10 - Chapter 4 PDF

Symmetry And Proportion 53
3 SYMMETRY AND PROPORTION

IN VASTU AND SILPA
Any piece of Art or Architecture relates to depiction of an either inanimate objects like a
building or animate forms relating to life and movement. We classify those works related
to inanimate forms to works associated with inorganic systems and those concerned with
animate forms to work with organic systems. 'In this thesis in order to study the geometry
of Art and Architecture the methodology followed is to discuss the behavior of these
inorganic and organic systems of composition in terms of the principles of composition,
keeping in view the three possible divisions of the composition. The science of space,
which includes the theory of proportions, the study of regular Polyhedral (solids with equal
sides, equal faces, equal solid angles) and semi regular polyhedral has been the basic
discipline for Artists, Architects and Sculptors from the early centuries.
The enumeration and examination of regular and semi regular solids has led us to consider
equipartitions and partitions of space and to delineate the general laws under which
Physico-chemical systems may sometimes order themselves into geometrical patterns. The
most general “law of nature” at least as applying to inorganic systems was the principle of
least action. The statistical form of the principle is “ A system (even a universe) passes
constantly from its least probable state to the most probable state”, the configuration of the
maximum possibility being at the same time that of maximum entropy.
When the state of final equilibrium produces relatively stable we obtain geometrical
patterns and lattices^. The difference between inorganic (purely physico-chemical) systems
and organic (living) systems is that, while the " Principle of Least Action^" tends to
produce an economy of energy in the former system, there seem to be tendency towards
economy of substance in the later systems. This apart the preference for cubical or
hexagonal or cuboctahedral symmetry is notable in Inorganic system in contrast to the
pentagonal or dodecahedral symmetry playing a dominant role in the shape of living
systems^. Keeping this in view, in this chapter we make a geometrical (Harmonic)
analysis of a few Art and Architectural pieces through space division taking into
consideration their nature of symmetry.

We observe that the above explained principles fit into the theme of Hexagonal Symmetry
with space division giving to standard proportions. The analysis has been carried out for
the following compositions.
1. Asokan Lion - Capital at Saranath, Mauryan Period, 3rd Cent. BC
2. Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal, Western Chalukya, 8th Cent. AD
3. Vimana over Garbhagriha, Tirumala Temple, 8th Cent. AD
4. Votive Stupa in Bronze, style of Lop Buri, 13th - 14th Cent. AD
5. Lotus - Mahal, Hampi, Vijayanagaram, 15th - 16th Cent. AD
6. Raja Birbal’s House, Fatehpur Sikri, 16th Cent. AD
7. Surai Ghori (Flower Vase), Chinaware, 17th Cent. AD, KSR Museum, Anantapur
8. Vajrakireetam, Tirumala, 1985
9. Sankam with Silver coverings and studded with Diamonds, Tirumala
10. Chakra with Silver coverings and studded with Diamonds, Tirumala
11. Varada Hasta with Gold coverings and studded with Diamonds, Tirumala
12. Kati Hasta with Gold coverings and studded with Diamonds, Tirumala
RECONSTRUCTED ASOKAN PILLAR AT SARANATH
Symmetiy And Proportion 56
Asokan Lion-capital at Saranath, Mauryan Period, 3rd cent. BC
Description
The Chakra-dhvaja or the Wheel Flag of India is the symbol of her civilization as evolved
through the ages. The Indians have taken part in the emergence of the Chakra as a perfect
token of their ideas and life. The material is taken from Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jama
literature, religion, art and philosophy. It has been shown that the worship of the Chakra as
representing the supreme ideals underlying the cosmic manifestation on the one hand and
of the individual life on the other has been a part of Indian tradition from the most ancient
times. It is by divine providence that the Chakra has been accepted as the Flag of Modern
India, as if Man under the Indian sky, and living on the Indian soil is to work out his
destiny in accordance with the ideals symbolized by the Chakra.
The Cosmos is known as Brahmanda-Chakra; the World Order as Sansara-Chakra;
Human Life as Bhava-Chakra; the flux of men’s actions as Karma-Chakra; the revolving
Wheel of Time as Kala-Chakra; the Moral Order which governs the universal and the
individual ordinances as Dharma-Chakra. The Chakra stands for the Perfect Cycle of Life,
which is at once beautiful and accessible to all, and therefore called Sudarsana-Chakra,
the Wheel of the Divine Preserver of world and life, Vishnu. The Divine is Transcendent
Creator but His immanent presence becomes manifest as the dynamic Chakm or Revolving
Wheel.
The Chakra has a two-fold aspect, viz., the center and the circumference. There is rest at
the center and movement in the circumference, unity in the center and diversity m the
circumference.(refer: the figure in the first page) The complete Chakra implies an
aggregation of spokes, all of which emanate from a common source and represent so many
points on the periphery of the wheel. In the Indian tradition, which began from the
Rigveda, the Chakra may have any number of spokes from one to one thousand.
Mathematically the spokes demonstrate the principle of diversity as One, Two,
Three............ , infinity exemplified in manifestation. Each spoke is like a geometry of life
or creativity, and it leads to mutual understanding to recognize that the Wheel of Human
Life is comprised of a thousand spokes, Sahasrara-Chakra. Metaphysically human speech
or sum total of ideas is designated as Thousand-syllabled, Sahasrakshara Vak; so also the
dynamism of Life has a thousand spokes. The Buddhists conceived of the ideal Dharma-
Chakra as having a thousand spokes, which is set in motion through long atones of time by
innumerable Buddhas, Arhats and Tathagatas. In the words of the Rigveda the Ageless
Wheel revolves round the heaven of cosmic order ( varvati chakrani pari dyamritasya,
RV.l.164.11). Vedic philosophy conceives of the cosmos, man’s life, society and all
patterns of activity in terms of the Revolving Wheel of which the underlying secret is
Rhythm and Activity.
The essential feature of the Chakra is cyclic movement (Gati) in a rhythmic order which
brings with it great blessings and happiness; for example, the cycle of six seasons (shat-
ritu-chakra) presents a charming poetry of the flowers, plants, singing birds and many
other harmonies. The tiller of the soil witnesses the miracle of the Wheel in the sprouting
of the seed and blooming into flowers and fruition. Boyhood, youth and age depend on the
potency of the Chakra, unfolding m each life. Thus the meaning of the Chakra has a
universal appeal. It stands for the Supreme Law of the cosmos and human life.
The Wheel on the Flag has been adopted from the four wheels carved on the round drum of
the Saranath Lion Pillar. It is a great monument erected by Emperor Asoka and in point of
its significant symbolism it is unsurpassed in the whole range of Indian art. The Pillar
consists of five component parts, viz., the shaft, the full vase ( Purna-Kumbha) with its
foliage, round abacus or drum carved with four wheels and four animals, four adores
lions and a big Dharma-Chakra on the top. (The smaller Dharina Chakra adopted for the
National Flag is but one part of the symbolical plan of the Lion Capital.)
The Lion Capital topped by the Dharma-Chakra is not a sectarian concept but was the fruit
of a number of religious, philosophic and cult motifs, which received universal approval for
thousands of years in the accumulated tradition of the Indian people.
In short, the several prepositions established are as follows:
The Pillar represents the Axis Mundi, the Cosmic Support, rising from its foundations in
the earth, supporting the fourfold patterns of cosmic and individual manifestation and
reaching its unified source in the topmost Wheel of Law. It is now evident that the Vedic
idea of Stambha (Pillar) and Yitpa (the Sacrificial stake) with their profound and many-
sided significance, were exemplified in the free-standing pillars of ancient India.

Symmehy And Proportion 59
The first decorative element of the Lion Capital can by no means be interpreted as
Indo-Persepolitan Bell. It is m every respect the Purna-ghata motif of ancient Indian art
and religion, overflowing with luxuriant lotus petals.
The carving on the round drum of four wheels and four animals is in no way parochial but
covers a very wide range both in time and space. They illustrate a metaphysical idea of
world creation conceived as central Mount Mem, or Lake Manasarovara, or Anavatapta
Lake, or the central throne in the palace of Chakravartin, each of them possessing the glory
of four-fold ramifications following the four regions of space. The evidence about the
belief in the association of the four great animals collected from more than fifty texts and
sources spread over the last five thousand years and from such different parts of the world
as India, Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Cambodia, Tibet, etc. It is a wide canvas both in time and
space and is to be greeted as proof not only of the antiquity of the motif on the drum but
also of its persistent continuity.
The four lions above the abacus facing in four directions are a continuation of the tetrad
scheme followed in the conception of the Capital. They represent the temporal power of
Chakravarti (ruler) in his dominions unto the ends of the earth in the four cardinal points.
Their meaning is explained in the Simhanada Chakravarti Suttanta text of the Buddhist
canon.
Symmetry And Proportion . 60
The Samath Pillar is the best example of the combination of the Chakravarti and the Yogi
ideals. Thus the Dhanna-Chakra on the top of the pillar and on the heads of the four lions
signified the religious and metaphysical ideals of a Yogi or super teacher of Law.
It may be noted that the original big wheel, Maha-Chakra, placed on the heads of the lions
was broken in an accident that overtook the Capital and therefore was not available to
reconstruct a complete picture of all the component parts of the Pillar. It was under these
circumstances that one of the wheels on the drum was adopted as the symbol of the
National Flag, but the fact remains that in ancient times the Chakra-dhvaja derived its
name after the big wheel on the top for, which the Pillar together with its several parts was
installed.
There is a little history about the evolution of the Flag in India. In the Vedas the Flag was
known as Ketu and the gods moving in formation with Indra as their leader were described
as Ketumantah:
Udgharshantam Maghvan vajinanyud Viranam jayatametu ghoshah/ Prithag ghosha
ululayah ketumanta vdiratam, deva Indrajyeshtha Marutoyantul setiaya.
“Let their fierce powers, O Maghavan, be heightened, and upward go the shout of
conquering heroes. Apart and clear, let shout and roar and shriek and lamentation rise)
Let the gods led by Indra, let the Maruts with our army go “ (AV.3-19-6)
In the Mcihabharata the principal leaders of armies have their own Flags (Ketus) as
indicated m this work. The Gupta emperors who re-established the national rule after three
centuries of foreign occupation felt the necessity of having a National Flag and since they
were devotees of Bhagavcui Vishnu they adopted Garuda-dhvaja as the State Flag that was
in keeping with their Parama-Bhagavata denomination.
In medieval times the rulers always had distinctive Flags, and we are indebted to Abul Fazl
for a description of the Royal Flags under Akbar. Sivaji adopted Bhagava Jhanda as his
Flag. After the Maratha power the British brought their own Flag, which remained, in
vogue for about two centuries.
When national leaders in India who fired the spirit of reasserting country’s independence
and organizing national forces they naturally felt the need of a National Flag, It was on
August 7, 1906 that the first new National Flag of India was unfurled in Green Park,
Calcutta. It was a flag in red, yellow and green color. On the red rectangular strip were
eight signs of an eight-petalled lotus; on the yellow was written ‘Vande Mataram’ in
Devanagari script; on the green on one side was a pole with the Sun symbol by its side and
on the other crescent moon with a star. The Pole also was conceived in red, black and
white portions.
A similar Flag was hoisted in 1907 by Mrs.Kama and other exiled political workers in Paris
with the difference that on the red strip there was only one eight-petalled lotus and seven
stars, representing the Sapta Risks or the great Bear typical of the Seven Wise Sages of
India who were the Founders of her civilization.
At the time of the Home Rule Movement in 1917, Mrs.Annie Besant and Lokamanya
Tilak jointly devised a National Flag; in it there were four red strips and five green strips
with a pole on the top of which was the Union Jack, implying that their demand for Home
Rule was to be realized within the British Empire; the people, however, did not take kindly
to it.
In 1921, when Mahatma Gandhi became the country’s foremost National Leader, it was in
a meeting of the All-India Congress Committee at Vijayawada that a Flag was presented by
an Andhra young man, which was made of red and green strips. Gandhiji added a white
one and thus the first Tricolor Flag was adopted. In 1931, at the Karachi Congress a
Committee of seven was appointed to suggest the form of the National Flag. They
suggested the Chakra on a saffron-colored strip, but what was finally accepted consisted of
a Tricolor Flag, saffron above, white in the middle and green below. On the white portion
was printed the sign of the Spinning Wheel. This continued to be the National Flag until
July 1947.
When India won her Independence in 1947, the question of the form of the National Flag
came up for a final decision. There were many ideas. Finally Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru out
of his intuitional insight moved a resolution adopting the National Flag in its present
Chakra-dhvaja form, (refer Pt. Nehru’s Speech in the Constituent Assembly).

