presenting a blend of Indian and Turko-Persian art traditions and for
producing a magical effect on the viewers by the beauty and delicacy of their
workmanship, they also embody the cultural ambience of a period wherein these were
created. Amongst the Qutb monuments the Masjid-i jami (Delhi’s first congregational
mosque), the Qutb Minar, and the Alai Darwaza are particularly significant in the context
of the socio-political history of the Sultanate period. The Qutb complex is one of those
historical sites that have stimulated scholars to come forward with numerous
interpretations regarding its significance as the symbol of the might of Islam, as the
evidence of the plunder and proof of the Muslim iconoclasm, and as proclaiming the
establishment of new political order. In spite of the fact that new important settlements,
Kilokhari and Shahr-i Nau, and Siri came into existence, the city around the Qutb
complex retained it importance as the center of urban activities, and as the focal point of
the socio-religious life of Delhi. It continued to remain associated with the authority of
the rulers of Delhi Sultanate till the early years of the fourteenth century.
The Quwwatul Islam mosque, the first Islamic building constructed in north India,
stands in the Qutb complex. It represents the first stage of the evolution of the Indo-
Islamic style wherein the materials from pre-existing twenty seven Hindu and Jain
temples was used. It is considered by a renowned art historian Percy Brown as a
“rearranged temple” and a “miscellany of art”. The arched façade inside the courtyard of
the mosque displays the Islamic calligraphic ornamentation at its best.
Mosque or masjid (place of prostration) is central to the religious life of Muslims. It
universally has some requirements: a qibla wall, indicating the direction of prayer
towards Mecca and a niche in its centre as the mihrab. Sometimes later in the Islamic
world, a screen or maqsura was thrown in front of the mihrab to cordon off the area for
the use of the royalty. A dome or qubba’ before the mihrab usually surmounts the
structure. In addition, Friday mosques have a mimbar, the pulpit from where the leader of
the congregation pronounces the Friday sermon. The courtyard or sahn accommodates
the people and usually has a water-basin in the middle. A minar or a tower from where
the muezzin gives the call to prayer was square, spiral or fluted in shape. Their numbers
could also vary. Mosque architecture in medieval India, while following these basic
requirements, represents a variety of forms, varying from region to region and under
different dynasties. We shall now discuss the Qutb mosque.

Construction under Aibak and Iltutmish

The Qutb mosque, also called the Quwwatul-Islam mosque or the Masjid-i Jami’, the
first royal mosque is a simple rectangle (214 x 149 feet) in the Chauhan citadel of Qila
Rai Pithora (Fig. 1). Aibak began its construction soon after the conquest (1192). Built on
the plinth of an earlier temple, it was extended twice in the succeeding reigns of Iltutmish

57
and Alaud-Din Khalji. The foundation text in naskhi scripton the eastern main gate
mentions its construction from the spolia of twenty-seven Hindu and Jain temples, each
costing 20,00,000 deliwals.

Figure1: Qutub Mosque

(Source:https://live.staticflickr.com/574/23591111960_4a68575cf3_b.jpg)

Aibak’s original layout comprised a colonnaded qiblaliwan (prayer chamber), four

bays deep, followingan Arab hypostyle type mosque. The eastern side colonnade or the
riwaq is three bays deep, while the northern and southern riwaqs are two bays deep
(Fig. 2). The mosque’s four corners have raised compartments as mezzanine storeys,
earlier thought to be for the women. But according to Barry Flood, the north-west and
south-west ones are more likely to be muluk-khanas, the royal enclosures that first
appeared in Mahmud Ghazni’s mosque in his capital and later for Ghurids in
Afghanistan.

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 Figure 2: The Colonnades of the Mosque
(Source:https://previews.123rf.com/images/heavyrobbie/heavyrobbie1205/heavyrobbie120500014/136021
27-decorated-columns-of-qutb-complex-mehrauli-new-delhi-india.jpg)

The pillars of the mosque are temple columns sculpted with the usual Shaivite,
Vaishnavite and Jain images, but often defaced. The roofs too have indigenous motifs of
kirtimukha (radiant lion face), lotus, kalash (pot of water) and figures of yakshas and
yakshis (nature-spirits). These roofs of flat slabstaper to shallow corbelled conical domes,
following the ‘Hindu’ trabeate construction principle (Fig. 3). And this is not all. Ten
incarnations of Vishnu are placed facing the outside on the southern wall of the mosque.
Scenes from the birth of Krishna are depicted on the wall-panel of the northern side.
Further it seems original stones from the temple debris were picked up to assemble the
complete lotus motifs that were put on the colonnade ceilings. It is interesting, according
to Barry Flood that the motif kirtimukha, standing for auspiciousness with talismanic
qualities, appears more than thirty times on the trabeate lintels and unaccounted number
of times on the pillars that support them. This selective use of iconography from pillaged
material is also seen at the contemporary Ajmer mosque. The structures don’t appear to
be assembled in a hurried way.

59
 Figure 3: Mosque Pillar (Detail)
(Source:https://www.indiacitywalks.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/IMG_7549.jpg)

A red sandstone screen of arches, a maqsura, comprising of five arched openings

was thrown in front of the prayer chamber sometimes in 1199, perhaps to make it more
‘Islamic’. Most of it is in ruins today. But from a reconstruction it can be conjectured that
the central larger one (50 feet in height) was flanked on each side by two smaller arches.
Above the flanking arches was a kind of clerestory having series of four smaller arches,
one over each of these side arches. The arches are corbelled and not ‘true’ and meet at the
pinnacle in an ogee ‘S’ curve, like the Buddhist chaitya arch. The ogee arch makes the
screen that is of much height look light and delicate. Creepers in spiral form with florals
contrasting with calligraphic panels of Quranic verses are carved on the entire red
sandstone surface of the arches, adding to its beauty (Fig. 4).

Figure 4: The Screen of the Mosque

(Source:https://smarthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Mosque-pillar-screen.jpg)

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 In 1220’s, Iltutmish erected an iron pillar from a Vishnu temple in the mosque’s
courtyard. Re-erection of antique pillars belonging to past great rulers was a pre-Turkish
commemorative practice of appropriation for legitimization in pre-modern states.

The Qutb Mosque as the Focal Point in the Social Life of Delhi
The Masjid-i-jami, popularly known as Masjid-i-Qutb al-Islam or Qutb Mosque, was
the “focal point in the social life of the city’s Muslim inhabitants. Apart from its
importance as a place of Friday prayer, it was also the place where protests were voiced,
teaching and adjudication heard and festivals celebrated”. The main commercial areas,
the bazar-i-bazzazan or the market of the cloth merchants, was located in the south of the
Masjid-i-jami, and the grain market (mandi) was also in its vicinity. As a result, it was
frequented by the Delhi residents in large number in one way or the other in the daily
course of their lives. It was a “site of community socialization”. (Sunil Kumar,
‘Assertions of Authority: A Study of the Discursive Statements of Two Sultans of Delhi’,
in The Making of Indo-Persian Culture: Indian and French Studies, eds. Muzaffar Alam,
Françoise ‘Nalini’ Delvoye and Marc Gaborieau, pp. 41-44).
The Qutb Mosque underwent constructions on three different stages. The first
mosque was a relatively small rectangular, with a small courtyard, surrounded by
colonnaded arcades and it was built of the material derived from plundered temples.
Qutbuddin Aibek commenced the construction of the mosque immediately after the
capture of Delhi in 1191 – 92 and it was completed around 1196. Sometimes later,
perhaps in 1199, the huge arched screen was built in front of the west wall of the mosque.
The east face of the screen was decorated with Arabic calligraphy in the Kufi and naskh
scripts and verses from the Quran and the traditions of the Prophet were interspersed with
floral and geometric patterns. This work was an evidence of the artistic skill of the native
craftsmen who used indigenous tradition for fulfilling the artistic requirements of their
masters. It was about this time that work on the ground floor of the minaret – the Qutb
Minar – was also completed. The inspiration of the Minar came from the Ghoride minaret
of Khwaja Siyah Posh in Sistan. It was built of red sandstone and inscribed with Quranic
inscriptions and eulogies of conquest, and that it was built to cast the shadow of Islam in
the east and the west. It served as a memorial of victory and a vantage point (mazinah) to
call the faithful to prayer. Since the tower was singular, and a detached construction
rather than being a part of the main edifice of the mosque, Saiyid Ahmad Khan a
nineteenth century educationist, does not consider it a mazinah. Saiyid Ahmad Khan is an
advocate of the Hindu origin of the tower. Cunningham, however, opines that it was built
as a mazinah. In support of his view he says that Muslims built singular towers in the
early phases of the history of Islam, and this practice continued till the early part of the
eleventh century.

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 The second phase of construction within the Masjid-i-jami commenced during the
reign of Sultan Iltutmish and was completed around 1229–30, which doubled the width of
the mosque. New cloistered courtyards were added to the north, south and the east, in a
form, which maintained the overall stylistic symmetry of the mosque. Hence the arches
and the additions to the minaret harmonized with the existing architecture. Iltutmish also
made his tomb in its close vicinity that goes well with the whole architectural scheme.
These additions, however, are largely in ruins today. Only the extended minaret towering
over the environs with three additional stories provides an idea of the huge transformation
introduced by Iltutmish in the architectural landscape of the Masjid-i-jami. There is a
great debate amongst the scholars whether Iltutmish built the Qutb Minar or “completed”
it.
The third phase of building began during the reign of Sultan Alauddin Khalji. The
additions and alterations introduced in the architectural scheme are also nearly lost today.
However an entrance hall (today called the “Alai Darwaza”), and an unfinished minaret
survive providing an idea of the ambitious building plans of Alauddin Khalji.
Archaeological evidences also clarify that he extended the mosque until it was twice the
size of Iltutmish’s, and that the arches on its west wall towered over the older
constructions. The girth (belt) of the unfinished minaret also indicates that it would also
have been twice the size of the old. The Alai Darwaza stands as a testimony to the quality
of construction during the period, and as a superb specimen of the Indo-Islamic style of
architecture that developed in Delhi about the beginning of the fourteenth century. It was
constructed under the supervision of the immigrant Muslim architects, but it also carried
well the indigenous working techniques and motifs which were by then integrated into
the vocabulary of the building art. It is built of red sandstone and has a square shape
pierced with evenly spaced rectangular windows and doors, which are outlined with
marble trimmings and epigraphs carrying Quranic verses and statements commemorating
the achievements of the Khalji Sultan Alauddin Khalji. For Alauddin Khalji the
congregational mosque was a symbol of the power and unity of Muslim community. The
inscriptions contain Alauddin’s most focused ideological statements, “his dramatic public
claims to the right to lead and command his subjects most clearly articulated in his
monumental architecture and inscriptions”.
As people in large number frequented this mosque, it was an extremely judicious site
for such an endeavour. Three separate inscriptions on the entrance “informed visitors that
God has chosen Alauddin as Sultan because he possessed the attributes of the Moses and
Solomon, the great keepers of the law in the past.” (Yazdani, p. 26) They emphasize on
his role as the “reviver” and the “protector of the Sharia”, and that God has specially
blessed him with his favour.

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Various Interpretations Regarding the Qutb Complex
As has been mentioned earlier, the monuments of the Qutb complex are significant
in many ways in the context of Delhi Sultanate. The temple columns, the Hindu and Jain
iconic motifs used in the Masjid-i-jami appear to be the spoils of war and they provide
evidence of pillage and victory in a conflict by people from diverse cultural background
and religion. The Masjid, opines Sunil Kumar, conveys the act of destruction. It
“confirms images of Islamic iconoclasm, and fanaticism, and resurrects memories of
communal distinctions and strife which became a part of the social history from the
period of the Turkish conquest.” (Sunil Kumar, The Present in Delhi’s Pasts, p. 4)
The deployment of Hindu and Jain temple material within the “Muslim” mosque was
the focal point in the writings of the scholars such as Saiyid Ahmad Khan it was also
highlighted in the reports of the Archeological Survey of India written in the 1860s, and
some years later in the Epigraphica Indo-Moslemica, a journal devoted to the study of
Persian and Arabic inscriptions, and also in the excavations and conservation efforts of
the Archaeological survey of India narrated by J. L. Page in 1920s. Saiyid Ahmad Khan,
Cunningham and Page’s analysis suggested that in the usage of the plundered material,
which was defaced, inverted, or plastered over, the military commander Qutbuddin Aibek
made a statement of conquest and hegemony over an infidel population in north India.
The presence of the temple material in their opinion was an evidence of a swift
transposition of “Muslim Rule” in India; it did not merely proclaim Qutbuddin’s conquest
of Delhi in 1192, it also served as a statement of Islam’s victory over idolaters. As a proof
of this assertion Saiyid Ahmad Khan, Horowitz, Page, and other scholars have recorded
in their scholarly publications that this congregational mosque was known in the past as
Quwwat al-Islam, or the “Might of Islam”. It may, however, be added here that medieval
Indian sources and inscriptions do not mention this mosque by the name of Quwwat al-
Islam. A shift may be noticed in the methodology regarding the study of the Qutb
monuments in the writings of historians like Michael W. Meister, Mohammad Mujeeb,
and A. B. M. Husain in the 1960s. They focused upon the architectural characteristics of
the monuments and emphasized on the fact that “Islamic inspiration” was dependent upon
indigenous craftsmanship. They thus tried to sideline the effect of plunder and image
reflected in these structures. The adaptation of Indian techniques for executing Islamic
motifs, arch and dome were taken as examples of “inter-community cooperation and
amity”. They awarded utmost significance to the presence of Hindu hand in designing
and constructing the mosque. However, they still continued to accept the interpretation of
the mosque as the “Might of Islam”. Scholars like Anthony Wales and Robert
Hillenbrand though did not disagree with the “secular” interpretations of the mosque, but
they also emphasized on the fact that Muslim patrons never compromised with the
indigenous practices and Hindu craftsmen in their service had to conform to a “Muslim
aesthetic”. According to Welch, who studied the monuments “from the native’s point of
view”, the Qutb Minar performed the “symbolic function of marking the Dar-al-Islam

