I.

DISCUSSION

How does Indian art express ideas and beliefs about divine forces that
control the universe; the search for ultimate reality; cycles of birth, death, and
transmigration/reincarnation; respect for all living forms; glorification of
gods and rulers: kings and emperors?

India is very rich in terms of culture, religion, and art, and the latter in
particular played a very important role: it represented and communicated the
abundance of the Indian’s ideas and beliefs. Art’s purpose had not been merely to
adorn and beautify spaces, but to express and narrate stories, beliefs, and values.

Indian art is considerably highly conceptual; most of the ideas and beliefs,
especially coming from Indian scriptures, were not easily comprehensible and thus
was made easier for the mind to digest through art; the ideas that they wished to
promulgate were communicated via the use of artistic conventions, as well as
multitudes of symbols that when unified, created a sort of visual language that was
understood by the people during the period these iconographies were established
and widely used.

In the example of Brahman, the Ultimate Reality, wherein the concept was
that the Divine does not have a definite shape nor form, Indian art was able to
express the concept through the use of symbols that can represent or signify
Brahman: it had been the aum or om symbol which usually represented Brahman, as
it was established to be the sound generated during the creation of the world. Even
more so, as the Brahman takes no specific form, the divinity is also expressed in both
male and female, as well as animal figures.

Furthermore, another example is the concept of a cyclic rebirth, Samsara,

which has been expressed through the Bhavacakra or Wheel of Life, wherein the 6
realms are depicted. Moreover, the depiction of their gods and goddesses highlighted
their glory and specific characteristics; for example, deities that are recognized to be
frequently combative in a cosmic scale were more likely to be portrayed as having
multiple arms in order to emphasize their strength, power, and ability to do multiple
feats simultaneously. Art was also utilized to glorify rulers, spreading the word of
the greatness of their deeds by expressing it via imagery.

Explain how these ideas are communicated through a visual language of

symbols and artistic conventions. How does the choice of content, form (i.e.,
line, color, shape, and arrangement/organization), and materials reinforce the
meaning and function of Indian art?
Indian stone art, like modern sculpture on Indian temples, was most likely painted
originally. Marble figures, on the other hand, were typically kept unpainted to
maintain the white stone's purity. The eyes were the only thing that was inlaid or
colored. A large number of bronze statues were coated. Distinct hues were linked
with specific deities, according to ancient scriptures and palm leaf images (the
traditional surface for writing and painting). When a god had numerous faces, each
one was usually colored differently.

An approach that has evolved from the archaeological approach to artifacts as

objects that may be interpreted as an intersection of individuals, resources, and
material production is perhaps the furthest removed from aesthetic perspectives.
Just as a pot can be examined for its constituent materials, likely geographical
origins, and the lines of transportation that allowed it to exist in a specific location,
an artwork can be evaluated as a mere artefact that, with enough detective work,
tells important stories about production's day-to-day operations.

Recognizing divinity's flowing nature provides a 'embodied' approach to the Hindu

arts. When a picture (or other work of art) is perceived as a deity's manifestation, it
communicates a 'aesthetics of presence,' based to which "the image is ultimately the
narrative.

Beyond iconic and embodied approaches, the artwork may not be an object at all,
but rather the catalyst for a spectator's subjective metamorphosis. According to this
new way of thinking about art, something is only art if it has an impact on the people
who see it. This approach can be seen in a variety of contexts, including the common
visual experience of many religious 'interpretive communities,' for whom art was
not regarded as a discrete form of product but rather as a part of their daily life.

Many visual arts can be interpreted as a simple semiotic discourse that

communicates through iconography. This 'iconic' view of deities sees it as a
reference text comprising doctrinal symbols (the lotus, the chakra, and the various
mudras) that is essentially free of visual elements. We must understand its codes
and pinpoint its references in order to comprehend it correctly.

A hierarchy of proportion was utilized by sculptors and painters when depicting

groups of people encircling the primary god to clarify each figure's proportional
spiritual worth. If they aren't the major gods in the scenario, even prominent deities
are shrunk down. The location of the figurines is balanced by the major god in the
center in iconic (rather than narrative) portrayals. Both Hindu and Buddhist art
frequently depict lesser gods, guardian figures, divine musicians, and dancers as the
god's company. Their relative importance is shown by their size, and they are
flanked by the principal figure in less prominent locations. ( Steven M. Kossak and
Edith W. Watts, 2001).
Why are the following formal elements emphasized in Indian art: volume (not
on muscles and bones); canons of proportion; scale and position in the group
compositions; surface textures; color?