The Wheel Ensign on the Chah'a-dhvaja Flag is, as we have shown, linked to the long
Indian tradition as it evolved in her religion, philosophy, cult-worship and universal
popular beliefs. The Wheel has twenty-four spokes, which symbolize the metaphysical
basis of cosmic manifestation or the nature of the material world, i.e. the reality of human
life. It is comprised of the following elements:
Primordial Prakriti or Infinite Universal Nature in which all men of science and philosophy
have their faith, and all creatures have their being;
Mahat-Tattva, i.e.Universal Intelligence or Budclhi;
Ahankara, i.e.the individual consciousness or the principle of egoistic assertion, which
makes every individual what, he is, with all the potentiality of his life’s expression;
Manas, Mind as the consciousness-principle synthesizing the sense data;
(5-9) Five Cognitive sense organs; (Jnanendriya);
(10-14) Five motor sense organs (Karmendriya);
(15-19) Five subtle entities of the five-fold manifesting principles or forces known as
Pancha-Ianmatra, viz, sound (Sabda) which is the attribute or quality of Akasa, touch
(Sparsa) of air, form (Rupa) of light (Tejas), flavour (Rasa) of waters (Apah) and smell
(Gandha) of the earth. The five gross elements of Matter are distinguished by their subtle
qualities, which are the real forces or energy-vibrations behind visible matter.
(19-24) Five gross elements of Matter through which the previous set of energy-vibrations
become concretized. These are known as the Pancha-Maha-Bhutas, viz., ether, air, fire,
water and earth.
In one word the Chakra is the perfect symbol of the cosmos and of human life, i.e. of Man
(Purusha). The Bhagavatas therefore named it as Chakra-Purusha or the human symbol
of their Maha-Narayana Vishnu.
It is the complete symbol of the majesty of human life in its twofold aspect of Jnana and
Karma, ideas and action, or thoughts and deeds. What Man conceives and what he dares
are the two halves of the revolving Wheel of Life, both for individuals and nations.
Analysis
The harmonic analysis of the Lion capital is carried out keeping in view of the inorganic
(inanimate) nature of the structure. The photographic replica of the Lion Capital is enclosed
in a square. The circle with its centre point of the structure passes through vertical and
horizontal extremities of the Lion Capital.
In accordance with the principle of an inanimate structure in which the hexagonal,
octagonal symmetries play a vital role, the Lion Capital exhibits a hexagonal symmetry
with centre coinciding with the centre of the circle. The space division consists of the lines
parallel to the mid vertical and mid horizontal line passing through the centre
The hexagonal symmetry has the following proportions
AD / AC = AO / AB
Where
AD = Total height of the structure from its base
AC = Height of the mane of the Lion
AO = Height of the central point of the structure
AB = Height of the feet of the Lion

VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE, PATTADAKAL, WESTERN CHALUKYA, 8™ CENT. AD, KARNATAKA
a4
AD / AC = AO / AB
VirupakshaTemple,Pattadakal,Western Chalukya 8t"Cent. AD
Description
The period of Badami Chalukyas is one of vigorous and tremendous activities in raising
monuments, mostly religious and very few secular, of architectural grandeur and artistic
beauties. They are heavily concentrated in Mahakuta, Badami, Aihole and Pattadakallu, in
Karnataka and at Alampur, Satyavolu, Bikkavolu, in the present day Andhra Pradesh.
Stray monuments are found also at Hungund, Humcha, Ittagi Sandur and Hallur. Some are
known only through the inscriptions of the places as at Lakshmesvara, the monuments they
being now ruined.
The ancient township of Aihole in Dharwar, there is indications that this capital of the early
Chalukyan dynasty was one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture. Such a probability
is shown by several examples, all of a distinctly incipient character and all erected
apparently during the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. Most of them are temples of the flat
roofed order, and similar latitude, thus displaying a characteristic, which implies an early
stage in the process of evolution of this structure. In the Chalukyan temples other stages of
development may also be traced. For instance in the most primitive of all, the shrme is in
the body of the building, with nothing on the exterior to mark its position from outside.
Afterwards a tower was added over the shrine, not only to give this central feature a
dignity, but also as a means of distinguishing the temple from other buildings. Later, the
shrine, or cellar, was contained in a structure projected from the western end of the temple
and surmounted by a tower. This last development caused the sanctuary to form a kind of
annex attached to the body of the temple, the shrine and tower combined comprising that
portion of the structure known as the Vimana.
The next stage in the development of the building art in these parts may be studied in the
temples of Pattadakal, the third of the Chalukyan Capital seats, Pattadakal is distant ten
miles from Badami, and, on the assumption that the transfer of the capital took place after
the capture of the town in AD. 642, it seems fairly certain that the earlier temples on this
site were executed during the last half of the seventh century. But the Chalukyan dyanasty
reached the height of its power under the kings Vijayaditya (696-733) and Vikramaditya II
(733-46), so that the actual meridian of the style at Pattadakal was attained in the first half
of the eight century. At Pattadakal, temples of no mean order, and in both styles of
architecture are found side by side, a phenomenon which would be almost equivalent in
medieval Europe to Gothic and Renaissance churches being built in juxtaposition and at the
same time. Moreover certain of these temples which are in one style, contain architectural
details belonging to the other contrasting style, implying that the buildings represented a
stage of evolution before the conventions of both had been definitely established. There
are ten temples of consequence at Pattadakal four which are the Indo-Aryan or northern
style, and six in the Dravidian or southern, as follows.
INDO-ARYAN DRAVIDIAN
Pipanath Temple (c.680) Sangameswar (c.725)
Jambuling Virupaksha (c.740)
Karsedesvar, (Karsiddesvara). Mallikaquna (c.740)
Kasinath, (Kasivisvanatha) Galagnath (c.740)
Sunmeswar
Jain temple
It was probably less than fifty years after the foregoing, that the temple of Virupaksha was
produced, but the progress made in such a relatively short period in architectural
composition is noteworthy. So much so that it has been implied the increasing power of the
Chalukyan rulers enabled them to call in outside experts to aid the local artisans in their
building efforts. If this is correct it was help of a nature which could only have been
obtained from those in the employ of the contemporary Pallava rulers on the eastern
seaboard, there were close contacts between the Chalukyan and Pallavas is a matter of
historical knowledge, and that these influenced the architectural productions of the two
peoples has also been a subject of considerable research.
Two inscriptions on the Virupaksha temple also relate to a craftsman from the southern
country who built this temple for the queen of Vikramaditya, and whose qualifications are
defined in the most glorious terms. But in no sense can these make it quite clear as some
authorities have interpreted, that the Chalukyan king Vikramaditya II, when he conquered
the Pallava capital of Conjeeveram in 740, was so struck by the architectural masterpiece
of the Kailasanatha temple, that he brought back with him a Tamil architect who was
responsible for the Pallava elements in the two temples built by his queens at Pattadakal.
As a matter of fact there is in these temples no contribution “ from the Dravidian style that
was not already in regular use m the Chalukyan country, the only new feature being its
combination of elements from both the local styles which previously seem to have
influenced one another remarkably little. During this early primitive period intercourse
between the various peoples of the south led to imitations and borrowings, the system of
universal technical canons and of craftsmen’s guilds were the means by which this
intercourse was maintained m the sphere of the building art, and in this manner the style of
architecture in the regions of the south came into being.
It becomes tolerably clear therefore that the much improved design and execution of the
Virupaksha temple were mainly due to the puiposeful application of the Chalukyan
builders to the task in hand, who, during the ensuing intervals, made it an occasion to
acquire much practical proficiency. This is seen in the better proportions and adjustment of
the plan, with its resultant effect on the external formation of the building. Although by no
means a finished exposition of the essential parts of the temple system, the size and
position of the vestibule, including the junction of the shrine-chamber with the pillared hall,
are logical and well conceived, and mark a distinct advance. Such an arrangement
represents however only a stage in the temple development. For the final achievement in
this direction it is necessary to compare it with the Chalukyan temples of the early
medieval period, as for instance the productions at Kukkanur and Lukkundi of the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries where the entire composition is shown fully matured. Nonetheless
there is a bold beauty in the appearance of the Virupaksha temple as a whole, which is best
seen in the exterior. It is a comprehensive scheme, as it consists not only of the central
structure, but also of a detached nandi pavilion in front and is contained within a walled
enclosure entered by an appropriate gateway. Larger in size than the previous example as
it measures one hundred and twenty feet from the front of the porch to the back of the
shrine, owing to its balanced composition it is much more pleasing to the eye. Tins
satisfactory effect has been obtained by treating the building as a unity, so that there is a
definite coherence and rhythmic grouping of its parts. On the other hand, there is still that
heavy solidity characteristic of all such early works, but here it is relieved by an increase in
the amount and quality of the sculptured ornamentation. This plastic decoration resolves
itself into several classes of workmanship and it seems not improbable that it was the
handwork of as many separate groups of craftsmen. There is the purely architectural detail,
such as moldings, pilasters, cornices and brackets, evidently prepared by the mason’s own
artificers; the floral scrollwork together with the richly patterned perforated windows, the
production of men specially trained in ornamental carving; the bold animal supports
chiseled by artisans accustomed to large schemes; the intricate bas-reliefs of figure-subjects
requiring technical skill combined with a knowledge of mythology; and finally the full
sized statuary in the panels and niches obviously designed and molded by the master-
sculptors of the time. The character of this ornamentation, and the manner in which it is
applied bespeak more than ordinary knowledge. Although lavishly disposed, it is so
skillfully co-ordinate with the rest of the structure that no part can be said to show where
the building art ends and the plastic art begins. The sculpture flows into the architecture in
a continuous yet disciplined stream. So harmonious is the entire conception it conveys the
impression that the deepest emotions of its creators were concentrated on its production.
The amount of thought expended, not only on the whole, but also on each detail is
incredible; every one of its gray weatherworn stones, in spite of the passage of centuries, is
yet warm with life and feeling. The Virupaksha temple is one of those rare buildings of the
past in which the spirit still lingers of the men who conceived it and brought it with their
hands.
Analysis
The harmonic analysis of Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal exhibits a hexagonal symmetry
with centre coinciding with the centre of the circle.
The hexagonal symmetry has the following proportions.
AD/AC = AO/AB
AD = Total height of the structure from base
AC = Height upto the 2nd tier of the Vimana
AO = Height of the 1st tier of the Vimana
AB = Height of the roof of the temple