63
(the land of Islam)” that was newly conquered from the infidels. This towering structure,
“most visible to believers and non-believers outside the city walls”, carried Qur’anic
statements of conquest and warning to the heathen population. It is significant to note that
the Qur’anic and hadis inscriptions within the mosque stressed upon the “importance of
worship, of adherence to the principles of Islam, and of recognition of the obligations
performed by the believers. However, Walch’s analysis of the congregational mosque and
its epigraphs makes it clear that his approach was not much different from that of Saiyid
Ahmad, Cunningham or Page who “emphasized the theme of Muslim conquest and
victory symbolized by the Qutb monuments”. Welch developed the hypothesis further
and argued that the congregational mosque also related the political context in which
it was created. The monument was an uncompromising Muslim celebration of
conquest, and the building material, architectural forms and epigraphic texts of the
congregational mosque asserted the unity and cultural uniqueness of the “Muslims”. It
distanced the Hindu subjects while creating familiar, reassuring landmarks of Islam‟s
superiority for Muslim resident in a foreign land. From a different methodological track,
Welch confirmed that the Qutb complex needed to be understood as the “Might of
Islam”. The nature of early Sultanate society and polity, to a certain extent, supports this
view.
The Qutb monuments are important in yet another way that they symbolically
establish the superiority of Qutbuddin over other military commanders in India. The
Persian chronicler Fakhr-i-Mudabbir, whose work is dedicated to Qutbuddin, clearly
states that Qutbuddin, the favourite competent military slave of Muizzuddin Ghuri was
appointed as the sole authority, the viceroy of his master’s dominion, in north India.
Further, that he was made “the wali ahd, to Hindustan, and the lands from the gates of
Peshawar to the limits of Hind were given to him… Muizzuddin left [him] as his deputy
and heir in the capital of Hindustan, and sent him back to Delhi.” (Tarikh-i-Fakhruddin
Mubarak Shah, ed. E.D. Ross, pp. 28-29)
Another chronicler Minhaj Siraj also supported Qutbuddin’s claims to be the Amir
al-Umara, the chief of the military commanders, in north India. It should be added here
that all the commanders of Muizzuddin Ghuri were brave and ambitious, yet there was
considerable rivalry and conflict amongst them. Hence Qutbuddin made it a point that his
claim as supreme commander should be proclaimed in various ways. Chronicler Fakhr-i
Mudabbir recorded this fact clearly. The inscriptions on the main entrance to the
congregational mosque, which eulogized his unique prowess and piety as a military
commander destroying infidel temples, were aimed at displacing the claims of his rivals.
Thus, the Masjid-i-jami served as effective statement of the Turkish conquest. The
Reflection of the Attitude of the Hindu Subjects Some Devnagari inscriptions inscribed
on Qutb Minar also reflects the attitude of the “Hindu” subjects, at least of the artisans,
regarding the Muslim rulers. An early inscription in the local dialect identifies the Qutb
Minar as “the pillar of Malikdin”. The artisan considers its erection as an auspicious

64
event – is evident from the other line “May it bring good fortune.” Similarly an artisan of
Alauddin Khalji’s reign recognizes it as the Sultan’s pillar of Victory (Sultan Alavadi
Vijayasthamb). The architects Nana and Salha inscribed their contribution to the repair of
the Minar which they could complete “by the grace of Sri Visvakarma.” These
inscriptions not only reflect upon the active association of Hindu architects in the
architectural projects of the Sultans, they also reveal that the urban dwellers on the whole
welcomed the Muslim rule.
The Sacred Aura of the Qutb Mosque By the second quarter of the thirteenth century
Delhi had emerged as a mega-city, a refuge for various professional groups from all over
the centres of Islamic culture of West Asia especially Khurasan, which were overrun by
Chingiz Khān in 1220-21. Urban life came to a standstill here forcing scholars, artisans
and performing artists to seek refuge at places less badly affected. Delhi had emerged as
the safest places for them to go. Sultan Iltutmish extended lavish patronage to them, and
as Minhaj writes he “gathered together in Delhi, people from various parts of the world
which became the retreat and resting place for the learned, the virtuous and the excellent
of the various parts of the world.” It became the dais of Muslim community, the
sanctuary of Islam in the eastern world. (Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Vol., I, pp. 441-42; also see
Muhammad Habib & K. A. Nizami The Comprehensive History of India, vol. V, p. 224.)
In the new scenario, when Muslim community expanded in Delhi enormously, there was
a need to extend the dimensions of the Masjid-i-jami. Iltutmish improvised it in a way
that it size was doubled. Later on Alauddin Khalji invested huge sums of money in the
construction and extension added to and reconstructed it. Their epigraphs show that both
of them took their role as the “preservers of the Sharia very seriously”. Alauddin tried to
develop the sacred aura of the mosque may be witnessed in his inscription on the left pier
of the south door to the mosque: He (Alauddin) built this mosque, which is the mosque of
the paradise, for saints and…and men of piety and a place of assembly of the eminent
angels, and an edifice inhabited by the souls of the chief prophets. (J. A. Page, An
Historical Memoir on the Qutb, p. 37) Shaikh Nizamuddin Chishti, also acknowledged
the fact that “Delhi Masjid-i-jami had so much tranquility”, though he attributes its credit
not to Alauddin Khalji but to the fact that “the feet of so many saints and pious [people]
have trod there…” (Amir Hasan Sijzi, Fawa’id ul Fu’ad, pp. 18-19) His comment,
however, depicts well that Delhi Masjid-i-jami remained a great center of attraction and a
revered place for people. During the fourteenth century, however, the tomb of
Nizamuddin Chishti emerged as the most venerated shrine in Delhi which overshadowed
the importance of Masjid-i-jami. The dargah of Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, an important
Sufi saint, near the old Masjid-i-jami also emerged as a pilgrimage site during the late
fourteenth century. Conclusion It is in fact an interesting phenomenon that the term
Qubbat al-Islam (sanctuary of Islam) which is figuratively used by Minhaj Siraj in
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri for Delhi during Iltutmish’s time and afterwards to define the spiritual
domain of Bakhtiyar Kaki, was “transformed” into Quwwat al-Islam or the Might of

65
Islam. (Sunil Kumar, ‘The Present in Delhi’s Past,’ p. 47.) While describing the
congregational mosques of Delhi Saiyid Ahmad Khan mentions that one of the names of
the minaret was “Qutb Sahib ki Lath”, and among other names Masjid was also called
Quwwat al-Islam. These names, as has been pointed out earlier, are nowhere mentioned
in the medieval Persian sources, and apparently “belonged to the realm of popular
culture”. However, this interpretation of the mosque persisted in the popular memory. We
may sum up by saying that Qutb monuments represent their age in many ways. They
were associated with the might and power of the Delhi Sultans and represent their
ideologies in an effective manner. These also reflect two distinct trends – change and
assimilation arising out of coming together of two highly developed cultural traditions.
Essential Readings:
 Anonymous author, Delhi the Capital of India, Revised and enlarged edition of All
about Delhi; First published in 1918, reprint, New Delhi, 1997.
 Muhammad Habib & K. A. Nizami, The Comprehensive History of India, (The Delhi
Sultanat AD.1206 –1526) vol. V, People’s Publishing House, New Delhi, 1970.
 R. N. Munshi, The History of the Kutb Minar (Delhi), reprint, Asian Educational
Services, 2000.
 Sunil Kumar, “Assertions of Authority: A Study of the Discursive Statements of Two
Sultans of Delhi”, in The Making of Indo-Persian Culture: Indian and French Studies,
eds. Muzaffar Alam, Françoise ‘Nalini’ Delvoye and Marc Gaborieau, New Delhi,
2000.
 Sunil Kumar, The Present in Delhi’s Past, Delhi, 2002.

3.3.3 Taj Mahal, Agra

The Taj, without doubt, is the crowning glory of Indo-Islamic funerary architecture.
The Turks introduced mausoleum architecture in India and under the Delhi Sultans and
the provincial kingdoms, it underwent many innovative plans. It came to absorb elements
from indigenous Hindu, Buddhist, Persian and Central Asian traditions. The crescendo is
reached with the construction of Taj Mahal at Agra, built by Mughal emperor Shahjahan
for his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal (d. 1631).
The work on the tomb began in early 1632, soon after Mumtaz Mahal died in
Burhanpur, gateway to the Deccan. She was temporarily interred there in the Zainabad
garden on the banks of river Tapti but after six months was brought to the present siteof
the Taj on the banks of river Jumna, south of the city of Agra. Mughal documents record
that the land for the mausoleum was purchased from the Kachhwaha ruler, Raja Jai
Singh, the final price for which was settled only after two years of the start of the
construction. Extant royal decrees (1632-37) also record that the Raja was to procure and
send the marble in carts from the mines of Makrana, located in his domains. The stone
was also concurrently required for the changes that were simultaneously being made by

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the Emperor at the Agra Fort. Evidence shows that most of the tomb was completed by
1636 and by 1643 Shahjahan celebrated the ‘urs ceremony of Mumtaz Mahal at the site.
The tomb in the sources is called Rauza-i-Munavvara (the illuminated tomb). But in
the course of time, popular tradition came to call it the Taj Mahal, named after Mumtaz
Mahal. This is evidenced from contemporary European sources. Popular legends also say
that the Emperor himself wanted to be buried in a similar black stone structure across the
river, but this is not supported by any contemporary Persian source.
The Artists and Architects—Much debate in the past centred on the European architects’
involvement in the design of the Taj, that the Italian goldsmith Geronimo Veroneo at
Shahjahan’s court may have had a role in its planning. The plan and design of the Taj,
however, falls very much within the genre of characteristic Mughal buildings, so that at
best Veroneo could have only been a part of the team that worked under the supervision
of the Emperor. The only European derived contribution is perhaps seen in the relief
work on the marble, that of inlay of precious stones, the pietredure and the curvilinear
flowers and vases of the dados (lower part of the walls).
Sources do throw some names of artists who would have worked on the project.
Makramat Khan, who later supervised the construction of Shahjahanabad and ‘Abd al-
Karim, a master architect of Jahangir, supervised the project. Amanat Khan, who had
earlier inscribed Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara was the chief calligrapher. But contemporary
court chronicles do not mention any name of the architects of the Taj. However, one
name of Ustad Ahmad is mentioned in a poem by Lutf Allah as the designer of Mumtaz
Mahal’s tomb. Ustad Ahmad was later the architect of Shahjahanabad and hence may
have worked on the Taj earlier. The silence of the sources is explained by the fact that the
Emperor probably himself took an active part in the designing of his buildings.
Plan and Layout—The tomb, a world renowned edifice is a perfectly balanced structure
based on a geometrical grid system (Fig. 1). In its general layout plan, it is preceded by a
red sandstone forecourt, the Chowk-i-jilaukhana, where the king’s retinue would have
assembled and waited. The jilaukhana square has subsidiary tombs, residential courts for
tomb attendants and bazaar streets. In its day, it was as well preceded by intersecting
bazaar streets dotted with shops and serais (inns). These shops and serais fetched revenue
for the upkeep of the tomb. Evidence also suggests that revenue of thirty villages in the
vicinity was as well assigned for the maintenance of the tomb. This surrounding area of
the Taj came to be called Mumtazabad in its time but today it is known as Tajganj.

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 Figure 1: Plan of the Taj
(Source:https://image.slidesharecdn.com/presentation1-160627182005/95/taj-mahal-architecture-5-
638.jpg?cb=1467052953)
On the northern wall of the jilaukhana stands a lofty entrance gateway to the tomb,
overlooking the walled garden of the tomb. This southern gateway to the tombis thirty
meters high in marble and red sandstone. The lofty structure is a high recessed portal:
apishtaq, a huge arched niche enclosed in a rectangular frame. The structure is topped by
small domed chattris (kiosks), reminiscent of the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri. The
main tomb complex is entered from this southern gateway.
Beyond the gateway is a four-quartered garden.The tomb stands on a raised platform
to its northern end and not in the centre. The garden is enclosed within a wall area of 305
by 549 meters. The four-quartered garden, the Persian chaharbagh garden pattern in a
tomb setting was introduced in India in Humayun’s tomb at Delhi. In Persian cosmology
and works of poetry, the rauza (tomb) is envisaged in a paradisical garden setting where
the dead peacefully rest. The idea is to re-create gardens of paradise on earth. In the tomb,
the four rivers of the Quranic paradisical garden are the wide quartet water channels of
the garden that meet at the central tank. The quadrants are further divided into smaller
four quarters by narrower water channels. A simple garden setting for tombs is no doubt
earlier seen in Sikandar Lodhi’s tomb, but beginning with Humayun’s tomb, the Persian
chaharbagh concept for tombs came to India to stay under the Mughals and its most
celebrated example is the Taj (Fig. 1).
The tomb, looking sublime in white marble is a picture of harmonious balance of
architectural forms. Standing on a high square marble plinth, it overlooks the four-
quartered garden below. The plinth rests on deep sunk wells, to counter the effects of
flooding, because the tomb is situated near the water front. The four corners of the plinth

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have four-storeyed marble minarets, fashioned after the Timurid funerary structures in
Samarqand and also seen earlier in Jahangir’s tomb at Lahore. It is surrounded by a
Persianate white marble bulbous dome that is far more balanced than Humayun’s tomb
(Fig. 2).