The inner structure of muscle and bone is not highlighted in figure anatomy.
Rather, it depicts a body that has been cleansed of toxic elements and is now infused
with spirituality. The body appears to swell from inside as the vessel of prana, the
sacred breath of life; flesh is rounded and the skin taut, allowing the volumes of the
entire body to flow seamlessly into one another. Yoga, an ancient method of gaining
spiritual insight through mind-body control, inspired this definition of prana.
Despite the fact that most types of Indian sculpture have a strong feeling of volume,
stone figures are rarely depicted totally in the round. They are in great relief,
possibly because most sculptures were placed on the exterior walls of religious
structures and were intended to be visible from only one side.

Body parts, such as torsos that resemble tree trunks, are based on ideal forms
found in nature. Elephant trunks or bamboo shoots serve as arms, and lotus flowers
or fish serve as eyes. Yakshis (nature spirits) are idealized, voluptuous feminine
bodies that signify procreative abundance and bounty, as well as the gods'
generosity. The feminine shape is based on the vajra, or double drum, which has two
heads. Both feature large rounded outlines that are joined in the centre by a thin
waist. Male bodies are also idealized, sensual, with smooth, simple body volumes
and little muscle definition.

To achieve the ideal anatomy, proportion canons were created. The height of
the figure was divided by the number of tallas in it. A talla is a hand span that
extends from the chin to the top of the forehead. These canons differed slightly from
one generation to the next and from one location to the next. Early figures are often
shorter and stockier than later figures.

The major deity in the middle balances the arrangement of the figures in
iconic (rather than narrative) portrayals. In both Hindu and Buddhist art, lesser
gods, guardian figures, celestial musicians, and dancers frequently appear as the
god's entourage. Again, their relative importance is shown by their size, and they are
flanked by the primary figure in less prominent locations. Artists used a hierarchy of
proportion to highlight each figure's proportional spiritual worth when depicting
groups of figures encircling the principal deity. If they are not the major gods in the
scenario, even important deities are reduced in size. As framing techniques
surrounding statues, niches, doorways, and gates, as well as integrated into
sculptural design and relief sculpture, twining plant forms, leaves, blossoms, and
vines serve as sensuous representations of fertility, development, and prosperity.
The majority of Indian artworks are two-dimensional and lack perspective. Drama,
sensuality, romance, and beauty take precedence above realism. The hero, in his
many guises: as warrior, deity, ruler, lover, larger than life in both aspects of life,
offering lesser mortals a model to emulate and occasionally dread, is one of the main
subjects.

With surfaces, intricate embellishments of the headdress, hair, jewels,

crowns, scarves, garlands, and draperies create appealing contrasts with the smooth
prana-filled skin on depictions of bodhisattvas and Hindu deities.

Indian and Hindu paintings are recognized for their vibrant colors and
intricate detail, which is often achieved by painting with a single squirrel hair brush.
Bright colors, garish, and obscene figures are common in temple paintings. Many
artists employ watercolors and gold pigments to create a high-shine finish on their
paintings. Gold and lapis Lazuli colours were employed by the Jains. Traditionally,
the pigment Indian yellow was created from dirt soaked in the urine of cows fed
mango leaves. The procedure was ultimately outlawed since it was deemed to be
inhumane to the cows. In sculptures, marble figures were typically kept unpainted to
maintain the white stone's purity. The eyes were the only thing that was inlaid or
colored. A large number of bronze statues were gilded. Specific hues were connected
with specific deities, according to ancient texts and paintings on palm leaf (the
customary surface for writing and painting before the Muslim adoption of paper in
the thirteenth century) unlike Indian stone art, like modern sculpture on Indian
temples, which was most likely painted originally. When a god had numerous faces,
each one was usually colored differently.

Compare and contrast the content and functions of Indian art before 1500
(as seen in sculptural figures and paintings; Buddhist stupas, Hindu temples,
etc.)

When looking at Indian art from before 1500, we can say their art was mainly
for religious function and purposes. Sadly, not much art or architecture from the rise
of the Indus Valley civilizations (2500 B.C.) up until the formative period of 1500 to
3rd century B.C. were able to survive over time. This is due to it being made of
material such as wood and sun-dried brick.