VlMANA OVER THE GARBHAGRIHA TlRlIMALA, 8™ CENT. AD
Description
This is undoubtedly the most picturesque and attractive structure m the temple-complex. The
golden plates covering it are intricately and exquisitely carved with traditional motifs. The shape of
the Vimana very strongly resembles the Dharma-raja-ratha at Mamallapuram (which was built by
the Pallava monarch Danti Varma of Kanchipuram m 830 A.D.) It is very likely that this vimana m
the hill-shnne is also a Pallava structure
The height of the vimana is 37 feet and 8 inches, including the ceremonial vase on the top (kalasa)
It has a square base, measuring twenty-seven feet and four inches. The tower is divided into three
sections, the bottom one being square and having no figures; the middle one being rectangular m
shape and having nineteen figures. The figures are all sculptures in relief and the themes are the
incarnations of Vishnu, the door-guardians, attendent (like Gamda, Vishvaksena and Hanuman)
and the sages. In the four directions are the customary fonns of Vishnu described as the presiding
deities of the vimana: Varaha, Narasimha, Ananta and Vaikuntha-natha. On the northern side is
the representation of the deity m the sanctum, known as Vimana-Srinivasa. It is said that
Vyasatirtha used to worship this small iconic representation. It has become customary to have a
look at this figure (Vimana-Srinivasa) while going round the shrine m Vimana-pradakshina.
The figures and the ornamental decorations of this Vimana are only m the gilt copper plates that
cover the vimana The actual vimana, which is m mortar and stucco, is devoid of figures; it has
only the architectural features of the Pallava vimana. We do not know how old the vimana is. But
we have mscriptional references to the covering of the vimana with copper pates gilt by the Yadava
chieftain Vira-narasinga-deva in 1260 A D. and the fixing of a golden vase (kalasa) on the vimana
by the Pandyan king Jata-varma Sundara-pandya m 1262 A.D (T.T 371 No 19) The Yadava
chieftain was a feudatory of the Pandyan king, and the two together made the vimana look like the
mythical mountain of gold (Sumeru, sura-gin).
The next service to the vimana was in the year 1359 A.D. Saluva Mangi-deva-maharaja, who was
the general under Kumara-kampana-odeyar is said ti have fixed the golden sikhara for Tiru-
vengala-natha, on that date. Amatya-sekliara Mallana, who was the governor of Chandra-gin-
rajya, during the rule of Saluva-narasimha, renovated the vimana m 1417 A.D. The famous
Vijayanagar monarch Krishnadeva-raya presented thirty thousand gold varahas for gilding the
vimana again, during his fifth visit to the hill shrine. The work began on 2-1-1517 and was
completed on 9-9-1518 (TT 576 No. 81/ Koti-kanya-danam Tatacharya of Kanchipuram got the
vimana gilt again in 1630 (Madras Epigraphical Report 1919, 650). Adhikari Ram-lakshman Dasa,
a brother-disciple of the then Mahant Prayaga-dasa, arranged for gold plating the vase over the
vimana (kanaka-kalasa) on 30-9-1908.
Thus, m seven hundred years (1261-1908) there were six services to the vimana rendered. The gold
plates covering the vimana soon lost their brilliance and the covering plate’s they got loosened and
disturbed because of the weather conditions prevailing on the hill. After the period of the Mahants,
the TTD took over tire administration of the temple, and the thought of gold plating the vimana
again m 1958. It was then discovered that the masonry work of the vimana beneath the covering
had decayed, and that it had to be repaired before the new ones replaced the old plates. The work
began on (October 25th - November 1SI1957), and the gold plates were set m position on November
2nd 1957 (Kavacha-punar-uddharana). Final consecration (Mahasamprokshana) was performed on
August 25th 1958 (Copper sheets worth of rupees 57,375 and gold weighing 12,020 Tolas were used
m this renovation).
Symmetry’ And Proportion 74
The puranas described this vimana as Ananclamlaya. But we find the name Ananda-nilaya-
vimana for the first time m a damaged inscription of 1417 A.D. of Amatyasekhara-mallana (No.
196). Bhavishyottara-purana says that even when the first builder of the temple, Tondaman
consecrated the vimana, it was called Ananda-nilaya because it produced a great delight
Manasara, XXXV; 22-26 and Padma SamMta,Ch.XIII lists five types of Vimanas, they are:
Santikam, Paushtikam, Jayadam, Adbhutam and Sarvakamikam and the terms are used to denote
vimanas whose heights are m proposition to the base increases gradually. According to the Agama
and silpa texts, the word vimana connotes the entire elevation of the main unit of a temple, but it is
used especially m later South Indian context to refer only to the super structure over the sanctum,
i.e. from the prastara to sikhara. However, the vimana grouped under the Ekatala - vimana type,
consisting of six parts, viz. adhistana, pada, prastara, griva, sikhara and stupi. The height of a
temple is measured from the basement to the top of the dome. Then, if the height is equal to the
breadth in a vimana, it is called Santika, Paushtika, Jayada, Sarvakamika or Dhanada and Adbhuta,
are respectively equal to the breadth, 11/4, 11/2, 13/4 and twice of it.
Second one is called Paushtika, which might be rendered as strong, eminent, rich, complete or
perfect. In this proportion the height is 11/4 of the breadth; and this would give the building a good
stability. The third one is called Jayada or joy-giving in this proportion the height is 11/2 the
breadth and this gives a pleasant appearance to the building. The fourth one has two names;
Sarvakamika or good m every way, and Danada or wealth giving. In this proportion the height is
13/4 of the breadth; and according to the literal meaning of the term, Sarvakamika, this would make
the building strong as well as beautiful. The fifth or last one is called Adbhuta or marvelous. In this
proportion the height is twice the breadth and this would give a wonderful loftiness and gorgeous
look to the building.

The Tirumala Vimana conforms to the breadth and height of Sarvakamika category.
Analysis
The harmonic analysis of the vimana is carried out keeping m view the inorganic (inanimate) nature
of the structure. The photographic replica of the vimana is enclosed in a square. The circle with its
center at the central point of the structure passes its vertical and horizontal extremities of the
vimana.
In accordance with the symmetric principle of an inanimate structure in which the hexagonal,
octagonal symmetries play a vital role the vimana exhibits a hexagonal symmetry with center
coinciding with the center of the circle. The space division consists of the lines parallel to the mid
vertical line and the mid horizontal line passing through the center.
This hexagonal symmetry has the following proportions:
AD / AC = AO / AB
JE/IF = IF/GH
These ratios correspond to the height of the third tier including the Kalasa to the total height (or)
the height of the first tier to the mid way of the structure. Like wise the second proportion
correspond to the width of die central portion m relation to the total width (or) width of the third tier
to the width of the central portion.
We may also note that the rectangles corresponding to the space division are all static rectangles
having characteristic ratios as rational fractions.

VOTIVE STUPA IN BRONZE, SUSTAINED BY ATLANTIS AND LI
ONS, STYLE OF LOPBURI 13™ -14™ CENT AD, NATIONAL MU
SEUM, BANGKOK
a5
a4
AD/AC-AO/AB
Votive Stupa in bronze, Sustained by Atlantis and Lions, Style of Lop buri,
13th-14™ Cent. AD, National Museum, Bangkok
Description
The Buddha’s adorning the drum are seated in the Yogic position with their right hands
held in the gesture called the bhumisparsa mudra, which calls upon the Earth to be witness
to the realization of Enlightenment.
Thai art has its roots in the Gupta style. It is originated in the kingdom of Dvaravati, which
is its earliest name. The Gupta models copied in the region of the lower Mekong differ
from the Indian prototypes only in the ethnic characteristics of the Buddha’s face. The
temporary conquest of this region by the Khmer introduced a Khmer influence. In any
case, the preference of the powerful western neighbours of Dvaravati fostered the
development, on the lower course of the Mekong and the surrounding areas, of a mode
known as the style of Lop Buri, which is no more than a provincial variant of Khmer art,
even though it shows originality some minor traits. The advance of Thai populations from
Yunnan down the Menam seems to have brought about a deep change and actually
originated Thai art proper. Its peculiar quality, also seen in large cities such as Chien-
sen and Sukhodaya, which bloomed from the middle of the thirteenth to fifteenth century,
is a result of the prolonged contacts with Buddhists Burma (and through it with
northeastern India) and, by sea, with Buddhist Ceylon. From both places came models and
suggestions that were soon modified to suit the Thai taste. In Chieng-sen there was a
strong Pala influence, while in Sukhodaya that of Ceylon prevailed.

This is why the Buddha images in Sukhodaya are clad in Ceylonese clothes and their legs
are bent in the Ceylonese version of the yoga pose (crossed legs and exposed feet). The
Buddha images of Chiengsen have the skull protuberance of the Pala School Buddhas; in
those of Sukhodaya the protuberance is turned into a pointed motif, which soon became
stylized flame. The original Indian iconography had become a thing of the past, and yet
evidence of it was still there, even though Thai art is a great in its own right.
Analysis
The harmonic analysis of Votive Stupa exhibits a hexagonal symmetry with the following
proportions.
AD /AC = AO /AB
AD = Total height of the Stupa from base
AC = Height of the second tier
AB = Height of the first tier

LOTUS-MAHAL, HAMPI, VIJAYANAGARA, 15™ -16™ CENT AD.
AD / AC = AO / AB
Symmehy And Proportion 78
Lotus - Mahal, Hampi, Vijayanagara, 15T!,-16t"Cent. AD
Description
The Lotus-Mahal or Chitragni-mahal, as it is only called is not only the best - known
monument in the Zananci area but also one of the finest structures in the city of
Vijayanagara. It is to the southeast of the palace. It is two-storied open pavilion, square on
plan with recessed sides. This type of ground plan seems to have been a popular one with
Vijayanagara artisans. The ground floor has an ornate stone adhisthana and twenty-four
square pillars carrying recessed and foliated arches. Originally there appears to have been
a large amount of plaster and stucco ornamentation along the exterior surfaces. There are
now remnants of medallions in the spandrels of the arches, scrollwork along the exterior
surfaces. There are now remnants of medallions in the spandrels of the arches, scrollwork
along the outlines and simha-mukha decoration at the apex. The main cornice of the first
story is a large but slightly carved cyma recta supported by ornate curved brackets below.
Originally there seems to have been large rampant Yali caryatids at the outer comers, of
which a mutilated one is now extant on the East Side. The interior of the building is at
present plain. Plain recessed and foliated arches connect the square pillars with an
interesting and peculiar type of squint below the comers-—these are recessed and foliated to
conform to the shape of the arches above. The ceiling consists of a number of vaults and
domes symmetrically arranged. At the central part is a plain flat covered ceiling decorated
with a lotus-bud in the centre.

Symmetry) And Proportion 79
A staircase on the north side leads to the upper story, which has a number of balconies with
windows having recessed and foliated arches. The ceiling here are also m the form of
octagonal and vaulted domes, some having flat-roofed section. In the centre there is a
deep clerestory elaborately ornamented with stucco arches, friezes and ledges,
pushpabodigai corbels and large niches with remnants of seated figures (probably different
forms of Vishnu and Devi) and ending on the top in a small ornate ribbed inverted lotus
dome. The exterior of the upper story is not an ornate as that of the lower one. The cornice
is a smaller cyma recta slightly curved. The superstructure consists of nine pyramidal
sikharas of varying sizes. The general plan is a number of tiers consisting of slightly
curved cyma recta cornices (Kapota) arranged one above the other in diminishing order and
topped by a domical fluted sikhara. In its original state, fully decorated, painted and
covered with polished plasterwork, the Lotus-Mahal must have been a very imposing
structure.
Analysis
The harmonic analysis of Lotus Mahal exhibits a hexagonal symmetry with centre lying in
the midline of the structure. The hexagonal symmetry has the following proportions.
AD /AC = AO /AB
AD = Total height of the Mahal from base
AC == Height up to the centre of the balcony
AB = Height of the cylindrical portion of the base pillars