Figure 2: The Taj

(Source:https://images-production.gardenvisit.com/uploads/images/114813
/taj_mahal_tomb_garden_original.jpg)
Shahjahan’s architecture represents an obsessive concern with bilateral symmetry,
what is called qarina in the contemporary sources. According to Ebba Koch, qarina is
counter-image that consists of two equal features arranged symmetrically on both sides of
a central axis. Koch opines this to be a favourite compositional scheme of Shahjahan’s
period. The central axis divides the arrangement of structures on its flanks in a
predictable fashion. Each side is a mirror image of the other side. Here the main domed
structure with its four tapering minarets in front and back are flanked by two identical
buildings in red sandstone: on the east is an assembly hall (mihmankhana, guest house),
and the one on the west is a mosque. Radial symmetry at the two ends is expressed by the
identical nine-fold plan of the south gatehouse and the main tomb.
The nine-fold plan of the main tomb consists of a central chamber opening out in
subsidiary eight chambers at angles, connected through radiating passages. Like the
complex’s other features, this too was not introduced for the first time in the world’s most
renowned piece of architecture. This typical Timurid-Mughal feature, like the Persian
four-quartered garden, too was introduced in Humayun’s tomb. The nine-fold plan or
hashtbihisht (‘eight paradises’) consisting of a square central chamber with chamfered

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corners, forming an irregular octagon, is called muthamman baghdadi (Baghdadi
octagon) in Mughal sources and was introduced by the Timurid architect of Humayun’s
tomb (Fig. 3). The Mughals were especially proud of their Timurid ancestory, so it is not
surprising that Timurid architectural antecedents were absorbed here. Earlier examples
also include Todar Mal’s Baradari at Fatehpur Sikri and Anarkali’s tomb at Lahore. The
central octagon at the Taj too opens out into ancillary eight chambers representing the
eight paradises of Islamic cosmology (Fig. 4). At the centre of the octagon is placed the
inlaid marble cenotaph of the queen and to its west is the Emperor’s equally magnificent
cenotaph. The cenotaphs are surrounded by carved latticed marble screens. A square
ambulatory surrounds the central octagon. The outer façade is pierced in the centre on its
four sides by high deeply recessed portals, the pishtaqs, like in the south gatehouse.
These are flanked by double storeyed niches, quite like the Delhi Sayyid-Lodi period
tombs. All these features, here at the Taj, do not appear for the first time but are
expressed in more harmoniously balanced forms (Fig.5).

Figure 3: Timurid-Mughal Nine-Fold Plan

(Soutce:3https://www.researchgate.net/publication/43529973/figure/fig6/AS:668932872613897@1536497
433494/Typical-Mughal-Nine-fold-plan-Source-Authors.png)

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 Figure 4: Taj Nine-Fold Plan
(Source:https://www.taj-mahal.net/newtaj/textMM/images/interior1.jpg)

Figure 5: Deeply Recessed Portal (Pishtaq) of the Outer Façade

(Source:https://cms.qz.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Taj-mahal-
e1560312975633.jpg?quality=75&strip=all&w=900&h=900&crop=1)

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 Among the lesser known structures of the Taj complex are the red sandstone tombs,
whose domes are sometimes clad in white marble. The tomb of Satti al-Nisa Khanum
(d. 1647) and that of Sirhindi Begum in the south-west and south-east corners of the
jilaukhana square are red sandstone structures. Another unidentified tomb is extant on the
east wall of the complex. These are single storey octagons surrounded by pillared
verandahs and are surrounded by bulbous domes. Its type is derived from Tughlaq,
Sayyid and Lodi tomb prototypes. It continued in early Akbari architecture with Adham
Khan’s tomb (1562) but soon fell into disuse in funerary architecture. It however,
survived in residential architecture but reappears in sepulchral architecture only now at
the Taj complex. Another subsidiary tomb of Fatehpuri Begam outside on the west side
of the jilaukhana is too a single storey octagon but instead of pillared verandah
surrounding it, has eight pishtaqs on its eight sides. The structure also follows the
Jahangiri podium tomb type.
Embellishment of the Complex—Shahjahan’s reign is marked by profuse use of
curvilinear forms in arts. Plant motifs are seen in nearly all arts, graphic and architectural,
creating a semblance of a paradise on earth. Flower and plant forms appear as
embellishments in miniature painting of the times. In architecture, sensually carved
botanical forms as relief work in stucco and marble was a preferred choice. Taj complex
too subscribes to this norm. The dados along the tomb’s base have sensually carved floral
motifs of roses, narcissus and tulips among others. These dados of the walls are especially
charming, giving the monument a mystical look (Fig.6).

Figure 6: Dados in Marble

(Soutce:https://www.taj-mahal.net/newtaj/textMM/images/dodos1.jpg)

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 Highest glories, however, are reached in the application of the Florentine pietredure
technique (parchinkari, hard precious stone inlay) in the interiors of the main tomb. The
brick masonry of the main tomb is faced with marble that is embellished with hard
precious stone inlay work. This technique of Italian pietredure was easily mastered by
Shahjahan’s lapidaries because of their earlier knowledge of indigenous stone intarsia
work. The best examples of it at the Taj are the embellishments on the royal cenotaphs
and on wall panels (Figs. 7, 8).

Figure 7: Hard Precious Stone Inlay (PietreDure) Work on the Cenotaphs

(Source:https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/198/2019/06/
Persian_prince_tomb_taj_mahal-1024x768.jpg)

Figure 8: PietreDure (detail)

(Source:https://c8.alamy.com/comp/F76CWG/pietra-dura-taj-mahal-agra-delhi-
india-asia-rup-194891-F76CWG.jpg)

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 Stylized calligraphy in incised Arabic black lettering is the other most spectacular
form of decoration at the tomb. The white marble rectangular panel framing the pishtaq
of the south gatehouse is inlaid with black lettering of four chapters from the Quran,
inscribed with the date 1647. One of the messages conveyed here is inviting the faithful
to enter paradise, very appropriate for a gateway to a structure that has been envisaged as
aparadise on earth. A similar message is conveyed from calligraphy on the south portal of
Sikandara (Akbar’s tomb). The calligrapher of Sikandara gate was Amanat Khan. He had
died when the Taj gate was completed but it seems his design, theme and style continued
to be followed by his apprentices.
Like the gate façade, the outer white marble face of the main tomb is also
embellished with calligraphic panels of black lettering in Arabic from the Quran. The
interior of the tomb too is embellished with rectangular panels of Quranic verses. The
themes chosen are reward promised to the believers and doom to the non-believers on the
Day of the Judgement, appropriate for sepulchral architecture (Fig. 9).

Figure 9: Calligraphic Panels

(Source:https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSG-
QFSPu4OHxo6oipL9y0sp80CvJfzQnX7uA&usqp=CAU)

Finally the choice of marble for facing of the Taj itself lends a certain sensuality,
softness and grace to the structure. The stone tends to change colour and hue in each part
of the day, as the daylight progresses. The tomb thus evokes different moods in different
parts of day and night. The marble surfaces become marvelous receptacles of play of light
and truly live up to the tomb’s magnificent beauty.

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Interpreting the Taj—The Taj falls within the gamut of larger concern of all Islamic
sepulchral architecture to create a paradise on earth, for the dead to rest in peace. This is
obvious in the inscriptional program of the monument as much as it is seen in its
architectural features and forms. Wayne E. Begley, however, goes a step further and
interprets the structure as a replica of the throne of God itself on the Day of Judgement,
which according to Muslim tradition is above the gardens of paradise. To Begley this
design of the tomb was derived from Islamic and Sufi cosmological drawings that
depicted the reconstruction of the Day of Judgement and not just a tomb for his beloved
wife and himself. Begley’s suggestions were countered by Ebba Koch, for whom the Taj
is actually a grander adaptation of the Agra riverfront garden layout plan with a raised
terrace and a lower chaharbagh. Mughal residential complexes used a similar plan of
raised terraces with residential structures and a lower four-quartered garden. The Taj was,
in this sense, an interchange of secular layout for a funerary structure, rather than being
inspired by some complex cosmological concepts. Koch further argues that since secular
residential architecture was used as setting for the tomb indicates that it was meant to
represent an earthly replica of one of the houses of Paradise.
However, as a last word, in this monument of love, built for his beloved entombed
wife, Shahjahan no doubt has left a lasting legacy of enduring love to humanity.
Essential Readings
 Koch, Ebba, Mughal Architecture: An Outline of its History and Development
(1526-1858), OUP, New Delhi, 2002.
 Asher, Catherine B., Architecture of Mughal India, The New Cambridge History of
India, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992.
 Wayne E. Begley, “The Myth of the Taj Mahal and a New Theory of its Symbolic
Meaning”, Art Bulletin LVI, 1979.
Selected Reading
 Koch, Ebba, ‘The Taj Mahal: Architecture, Symbolism, and Urban Significance’,
Muqarnas, vol. 22, pp 128-49, Brill, 2005.

3.4 Forts
Military fortification is a key element in all civilizations. Among secular buildings,
fortresses, as parts of defence strategy, are of prime importance. With constant threat
from rivals and invasions, defence was a high priority for pre-modern societies. India too
has had an impressive record of this built heritage right from the Harappa times. Most of
these forts have been built on top of ridges, are often surrounded by moats and almost
always combine with other structures like residences, palaces, ceremonial and religious
architecture. However, most early palaces and forts have undergone many stages of
construction, where many original structures have been lost or perished. Deciphering the
original form and design of military architecture, therefore, is not easy.

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3.4.1 The Kumbhalgarh Fort

Figure 1: Kumbhalgarh Fort

https://images.app.goo.gl/Xs1gaZ4sXDWFd5XZA
Introduction
Rajasthan houses the majority of India’s forts and palaces which are strewn across
the desert state. These were built by clans of Rajput rulers that controlled western part
of India for nearly 1000 years. Besides being brave warriors, the Rajput rulers of the
state were also patrons of arts as is evident from the embellishment and decoration of
the structures they raised in the form of formidable forts, splendid palaces, temples, step
wells, etc. We shall now study the Kumbhalgarh Fort which is known for its
architectural grandeur.
Mewar, as we all know, was the birth place to several brave Rajput warriors like
Rawal Bappa, Maharana Sanga and Maharana Pratap, who are known for their heroics,
valour and patriotism. Of the thirty two forts built by the Rajput rulers of the kingdom of
Mewar, Kumbhalgarh Fort is the second largest and most important fort in Rajasthan,
next only to Chittorgarh. While Chittorgarh Fort served as the capital, it was the
impenetrable fort of Kumbhalgarh that provided refuge to rulers of the Kingdom of
Mewar during the times of danger.

Location
Perched on a hilltop at an elevation of 1100 m (3,600 ft above sea level),
Kumbhalgarh Fort is located strategically on the western Aravalli hills in Rajsamand
district of Rajasthan, around 82 kilometres from the city of Udaipur. It was surrounded by
natural defences in the form of inaccessible hills, deserts, rivers and dense forests. The
majestic fort was built by Rana Kumbha between 1443 and 1458 AD under the direction
of Mandan, a very renowned architect of that time. Apparently, it took him 15 years and

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numerous attempts to complete it. The Kumbhalgarh fort was cleverly designed on a
hilltop to provide a strategic position to the Mewar kings to protect themselves against the
attacks of the enemies.

History
Kumbhalgarh is named after its builder, the Mewar king Rana Kumbha, who is
credited with the construction or restoration of as many as 32 forts including the
strengthening of the walls of the Chittorgarh Fort. It is said that the site of Kumbhalgarh
Fort was originally settled by a Jain prince, Samprati, who was the grandson of Emperor
Ashoka, in the 2nd century BC. However, due to the lack of any recorded evidence, the
history of the fort from its origins till the time of invasion by Alauddin Khilji in 1303 AD
remains vague.
The presence of a large number of hill forts is indicative of the ever-present danger
of attacks from hostile forces, anticipating which the rulers of Mewar built their palace-
forts on difficult terrain and unapproachable hills. So was the case with Kumbhalgarh.
Despite the fact that the earlier Mewar rulers were familiar with the site's potential, it was
Rana Kumbha who harnessed it and meticulously developed it along the Rajput military
hill architecture style with the help of his architect Mandan, by taking advantage of the
terrain's natural contours and focusing on fort planning and architecture. What also sets
Kumbhalgarh apart from many other forts in India is that it was conceived and
constructed in a single phase.
The fort lost its glory for many decades after the death of Rana Kumbha who was
killed by his son Udai Singh I in 1468, not long after Kumbhalgarh was built. Later it was
revived to play a key role in the history of the kingdom of Mewar. After Sultan Bahadur
Shah of Gujarat besieged Chittorgarh Fort in 1535, the fort provided shelter to the infant
Prince Udai Singh II of Mewar, the heir to the throne. He was coronated inside the fort in
1540 and his son, heroic king and warrior Maharana Pratap (great great grandson of Rana
Kumbha), was born there the same year.
The fort came under attack from various rulers and invaders, but remained invincible
except for once when, in 1576, it was conquered by Mansingh I, the general of Emperor
Akbar, with the collective efforts of the armies of Delhi, Amber, and Marwar.
The Mughals made several attempts to capture Kumbhalgarh but failed. To gain
access, they had to resort to poisoning its water supply, in 1579. This enabled them to
occupy the fort for a few years, until Maharana Pratap recovered it in the 1582 Battle of
Dewair near Haldi Ghati. However, this victory was overturned in the 17th century when
Rana Amar Singh I (Maharana Pratap’s son) reluctantly gave up the fight and surrendered
to the Mughal Emperor Jehangir in 1615. Kumbhalgarh’s importance diminished from
then on.