Even if not much was able to survive, there are numerous art objects found
such as jewelry, metalworks, and pottery. However, sculptures from this time period
suggest that the Aryans have developed an ancient Indian religion through fertility
worship. These sculptures include images of “horned animals, trees, [female
figurines]…, and phallic sculptures” which may have symbolized ancient deities the
Aryans worshipped, and were later recognized as minor gods in Hinduism. During
this time, Aryan literature, most especially the Vedas such as the Rig Veda Soma
Veda, and Athar Veda (hymns to their gods, written before 1000 B.C.) can be
considered the most prominent work of art as it “contain[ed] a rich and complex
body of religious and philosophical ideas” (The Metropolitan Museum of Art 4).

In 6th century B.C., Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama

otherwise known as Buddha. At around 700 B.C.E, Mauryan art heavily reflected the
age of heroes and perhaps heroism. The upholding of dharma, a “divinely obtained
moral law believed to keep the universe from falling apart” (Stokstad & ___ 316).
This was exhibited in statues sculpted from sandstone that represented yakshi, or
female spirits associated with abundance and auspiciousness. The voluptuous forms
used in these statues were symbols for the aforementioned characteristics. By the
time of the 3rd century until the 1st century A.D. under the rule of Mauryan emperor
Ashoka, stupas were built in order to bring Buddha’s teachings to Ashoka’s people.

In these stupas, relics of the Buddha along with venerated Buddhist saints
were buried inside these structures and served as a means for pilgrims to be able to
meditate upon Buddhist teachings. These stupas were “decorated with reliefs
depicting the life of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni and his past lives” (The
Metropolitan Museum of Art 33) called toranas. These reliefs decorated the halls
were usually cut from rock. Emperor Ashoka had also put up monolithic pillars that
were erected at sites related to what happened in Buddha’s life. Not only did these
pillars narrate Buddha’s life, these sandstone shafts had “inscriptions relating to
rules of dharma” (Stokstad & 317) which were then later interpreted as Buddhist
teachings. Aside from this, the earliest form of Buddhism called Theravada
represented Buddha in the form of symbols. The symbols they used ranged from a
lotus (purity), a parasol (ancient symbol for royalty), to a footprint (Buddha’s
presence). These were viewed as a way to say that Buddha had transcended human
form through enlightenment.

By the first century A.D., Buddhist sculpture and architecture began to

develop along with the iconography of Buddhist images. Under Kushan rule, Buddha
was depicted in human form. The Gandhara School of art during this time combined
Hellenistic, Persian, and native aesthetics that depicted Buddha as a powerful figure,
similar to what is seen in Roman aesthetics. The Mathura School, however,
developed and evolved its art style from what is seen in yakshi, this time in male
deities. This human portrayal of Buddha recognizes him as someone who “was not
only a great spiritual teacher but also a savior god who, with personal devotion,
could help others achieve nirvana” (The Metropolitan Museum of Art 27). Portable
works of art (portraits and mostly sculptures) of Buddha, shrines, and bodhisattvas
(those who have reached nirvana) were carried by monks and merchants. By the
end of this period, Buddhism began to spread across China, Korea, and Japan
because of the trade on the Silk Road.

The early 4th to 6th century is considered to be the classical age of Indian art.
Royal patronage of artists under the Gupta dynasty were able to develop India’s
literature, theatre, and visual art, especially with the birth of Gupta aesthetics. These
aesthetics make use of nature metaphors that are able to create the ideal human
form such as: eyebrows similar to an archer’s bow and lips like lotus blossoms, male
torsos resembling the chest of a lion, and female torsos being shaped like a damaru
(narrow-waisted drum). Sculptures during this period depicted Buddha in what is
said to be perfection and equilibrium as he is presented as a “being whose spiritual
purity is… fused with, his physical purity” (Stokstad & Cothren 326). Some of their
paintings had also depicted events in Buddha’s past lives as well as bodhisattvas,
making use of outlined drawing—a characteristic unique to Indian paintings.

Hindu temples were also built and served as objects of worship. The conical
forms of the temples emulate the cosmic mountain that houses the deities that are
honored inside these structures. A unique characteristic of Hinduism is that they
believe images of their gods contain the gods themselves. These images are often
well taken-care of and are consecrated through an “opening of the eyes ceremony”
wherein Hindus would finish carving out or painting eyes. This symbol can be
interpreted as a way to bring the image to life. Their entrances would contain divine
images as it “takes a worshipper from the mundane world into the sacred” (Stokstad
& Cothren 328). Large sculpted relief panels of Vishnu functioned as windows to
symbolically let light inside the Temple of Vishnu at Deogarh, one of the earliest
northern-style temples in India. Monumental narrative reliefs were also prominent
during this time, portraying images of Hindu gods and goddesses in heroic stories.