RAJA BIRBAL'S HOUSE, FATEHPUR SIKRI, 16T" CENT. AD
a1
AD / AC = AO / AB
Raja Birbal’s House, FatehpurSikri, 16th Cent. AD
Description
The largest and the finest of the domestic buildings in Fatehpur Sikri, setting aside the
palatial residence known as Jodh Bai’s palace, is Birbal’s house. According to tradition
Birbal erected it for his daughter, and from an inscription upon the capital of a carved
pilaster on the west facade it appears to have been built in AD 1571.
It is a double storied building. It consists of four rooms, each 16’0” square, and two
entrance porches on the ground floor, measuring 16’ 9” by 8’ 6” and two square chambers
on the upper floor placed comer wise and covered by domes.
This building exemplifies the freedom with which Hindu architecture was intermingled
with Mohammedan during the middle of the 16th century in Upper India, and which gave
rise to a style peculiar to that part of the country known as “ The mixed Hindu-
Mohammedan style”. Here both the Hindu bracket and the Mohammedan arch are
ingeniously combined, and with pleasing effect. The arch springs from the abacus of the
pilaster caps; but in earlier periods the intrudes of the arch was continued in a straight line a
little below the springing, and terminated in a pendant, or was often, as in the masjids at
Jaunpur, continued to the ground by a thin and often decorated octagonal shaft. This was
even practiced down to the Akbar’s time, and an example may be m the Nagina Masjid
abutting on the high viaduct leading from ‘Jodh-Bai’s’ palace towards the Hathi Pol.
Subsequently the arch was continued in one unbroken line to the ground, as the
Moti Masjid in the Fort, Agra.
There are numerous and varied patterns upon the pilasters on the exterior and interior walls.
They consist principally of geometric traceries; many of them are very intricate and seldom
met with, and rare traceable to Persian and Arabian examples. Upon those marked is the
Swastika or cross, a sacred ancient symbol, has been ingeniously introduced. The symbol
is of great antiquity, and found upon the various rock-cut temples of Western India, as the
fylfot in Europe, and elsewhere. It is prevalent also in Chinese and Japanese decoration,
which is probably accounted for by the spread of Buddhism from India to these countries
were employed upon the embellishment of the building; they may after all, with the
exception of the Swastika, which is purely Indian.
Analysis
The harmonic analysis of Raja Birbal’s house exhibits a hexagonal symmetry with centre
lying in the upper portion of the house.
The hexagonal symmetry has the following proportions
AD /AC = AO /AB
AD = Total height of the house from base
AC = Height up to the roof of first floor (excluding domes)
AB = Height of the roof of the ground floor

SURAIGHORI (FLOWER VASE), CHINA WARE, 17™ CENT. AD, KSR
MUSEUM, ANANTAPUR
AD / AC = AO / AB
Surai Ghori (Flower Vase), China Ware, 171h Cent. AD, KSR Museum,
Anantapur
Description
A porcelain cylindrical shaped flower vase with a circular base applied with different type
of designs.
Analysis
The harmonic analysis of flower vase exhibits a hexagonal symmetry with the following
proportions.
AD /AC = AO /AB
AD = Total height of the flower vase from base
AC = Height up to the neck portion
AO = Height up to the central portion
AB = Height up to the centre of the bottom section

VAJRA KIREETAM, TIRUMALA, 1985
AD / AB = OD / DC = ad / be
Vajra Kireetam, Tirumala, 1985
Description
Wearing of the crown is a royal prerogative and it has a past history. The practice of
wearing of crowns begins with the dawn of intelligence. The crown has multifarious
shapes and dimensions and they denote the magnitude of power, the wearer wields. The
crown of the almighty is certainly unique-unrivalled in excellent craftsmanship, inestimable
in worth and unbounded in opulence. Such a crown will flash across the minds of
devotees, when they think adorning God with a diamond-decked diadem. The
Vajrakireetam has a definite symmetry and proportion and it is interesting to note that this
symmetry and proportion is very much similar to that of the Vimana, as can be analyzed
from the figure.
Analysis
The harmonic analysis of Vajrakireetam exhibits a hexagonal symmetry with the following
proportions.
AD/AB =OD /DC =ad/bc

SHANKU WITH SILVER COVERINGS AND STUDDED
WITH DIAMONDS, TIRUMALA
a1
D
CHAKRA WITH SILVER COVERINGS AND STUDDED WITH

DIAMONDS, TIRUMALA
AD / AC = AO / AB
Symmetry) And Proportion 84
Sanku With Silver Coverings and Studded with Diamonds, Tirumala
Analaysis
The harmonic analysis of Sanku exhibits a hexagonal symmetry with the following
proportions.
AD / AC = AO / AB
©
Chakra with Silver Coverings and Studded with Diamonds, Tirumala
Analysis
The harmonic analysis of Chakra exhibits a hexagonal symmetry with the following
proportions.
AD / AC = AO / AB
VARADA HASTA WITH GOLD COVERINGS AND
STUDDED WITH DIAMONDS, TIRUMALA
a1
a4
AD / AC = AO / AB
KALI HASTA WITH GOLD COVERINGS AND STUDDED

WITH DIAMONDS, TIRUMALA
a1
a4
AD / AC = AO / AB
Varada Hasta With Gold Coverings And Studded with Diamonds, Tirumala
Analysis
The harmonic analysis of Varada Hasta exhibits a hexagonal symmetry with the following
proportions.
AD / AC = AO / AB
Kati Hasta with Gold Coverings And Studded with Diamonds, Tirumala
Analysis
The harmonic analysis of Kati Hasta exhibits a hexagonal symmetry with the following
proportions.
AD / AC = AO / AB
The system of oblique diameters formed by chords parallel to the oblique diameters in an
composition determines all movements stresses within the composition and embody the
time factor in the composition. In most composition only a limited number of oblique
diameters are relevant, although in a few all have significance. The system of oblique lines
on account of its kinetic character constitutes the Time-division. Whereas the Space-
division corresponds to the static aspect of an image, the time-division reveals its dynamic
aspects. Space and time division, which, correspond to measure and movement, are
interwoven in all compositions.
One is static and the other is kinetic and interlaced they constitute the integrated whole of
the composition. When movements in certain directions have to be stressed parallel and
concerned movements are brought into play. When movements have to be balanced,
complementary movements are used. When movements have to be arrested or broken,
opposite stresses crossing at determined angles are used. The three fundamental
possibilities in every composition are movements stressed by parallel or concurrent lines,
movements balanced by complementary and movements opposed by contrary stresses.

In the geometrical analysis of Art or Sculptural panels depicting the life forms involving
movements the following procedure is adopted.
1. Tire relief panels are enclosed within a square or rectangular framework, which is
conditioned by a circle circumscribing the aggregate of the form. The essential features of
any sculpture are contained within the directing circle.
2. Vertical and horizontal chords parallel to the respective diameters form a network that
determines the Space-division or Measure.
3. Oblique diameters and chords parallel to them determine the Time-division or
movement.
The directed asymmetric “pulsating” forces manifested in growing organisms act quite
different from the physico-chemical reactions producing the inorganic systems under the
principle of economy and energy. A certain preference for pentagonal symmetry and
symmetry connected with the Golden section and unknown in inanimate systems, seems to
exist in the animal as well as plant kingdoms.
In fact this pentagonal and dodecahedral symmetries play a vital role in the shape of living
organisms and the diagrams of dynamic live sculptors for the two reasons. (1) The Golden
Section and the Golden Ratio (p is intimately connected with the Gnomonic growth
(Homothetic growth) which is associated with the growth of living organisms. (2) The
golden section and the related series are intimately associated with the pentagon and
pentagonal symmetry.
Keeping the above-mentioned facts in view, we analyze well-known Art pieces belonging
to different periods found in Museums and Temples of India and establish the basic
Principles of Symmetry and Proportions.
They are:
13. Loving Couples, Bharhut, Sunga, 2nd Cent. BC
14 Drunken Courtesal helped by a youth, Mathura, Kushan, 1st - 2nd Cent. AD
15 Subjugation the Elephant Nalagiri, Medallion, Amaravati, Satavahana,
2nd Cent.AD
16 Offering of gifts to a young king, Medallion, Amaravati, 2nd Cent. AD
17 Noble Naga Prince, Ikshvaku, 2nd - 3rd Cent. AD
18 Tritirtha imaga of Parsvanatha, Maitraka, 7th Cent. AD
19 Mahishasura Mardini on a lion, Mahabalipuram, Pallava, 7th Cent. AD
20 Eight armed Nataraja, Alampur, Western Chalukya, 8th Cent. AD
21 Avalokitesvara, Nalanada, Pala, 9th Cent. AD
22 Kalyanasundara Siva, Vadakkalattur, Pallava, 7th Cent. AD
23 Chalukyan Madanika, Western Chalukya, 12th Cent. AD
24 Parvathi, Chola, 12th Cent. AD
25 Ganga from Bengal, National Museum, 12th Cent. AD

26 Madanika, Hoyasala, 12th Cent. AD
27 Lady applying tilak, Lepakshi, Vijayanagara, 16th Cent. AD
28 Scene from life at court, Mughal School, Akbar period
29 Kanada Ragini, Deccan style, 17lh -18th Cent. AD
30 Tara, Nepalese, 18th Cent. AD
31 The Godess of Earth, Style of Bangkok, 19th Cent. AD
32 Giulino De Medici, Salarjung Museum, 19th Cent. AD
33 A Child, Salarjung Museum, 19th Cent. AD

LOVING COUPLES (DAMPATI) PANEL FROM A RAIL PILLAR FROM BHARHUT,
SUNGA 2nd CENT. BC, INDIAN MUSEUM, CALCUTTA
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4'i

al a5 /a5 D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 Gj 0
Golden section = A al a3 a4, ala3 a5

Stress area = A Oa2 a5
Oblique diameteres = bl b3, b2 b4
Chords = bl b2, b3 b4
Loving Couples (dampati) Panel from a rail pillar from Bharhut. Sunga,
2nd Cent. BC. Indian Museum, Calcutta.
Description
Pushyamitra, the ambitious commander-in-chief of the Mauryas, slew the weak and
indolent Brihadratha, the last Mauryan ruler, the reign of the Sungas began.
Simultaneously with the weakening of the Mauryas, the large empire extending over the
Indian subcontinent was broken up. The contemporaries who ruled in the Deccan were the
early Satavahanas, and in the east the powerful Cheta dynasty asserted itself. Of the last,
Kharavela, the mighty emperor, is known from his own inscription to have brought back to
his realm, as an art trophy, a famous sculpture of a Tirthankara, earlier carried away by the
Mauryas from Kalinga. (On the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, see K.P Jayaswal
and R.D.Banerji, eds, in Epigraphica Indica, XX, Part VI, 1932, PP.71-89, especially p.88)
Like Caesar and Napoleon, later great warrior connoisseurs, here we have a king who gave
equal attention to the arts of war and to the arts of peace. He arranged music, dance, and
drama for the entertainment of his people. He created and appreciated works of art. To
him we owe the famous caves Rani Gumpha, Ananta Gumpha, Manchapuri Gumpha,
Ganesa Gumpha, and others at Udayagiri and Khandagiri in the vicinity of Bhubaneswar in
Orissa.
The continuity with Mauryan tradition may be observed in an arch over the doorway of the
facade of a cave in Udayagiri recalling the identical one in the Lomas Rishi cave. The
delightful animal study at Udayagiri affirms the natural skill of the early Indian sculptor in
depicting animal form and movement, a capacity that has survived through the ages. The
lotus, the swan, the elephant, and the deer—not to mention feminine charm—are among
the favorite themes of the Indian sculptor, who has excelled in their representation.
The rock-cut caves follow the style of wooden buildings with a series of cells and pillared
verandas; the entrances to the cells have lintels decorated with a pattern of toranas. The
pillar brackets are ornamented with floral designs, human riders on griffins, and a loving
couples (dampati). The double-storied galleries are early instances of the multistoried
mansions mentioned in the literature of the period.
Only fragments of the rail and a single gateway (torana) from the stupa at Bharhut have
survived. An inscription on one of the pillars of the gateway at Bharhut mentions its
construction during the reign of the Sungas in the second century BC. The stupa must once
have been a treasure house of Jatakas and Avadanas recounting the Buddha’s life in his
previous births, when he qualified himself by his good deeds to become the Supremely
Enlightened One; a series of incidents from his life as Siddharta also appeared on the rail
around the Stupa, one of the most important in early India. Yet even these fragments
provide the most eloquent picture of life, culture, and civilization in India of the second
century BC. India owes the preservation of this portion of magnificent rail and torana to
Sir Alexander Cunningham, who not only discovered them but also brought them all the
way from a distant hamlet in Madhya Pradesh to Calcutta, to be preserved in the India
Museum.
Analysis
Space Division (or) Measure
The panel of the sculpture is a square with linear dimension from the base to the top of the
loving couple. Its vertical division is between ml m2 and wl w2 and the horizontal division
between dl d2 and yl y2.
The circle is enclosed within a square having oblique diameters bl b3 and b2 b4 as well as
the chords are b3 b4 and blb2. The chords joining the extremities of diameters form a
Pentagon enclosed within the circle. The Pentagonal Symmetry is in accordance with the
well-known principle related to figures depicting a life form. We may also notice that the
Golden Section triangle appears within this Pentagonal Symmetry.
The centerline rl r2, which passes in between the dampati, divides the panel into two
parts. Within the space between the vertical ml m2 and the center line rl r2, one can see a
male holds a small bird, while within the space between center line rl r2 to wl w2, one can
see that a female joints her right hand with male and holds a small bird on her left hand.
The horizontal line lies between ll i2 to jl j2 cover movements in the bodies of the couple
providing an inner balancing factor. Below these horizontal lines, we find a stable base to
the composition as against to various movements of the upper parts. The isosceles As al
a3 a4 and al a3 a5, shown in dotted lines correspond to the Golden Section triangles.
Triangle al a3 a4 consists of side al a4 passing through right leg, left thigh, hip, and raised
left-hand of the female; side al a3 passing through the left foot, right thigh and shoulder of
Symmetry And Proportion. 93
the male; side a3 a4 passing through the edges of caps of dampati, while the side a3 a5 of
triangle al a3 a5 passes through the breast and hip of the female and through the cap of the
male. We denote the point of intersection of the sides as D and the star mark G denotes the
stress pomt of this sculpture dividing the vertical central line (.Madhya Sutra) in the Golden
section and lying within the maximum stress area A Oa2a5. We observe from the Golden
triangle al a3 a4 and a ia3 as the ratios are equal to
aia3/ a3a4 = a3 as/ as &\= a3D / Da4 = aia3/ asD = Da3/ asD = aia6/ a()G = 4>
Time Division (or) Movement
The essential diameters related to movement of the composition are ft>b4 and bib3.
Diameter b2 b4 extending through the head, drapery of a male, the center point o, through
right thigh and left feet of the female and diameter bib3 extending through the left thigh, the
center point o, through the edge of left hand of the male and through the face of the
female.
DRUNKEN COURTESAN HELPED BY A YOUTH AND ATTENDED BY A
YOUNG FEMALE SERVENT AND AN ELDERLY COURTESAN. BACK OF A
PANEL FROM MATHURA, KUSHAN, 1st - 2nd CENT. AD NATIONAL MU
SEUM, NEW DELHI.
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4 }