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 In the 18th century after the decline of the Mughals, it was the Marathas who posed
the main threat. It wasn’t until the early 19th century that the fort was finally returned to
the Mewar kings, when Maharana Bhim Singh signed an alliance treaty with the British
East India Company in 1818.
During his reign from 1884 to 1930, Maharana Fateh Singh carried out restoration
works at Kumbhalgarh. The visionary king was an avid builder. He added the Badal
Mahal at the fort’s highest point.
Following India’s independence from the British, Kumbhalgarh became a protected
monument under the auspices of the Archeological Survey of India.
Architecture of Kumbhalgarh Fort

Figure 2: Kumbhalgarh Fort Wall - The Great Wall of India

(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/DsVDmzU7NVMihpeQ9)
Among the numerous architectural feats of the Kumbhalgarh fort is ‘the great wall’,
almost 23 miles long which surrounds and protects it. The wall, also known as ‘the great
wall of India’ runs all the way through the whole fortress. It is considered to be the
second largest wall in the world, the Great Wall of China being the largest. At most
sections, it is 15 feet wide, but its broader stretches reach 49 feet, wide enough for eight
horses to walk abreast. The wall was made of large blocks of quality stones for which the
neighbouring mountains could have been a possible source.
As has been mentioned earlier, the fort was apparently built for defensive purposes.
The fort comprises of around seven massive gates which have to be crossed before
entering the fort. Each consecutive gate is narrower than the previous one. The gates were
constructed in a manner so that elephants and horses couldn’t enter the fort beyond a
certain point.

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 At each of its seven gates (viz. Aaret Pol, Halla Pol, Hanuman Pol, Ram Pol,
Nimboo Pol, Bhairon Pol and Pagda Pol) is a formidable rampart with circular bastions
for archers and other fighters. Aaret Pol, Halla Pol, Ram Pol and Hanuman Pol are the
major gates of the fort. The fort is accessible from south through Halla Pol. It has a
downward slope and is the most defying gateways of the fort, named after the invaders,
the Mughals in 1567.
It is believed that the fort initially faced many problems during its construction
which were resolved by performing a human sacrifice. Hanuman Pol is the remarkable
gateway of the fortress which contains a shrine of Hanuman brought by Rana Kumbha
from Mandavpur to Marwar and a temple, Vedi temple, which according to the folklore
was built to honour the great human sacrifice of a warrior. Inscriptions on the foot of the
idols in Hanuman Pol provide details of construction of the fort.
After Hanuman Pol, the humongous gate of the striking Kumbhalgarh fort is Ram
Gate or Ram Pol which constitutes the main entrance of the royal fort. The Ram Pol is an
architectural wonder from where one can witness all the other buildings easily.

Main Structures inside the Kumbhalgarh Fort

The sprawling fort complex has besides the ruins of some, many well-preserved
structures including the Kumbha Palace, Badal Mahal, a large number of Jain and Hindu
Temples, Baoris, Chhattris, water reservoirs, etc. that narrate the saga of its rich past.
We also come across some residential structures made of rubble stone or broken
scrap stone which are utilitarian, small in number and scattered. These are mostly devoid
of any ornamentation. We shall now provide a brief description of each of the main
structures.

Figure 3: Kumbha palace

(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/rF2gy4WZPnYzgmjH7)

79
Kumbha Palace—Adjacent to the Pagda Pol is the Palace of Rana Kumbha presenting
an excellent example of Rajput architecture. It has two storeys and a beautiful blue durbar
hall. The palace is divided into two separate portions—Zanana and Mardana palace.
However the two are interconnected. A few of the rooms in the Zanana palace have an
attractive painted frieze with elephants, crocodiles and camels.

A circular Ganesh temple is in the corner of the Zanana courtyard. The most notable
feature is the ventilation system of the toilets, allowing fresh air into the room at the time
of use.

Badal mahal
(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/jY6X1Dz1QViHRzFo8)

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 Badal Mahal was built by Rana Fateh Singh who ruled from 1885 to 1930. It is
the highest point of the fortress and can be accessed through a flight of narrow stairs.
This palace has two storeys and there is a corridor which separates men portion from that
of the women. Its interiors are painted in pastel colours. Paintings of 19th century further
adorn the walls. The Zanana mahal or the palace for the women has jaali screens made
up of stones. These provided privacy to the queens while they attended the court
proceedings and other events.

Jhalia ka Malia
Jhalia ka Malia is another important place of historic interest inside the
Kumbhalgarh fort. It was the palace of Queen Jhali and the birth place of Maharana
Pratap. The palace is located close to Pagda/ Paghara Pol. Rubble stone has been made
use of for its construction. Notable features of the palace are its plain walls and a flat
roof.
There is a spot near the last fortified gate, Nimbu Pol which bears testimony to the
supreme sacrifice of the faithful maid Panna dhai who saved the young to-be Maharaja
Udai Singh by sending her son in his place.
Temples
The fort consists of a number of Hindu and Jain temples that are indicative of the
religious fervour of the times. There are a total of 360 temples within the confines of the
wall, 300 of which are ancient Jain while the others are Hindu. Noteworthy among these
are the Vedi temple, the Neelkantha Mahadeo temple, the Charbhuja temple, the Ganesh
temple, the Bawan Devis, the Pitaliya Shah temple, the Parasvanatha temple and the
Golerao group of temples. These, in contrast to the residential structures, are in most
cases made of rare and stunning black stone, very elaborate and full of intricate work.

Vedi temple
(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/9UcgQfVtkUnpb8Tz7)

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 Located near the Hanuman Pol and facing west is a Jain temple popularly known as
the Vedi temple. The temple was built by Rana Kumbha in 1457 A.D. It has three storeys
and was built in an octagonal shape. A series of steps leads to the high platform on which
the temple stands. Thirty six pillars support the ceiling of the temple which has a dome at
the top. The shrine was constructed by Rana Kumbha to honour the sacrifice of pilgrims
visiting the area. Certain sections of the structure were renovated by Maharana Fateh
Singh during his reign. Vedi temple is of immense significance, as it remains to be the
sole pilgrim sacrificial site present in India.

Neelkanth Mahadev Temple

(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/oJEBSXjGnMyjRYBR9)
(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/e2rSWCh29nRYhHzJ6)

To the east of the Vedi temple is located the Neelkanth Mahadev Temple. Built on a
high platform in 1458, the temple is famous for its 6-ft-high monolith shivlinga, which is
made out of a single black kasoti stone. It can be accessed by a series of steps. One of the
most significant and revered temples, the Neelkanth Mahadev Temple, dedicated to Lord
Shiva, is an unmatched architectural feat with its huge round dome, intricately carved
ceiling aloft 24 pillars and a wide courtyard. The unique feature of the temple is that it

82
has entrances from all four directions making it Sarvatobhadra temple. Open pillared
mandapa of the temple can be seen from far away. Nandi, the mount of Lord Shiva is
placed in front of the garbhagriha.
Maharana Kumbha, it is believed, did not begin his day without offering prayers to
Lord Shiva. As the legend goes, he was so tall that when he sat to worship, his eyes were
on the same level as the shivlinga.
On the left pillar of the western gate of the temple are found the stone inscriptions
stating that the temple was renovated by Rana Sanga, a 16th century Rajput king, who
himself was a great devotee of Lord Shiva.
On the southern side of the Neelkanth temple is located Kheda Devi temple which is
also popularly known as Mataji temple.

Ganesh Temple
(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/pGCqco6E8tbnpWYN8)

Of all the temples built inside the fort, a Ganesh temple, built on a 12 ft (3.7 m)
platform, is considered to be the earliest. This temple was built during the reign of Rana
Kumbha to enable the royal people to worship Lord Ganesh whose image is enshrined in
the temple.
Parsvanath temple (built during 1513), Bawan Jain temples, Golera Jain temple,
Pitaliya Shah Jain temple are some of the major Jain temples in the Kumbhalgarh fort
complex.

Parsvanath Temple
A temple was built in the honour of Parsvanath, a Jain Tirthankara by Nar Singh
Pokhad. The three feet high statue of Parsvanath is enshrined here.
Bawan Devi Temple - The temple derives its name from the bawan (fifty-two)
shrines in a single complex. There is only one gate through which the devotees can enter.

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Out of 52 shrines, two big ones are located in the centre while the rest fifty, all small in
size are placed all around the wall. The lalatabimba of the gate displays an image of a
Jain Tirthankara. A sanctum, antarala and an open mandapa constitute important
features of the bigger shrines among the group. Carved images of gods and goddesses
embellish the walls of the temple.

Bawan Devi Temple

(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/tjGEvrCfJA4KU5dMA)

Golerao Group of Temples

Close to the Bawan Devi temple is found a magnificent group of nine niche temples
that are known as the Golerao group of temples and form an important part of
Kumbhalgarh monuments. The nine abodes are decorated with beautifully carved
sculptures of gods and goddesses on their walls and pillars.
One of the sculptures bears an inscription which refers to one Govinda and belongs
to AD 1459. But based upon the structure style of Golerao group temples, it seems likely
that the group belongs to Rana Kumbha’s period. The Golerao group of temples is one of
the many important attractions of Kumbhalgarh Fort.

Mamadev Temple
Mamadev Temple, also known as Kumbha Shyam, is an amazing three shrine temple
(Triple shrine temple) of Kumbhalgarh. It is located on the east of the famous Vedi
temple.
The temple has a flat roofed sanctum and a mandapa with pillars. An inscription
(believed to be that of Rana Kumbha) on one of the pillars, provides some details about
the history of the great fort of Kumbhalgarh. The Archaeological Survey of India had
recovered numerous carved idols of gods and goddesses from the temple premises.

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 There are two chariots which were placed in the memory of Maharana Pratap and
Prithiviraj Chouhan. Adjacent to the temple is a holy water kunda. The kunda also plays
role of water reservoir for the fort.

Pitalia Dev Temple

It is a Jain temple built by Pitalia Jain Seth. The pillared mandapa and the sanctum
can be accessed from all the four directions. Statues of gods, goddesses, apsaras, and
dancers adorn the temple.
Besides the splendid palaces and temples, we find several Baoris and water
reservoirs in the Kumbhalgarh Fort. Of these, the Lakhola Tank and the Badshahi
Bavdi deserve a special mention.
Lakhola Tank which is the most famous tank inside the fort was constructed by
Rana Lakha between 1382 and 1421 CE. It is situated on the Western side of Kelwara
town and is 5 km in length & 100-200 m in width. It had a depth of around 12m at the
time of independence which has now been increased to 18m. The Badshahi Bavdi is a
stepped tank that was built by the general of Akbar to provide drinking water to the army
troops in 1578 when Shahbaz Khan invaded India.

Conclusion
Thus we find that the sprawling Kumbhalgarh Fort Complex consists of many
structures (some in ruins while the others quite well-preserved), that narrate the saga of
its rich past. Though several additions were made to the fort by the rulers of Mewar over
the years (for example, the Badal Mahal Palace which dates from the 19th century), the
original structure exists even now in all its splendour. Kumbhalgarh Fort along with
five other hill forts of Rajasthan was declared the UNESCO world heritage site in 2013.
One can have a fair idea of this world heritage site, the ‘Mewar fortress’ from the work of
the author Amit Tejwani, “Wonderful India Kumbhalgarh, The Majestic”. His book
contains a number of color pictures of the various gigantic structures of the fort.

Check your Progress Exercise

A. State whether True or False:
(i) Kumbhalgarh Fort was built by Maharana Pratap.
(ii) The main entrance of the Kumbhalgarh Fort is known as Ram Gate or Ram Pol.
(iii) The Badal Mahal Palace is the earliest structure of the Kumbhalgarh Fort
Complex.
(iv) There are a total of 360 temples within the confines of the Fort wall, 300 of
which are Hindu while the others are Jain temples.
(v) The fort was built for defensive purposes and is the second largest and most
important fort in Rajasthan, next only to Chittorgarh.

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Answers:
(i) False; (ii) True; (iii) False; (iv) False; (v) True.