By the 10th to 14th centuries, the breakup of the Gupta dynasty made room
for flourishing small kingdoms and dynasties that gave birth to regional art styles.
Buddhism still remained as a religion to many, however, Hinduism began to gain
more popularity, thus the emergence of numerous Hindu temples. Notable
dynasties included the Pallava and Panda where they built Hindu temples out of
granite or were carved from rocks. Cast copper images of Hindu deities from the
Pallavas were used for procession purposes. With the rise of Hinduism, a new art
movement called the Bhakti art movement was created. This art movement was
based on ideas from ancient texts and stresses complete devotion and personal
relations with god.
and those after 1500 (Muslim and Hindu art), as seen in illustrated books,
miniature paintings on paper and cloth; Muslim mosques; calligraphy; secular
architectural forms (tombs/mausoleum, gardens, forts and palaces).

After the Mughal Empire took power over the majority of the Indian
subcontinent, art in India evolved and changed drastically. Islam became the
dominant religion in the empire. The principles of Islam greatly influenced and
dictated what art could express and how art could be made. While art remained
primarily religious in function, it now overlapped with the purposes of political
display and aesthetic decoration.

One of the most distinct features of Indian art during the Mughal period was
the heavy patronage of the ruling leaders, from the ateliers of emperor Akbar, to the
golden age of architecture led by emperor Shah Jahan, to the decline of miniature
paintings during the time of emperor Aurangzeb. The taste and preferences of their
royal courts directed the direction of the style of their respective epochs. The
production of art became more systematic and delicate during this time. Indian art
during this period is characterized by having rich colors, ornate and complex
patterns (as it is prohibited to personify Allah in Islam), and heavy usage of lavish
surfaces and materials (such as gems, ivory, marble, and silk).

The rise of different schools of art, particularly for Ragamala miniature

paintings, even influenced the Rajput Hindu kingdoms in the Northwest. They
eventually cultivated their own approaches. Rajput schools of art focused on telling
the stories of Hindu gods and legends. This is in contrast with Muslim Ragamala
painting that usually covered subjects of court scenes and portraits of royal and
noble figures.

Popular art forms during the Mughal period include illuminated manuscripts,
calligraphy (carved on stone efaces, written on paper, sewed on cloth, etc.), carpet
making and miniature painting. There was heavy Persian and Arabic influence on
these art forms as Muslim art conventions generally orignated from these kingdoms.

The Mughal period featured both secular and non-secular architecture.

Structures from both categories were equally impressive. Secular architecture
included gardens, courtyards or Sahns, palace decor, and hypostyle halls. Religious
buildings, such as Mosques, paid a lot of attention towards interior design. In
comparison to Hindu architecture, where the exterior of temples were the main
focus, this was a new development.

To contrast the two periods of , art from before 1500 exhibited many of
Indian (including ancient) beliefs as well as being a means to act upon religious
functions and purposes. Aside from religious function and purpose, a lot of Indian
art in this extensive period relied heavily on symbolisms and narratives that were
related to their beliefs in both Buddhist and Hindu religions. In a sense, their art can
be perceived as something more conceptual and symbolic as compared to art from
when the Muslims began to occupy India. Forms used in sculpture during this time
were more idealistic in the sense that the volume, proportion, and size of figures
played a role in determining the hierarchy of deities. Art after the 1500 still had
religious function, however, the integration of pure aesthetics and political display is
what makes it different. Its forms and aesthetic were more ornate and geometric
because of Persian and Muslim influence.
References:

Dallas Museum of Art. “Cultures & Traditions - the Arts of India to 1500 CE.” DMA
Collection Online, 2017, https://collections.dma.org/essay/E08VGnbQ.

Jessica Frazier “Arts and Aesthetics in Hindu Studies” , 24 March 2010

Kossak, Steven. Watts, Edith W. “The Art of South and Southeast Asia.” The Art of
South and Southeast Asia, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001, pp. 3-6, p. 24,
pp. 31–32, p. 33

Lumen Learning. “The Mughal Period.” Lumen,

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-mug
hal-period/.

Stokstad, M. & Cothren, M. “Art of South and Southeast Asia Before 1200”. Art History.
[PDF File]. Pearson Publishing, 2018