al a5 /a5 D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 G J
Oblique diameteres = bl b4, b2 b5, b3 b6
Chords = bl b3, b4 b5, b2 b4, b2 b6
Drunken Courtesan helped by a youth and attended by a young female

SERVANT AND AN ELDERLY COURTESAN. BACK OF A PANEL FROM MATHURA, KUSHAN,
1ST-2ND century AD National Museum, New Delhi.
Description
The Kushan Empire was huge, extending from beyond the northwestern frontier to near
Pataliputra. Just as Gandharan art marked a phase of Kushan in the Gandharan region, the
school that developed the indigenous style in the area of Mathura was distinctive. A seat of
great artistic activity, Mathura produced numerous sculptures, which have been found in
several places; some of them are very famous.
The outstanding Kushan sculpture in the National Museum in New Delhi presents a
Bacchanalian scene on one side and a more interesting episode on the other. The drunken
reveler depicted is intended to introduce a courtesan in a courtesan’s mansion (Vesavasa),
where a charming damsel, a danseuse, is plied with wine by a girl attendant, and as she
drops down drunk, she is supported by a youth, one of the many rich patrons of the house.
Close to the distressed figure is an elderly courtesan, a Kuttani, a clear picture of old age,
who once possessed the charms and wiles usual with girls of the Vesavasas
The reverse shows a scene of a lovely damsel moving away from a couple of youths who
are following her. The umbrella held for her by her female attendant suggests that she is
rich. The significant details of this sculpture are that the damsel’s anklets are pulled up to
prevent their jingling and that her upper garment is pulled over her head to cover her
flower-decked coiffure. The scene vividly recalls the first act of the Mnchchhakatika,
where the courtesan Vcisantasena, the famous beauty of Ujjaim, hurried home at dusk hotly
Symmetry Ancl Proportion 95
pursued by the fool Sakara, the brother of king’s wife, and his friend the Vita, a man of
taste, a nagaraka. Out of pity for her the Vita suggests that she throw away her anklets
and flowers as the sound of the former and the perfume of the latter betray her even in the
darkness of the evening as she tries to escape from her wicked friend; Kamam
Pradoshatimirena na drisyase tvam, saudaminiva jaladodarasandhilina, mukharani cha
nupurani The position of the anklets and her attempt to cover her braid as if to conceal the
perfume, as she hurries away from Sakara, depicted following her, clearly suggest that
damsel is the courtesan Vasantasena; this impression is strengthened by the Vesavasa
portrayed on the reverse. (Reverse photograph is attached)
Analysis
The panel of the sculpture is a square with vertical division between ml m2 and wl w2,
horizontal division between dl d2 to yl y2. The circle enclosed within the square with the
extremities of its oblique diameters and chords forming a Pentagon.
The centerline rl r2, which passes through the body of the drunken courtesan, divides the
panel into two parts. Within the space between ml m2 to rl r2, one can see that youth helps
the drunken courtesan and while within the space between rl r2 to wl w2, one can see that
an elderly courtesan attending the drunken with a young female servant. The horizontal
lines between il i2 to kl k2 cover the movements in the bodies of drunken courtesan, young
female servant and an elderly courtesan providing an inner balancing factor. The isosceles
As al a3 a4 and al a3 a5, which is showed m, dotted lines correspond to the Golden Section
triangles.
The Golden Section isosceles triangle al a3 a4 consists of side al a4 passing through the left
hand shoulder of elderly courtesan and young female servant, through the lingers of young
female (which hold bottle like), anklet of drunken courtesan; side a3 a4 passing through the
forehead of the elderly courtesan; side al a3 passing through the right hand of the youth
which helps drunken courtesan and through the right leg of the drunken courtesan which is
in bend position; while the side a3 a5 of al a3 a5 passing through the upper portion of the
slightly bent neck of the youth and through the top of the heads of drunken courtesan and
young female servant. We denote the point of intersection of the sites as D and the star
mark G denotes the stress point of this sculpture dividing the vertical central line (Madhya
Sutra) in the Golden section and lying within the maximum stress area A Oa2a5. We
observe from these triangles
a^/ a3a4 = a3 a5/ a5 ai= a3D / Da4 = alas / asD = Da3 / asD = ala6 / a6G = <|>
The essential diameters related to movement of the composition are bl b4, b2 bs and
b3 b6. Diameter blb4 extending through the right leg which is in bend position, chest, left
shoulder of drunken courtesan and through left hand finger and face of the elderly
courtesan and the diameter b2 b5 extending through the right shoulder of the youth and
drunken courtesan, through the left-hand fingers of young female servant while diameter
b3 b6 extending through the toe of the left leg and through the body of the drunken
courtesan.
THE SUBJUGATION OF THE ELEPHANT NALAGIRI, MEDALLION ON A CROSS
BAR OF THE RAIL FROM THE STUPA AT AMARAVATI (ANDHRA PRADESH),
SATAVAHANA, 2nd CENT. AD (FOURTH, OR RAIL, PERIOD), GOVT. MUSEUM, MA
DRAS
ml n1 o1 p1 q1 r1 s1 t1 u1 v1 w1
a1 b1
y1 b4 a6 y2
m2 n2 o2 p2 q2 r2 s2 t2 u2 v2 w2
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4

al a5 /a5 D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 (jr

Oblique diameteres = bl b4, b2 b5, b3 b6
Chords = bl b5, b4 b6, bl b3, b2 b4
The subjugation of the elephant Nalagiri . Medallion on a crossbar of the

RAIL FROM THE STUPA AT AMARVATI (ANDHRA PRADESH). SATAVAHANA,2ND CENT.AD
(fourth, or Rail, Period), Government Museum, Madras.
Description
The most important monument for the study of Satavahana art in the region of Krishna
Valley is, however, the Amaravati stupa. The rail around it represents the perfection of the
art of sculpture. But the magnificent rail reached perfection in this art during the time of
die later monarchs in the fourth, or Rail, period. At that time both sides of the rail were
richly embellished with scenes illustrating Jataka stories, Avadanas, and scenes from the
Buddha’s life. Here one can observe an advance from the achievement at Sandhi, as the
simple forms utilized there, were elaborated and perfected in this phase. The motif of the
garland-bearer occurs at Mathura and in Gandhara, but it is only at Amaravati that this
motif attains the highest quality. It is interesting, also, to compare with garland-bearers of
Amaravati a similar portrayal of this period, but of Kushan workmanship, found even in
Central Asia in some of the murals recovered by Sir Aurel Stein and now preserved in the
National Museum in New Delhi. This pleasing motif of garland-bearers perfected at
Amaravati continued to inspire later sculptors; as late as the ninth century AD and even
later, the motif is continued in Pallava monuments, whence it has traveled beyond India,
and occurs even in Javanese art.
There are four sculptural periods, which can be distinguished at Amaravati. The earliest
phase is contemporaneous with Bharhut sculpture. The second phase, which can be dated
about AD. 100, is exemplified by a series of casing slabs representing purnaghatas and the
idoration of the Tree and the Stupa. The purnaghata suggests the Buddha’s birth and bath.
The lotuses issuing from the large decorated vase suggest water from a brimming vessel,
md the nearby bath. The tree and the stupa stand for the Enlightenment and the death of
he Buddha. The rows of lions and triratnas symbolize Sakya Simha, the lion among the
yalcyas, as the Buddha was known, and the Buddhist Trinity (the Buddha; Dharma, the
Law; and Sangha, respectively). Some of the slabs of the second phase present the human
|
figure of the Buddha for the first time. This is about AD. 100. Perfection in depicting the
!
i
form of the Buddha is however, yet to come.
The rail from Amaravati, which was carved mainly through the efforts of the Buddhist sage
!
Nagaijuna, dates from about A.D.150. It is here that the plastic art of the Satavahanas
reaches perfection. The themes are as many; the decorative element is as diverse, as are the
i
different technical methods adopted by the Rail artist to render the scenes effectively. Here
I
for the first time lighter and deeper etching, differentiated planes, perspective and distance,
and foreshortening are successfully introduced.

I
I
i
Amaravati sculpture from the rail is not only pleasing but also most revealing. Some of the
i
Jatakas and Avadanas here depicted illustrate certain early texts, now lost, which formed
the source of inspiration for the carvers. The story of Sibi depicted at Amaravati based, not
on the Sibi Jataka, but on an early text, now lost, preserved for us in a late version in
Sanskrit, that of Kshemendra ’s Avadanakalpalata. Yet another instance in which the early
I
version of a text inspired the Amaravati sculptors is the legend of Paduma Kumara,
I
preserved in one of the Avadanas of Kshemendra.
I
Some of the Jatakas depicted at Amaravati, the Chhaddanta, Hamsa, Chempeya,
Mandhata, and Vidhurapandita, for example, are well known. But there are others (and
interesting ones), which are less familiar and never portrayed elsewhere; an instance is the
Lossa Jataka. Among the scenes at Amaravati depicting the life of the Buddha there are
again some rare ones such as the episode in which Angulimala, Sumana, and Jivaka
counsel Ajatasatru to visit the Buddha, and the touching story of the devotion of Samvati,
the saintly queen of Udayana, who suffered at the hands of her jealous co-wife,
j
Magandiya. Some of these appealing, rare incidents have been repeated; one such scene
occurs on two medallions, in the British Museum and in the Madras Museum. The most
elaborate and pleasing portrayal of die Sakyas welcoming home the Buddha at Kapilavastu
is from Amaravati.
Several Gandharan sculptures depict the attempts of Devadatta, the Buddha’s wicked
cousin, to destroy Buddha, but no better carving of this theme exists than the world -
famous medallion from Amaravati showing the subjugation of the wild elephant Nalagiri
whom Devadatta caused let loose. A synoptic method for the presentation of events was
uscu in the medallion. The right half shows the furious elephant driving terror into the
minds of those caught unawares in the royal highway and even of those safe in their
j
jalconies above, while the other half shows the animal calm and subdued, kneeling
reverently at the feet of the Buddha.