B. Write short notes on

(i) Kumbhalgarh Fort Architecture
(ii) Temples of Kumbhalgarh Fort

3.5 Colonial Architecture

Profound changes took place in the art and architecture of India during the colonial
era. European colonists, the Portuguese, Dutch, Danish, French and the British brought
with them the concepts and forms of European culture—Neoclassical, Romanesque,
Gothic and Renaissance. The initial structures were utilitarian warehouses and walled
trading posts, giving way to fortified towns along the coastline. The Portuguese adapted
to India the climatically appropriate Iberian galleried patio house and the Baroque
churches of Goa. The St. Francis Church at Cochin, built by the Portuguese in 1510, is
believed to be the first church built by the Europeans in India.
The Danish influence is evident in Nagapatnam, which was laid out in squares and
canals and also in Tranquebar and Serampore. The French gave a distinct urban design to
their settlement in Pondicherry by applying the Cartesian grid plans and classical
architectural patterns.
However, it was the British who left a lasting impact on Indian architecture. They
saw themselves as the successors to the Mughals, as they settled down to about 200 years
of rule, and used architecture as a symbol of power. The British followed various
architectural styles – Gothic, Imperial, Christian, English Renaissance and Victorian
being the essentials.
The first British buildings under the East India Company were factories but later
courts, schools, municipal halls and dak bungalows came up. These simple structures
were built by their garrison engineers. A far deeper concern with architecture was
exhibited in churches and other public buildings, though most of these were adaptations
of the buildings designed by leading British architects back home in England.
Under the Company, the old Indian port cities turned into fortified zones. The new
English fortifications turned city walls into artillery platforms and angled them
mathematically to cover all lines of fire. And since, the guiding principle behind all
architectural activity in these ports was security, the fortified port cities of the Company,
Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai, were not centrally planned cities. The Company was
suspicious of any central planning that involved unnecessary expense. The streets though,
were fairly regularly laid out. Modest churches and hospitals catered to the European
population. But the paramount consideration was defence. The governor’s residence

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served as the symbol of authority. The port cities had Black and White towns to segregate
the European and native populations.
Changes came after the victory at Plassey (1757), the English now ventured out of
the fortified port cities to the countryside for the first time. Interaction between Indian
and western cultures produced an architecture of great variety with elegance, especially
domestic architecture. Many imposing public buildings were constructed by the East
India Company engineers with the help of Indian builders. However, the inspiration was
often the European architectural texts and a time lag of around 20 years before the style
was introduced into India from Britain. Unlike Europe, these buildings were built mostly
of brick and stuccoed with lime or chunam, sometimes ‘facades’ incised to look like
stones. Some later buildings were built with stones as well. The Neoclassical style was
modified to the exigencies of Indian tropical climate and landscape.
But perhaps the most original contribution of colonial culture was the domestic
bunglow, derived from the rustic Bengali hut, a cool low-slung, single storied, high
ceilinged residence perfectly adapted to the tropical climate.
The uprising of 1857 led to further changes, but this time, the event led to a renewed
sense of insecurity and to another conception of defence. Exclusive settlements inhabited
by European civil and military officials, the cantonments, came into being outside the
Indian towns. The army barracks were placed behind the parade grounds in these
cantonments, to ensure maximum security.
The passing of power from the East India Company to the British Crown, after the
uprising, and the rise of Indian nationalism and the introduction of railways were the
watersheds in the British Colonial Indian architectural history. New materials like
concrete, glass, wrought and cast iron opened up new architectural possibilities. The
architecture of the colonial cities was now motivated by the need to project an awe-
inspiring image of the Raj, as their confidence had been shaken by the uprising. The
British also started assimilating and adopting the native Indian styles in architecture. All
these factors led to the development of the Indo-Saracenic architecture towards the end of
the 19th century.
In the early 19th century, classical architecture was used to celebrate an empire held
to be as enduring as the Roman Empire. But after the uprising, aggressive anglicizing was
given up and the Indian Raj turned to the notion of ‘timeless India’. Instead of reform and
change, tradition and order became the dominant motto. This was to underline the fact
that only the Raj could keep the peace in a land that was divided on religious and cultural
lines and lacked cohesion. The British adopted the Indo-Saracenic style. Victorian in
essence, the style borrowed heavily from the Indo-Islamic style of Mughals, Afghan and
Sultanate rulers. In fact it was a pot pouri of architectural styles; a hybrid style that
combined in a wonderful manner the diverse architectural elements of pre-Indo-Islamic
and Mughal with Gothic arches, domes, spires, traceries and minarets.

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 Chepauk Palace, Chennai
(Source:https://www.google.co.in/search?q=chepauk+palace,+chennai)
The Indo-Saracenic style was Indian on the outside and British inside since the
facade was built with an Indian touch while the interior was solely Victorian. The
Chepauk Palace in Chennai, the Victoria Memorial Hall in Kolkata, the Prince of Wales
Museum in Mumbai and the Lakshami Vilas palace in Baroda are some of the
outstanding examples. But it was the architecture of New Delhi where the imperial
ideology was expressed officially in most graphic ways.

Victoria Memorial, Kolkata

(Source: https://www.google.co.in/search?q=victoria+memorial+kolkata)

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 Laksmi Vilas Palace, Baroda
(Source:https://www.google.co.in/search?q=lakshmi+vilas+palace+baroda)

3.5.1 Lutyens’ Delhi

The architecture of New Delhi was the crowning glory of the British Raj, but
ironically it was also its swansong. Robert Byron described New Delhi as ‘The Rome of
Hindostan’. The British built New Delhi as a systematically planned city after it was
made the capital in 1911. But the new capital, for all the grandeur of its conception, was
to mark the beginning of the end.
The British Viceroy made Sir Edward Lutyens responsible for the overall plan of
Delhi. He was specifically directed to design the Viceroy’s House, now called the
Rashtrapati Bhawan. Herbert Baker, who had worked on the British buildings in South
Africa, was commissioned to design the adjoining buildings of the South and the North
Blocks, which flank the Rashtrapati Bhawan, the Secretariats. Another Englishman called
Robert Tor Tussell was assigned to do the shopping complex, Connaught Place and the
Eastern and Western Courts.
Much debate ensued in deciding the design of the new capital. The question was how
the empire was to be most appropriately represented in stone? As there was no consensus,
on one side were the partisans of the Indo-Saracenic design, who saw in the relocation of
the capital to the Mughal heartland an opportunity for Britain to reclaim India’s great
imperial predecessors, above all Akbar, the builder of Fatehpur Sikri, and Shahjahan,
whose, Shahjahanabad was the heart of Delhi of 19thcentury. Yet at the same time there
were the partisans who thought only the Edwardian classicism alone could do justice to
represent the empire in stone.

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 In the end, the Indo-Saracenic was decisively repudiated. Yet classicism, as the
viceroy, Lord Hardinge, and with him Herbert Baker, sought to ‘orientalize’ its forms,
secured but an uncertain victory. The chief designer, Lutyens, committed to neoclassical
style, on his part contemptuously rejected Indic forms, but at the same time assimilated
them into an architecture that is stamped with his personal genius. But Lutyens work was
no lasting legacy, for the building of New Delhi marked the end of the British rule.
Baker on the other hand was fired by the romance of empire as a partnership
between the ruler and the ruled. He was more concerned with the political implications of
the new capital, which he sought to make it more imperial. He considerably diluted
Lutyens’ classicism in the Secretariat buildings that were designed by him. It was because
of Baker that besides the Mughal portal entryway, three ‘characteristically Indian’ forms
were adopted. These were: the chajja (deep eves, wide projecting cornice), the jali
(pierced stone latticed screen) and the chattri (free standing canopy turret). The
compelling attraction for Baker to these forms, it seems was not so much because they
were Indian forms but that they were best suited for Indian climate. The projecting
cornice, protected the walls and windows from the sun and the rain, and thus made room
for the open window. The jali admitted air but not the light of the scorching sun. The
chattri was adopted for aesthetic purpose of breaking the long horizontal skyline of the
flat roofed Secretariats. It was again, largely because of Baker that nationalist artists
were commissioned to do the murals in these buildings. Both Baker and Hardinge saw in
the blended style of an ‘orientalised’ classicism a ‘happy marriage’ of East and West.
The chosen site for the new city was to the west of the old city. It was a flat plain,
but in the centre was a small mount called the Raisina hill, which was to be the seat of the
government. In the final product, as the complex stands today, radiating avenues lead to a
wide, canal bordered avenue. Two miles away on the slight rise of the Raisina stand the
Secretariats and the Viceroy’s House, symbolically joined together on the throne of
government. While the dome of the Viceroy’s House slowly disappears behind the slope
in the road as we drive down the Rajpath (King’s way), Baker’s Secretariat buildings,
built on great retaining walls, right on the edge of the hill, rise up, acting, as Baker
suggested, a kind of bastion to the house beyond. It is only after we come to the top of the
hill that the Viceroy’s House is visible, or is rather revealed slowly in full splendour. To
Lutyens, this conception was absurd at that time. He wanted his building to stand alone
on the hill and the Secretariat buildings to be clustered around below. But finally, Baker’s
idea prevailed.
Lutyens achievement, nonetheless, was no less great, the Viceroy’s House is
magnificent in its form and details. The dome, symbolizing power, is half a simple
sphere, supported by a plain drum. Below the drum there runs a series of mouldings
which develop into a thin strip of stone, underneath of which is a deep slot of dark
shadow, rendering it with a floating feel. Below, the stone changes to a dark red to form a
base. Under the dome, the flat horizontal roof line runs. A chajja juts out to throw a deep

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shadow and a vast recessed portico of the columns below. On either side of the portico
are the walls of the main house. These are further broken into loggias, open verandahs
and other functional spaces. The private quarters are elegantly simple. A well laid out
Mughal garden, with an ingenious use of water, completes the exterior.
The other official buildings of New Delhi use the same combination of features, the
open verandahs with columns, and the three characteristic Indic forms. The rest of the
new city was characterized by wide avenues with trees in double rows on either side,
creating vistas and connecting various points of interest. Almost every major road has a
specific focal point closing the vista, so that no avenue is lost in the horizon. Besides the
diagonal road pattern, the most prominent feature of the plan is the Central Vista Park,
starting from the National Stadium in the east, continuing through to India Gate and the
Secretariat buildings, and finally culminating in the west at the Viceroy’s House. This is
the main east-west axis; it divides New Delhi into two parts, with the shopping centre,
Connaught Place in the north and extensive government residences, the bunglows, in the
south.
New Delhi was expected to be a concrete symbol of Indian aspirations under the
British rule, an Imperial vision with Indic forms, achieved through ‘orientalized’
classicism. But in the end, it was ironic, that from the inception of New Delhi in 1911 to
its actual completion in 1932, the political situation in India had reached such a crisis
point that the new capital remained a hollow seat of an empire that was soon to collapse,
the end coming in 1947.

3.5.2 Victoria Terminus, Mumbai

The Neoclassical architecture flourished in different parts of India under the British,
inspired by the Houses of Parliament in London. Colonel Thomas Cowper built the town
hall in Bombay during 1820 to 1835. Governor Sir Bartle Frere tried to give a truly
imperial ambience to the city of Bombay. During his reign the old town walls were
broken down and the Gateway of India was built in the Gothic style of architecture. The
Secretariat, University Library, Rajabai Tower, Telegraph Office and the Victoria
Terminus all followed the Victorian Gothic style, similar to buildings in London.
Undoubtedly, the Victoria Terminus, designed by the architect Frederick Willaim Stevens
modelled on the St.Pancras Station, is the finest example of Gothic architecture with a
subtle hint of the Indo-Saracenic motifs, an extravaganza of polychromatic stone,
decorated tile marble and stained glass. Stevens also designed other buildings like the
Churchgate Terminus and the Municipal Building opposite the Victoria Terminus in
Bombay.

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 V.T. Station, Mumbai
(Source:https://www.google.co.in/search?q=v+t+station+mumbai&biw)

Municipal Building, Mumbai

(Source:https://www.google.co.in/search?q=municipal+building+mumbai&noj=1&tbm=isch&imgil)

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 Rajabhai Tower, Mumbai
(Source:https://www.google.co.in/search?q=rajabai+tower,+mumbai&noj=1&tbm=isch)

Mumbai University
(Source:https://www.google.co.in/search?noj=1&biw=1280&bih=675&tbm=isch&q=
mumbai+university+building&revid)

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 Church Gate Station, Mumbai
(Source:https://www.google.co.in/search?q=church+gate+station+mumbai&noj)

Essential Readings:
 Brown, Percy. (1942). Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu period). Delhi: CBS
Publishers. (Reprint, 2005).
 Behera, K. S. (2005). Konark. The Black Pagoda. Delhi: Publication Division.
 Tejwani, Amit. (2017). Wonderful India Kumbhalgarh, The Majestic. Chennai:
Notion.
 Prasad, H. Y. Sharada. (1992). Rashtrapati Bhawan: The Story of President’s House.
New Delhi: Publication Division.
 Rahul Mehrotra et al. (2006). A City Icon; Victoria Terminus Bombay. Bombay:
Eminence Designs.

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 UNIT 4

Indian Painting

4.0 Objectives
This unit examines the various traditions of painting in India such as the Mural,
Miniature, Nationalist and Contemporary.

4.1 Introduction
Art forms are important constituents of any culture. Since the writings of scholars
like James Fergusson, James Burgess, John Marshall and others, histories of Indian art
have witnessed change over the years with the inclusion of more information, new
discoveries and multi-dimensional perceptions and conceptualizations. Of various art

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forms, painting has always been a very powerful medium of cultural tradition and
expression. It is associated with values, beliefs, behaviour of mankind and provides
material objects to understand people’s way of life, their thought process and creativity.
In simple words, painting has become a bridge to our past, reflecting what people think
and want to depict. Painting is also a part of tangible material culture, where human
creations are termed as artifacts and helps in understanding the cultural values. It is a
human way of transforming elements of world into symbol, where each of it has a distinct
meaning and can also be manipulated. Compared to sculpture, painting is easier to
execute and that is why Stone Age people chose it as an expression of their beliefs and
imaginations. In fact, painting marks an entirely new phase in the human history and is
regarded as a giant cultural leap. Painting in contemporary Indian literature is also
referred as ‘Alekhya’. In other words, it is a medium of expression of artist’s instinct and
emotion reconciled and integrated with his social expression and cultural heritage.