I
Analysis
The panel of the sculpture is circle enclosed in a square with its vertical division ml m2 and
wl w2 and horizontal division between dl d2 and yl y2. The extremities of the oblique
diameters and chords of the circle form a Pentagon.

1
i
(
The centerline rl r2 which passes through the lady who is in the balcony, through the
shoulder and hip of the ladies, trunk of the elephant (Nalagiri), through the body of a man
rampled by the furious elephant. Within the space between the vertical ml m2 and the
center line (rl r2), one can see that the furious elephant (Nalagiri) driving terror into the
ninds of those caught unawares in the royal highway and even those in their balconies, and
vhile within the space between the center line (rl r2) and wl w2, one can see that the same
urious elephant (Nalagiri) became calm and subdued, kneeling reverently at the feet of the
Buddha.
I
i
1
I
The horizontal line lies between gl g2 to ii i2, which cover the terrified people in the royal
righway as well as the figure of Buddha with folded hands. The isosceles As al a3 a4 and
!
al a3 a5, correspond to the Golden Section triangles.
j
k al a3 a4 consists of sides al a4 passing through the lady who is in the balcony, the
umbrella (somebody holds it), through the right ear and foot of the furious elephant
(Nalcigin); Side al a3 passing through the another lady in the balcony , people who are in
jthe royal highway, trunk of subdued elephant (Nalagin), side a3 a4 passing through the
1
knee of trampled person, while the side a3 a5 of triangle al a3 a5 passes through right feet
I
of subdued elephant (Nalagiri), trunk of furious elephant and through one of the passer’s
in royal highway. We denote the point of intersection of the sides as D and the star mark G
jdenotes the stress point of this sculpture dividing the vertical central line (Madhya Sutra) in
the Golden ratio and lying within the maximum stress area A Oa2a5.
We observe from the Golden triangles a\ ay a4 and aj a3 a5, the Golden Ratio
laia3/ a3a4 = a3 as/ as ai= a3D / Da4 = a^ / asD = Da3 / asD = a^ / a<;G = c)>
Time Division or Movement
The essential diameters related to movement of the composition are bl b4, b2 b5 and b3 b6.
Oblique diameter bl b4 extending through a lady in the balcony, right through the terrified
aassers in the royal highway and through the trunk of the furious elephant, the oblique
diameter b2 b5 extending through the body of furious elephant, body of the furious elephant
and through the folded hands of Buddha, where as the oblique diameter b3 b6 extending
through the trunk of subdued elephant, near the trunk of a furious elephant and through the
balcony. The transversal movements of the elephant and passers in the royal highway
chiefly directed by the above diameters.
The smaller figures of the passer’s of the royal highway on either side, show a closer
analysis that their presence and position are by no means accidental but provide an
I
Anchorage and counterweight to many of the multifarious movements and space directions
l
projected by the main figure.
THE OFFERING OF GIFTS TO A YOUNG KING, ORNAMENTAL MEDALLION OF
LIME STONE FROM THE LARGE STUPA AT AMARAVATI, SECOND HALF OF THE
2nd CENT. AD, GOVT. MUSEUM, MADRAS
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4 )

al a5 /a5 D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 G )
Golden section = A al a3 a4, aia3 a5
Oblique diameteres = bi b3, b2 b4
rHE OFFERING OF GIFTS TO A YOUNG KING. ORNAMENTAL MEDALLION OF LIMESTONE

FROM THE LARGE STUPA AT AMARVATI. SECOND HALF OF THE 2ND CENTURY AD
Government Museum, Madras
Description
The king sits on the throne with one leg bent and resting on the seat, surrounded by his
liarem, his courtesans, and his riches (note on the right the horse, a prized possession of
Indian Kings). Under the throne is the Vidusaka, the court jester. The circular shape of the
medallion has been exploited by adapting to its disposition of the feeders in a manner
reminiscent of, but far superior to, the European Romanesque style.
The male figure has the so-called leonine aspect: broad chest, slim waist, solid flesh, and
free moment; but no attempt at the anatomical rendering of the masses, tensions, and
muscular contractions is apparent. The female figure, instead, with enormous bust and
rounded hips adheres to the requirements of a very old canon of feminine beauty,
ibsolutely alien to the traditional taste of the Aryan peoples. In both, the resulting
'dealization is re-elaboration and transposition of real life, in which movement becomes
free, well-balanced, and full of vitality—perfectly in keeping with reality and yet infinitely
far from it. The artists endeavored to epitomize all possible types of a certain category of
subjects in a figure that had all the essential characteristics of the chosen category. The
icuteness of the analysis, perfonned both perceptually and spiritually, demonstrates that the
irtists must have made a vast selection and studied a great many subjects before
;oncentrating on certain traits and emphasizing them, the better to render the essence of the
category represented. This process of idealization explains more clearly than any
commentary the original meaning of the word rupa, namely ‘ form’ which was first ‘
prestige’ and later became ‘ beauty.’
Analysis
The panel of the sculpture is a circle enclosed in a square with its vertical division between
ml m2 and wl w2 and horizontal lines between dl d2 and yl y2. The extremities of the
oblique diameters and chords of the circle form a Pentagon.
The centerline rl r2, which passes through the courtesan, left leg of the king and through
the Vidusaka, the court jester, divides the panel into two parts. Within the space between
ml m2 to rl r2, one can see that the king surrounded by his harem and Vidusaka, court
jester, while within the space between rl r2 to wl w2 one can see the king surrounded by
harem with his riches like horse.
The horizontal lines lie between fl f2 to jl j2 cover courtesans providing an inner balancing
factor. The isosceles triangles al a3 a4 and al a3 a5, correspond to the Golden section
triangles. Triangles al a3 a4 consists of sides, al a4 passing through the throne of the king,
through the attendant, through the bodies of the members in the harem; side a3 a4 passing
through the legs of members in the harem; side al a3 passing through bodies of courtesans
and members in the harem. The sides a3 a5 of triangle al a3 a5 passing through the toe of
the prince, legs and right hand of a courtesan. As usual we observe the ratios are,
aja3/ a3a4 = a3 as/ as a[= a3D / Da4 = aia5/ asD = Da3/ a5D = aiaJ a<,G = (|)
Based on the square enclosing the sculpture we observe that there exists a point indicated
with a star mark G from the bottom acts as an index point, which divides the vertical line in
the Golden Section, and G lies within the A Oa2a5 indicating the maximum stress area
The essential diameters related to movement of composition are h2 b4 and bl b3.
iDiameter bl b3 extending through the face, left shoulder, left leg (which is in bend
position) of the Prince and through the hands of the members in the harem and diameter
!
1
b2 b4 extending the face of the courtesan, through the throne of the King, the left leg, which
is in bend position and the bodies of the members who are in the harem.
Smaller figures on the either side show a closer analysis that their presence and position but
provide an anchorage and counterweight to many of the multifarious movements and space
directions projected in the main part of the medallion.

The noble Naga Prince of the Champeya Jataka. Ikshavaku, 2nd-3rd Cent. AD,
National Museum, New Delhi.
Description
Indeed a masterpiece by a sculptor of Nagarjunakonda, now in the National Museum in
New Delhi, is the scene showing Siddhartha immersed in a stream of love in the royal
harem. A passage from the Mrichchhakatika is the inspiration for representation of love.
Here the Vidusaka, or court jester, remarks that no other vessels on love’s ocean need be
required of a vescivasa, or courtesan’s house, like Vasantasena’s, as the stana, or breast,
and nitamba, or hip, are yanas, or conveyance, enough on the smooth-gliding waters of
mngara, or poetry. kim tatra prichchyate, yushmakam khalu premanirmalajale
madanasamudre stananitambajaghancinyeva yanapatrani manoharani.
Both at Amaravati and at Nagarjunakonda Scythian and Roman influence can be noted.
The great trade with Rome in pearls and muslin from India brought with it not only Roman
gold, but also Roman figures of aesthetic interest, which the sculptor has not been slow in
welcoming. Some of the feminine figures draped like Roman matrons, the boy with a horn
to drink wine from, the soldier in Roman armor, are all telling instances of a foreign note.
Another detail, the semicircular ‘moon stones’ with rows of animals, recalls similar
carvings from Ceylon.
The Satavahana sculptor worked at home not only in stone carving but in ivory carving
also, as can be seen from die beautiful feminine figure in ivory from Ter; he was also adept
at modeling lovely figures in wax and casting them m metal according to the cire-perdue
arocess. Excellent examples of Satavahana metal work include the royal elephant rider
with queens on the back of the animal found in Kolhapur and preserved in the museum
;here, and the bronzes representing the Buddha found at Amaravati, and other places in the
Krishna Valley and now preserved in the Madras Museum and the British Museum.
Ikshavaku metal workmanship is well exemplified m the tiny image of a prince holding a
bow excavated at Nagarjunakonda.
The Ikshvaku rulers who succeeded the Satavahanas in power continued the earlier
i
i
)xaditions. Yet the slim and slender figures which characterize this period are adorned with
I
pome new forms of jewelry such as the long and pleasing Yajnopavita, or sacred thread,
i
entirely made up of pearls, and the Crocodile pattern (Makari) used as a decoration for the
feminine coiffure. Like this Satavahana monarchs, the Ikshavaku belonged to the
Brahminical faith, but some of the princesses of this tolerant royal house were worshippers
of the Buddha. The lenience and munificence of the royal donors assured an efflorescence
of art in the Sriparvata era.
Analysis
The panel of the sculpture is a square with its vertical division between ml m2 and wl w2,
and horizontal division between dl d2 and yl y2. The circle is enclosed within the square
with die extremities of its oblique diameters and chords forming a Pentagon.
The centerline ri r2, which passes through the crown of the noble prince, divides the panel
into two parts. Within the space containing between ml m2 to rl r2, one can see some of
attendants with prince while within the space containing between rl r2 to wl w2 remaining
attendants in the group with the prince.
The horizontals gl g2 to il i2 cover the attendants and the prince providing an inner
balancing factor. Below these horizontal lines, we find a stable base to the composition as
against to the restless movements of the upper parts.
The Golden Section triangle al a3 a4 consists of side al a4 passing through the left
shoulder, right leg of an attendant; side al a3 passing through the cheek of an attendant, left
shoulder, knee of the prince, through the right leg of another attendant; side a3 a4 passing
through the border of the panel. While the side a3 a5 of the golden section triangle al a3 a5
passes through right leg of the prince, left shoulder and cheek and face of attendants. We
denote the point of intersection of the sides as D and the star mark G denotes the stress
point of this sculpture dividing the vertical central line (Madhya Sutra) in the Golden
Section and lying within the maximum stress area A Oa2a5. We observe
aia3/ 8384 = a3 as/ as &\= a3D / Da4 = ajas/ asD = Da3/ asD = a^/ agG = (j>
The essential diameters related to movement of the composition are bl b3 and b2 b4.
Diameter extending through the face of an attendant, through the left shoulder, toe of the
noble prince and the diameter b2 b4 extending through the left hand of an attendant, left
leg, right wrist of the Prince and through the head of an attendant.
TRITIRTHA IMAGE OF PARSVANATHA WITH AN INSCRIPTION MENTIONING THE DONAR,
ARJIKA (REVERED) KHAMBIL FROM AKOTA, MAITRAKA, 7th CENT. AD, BARODA MUSEUM
m2 n2 o2 p2 q2 r2 s2 t2 u2 v2 w2
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4_

al a5 /a5 D == a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 gT 0
Golden section = A al a3 a4, ala3 as