4.2 Painting in the Pre-Classical period (upto A.D. 350)

Before dealing with this form of art, we need to understand the difference between
murals and frescoes. Murals are painted on thin coat of limestone mixture dried with glue,
whereas, Frescoes are painted on wet lime plaster. The colours used in these paintings are
derived from natural organic pigments.
The earliest example of painting can be traced to Upper Paleolithic age (which began
35,000 years ago) and specimen of it has been found in the rock shelters, caves of Asia,
Europe, and Africa, etc. The early paintings were merely rough outline of non-descriptive
nature but over a period of time, it became graceful, descriptive and colourful through use
of variety of colours derived from local earth and minerals. In context of India, the
earliest evidence of painting is from Nevasa (in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra) and
rock shelter caves of Bhimbetka (in Raisena district of Madhya Pradesh). Excavations at
Nevasa have yielded two pieces of pottery having painted figures of a dog and a deer with
a pair of wavy horns. Though these are linear representation, yet it gives a sense of
volume and feeling for life. It can aptly be referred as the earliest specimen of creative
painting in India.
The first evidence of cave painting from Bhimbetka is essentially murals, directly
executed on the walls of cave. The technique of painting deep inside the cave was a
difficult task, requiring considerable skill but the authors of cave painting perfected it.
Like other rock shelters of the world, elaborate drawing and painting has been done on
the walls of Bhimbetka caves. Executed mainly in red and white and occasional use of
green and yellow—the basic themes of paintings has been taken from everyday life such
as hunting, dancing etc. Animals like bison, tigers, lions, wild boars etc have been
abundantly depicted. In some caves religious and rituals symbols occur frequently.
Human figures appear in stick like forms and hunting scenes are drawn in sharp line and
angles-representing movement and life. An interesting aspect of these paintings is that

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there is neither inflation of particular human figures which might reflect class distinction
within society nor there is any suggestion of agricultural or pastoral activities. Super
imposition of paintings at Bhimbetka suggests that same canvas was used by different
people at different times. The oldest paintings are believed to be 12,000 years old but
some of the geometric figures date to as recently as medieval period. Scholars have
speculated about underlying motive of this art. At one end of the debate is the concept of
‘art for arts’ sake’, i.e. just for aesthetic pleasure and at the other end are those, who have
read so much meaning into it. Cave paintings should not be dismissed as primitive art of
primitive people. In fact these paintings not only show artistic sophistication but also their
highly evolved thinking process and keen observation. In the words of Henri Breuil,
“Upper Paleolithic paintings were magical in nature – with an aim to exert control over
some objects or natural phenomenon.” It also marks the beginning of religious belief – a
particular way of looking at the world.
The murals on the walls of rock shelters of a relatively later age have also been
found in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. We have no record of
paintings from protohistoric Indus Valley to the historical period. However, the earliest
evidence of painting in the historical period is from the middle of 1st century B.C, found
in vaulted ceilings of Yogimara Caves in Ramgarh hill. There are few irregular row of
human figures and large aquatic animals painted in yellow and ochre. Certain faint traces
of early paintings have also been found in cave number IX and X of Ajanta and on the
walls of Caitya cave at Bedsa.

4.3 Painting in the Classical Period

During the classical period (350-700 AD), the art of painting had achieved high
aesthetic and technical standard. In the Classical text like the Kamasutra of Vatsayana, it
is referred as one of the sixty four arts. The popularity of painting is also evident in the
Brahmanical and Buddhist literature, where there are frequent references of ‘Citragaras’
(picture galleries) and techniques like ‘lepya citras’ (representation in line and colour on
textiles), ‘lekhyacitras’ (Sketches) and ‘dhuli citras’ (alpanas). The ‘Brhatsamhita’ (circa
6th century A.D.) and the ‘Vishnudharmmottara Purana’ (circa 7th century A.D.)
introduce technical details such as—method of preparation of ground for painting
(Vajralepa), application of colour, rules of perspective etc. Works of Bhasa, Kalidasa,
Vishakhadatta, Bana also contributed to that intellectual ferment of the Classical period –
especially the theory and the technique of painting.

4.4 Mural Tradition: Ajanta

Now we shall consider the visual and written creation of art remains at Ajanta,
located on the Deccan plateau northeast of Bombay. Ajanta was discovered by a British
official in 1819. Ajanta has thirty one Caves, built in two phases – first one was around

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2nd century B.C. and second was between 4th and 6th centuries A.D. In both the phases,
art was patronized by the Hindu rulers – the Satavahanas in the early period and the
Vakatakas in the later period. The architecture, sculpture and paintings at Ajanta, thus
belong to different phases ranging from the Satavahana period to the Vakataka-Gupta
period.
Most of the famous Ajanta caves, originally, contained paintings and can be
considered as ancient art galleries. These paintings presently survive only in six caves
(1, 2, 9, 10, 16, and 17). By far, one of the best examples of the Classical paintings, these
are often referred to as frescoes. However, A.L. Basham disagrees with it. A true fresco
is painted while the lime plaster is still damp, whereas, the murals of Ajanta were made
after it had set. In other words, the painting techniques at Ajanta although quite similar to
European fresco technique, had a primary difference. At Ajanta the layer of plaster was
dry when it was painted using a technique known as Tempera. First, a rough plaster of
clay, cow dung, and rice husks were pressed on to the rough cave walls. This was then
coated with lime juice in order to create a smooth working surface. Interestingly, the
earliest paintings are sharply outlined where as the latter are more carefully modelled.
At Ajanta we find that the ceilings, walls and pilasters are all covered with
overlapping figures, brought to life by the artists with strong and contrasting colours. The
main colours used were red ochre, yellow ochre, brown ochre, lamp black, white and
lapis lazuli which was imported from Northern India, central Asia and Persia. The green
was made by mixing this lapis lazuli with Indian yellow ochre. In the pictorial cycles, all
the characters are bright and multi-coloured but are never repeated, a fundamental
concept in Indian art.

Jataka Tales paintings at the caves

(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/HULvpuTy3jpLr1FCA)

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 Mural paintings survive from both the earlier and later groups of caves. Several
fragments of murals preserved from the earlier caves (Caves 9 and 10 which seemingly
belong to the 2nd/1st century BCE) are effectively unique survivals of ancient painting in
India from this period, and “show that by Sātavāhana times, if not earlier, the Indian
painter had mastered an easy and fluent naturalistic style, dealing with large groups of
people in a manner comparable to the reliefs of the Sāñcī toraņa crossbars”. Four of the
later caves have large and relatively well-preserved mural paintings which, states James
Harle, “have come to represent Indian mural painting to the non-specialist”, and represent
“the great glories not only of Gupta but of all Indian art”. They fall into two stylistic
groups, with the most famous in Caves 16 and 17, and apparently later paintings in Caves
1 and 2. The ‘classical paintings’ of Ajanta, rich and full, are works of confident artists.
They are luxurious, sensuous and celebrate physical beauty, the aspects that early
Western observers felt were shockingly out of place in these caves presumed to be meant
for religious worship and ascetic monastic life. The painters at Ajanta delighted in
rendering the human figure. They balanced the ideal figure prescribed in the artistic
canon with the appropriate expression to evoke the desired emotion.
Art played a very important role in the Indian religious life. The early Indian art
characterised by inward vision, sense of great peace and tranquillity, was believed to have
been inspired by spiritualism and mystical relationship between the God and man. At
Ajanta, both the religious as well as non-religious themes were executed. The early caves
are of the Hinayana order, in which the monks worshipped symbols such as stupa, wheel
etc. A large number of surviving paintings belonging to 5th and 6th centuries A.D. are
associated with the Mahayana Buddhism. In these, Buddha is represented in human form
and worshipped as God. The paintings of 5th and 6th centuries A.D. also depict the Jataka
tales i.e., stories of Buddha in his previous life. Yakshas, gandharvas, and apsaras are also
depicted.
Flanking a door inside Cave no 1 are two Bodhisattvas—Bodhisattva Padmapani and
Bodhisattva Vajrapani, the latter richly bejewelled. Bodhisattva Padmapani– literally
meaning the one holding the Padma or a lotus flower in his hand is depicted on the left
and is the most famous face of Ajanta caves. His eyes are lowered meditatively and his
face reveals the spiritual calm born of compassion for all living forms.

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 Bodhisattva Padmapani at cave no. 1
(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/p3fZ3kX13PjMfpKf9)
Ceilings do not have any religious stories or figures. They usually are decorated with
paintings of flowers and animals or with geometric patterns. The logic behind painting
stories on the walls and not on the ceilings is that stories depicted on the walls can be
understood while walking around but does not hold for the ceilings. Corners are typically
painted with demons in a smoky cloudy way in dark and dull colors indicating that
demons do not have a fixed shape and that they can take any shape they want.

Cave 17: Ceiling Painting of Verandah, Mahayana Phase

(Source:http://asi.nic.in/images/wh_ajanta/pages/023.html)

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 Flora & Fauna on ceilings
(Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/72CgT9Q19L9S2SWL6)
The paintings of Ajanta caves, although based on the Buddhist themes, bear a
secular message rather than the religious as in them we find many scenes of everyday life
in cities and villages. The depiction of Princes in their palace, ladies in their harems,
flowers, fruits, animals, ascetics, mystical creatures – presents the whole image of time.
Qualities of virtuous life, journey of soul into cycle of rebirths, illusion of material world,
cheerful scenes of everyday life, humanity, compassion, grief – is very well portrayed in
the paintings like ‘the Padmapani, the bearer of lotus’, ‘the dying Princess’ etc. One of
the most striking aspects of Ajanta painting is the sympathetic, humane treatment of
animals and emphasis to create a work out of the artist’s own vision. According to
Lawrence Binyon, in the art of Asia, Ajanta occupies supreme and central position. The
dresses, jewellery and coiffures of that remote period add to the interest of these
paintings.

4.4.1 Perceptions of Ajanta’s Past

The paintings at Ajanta were produced in a social context. The paintings during each
phase show unity of execution. In other words, these reflect the guild tradition which
promoted work in one accepted style. The portrayal of animal and plant forms was
created by the guild artists who were not monks or ascetics. So, these paintings are not
merely religious art but rather symbolize a form of popular art. Ajanta style had deep
imprint on the later forms of popular art. For example, it became a source of inspiration
for artists involved in the revival of a nationalist school of Indian art in Bengal in the
early 20th century. Since then, Ajanta’s past emerged as a significant symbolic icon of
the cultural politics of India. In the early 1950s, it was recognised as an international
treasure and paintings and other remains were preserved with the assistance of UNESCO.

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The penetration of Ajanta’s remains into popular culture can be seen in the form of
postcards, posters, hotel decorations, etc till today.
Ajanta’s paintings exhibit a distinctive style in its plasticity and fluidity of line, but
these also show influence of paintings at Badami and Bagh. Multiple styles at Ajanta
suggest continuity and change along with interaction of different cultures during different
phases of history. The paintings depict contemporary society or life, not only in the
Deccan but also in other parts of India. For example, the scenes from the Jatakas (which
portrays the conditions in North India) reflect life in northern India. This means that the
artists came from all over India to work at Ajanta.
Royal patronage played important role in the developments at Ajanta. In this context,
the remains indicate that the driving force behind the patronage was political and not
religious. Thus, patronage was bound to be influenced by any political change.
The panels at Ajanta present the contrasts in the material culture between the
Satavahana period and the Vakataka-Gupta period. The differences or transformation can
be easily observed in the dress-pattern and ornaments worn by women and men in
different phases. For example, the heavy anklets of the Satavahana period give way to
very thin ones in the Vakataka-Gupta period. Similarly, in the Satavahana period, men
covered the head with a turban which was wound round the head in tiers, but in the latter
period the simple turban was replaced by very elaborate gem-studded crowns worn by
kings and princes. However, the common men sported long hair with rolls and curls.
The colour of the garments also underwent change. In the Satavahana period, the
garments were usually white while in the Vakataka-Gupta period these became colourful.
The change in life-style is also reflected in the use. In the earlier period a common
man used simple furniture and the royalty used a seat with side arms but without a back,
which was influenced by the Roman Empire. By the Gupta period, seats with a back but
without arms became common as it allowed seating in Indian fashion with cross-legged
posture. The royalty now used elaborate and adorned thrones with animal supports
(simhasana) and a high back.
The arms and weapons too became advanced and effective with the passage of time.
The Satavahana bow was a simple one with single curve. In the later period, the bow was
made of two pieces of horn or wood and joined by a metal plate. The swords were rare in
the earlier period but by the Gupta times they came to be used widely. Likewise, the light
two-horse chariot was replaced by a four-horse vehicle with a box-like frame used by the
royalty.
The layout of the dwellings is also shown differently. In cave 10 which also
incidently houses the oldest surviving paintings, the Satavahana monastery is laid out
with an open courtyard in the centre with rooms on all sides. This plan is similar to that of
the rock-cut viharas in Western India dated from circa 2nd century B.C. to 2nd century

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A.D. The dwellings of the later period consist of a set of rooms with a verandah in the
front.
Ajanta paintings nevertheless depict the contemporary life observed by the artists.
This can be clearly seen in the depiction of the Buddha and stories related with his life.
They probably could not visualise the life in the 6th century B.C. For example, the
Buddha is always shown as wearing a robe. In cave 17, the Buddha is with a robe of a
monk whereas Rahul, his son, is wearing shorts and a sleeved tunic. This suggests that the
Indian artists generally lacked the perception of the past and while portraying the past
events, they consciously painted contemporary life. This is very much true for non-
religious themes, though in religious subjects they were guided by traditions and certain
conventions. In the case of religious subjects the donors and canons restricted the creative
freedom of the artists.