Tritirtha image of Parsvanatha with an inscription mentioning the donor,

ARJIKA (REVERED) KHAMBIL FROM AKOTA. MA1TRAKA, 7™ CENTURY AD BARODA
Museum
Description
The Maitrakas of Valabhi, who ruled in the area of Gujarat, were feudatories of the Guptas
and followed Gupta traditions. The famous Gop temple is a monument of this age and
from their realm. Some of the most beautiful carvings from Gujarat come from such planes
as Idar, Samalaji, Mahudi, Roda, and the like.
The workmanship in metal of the Gupta period from this area is exemplified in bronzes
from Akota, and excellent examples exist in the Baroda Museum. The Santinatha with
attendants from Akota is a fine work now in the National Museum in New Delhi.
Analysis
The pane of the sculpture is a square with its vertical division between ml m2 and wl w2
and horizontal division between dl d2 and yl y2. The circle is enclosed within the square
forming a Pentagon.
The centerline rl r2, which passes through the head of Parsvanatha, divides the panel into
two parts. Whole panel is contained between two verticals ml m2 to wl w2. Within the
space between ml m2 to rl r2, one can see the image of Parsvanatha and a Yaksha, within
the space between li r2 to wl w2; one can see the image of Parsvanatha and Yakshi. From
the horizontals gi g2 to il i2 one can see the movements in the heads of Yaksha and Yakshi
and in the legs of Parsvanatha providing an inner balancing factor. Below these
horizontal lines, we find a stable base to the composition as against to the movements in
upper parts. The Golden Section isosceles triangle al a3 a4 consists of side al a4 passing
through the right ear, shoulder and elbow of the Parsvanatha and through the seat of
Yaksha; side al a3 passing through the left ear, shoulder and elbow of Parsvanatha and
through the seat of Yakshi; while the side a3 a5 of the golden triangle al a3 a5 passes
through the right shoulder, neck and left elbow of the Yaksha.
We observe as usual the golden ratio
aia3/ a3a4 = a3 a5/ as ai= a3D / Da4 = aia5 / a3D = Da3 / a5D = a^/ a6G = <j)
Based on the square enclosing the sculpture, we observe that there exists a point indicated
with a star mark G from the bottom acts as an index point, which divides the vertical line in
the Golden Section, and G lies within the A Oa2a5 indicating the maximum stress area.
MAHISHASLRAMARDINI ON' A LION Vv iTH HER RETINUE A HACKING MAllISA,
MAHAB ALI PL’RAM. PALL A V A
a4
Symmetry/ And Proportion 111
Mahishasura Mardini on a lion, Mahabalipuram, Pallava, 7th Cent. AD
Description
Durga mounted on her lion and surrounded by a host of fighting Ganas is advancing to
give battle to Mahisasura and his warriors. She brandishes her sward in one of her eight
hands, with two others she holds her bow and pulls the bowstring back to her ear, while
with her remaining hands she carries further weapons and attributes. The Devi is storming
forward with her followers, while the Danava is bushed back by her onrush. He appears to
be on the defensive, but he turns his head definitely towards the Devi and lifts his club to
counter the attack. His followers are retreating or falling under the shower of the Devi's
arrows. Only the one in the top centre faces the assault.
The panel of the sculpture is a square with its vertical division between ml m2 and wlw2,
horizontal division between dld2 to yly2. The circle is enclosed within the square with the
extremities of its oblique diameters and chords, forming a Pentagon. The Pentagonal
-Symmetry is in accordance with the well-known principle related to figures depicting a life
form. We may also notice that the Golden section triangle appears within this Pentagonal
Symmetry.
The Central line (Madhya Sutra), passes through the head of the man falling downward and
along the face of the small Amazon below him. Within the space between the vertical
ml m2 and the centre line rlr2, one can see Devi and her hosts, while within the space
between centre line rlr2 to wl w2 one can see Mahishasurci and his followers.
The horizontal line lies between flf2 to klk2 cover the movements in the bodies of Devi,
man falling head downward and the follower of Malushasura providing an inner balancing
factor. The isosceles As ala3a4 and ala3a5, shown in dotted lines correspond to the Golden
section triangles. Triangle ala3a4 consists of side ala4 passing through the thighs of Devi
and Amazon and through the Gana above her countering that of the Asura's body; side al a3
passing through the shields, through the thigh of the follower of Asura and through the
shoulder of Asura; side a3a4 passing through the body of the one of the followers of Asura;
while the side a3a5 of the Aala3a5 passes through the thigh of Asura, through the face of the
follower of Asura and through the bodies of the hosts of Devi, We denote the point of
intersection of the sides as D and the starmark G denotes the stress point of this sculpture
dividing the central line in the Golden section and lying within the maximum stress area
A Oa2a5. We observe from the Golden triangle ala3a4 and ala3a5 the ratios are
ala3/a3a4 = a3a5/a5al = a3D/Da4 = ala5/a5D = a3D/Da5 = ala6/a6G = <|>
Time Division (or) movement
The essential diameters related to movement of the composition are blb4, b2b5 and b3b6.
Diameter blb4 extend through the hand of Durga which holds bow, head of Durga's lion,
head of the man falling downward, diameter b2b5 extending through the face of Asura,
through the head of the man falling downward and through the bodies of the hosts of
Durga and diameter b3b6 extending through the head of man falling downward, through
the fingers of Asura and through the knee of Durga.
Analysis
It is an elementary and obvious truth that the particular form-language of any art is
conditioned by the cosmic, psychological and metaphysical conceptions that lie at its base.
It is however much more difficult to say with precision, how the spiritual background
conditions and in what way it manifests itself in the work of art. It is therefore only with the
greatest caution that I venture to say; it would not be surprising if the Siva-Sakta school,
which conceives the whole universe as the product of an unending emission of vibrations
and stresses in the Ether of Pure Consciousness should create, even without deliberate
intention and merely as the natural outflow of its world-conception, an art operating
entirely by means of dynamic stresses. If such a postulate were correct, it would of course
apply to all the sculptures.
In the midst of this intricate pattern of violent movements, the Devi, though small, in
comparison to asura and his warriors, stands out as a central, dominating figure. This is
due to the position and carriage of her body, which is in deliberate opposition to all others.
While the others are swept in an oblique slant, her figure remains aligned in the vertical and
the horizontal, the two directions that denote equipoise and stability. Thus she appears as a
separate, independent entity, in spite of the fact that she is harmoniously woven into the
pattern of the composition. Her figure from head to foot is the most conspicuous vertical,
and her stretched anus are the most conspicuous horizontal in the whole composition.
Since all verticals and horizontals with their stabilizing power are incorporated in the
Devi’s figure, she conveys, in spite of her forward drive, an impression of unassailable
firmness. The efficacy and importance of space-direction is here demonstrated with all
desirable evidence.
It is curious in spite of the unsymmetrical appearance of the composition and its
heterogeneous form elements, it is governed from end to end by strict inherent order. On
closer analysis, an equivalence and balance, between smaller forms and this
correspondence reaches the point of a regular symmetry. This is shown in such details as
the juxtaposition of the two fighting men in the top center, in the symmetrical disposition
of the Devi’s and the A sura’s umbrellas, and the warrior, in the two uppermost comers. It is
visible also in the Devi’s sword and the Asura’s club, which with their complementary
slants are occupying symmetrical positions in the composition. Both are deviating at the
same angle from the horizontal in opposite directions.
In this panel of the battle between Durga and the Mahisasura, the two sides meet m the
middle are each apportioned to one of the contending forces. But although they are slung
into one another, they are separate form-complexes of an entirely different character. The
Devi’s side has a perpendicular axis and is composed of a number of small rounded form-
elements, feminine in character and scattered in an apparently haphazard way. The Asura’s
side has an oblique axis and is composed of bigger, angular, masculine form-elements,
disposed in an apparently more systematic manner around the central figure. Under such
circumstances one would expect the side of the Asura to triumph with ease over the side of
the Devi. But the contrary is the case, demonstrating synoptically and symbolically how
material strength is impotent before the light of the spirit and how brute force can never
triumph over divine powers.
Hie energy of Asura is earth-bound, heavy, tamasic, relying on size, weight and brutal
strength. He is stamping and snorting and grinding his teeth. The energy of the Devi is
effortless, imponderous and swift, penetrating as arrows or as rays of light. Her arms
indeed resemble un-conquerable, all-pervading rays, dispelling the clouds of darkness.
The Asura’s energy and that of his followers originates from the ground. His effort is from
below upwards, but after reaching a certain height, it is dashed to the ground again. It has
two movements, up and down. The Devi’s trajectory comes from above and has no break or
deflection. She does not touch the ground but sweeps down on the Asura in one straight
line.
In the larger prospect of universal manifestation the two eternally antagonistic principles,
the divine and the asuric, are inextricably interwoven. The one does not exist without the
other, and their eternal warfare is but the expression of their mutual necessity. The
unending struggle between these two incommensurable powers and the alternating
prevalence of one over the other constitutes the evolution of the cosmic process, in
creation, duration and dissolution.

EIGHT ARMED NATARAJA DANCING ON APASMARA WITH MUSICAL GANAS,

Western Chalukya - 8™ Cent. AD - Alampur Museum, Andhra Pradesh
One of the finest sculptures from Alampur is now in the local museum, exhibits Siva, eight
armed, dancing on Dwarf Apasmara, whose face beams with a smile in spite of the
vigorous tread of the feet of the Siva on his back. The right hand of Siva is in
Ahuyavarada or Samdamsa, symbolic of teaching, the left in gajcihasta. The rest of the
arms to the right carry the drum, the skullcap and the axe, while the other arms to the left
carry the trisula, snake and fire. The two musical Ganas flanking Siva, one play the flute
and other ardhva -drum.
Pancha-krtya
The Pentad of divine operations, which is illustrated in the dancing form of Siva, i.e.
Nataraja: creation (srshti), preservation (sthiti), and dissolution (bhanga) of the universe,
obscuration of the real nature and identity of the souls (tirodhana), and emancipation of the
souls from the fetters of transmigration (vimukti). (Ref: Mrgendragama Vidyapada 2,3 and
Kriyapada, patala 8) The last operation is sometimes given as grace (anugraha). The
concept is popular in Kashmir as well as in Saiva-siddhanta of the south.
In Saiva-siddhanta, the operations are explained as expressions of the five-fold energies of
siva (pancha-sakti): pure consciousness (chit), supreme bliss (or freedom, ananda),
unfettered will (icchha), comprehensive and continuous gnosis (Jnana), and power to
assume all forms (kriya).

Among the six varieties of the tandava-daace of Siva, Kalika-tcmdava represents creation,
Gauri-tandava dissolution, Tripura-tandava obscuration, and Urdhava-tandava grace. The
iconic representation of Ananda-tandava in Chidambaram is claimed to symbolize all the
five divine operations. Further, the five divine operations are also signified by the hand-
drum (damaru, creation), the gesture of protection (abhaya-hasta, preservation), fire held
in the hand (agni, dissolution), the ann thrown across (gaja-hasta, obscuration), and the
uplifted foot (utthita-pada, grace).
The five operations are in the background of the five forms of the deity: Brahma (creation),
Vishnu (preservation), Rudra (dissolution), Maheswara (obscuration), and Sadasiva
(grace). They are also involved in the significance of the sacred siva-panchakshari-mantra:
si, va, ya, na and mah respectively (cf. Unmai Vilakkam, 36 and Chidambaram
Mummanik-Kovai).
The idea of Pancha-kritya is also involved in the special and occasional rituals in a Siva
temple, like the Brahmotsava. The preliminary rites from collection of mud (mrtsangraha)
to the hoisting of the banner (dhvajarohana) symbolize srshti; the chariot-processions
(ratha-bera-yatra) slhiti; the dance sequences (nrttotsava) samharana; the gauri-yaga
(saktyutsava) triodhana; and floating in water (tirtha or udupotsava) anugraha.