4.4.2 Conclusion
Thus, the paintings at Ajanta symbolize the mixing of past and present with both
elements existing simultaneously.The tradition of Ajanta continued between 6th century
and 10th century A.D. at Bagh, Ellora, Sittannavasal, Kanheri, Pitalkhora and Keonjhar.
Though the themes are religious but in their inner meaning and spirit, they are secular and
their appeal is worldly and aesthetic. A panorama of contemporary life, endowed with
richness of expression of refined emotions, sensibilities of highly cultured society is
rendered with skill. Attached to it, is high spiritual level – showing detachment and
mystical experience.

4.5 Painting in the post–classical period

While studying painting tradition of India, the contribution made by the south Indian
kingdoms of the Cholas, Vijaynagara and Nayakas cannot be ignored. In the Chola
temples there are many fresco paintings seen at Vijayala Colesvara temple at Narttamalai
(A.D. 1100), Brihadesvara temple at Tanjavur (A.D. 1100), Sangita – Mandapa at
Tiruparuttikunram in Kanchipuram (A.D. 1387-88 ) and Vcayapa Matha at Angundi
(about the same date). The Chola frescoes were first discovered in A.D. 1931 within the
circumambulatory passage of Brihadeshvara temple. Researchers have discovered the
technique used in these frescoes. A smooth batter of lime stone mixture was applied on
the stone and over it, large paintings were painted in natural organic pigments. The Chola
frescoes have ardent spirit of Saivism expressed in them. In all paintings, Chola
physiognomical and stylistic forms are apparent. The Classical values of full roundedness
of volume, subtle plasticity are also retained. But at the same time, there is also strongly
perceptible lessening of the consistency of colour modelling and hence a flattening of
surface is there, despite ample curves and colour. During the Nayaka period, the Chola
paintings were painted over. The latter paintings belonging to the Vijaynagara period (the
Lepakshi wall painting), show general decline in the art style. Outline became sharper and

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dedicate modelling of earlier period is absent. The human figures appear as phantoms,
devoid of expression and there is greater emphasis on the display of iconographic forms
and mythological stories.

4.6 Medieval Indian Painting

The advent of Islam and the spread of Islamic influence, initiated a new period in
Indian history ---the medieval period. It also had a direct impact on the realm of painting.
The pattern of large scale paintings, which had dominated the scene, were replaced by the
miniature painting during the 11th and 12th centuries A.D.
The miniature paintings are small paintings. They were often part of manuscripts
written at the time and illustrated the subjects of the manuscript. Thus, a new kind of
illustration was set during the period under review.
Painting during the Sultanate Period
There are very few illustration, which can be ascribed to the Sultanate period (13th
century -15th century A.D.), e.g., the Bustan manuscript, the illustrated manuscript Nimat
Nama painted at Mandu during the reign of Nasir Shah Khalji. Nimat Nama represents
early synthesis of indigenous and Persian style, though it was latter which dominated in
the paintings. Another type of painting known as Lodi Khuladar, flourished in the
Sultanate domain of North India, extended from Delhi to Jaunpur.

4.6.1 Mughal Painting

Medieval painting is, largely represented by the Mughal School, which developed
during the period of the Mughal empire (16th -19th centuries A.D.). Renowned for their
brilliant colours, accuracy in line drawing, detailed realism, intricacy and variety of
themes – the Mughal paintings were a class by themselves. It was distinct from all other
styles and techniques of Pre-Mughal and Contemporary art. Contrary to Delhi sultanate,
the Mughal paintings were more popular and widespread. There were several factors
responsible for it – urbanization, better administrative system, exclusive patronage by the
rulers and nobility, synthesis of cultural values and tradition of Central Asia, integration
of Mughal economy with world economy, etc. In fact painting became a widespread
source of livelihood during the rule of Mughals.
The Mughal paintings reflect two types of cultural tradition – ‘high culture’ and
‘popular culture’. The notion of ‘high culture’ is equated with the sophisticated elite class
with an exclusive taste and high culture products are not shared by the ordinary people as
they are expensive, artistic and intellectual creations. The ‘popular culture’ is usually
equated with the common people and products of ‘popular culture’ are common, cheap
and easy to understand. In the context of Mughal empire, the ‘high culture’ was exclusive
domain of Mughal emperors, their nobles who gave exclusive patronage to the artists,
whereas, the ‘popular culture’ was associated with aspirations, norms, customs of the

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general Mughal society and in spite of lack of patronage, it continued to survive, for
example, the bazaar paintings.
The Mughal painting did not develop in vacuum. It had clear influence of different
tradition of contemporary world, namely, Persian, Timurid, Mongolid, Chinese and
European. The diffusion of these styles with the indigenous style created a new living
tradition of painting, popularly known as Indo-Sino-Persian art. Initially, the Mughal
style of painting had dominant Mongolid characteristics but gradually the Mongolid
elements diminished and the Indian characteristics came to the forefront. Thus diffusion
of various styles led to creation of a new cultural element. The Mughals used paintings as
a tool of display of political power, imperial ideology, authority, status and economic
prosperity. The Mughal paintings were very rich in variety- in terms of themes and
colours. Some of the themes were- illustration of battles, scenes from court life, wild life,
hunting, portraits, etc. Rich use of colours obtained from precious stones, metals like gold
and silver-were also hallmark of the Mughal paintings.
Development of the Mughal Painting-Babur to Aurangzeb
Although, no works of art can be associated with Babur (A.D. 1526-30), the founder
of Mughal dynasty in India, still his ideas which were reflected in his lively
autobiography (Waqiat– i – Baburi) was responsible for setting the mood for future
Mughal art.
The first documented patron of the Mughal painting was Humayua (AD 1530-1556).
His visit to Safavi court in A.D. 1544 was crucial to the history of art, as to the empire. It
was here that he admired brilliant paintings of Shah Tahmasp’s artists. He invited Safavi
artists, Mir Sayyid Ali (a pupil of Bihazad, popularly known as Raphael of the East) and
Abd Us – Samad to join his court in Kabul in A.D. 1549. Of the two, Mir Sayyid Ali, a
brilliant designer of arabesque was the sharpest but it was with flexible and adaptable
Abd Us-Samad that a relatively longer, productive phase of the Mughal art began. In
other words, it was he who adjusted his Safavi style to fulfil the growing desire of the
Mughal ruler for accurate portraiture and anecdotal reportage. One of the most famous
Mughal painting, ‘The House of Timor’ is considered as a work of Abd Us-Samad. This
picture on cotton is a major monument of early Mughal art and its grandness, magnificent
colours reflect Humayun’s royal taste. It was brought up-to-date by the later Mughals,
with addition of portraits of three generations of Humayun’s heirs. The element of
naturalism is apparent in this work.
The ruler with whom development of Indo-Sino-Persian art should actually be
associated is Akbar (A.D.1556-1605).Without Akbar, the Mughal art would have been
known only to the specialists. Akbar’s project made Mughal painting amazingly Indian in
character-reflecting his personal regard towards the culture of India. He was the first
monarch to establish in India, an atelier under the supervision of two Persian masters, Mir
Sayyid Ali and Abd Us-Samad. There were about two hundred and twenty five artists in

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Akbar’s atelier, majority amongst who were Hindus. The system of working, initially,
was collaborative but later artists also began to work at individual level. Akbar’s
inclination towards painting is reflected in Abul Fazal’s Ain-i-Akbari, which has a
separate section on the art of painting. A large number of artists thronged his court, such
as, Mir Sayyid Ali, Abd Us-Samad, Farukh Beg, Khusrau Quli, Jamshed, etc. Akbar had
special admiration for Hindu artists, particularly, for Basawan, Lal, Kesu, Mukund,
Daswanth and Haribans. Although illiterate, he had strong passion for books, particularly
the illustrated ones. Tutinama or Tales of Parrots (a Persian book of fables) shows
formative period of Akbar’s studios in about A.D. 1560, when the newly hired
apprentices were being trained under Tabriz masters. Among its two hundred and fifteen
miniatures, many show Persian and indigenous influence from various parts of India like
Rajasthan, Deccan, etc. There was a clear synthesis of linear style of Persian painting
with a dynamic, vibrant palette of indigenous painting. The most distinguished artistic
project from Akbar’s reign is the Hamzanama, series of giant pictures on cotton,
describing the fabulous adventure of Amir Hamza, an uncle of the Prophet. An important
category of Akbar’s paintings is formed by illustrations to the volume of literary classics
and historical manuscripts. The earliest surviving illustrated historical manuscript is a
dispersed the Baburnama of about A.D. 1589. Another noteworthy manuscript of this sort
is Akbar’s own copy of the Akbarnama. It contains details of contemporary history in its
most illustrious form and the illustration of different event fully matches textual
description. While Mughal manuscript painting is acclaimed as the work of art, it has
much value also as a documentary evidence for the medieval period. Depiction of courtly
and ordinary life, portrayal of men of different strata, illustrations of festivals, etc. bear
testimony to social and cultural practices during the medieval period. The Akbarnama’s
intricate compositions also show the European influence especially in treatment of space,
light and shade. Apart from these illustrated manuscripts, there were also many
independent compositions like landscapes, portraits, animals and other specific subjects
in the form of Muraqqa (album) paintings. Akbar’s painters preferred highly polished,
hard, creamy paper and were expert in making pigments from earth, animal matters,
metals, minerals. For example, Basawan was admired for his use of golden pigment and
Indian colours like Peacock blue, red, etc. Thus, replacement of flat effect of Persian style
by roundedness of Indian brush and European principle of foreshortening in proper
perspective changed the nature of the Mughal painting.
The Mughal painting reached its zenith, during the reign of Jahangir (A.D. 1605-
1627). Soon after his accession, Jahangir greatly reduced the staff of royal studio and
concentrated his attention on a small number of favourite artists. This step spread the
Mughal style far and wide. Jahangir’s artists developed their own style, which was quite
distinct from the artists of the early Mughal period. Akbar’s outgoing objectives;
purposeful encouragement of painting was replaced by a more powerful vision. Use of
harmonious designs, softer colours, and fine brushwork became important part of the

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style. A shift was seen, not only in techniques but also in themes. The school of Jahangir
was noted for its love of nature. A number of subjects from animal and bird life were
painted during this period. The emphasis was on naturalism but there was also a keen
desire to reveal the innate beauty. He particularly encouraged paintings depicting events
of his own life, individual portraits. Every illustration showed Jahangir as a serene and
untroubled ruler, enjoying full control over the empire. Divine nature of kingship was a
popular theme, during Jahangir’s period and was projected through symbolic
representation in which European motifs like globe and hourglass played an important
role. Manuscript illustrations were almost given up but there are few exception like the
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. The painting ‘Chain of Justice’ not only has a physical, political
dimension but also a psychological dimension. It portrays Jahangir as a ‘just ruler’ having
a firm belief in the secular tradition. In many of the paintings of Jahangir era, the ruler is
seen sitting near a Jharokha. This is an example of adaptation of local Rajput practice.
Muhammad Nadir, Muhammad Murad, Abul Hasan, Mansur, Bishandas, Manohar,
Govardhan were some of the important artists of Jahangir’s age. Govardhan was noted for
portrait of saints, musicians where as Mansur was famous for painting birds and animals.
Jahangir’s passionate and connoisscurly interest in painting, however, was not pursued by
the later Mughal rulers.
Tradition continued under Shah Jahan (1628-58 AD) but on a limited scale as he was
more inclined towards architecture. Harmonious blend of colours, aesthetic sense, realism
which were traits of Jahangir’s style was replaced by the decorative style. Special
attention was given to the art of border making and lavish use of golden and other rich
pigments.
Although, Mughal painting continued to develop technically, it however became
static, cold and stereotyped. Painting lost its liveliness and was confined to the durbar
(court). Themes like musical parties, lovers on the terrace and garden, etc. abound in the
Mughal paintings of this period. Even in the illustrated copy of the Padshahnama,
preference was given to the durbar scenes, while in a few outdoor scenes the expressions
were weak and dull. Bichitr, Balchand, Payag, Muhammad Nadir, etc. were some of the
important artists at the court of Shah Jahan.
The decline of painting, which began in the period of Shah Jahan, became distinct in
the reign of Aurangzeb (A.D. 1658-1707). Painting was essentially a court art-loss of
royal patronage, closing of the royal ateliers did contribute further to its decline but at the
same time it did not stop altogether. It became confined to the studios of nobles, princes
of royal blood and was less naturalistic in comparison to the court paintings. Being
closely based on the Mughal style, these are often termed as sub-imperial paintings or
bazaar paintings. This form of painting was inexpensive, less time consuming and meant
largely for common man who used it for decorative purpose. However, the technical
qualities of the Mughal style were sustained. Aurangzeb’s portrait with Shaista khan and
a hunting scene are among the finest Mughal paintings of this period.

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 Later Mughals did not possess the spirit of Jahangir. A brief revival was noticed
during the reign of Mohammad Shah (A.D. 1719-48). By the time of Shah Alam (A.D.
1759-1806), the art of Mughal painting had lost its glory.

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4.6.2 Successor Schools of Miniature painting
Rajput tradition
As the Mughal structure crumbled, strong nobles created their own domains in
Bengal, Awadh and other parts of India. It was at these places that new schools of
painting based on imperial traditions flourished. The schools of painting that developed
in Jaipur, Jodhpur and Bundi were collectively came to be known as the Rajput school of

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painting. It was greatly influenced by the Mughal style. It had paintings on themes like
seasons (barahmasa), melodies (ragas), mythology (depicting Radha and Krishna) in
addition to prevalent themes. The Kangara School of painting and its off-shoot Tehri-
Garhwal, however, developed independently. The Deccan paintings which were far
removed from realism, represented delicate rhythms of Persia, lush sensuality of south
and exotic elements of Europe and Turkey. The theme of Deccan paintings were based
on love, music, poetry rather than the realities of life. The glint of the Mughal art did not
disappear completely even in the last phase of Mughal rule. Artists continued to paint but
on a limited scale and this can be proved with an example of existing Mughal portrait of
the last Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah II.

4.6.3 Modern Indian Painting

The decline of the Mughal Empire was accompanied by the control of English East
India Company in A.D. 1757 over north-eastern region, thus laying the foundation of
British Raj. The colonial era, not only had profound impact on the contemporary politics,
society, economy but also on culture. In the realm of art, Indian art gave into new fashion
brought by the English. The art was no longer confined to court but began to be taught
and patronized by art schools, art societies, etc. With the introduction of academic art,
there was more emphasis on Victorian illusionistic art, oil portraits, naturalistic
landscapes, etc. In place of courtly patronage, artistic individualism was encouraged. The
new breed of colonial artists enjoyed high social status and were in contrast to humble
court artists of the Mughal period.
 The Company School
As the English East India Company expanded its purview during the late 1700’s,
large number of its employees moved from England to India in search of new
opportunities. The new landscape, unusual flora and fauna, stunning monuments, exotic
new people caught the attention of English travellers, Company Sahibs and Mem Sahibs.
They began to hire Indian painters in 18th and 19th centuries A.D. to capture the quaint
oriental images. Thus in the cities ruled by the English East India company, the Company
School of painting emerged under western influence. It introduced the idea of India to
Europe on one hand and European Academy style of painting in India, on the other. The
Company paintings were characterized in medium by the use of water colours and in
technique by the appearance of linear perspective, shading, etc. Aesthetically, they were
descendents of the picturesque scenes of India created by the artists like Thomas Daniel
and William Daniel. The English East India Company not only engaged artists for
economic surveys and documentation of natural history but also to produce ethnographic
subjects like, castes, professions, etc. The hub of Company paintings were centres like
Calcutta, Delhi, Madras, Varanasi and Patna, where either the English had a factory or
commercial interest. Calcutta was among the early major centre of Company paintings.
The patrons like Lord Impy and M.Wellesley hired the artists to paint birds, animals,

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plants, etc. Sheikh Mohammad Amir of Karraya was in great demand for his elegant
renderings of themes related to the British life in Calcutta. In comparison to Calcutta, the
development of Company painting was late in Delhi. Its painting market expanded after
British occupation of city in A.D.1803. The magnificent Mughal monuments of Delhi
were the most popular subject. Among the famous artists of Delhi, Ghulam Ali Khan was
known for his scenes of village life and portraiture. Delhi’s artists were unique in using
ivory as a base for paining. At Patna, Sewak Ram was known for his large scale paintings
of festivals and ceremonies.
The Company styles of painting of different cities were distinguishable by style,
which grew out of and heavily influenced by earlier local tradition. In the early phase of
the Company School of painting i.e., the 18th century, the artists depended on few key
patrons but by the beginning of 19th century, the enterprising artists had begun to create
paintings for bazaar on subjects like festival, costumes, castes, etc. However, the
Company style of painting did not develop throughout the country. Rajasthan,
Hyderabad, Punjab continued to patronize traditional art form but on a limited scale.
With the introduction of photography in early 1840’s, the School lost it momentum but at
the same time created an environment in which Art Schools and societies were used as an
instrument for disseminating academic art by the English East India Company. It was also
an attempt to improve Indian taste as a part of its moral amelioration.

4.6.4 Nationalist Tradition : Bengal School

The reaction to the Company School in the mid 19th century was two-fold. On one
hand Raja Ravi Varma adapted a distinct method to evolve a new style of painting of
Indian subjects where as on the other hand the ‘Nationalist school’ represented by the
nationalist painter preferred to look at Indian themes and manifested it in the works of the
famous ‘Bengal School’.
 The Bengal School
The belief in India’s glorious past and spirituality was responsible for upsurge of a
new kind of nationalist sentiment, which questioned the academic art style promoted by
Indian artists like Raja Ravi Varma and the British Art School. The ‘Bengal School of
Art’, the first art movement in India was associated with Indian Nationalism promoted by
people like Ernest Benfield, Havell, and Abindranath Tagore, etc. The Bengal School
emphasized on the depiction of art that would be Indian in soul and content. In other
words, the emphasis was on indigenous and nationalist ideology of art.
The English Art teacher E.B. Havell, in A.D. 1896 made Indian art students aware of
their heritage, culture and encouraged them to imitate the Mughal miniatures. Havell,
like the nationalists criticized Raja Ravi Varma’s paintings for its academic naturalism
and believed that India’s spirituality was reflected in its art. He was against Renaissance
naturalism as well as materialist conception of art. For the students at Art School in

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Calcutta, he introduced Indian way of training. However, Havell’s attempt was not
welcomed by the nationalists, as they considered his way to be retrogressive. It was also
seen as an attempt to deprive the Bengalis of western art education, which had become
part of contemporary Bengali culture.
The torchbearers of ‘Cultural Nationalism’ in Bengal were the Tagores - an
important representative of the Bengal School, Abanindranath Tagore (A.D. 1871-1951)
belonged to this family. He created his own indigenous style, expressing India’s distinct
spiritual qualities. Though trained in Academic Art, his works were also influenced by
the Mughal art, especially ‘The Last moments of Shah Jahan’. Abanindranath’s
association with Japanese artist Kakuzo Okakura Tenshin, around A.D. 1900 in Calcutta,
made him aware of the spirit of Far Eastern Art. He adopted wash technique, light brush
stroke and delicate lines of Japanese art. Tenshin regarded India as a source of Buddhist
art of Japan. With an aim to challenge western values, Tenshin developed a link with
Abanindranath Tagore to construct Pan-Asianists model of art, assimilating different
Asian Cultural tradition. This cultural movement on one hand represented differences
between the Asian spirituality and European materialism and on the other hand Asian
resistance to European Colonialism. One of the best paintings associated with the Bengal
School is Abanindranath’s ‘Bharat Mata’. Painted in the background of A.D. 1905
nationalist unrest, the portrait of Mother India is depicted as a young woman, holding
objects symbolic of Indian nationalist aspiration in the manner of Hindu deities. The
Bengal School influence declined with the spread of modernist ideas in the 1920s.
However, in spite of strong attack on the academic art, on pretext of being opposed to
Indian Cultural tradition, the Western influence continued.

4.6.5 Calender Art

 Raja Ravi Varma (A.D. 1848-1906)
Raja Ravi Varma of royal family of Travancore received formal training in painting,
before entering the ‘low’ profession of paintings against his family’s objections. His
paintings were inspired by the Victorian art but were more akin to art form of the royal
court. Raja Ravi Varma achieved recognition for his depiction of the scenes from the
epics of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana and thus rose to be a remarkable portrait
painter, prized by both, the Raj and the Indian elite. He attained widespread acclaim after
he won an award for an exhibition of his paintings at Vienna in A.D. 1873. His fusion of
Indian tradition with the technique of European Academic art, created a new cannon of
beauty in which characters like Shakuntala, Damyanti, etc. were portrayed shapely and
gracefully. The Indian nationalists initially hailed his depiction of past, in spite of being
unfamiliar with his philosophical outlook, but during the second half of the 19th century,
his works began to be criticized as hybrid, undignified, unspiritual expressions.
According to the critiques, “The mythical characters of glorious past were reduced to the
level of ordinary human”. He was also criticized for the fact, that his paintings

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overshadowed traditional art form because of their widespread reproduction as
Oleographs flooding Indian culture with his version of Indian myths, portrayed with static
realism. In spite of the criticism that he was too showy, sentimental in his style, his
paintings appealed all segments of the society
In the post-Bengal School period especially between A.D.1920-47, significant
contributions were made by Rabindranath Tagore (A.D. 1861-1941), Jamini Roy (A.D.
1887-1974) and Amrita Sher-Gil (A.D. 1913-41). They responded to the different issue of
Modernism in their own way. In the first phase of the Bengal School of art, nationalism
had identified the nation with past but in the post-Bengal School phase; it began to be
identified with soil. Depiction of the Santhals represented timeless purity of the
primitives. Rabindranath Tagore made primitivism, a means of his artistic expression.
Jamini Roy also revitalized primitivism by consciously drawing inspirations from the folk
art. This quest for the tribal art was also a form of resistance to colonialism.
 Amrita Sher-Gil (A.D. 1913-41)
One of the most important figures in Indian modernism was Amrita Sher-Gil. She
was many year ahead of her time in mid-1930s. Her training in art at Paris and Italy made
her technically accomplished. Her early paintings display western influence but after her
return to India, there was complete transformation in her work. She rediscovered
originality, freshness of ancient Ajanta, Ellora and the value of Indian miniature. Her
main mission was to express the naive life of Indian people. She gave her subject’s large,
doleful eyes, vacant stares and expression of submission. Her paintings, the ‘Bride’s
Toilet’, the ‘Brahmachari’, and ‘The South Indian Village’ reveal her passion for India.
Sher-Gil has been criticized for not identifying with the national struggle, which was in
its final phase during her last years. In spite of criticism, one cannot ignore this fact that,
her paintings also became her voice against domination of the British in India.
 The Progressive Artists Group
On the eve of independence in A.D. 1947, the Progressive Artists Group was
established with an aim to express post colonial India in a new way. The founders were
six eminent artists – K. H. Aria, S. K. Bakra, H. A. Gate, M. F. Husain, S. H. Raza and F.
N. Souza. This was also a period of widening of social horizon of artists as they joined
modernist artistic milieu. The progressive Artists Group was in favour of social justice
and equality. They rejected artistic nationalism. They also had link with the Marxist
intellectuals in changing idiom of Indian art. F. M. Souza’s visions were based on Hindu
erotic sculpture and Christian iconography whereas S. H. Raza was inspired was
mysterious Indian forests and tantric cult. M. F. Husain used bold colours, outlines and
fragmentary images in order to make political and cultural statements. Almost all India’s
major artist in 1950s like Bal Chabda, V. S. Gaitonde, Ram Kumar, Tayeb Mehta, etc.
were associated with the Progressive Artists Group. Though the group was dissolved in
A.D. 1956 still they enriched art culture of India by moving towards greater social

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commitment. They were in fact self-confessed modernists pitted against the ‘dead
tradition’.

4.6.6 Conclusion
To conclude, the paintings of Ancient, Medieval and Modern periods of Indian
history were intense essence of their culture. Its grandeur left strong visual impacts on the
viewers. The nature of Indian painting changed with the times and represented the age it
belonged to, significantly and elegantly.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

A State ‘True’ or ‘False’
(i) The early caves of Ajanta are of the Hinayana order where the monks
worshipped symbols such as stupa, wheel etc.
(ii) The Mughal painting reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan.
(iii) Basawan, Lal, Kesu, Mukund, Daswanth and Haribans were famous Mughal
painters.
(iv) Raja Ravi Verma was a famous Bengali painter.
(v) Amrita Shergil promoted company school of painting.
B Short Questions:
1. Describe the development of painting during the reign of Akbar.
2. Give a brief account of Company School of Painting.
3. Highlight the contribution of Raja Ravi Verma to modern Indian painting.
C Long Questions
1. Discuss about the paintings of classical period in India with special reference to
Ajanta.
2. Discuss the development of Mughal paintings from the reign of Babur up to the
rule of Aurangzeb.
3. Discuss the contribution of Bengal school in the field of modern Indian painting.

Essential Readings
 Jamkhedkar, A. P. (2008). Ajanta; Monumental Legacy. New Delhi: OUP.
 Verma, Som Prakash. (2009). Aspects of Mughal Painting; Expressions and
Impressions. Volume 1. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications.
 Beach, M.C. (1982). The New Cambridge History of India: Mughal and Rajput
Painting. Delhi: Cambridge University Press.

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 Uberoi, Patricia. (2002-03). “Chicks, Kids and Couples: the nation in calendar art”.
India International Centre Quarterly vol. 29 no.3-4, pp. 197-210.
 Uberoi, Patricia. (1990). “Feminine Identity and National Ethos in Indian Calendar
Art”. Economic and Political Weekly vol. 25 no.17, pp. 41-48.

Suggested Readings
 Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1927). History of Indian and Indonesian Art. New
York: Dover Publications.
 Gupta, S. P. & Shashi P. Asthana. (2002). Elements of Indian Art. Delhi: D. K.
Printworld.
 Meister, Michael W. and M. A. Dhaky. (Eds.). (1983). Encyclopaedia of Indian
Temple Architecture, South India: Lower Dravidadesa 200 BC-AD 1324. New Delhi:
American Institute of Indian Studies.
 Meister, Michael W. et al. (Eds.). (1988) Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple
Architecture, North India: Foundations of North Indian Style c. 250 BC-AD 1100,
Volume 2, Part 1. Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies.
 Mitter, Partha. (1994). Art and Nationalism in Colonial India 1850-1922; Occidental
Orientations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Pandya, Yatin. (2005). Concepts of Space in Traditional Indian Architecture.
Ahmedabad: Granth Corporation.

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