Analysis
Space division (or) measure
The panel of the sculpture is a square with its height from its base to the top of the Shiva’s
crown.
The circle enclosed within the square is divided by 5 oblique diameter viz., bi, b6, and etc.
Apart from it verticals, horizontals and chords divide the panel. Joining the extremities of
diameters draws the chords and they form a pentagon enclosed within the circle. The
pentagonal symmetry is in accordance with the well-known principle related to figures
depicting a life form. We may also notice that the Golden section, which is intimately
associated with morphology of life and growth, appears within this pentagonal symmetry.
The madhya Sutra, the central line X\ r2 passing through the topmost point of the crown and
the centre of the panel divides the whole panel into two parts. The whole of Nataraja panel
is contained in between two verticals mj m2 and wi W2, within the space between the
vertical mi m2 and the central line lie the four right hands, three of them lifting drum, skull
cap and axe, and the fourth in Samdamsa pose. The remaining three hands carrying trisula,
snake and fire lie within the space between the central line and the vertical wi w2 One of
the left arms is a bent arm lying within the horizontal b2 b9 & b3 b8 with its fingers almost
reaching the right thigh.

The horizontal line lies between gi g2 to ii i2, cover the vertical space between the ends of
axe to the tail end of the snake provides a strong inner-balancing factor. Below these
horizontal lines, we find a stable base to the composition as against to the restless
movements of the upper parts. The Golden section area covers triangles ai a3 a4 and
aj a3 as, which is showed in dotted lines.
The Golden Section isosceles triangle ai a3 a4 consists of sides ai a3_ passing through left ear
of Shiva, left shoulder, left arm holding trisula, a touching edge of knee of Shiva, Gana
who is beating an Ardhva drum; side a3 a4 passing through Apasmara and the side a4 ai
passing through a Gana who is playing a flute, right knee of Shiva, a bent arm, Gajahasta
pose, right shoulder and right side of the crown. The side a3 a3 of A ai a3 as passes through
left leg of Gana, left of Shiva, right knees and bottom of the axe.
We denote the point of intersection of the sides as D and the star mark G denotes the stress
point of the sculpture dividing the vertical central line (.Madhya Sutra) in the Golden section
and lying within the maximum stress area A O a2 a5 We observe from the Golden Triangles
aj a3 a4 and ai a3 a5 the ratios are
aia3/ a3a4 = a3 a5/ a5 at= a3D / Da; = aia5/ a5D = Da3/ a5D = a jag/ agG = <|>
Based on the square enclosing the sculpture, we observe that their exists a point indicated
with a star mark the height of which is 10.2 cm from the bottom acts as an index point
which divides the vertical line in the golden section. Feehner has tested this most logical
and asymmetrical division of a line (in 1876) for the Golden rectangle for which the ratio
between the longer and shorter side is <j>.
The essential diameters related to the movement of the composition are b4 bg extending
through the Gana’s body to the lifted right hand carrying the skullcap. b5 bio extending
from the tail end of Apasmara to the Samdamsa pose, b6 bi extending from the head of the
Apasmara to the lifted left hand carrying trisula and b7 b2 extending from head of the
Gana to the raised left hand carrying a snake.
The entire upward thrust of Nataraja’s body and of his inner arms is directed within these
four lines and all the determining features of image lie concentrated here. Out side these
lines both the legs of Nataraja converge towards the central portion of Apasmara. The
transversal movements of the arms is chiefly directed by the diameters b4 bg and b2 b7. The
main line of the stress of the arms appears to be running parallel to the horizontal diameter
b3 b8.
The smaller figures of Ganas on either side the main figure, show on closer analysis that
their presence and position are by no means accidental but provide an anchorage and
counter weight to many of the multifarious movements and space directions projected by
the main figure.

AVALOKITESVARA FROM NALANDA(BIHAR) PALA, 9th CENT. AD, NATIONAL MUSEUM, NEW
DELHI
ml n1 o1 p1 q1 r1 s1 t1 u1 v1 w1
m2 n2 o2 p2 q2 r2 s2 t2 u2 v2 w2
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4)

al a5 /as D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 Q>_
Avalokitesvara from Nalanda ( Bihar) Pala, 9th Centuary AD, National

Museum, New Delhi
Description
In eastern India, the powerful Pala dynasty built up an empire founded by Gopala and
continued by Dharmapala and Devapala, his successors. The Pala kings, being great
patrons of learning and ait, encouraged universities at Nalanda, Vih-amasila, and
Uddandapura. They were devout worshipers of the Buddha. This accounts for the variety
of sculptural theme, Brahmanical and Buddhist, of the Pala period. The sculptors were
equally at home working in stone and in clay. The terracotta tradition, to which
magnificient examples of the early period from Paharpur and Mahasthan bear testimony,
continues in the very late temples like those at Birbhum. The dream of Trisala
representing a Jain theme and a medallion showing the mithuna motif are expressions in
the medium of terra cotta from Mahasthan. These works can be compared very favorably
with such fine examples as Seshanarayana fighting Madhu and Kaitabha from Bhitargaon.
A trace of Gupta sculpture can still be seen in famous examples of Paharpur work like
Radha and Krishna or Krishna and Balarama fighting Chanura and Mushtika. The earliest
dated Pala sculpture of the time of Dharmapala, a lintel representing Surya, Siva, and
Vishnu, in the Indian Museum in Calcutta, is of poor aesthetic quality. An outstanding
large sculpture of the Pala School, now in the Rajshahi Museum, is the famous Ganga, or
die heavenly stream personified, with especially noteworthy perfection of decorative and
anatomical detail. There are two modes of Pala work that can be distinguished, one from
Bihar and the other from Bengal, for the large empire of the Palas extended to the areas of
both Magadha and Banga. The figures in the former are a little heavy and thickest. In the
eastern region, however, the treatment is lighter and the figures are more vivacious. Of the
early sculptures from Bihar, the large image of Vishnu on Garuda, still recalling Gupta
features, is a noteworthy example from the broadly Collection preserved in the Indian
Museum in Calcutta. To the same phase belong the Vishnu with consorts and the
Tirthankara Parsvanatha recovered by J.C.French and preserved in the Indian Museum. A
sculptural work of this early phase from Nalanda that arrests attention by its grace and
dignity is the Kumarabhuta Avalokitesvarci in the National Museum in New Delhi.
Analysis
The Panel of the sculpture is a square with its vertical division between ml m2 and wl w2,
horizontal division between dl d2 and yl y2. The circle enclosed within the square with the
The centerline rl r2, which passes exactly through the center of Avalokitesvarci, divides the
panel into two parts. Within the space between the vertical line ml m2 and center line rl r2,
one can see that Avalokitesvara is m varada pose with an attendant, while within the space
between the center line rl r2 to wl w2 one can see that Avalokitesvara is holding a flower.
The horizontal line lies between gl g2 to il i2, cover vertical space between the
Avalokitesvara’s right hand, which is m bend pose to Avalokitesvara’s left hand holds a
flower providing an inner balancing factor. Below these horizontal lines, we find a stable
base to the composition as against to the various movements of upper parts. The isosceles
golden triangle ala3a4 consists of sides ala4 passing through the right ear, right shoulder
and right thumb of Avalokitesvara, side a3a4 passing through the toe of Avalokitesvara,
side ala3 passing through the left ear, shoulder of Avalokitesvara, while the side a3 a5 of
the golden A al a3 a5 passing through the legs, the palm of Avalokitesvara. We denote the
point of this sculpture dividing the vertical central line (Madhya Sutra) m the Golden
Section and lying within the maximum stress area A Oa2a5. We observe the ratios are
a^/ a3a4 = a3 as/ as ai= a3D / Da4 = a^s / a5D = Da3 / asD = a^ / agG = <j>
The essential diameters related to movement of the composition are bl b3 and b2 b4.
Diameter bl b3 extending through the flower, right thigh of Avalokitesvara, through the
right leg of an attendant and the diameter b2 b4 extending through the left feet, chest and
through the right ear of Avalokitesvara.

KALYANASUNDARA SIVA (SIVA'S MARRIAGE WITH PARVATI) LATER PALLAVA
PERIOD, 9™ CENT AD, CHIDAMBARESVARA TEMPLE, VADAK.KALATTUR,
THANJAVUR DISTRICT
a) a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 a) = a3 D/D a4 |

al a5 /a5 D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 G J
Oblique dtameteres = bl b4, b2 b5, b3 b6
KALYANASUNDARA SIVA (SIVA'S MARRIAGE WITH PARVATI) LATER PALLAVA
PERIOD, 9th CENT AD, CHIDAMBARES VARA TEMPLE, VADAKKALATTUR,
THANJAVUR DISTRICT (REVERSE SIDE)
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4 l

al a5 /a5 D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 G j
Oblique dsameteres = bl b4, b2 b5, b3 b6
Kalyana Sundara Siva, Vadakkalattur, Pali ava, 9th Cent. AD
Description
The art of Cliola of the early period may conveniently be sub-divided into the Aditya
School, the Sembtyan Mahadevi School and Rajaraja School, after the names of three great
Chola personages intimately associated in it. Of the Aditya school type, real examples are
the outstanding Rama group from Paruthiyur and the great Vishnu from the same village.
A number of Rama groups that have survived, notably the Vadakkuppanaiyur Rama in the
Madras Museum, the Paruthiyur Rama group from Thiruccerai and Kappalur Rama group
can also be assigned to the finest traditions of Aditya School. In this connection one can
recall the title of Kodanda Rama assumed by Aditya. These bronzes are marked by
delicate workmanship.
The famous Konerirajapuram bronzes and the Nallur Parvati represent the Sembiyan
Mahadevi School. The Thiruvarangulam Nataraja, now in the National Museum, is
another outstanding example of this school. The style is characterized by clarity of
workmanship, particularly in the modeling, and excels in rendering the bhangas of the
body, particularly the tnbhanga. The accurate and detailed delineation of ornamental
detail is another distinguishing feature. The face also presumes a sharpness of rendering
noticed in the other schools.
The majesty and dignity of the Rajaraja School is the best illustrated in the superlative
Vrishvahana and his consorts from Thiruvenkadu, now in the Thanjavur Art Gallery. The
delicacy of the Sembiyan Mahadevi school yields here to a certain dignity and authority. A
great example of Rajaraja School is the large size Nataraja in the Thanjavur temple, to
which Rajaraja dedicated several large size metal images for daily and annual festivals.
The Somaskanda, called Dakshinameru Vitankar, and the Nataraja, called Adavallar in
inscriptions, are of imposing size. The Somaskanda and the Subrahmanya images now in
the Gangaikonda-cholapuram temple, consecrated in the reign of Rajendra I, follow the
traditions of Rajaraja I period. The find Bhikshatana deva unearthed at Thiravenkadu, and
consecrated around A.D.1040, as well as the superb Ardhanari from the same place and
datable to around A.D.1045 (consecrated around A.D.1045), are the fine examples of the
Rajaraja School though made in the time of Rajendra Chola. (New bronze finds from
Thiravenkadu, R.NagaswamyTASSI, 1960, pp. 108-122)
While attention has been focused on the three great schools of the early Chola period, it is
also necessary to draw attention to various families of artists who flourished at various
regional centers and who have left us great masteipieces. Unfortunately their names are
not known but the villages may remember them where they flourished. A recent survey
has established some such centers where the Sthapatis have been active for three to four
generations. Among these may be named Kilaiyur, Vadakkalattur and Thiruthuraippundi,
all near Nagappattinam, Thiruneipper, Thiruvarur, Thiruvenkadu, Chidambaram,
Konerirajapuram, Kumbakonam and Thanjavur. More such centers are likely to be
identified in the future. These have left their impact not only on the art of the immediate
surroundings but on occasion at more distant places.

Technique
The metal images meant for worship in temples are cast solid including the large size
Nataraja images, except the mount like bulls, which are cast hollow. The process of
casting these figures, a technique that has survived to this day, is the cire perdue process,
called Madhucchista Vidhana in the texts. The details of preparing the wax model,
covering it with clay coat, pouring molten metal, as also the different measurements, poses
and emblems suited to various manifestations are given in ritual treatises (Agamas) and
also in sculptor’s manuals (Silpasastras). Mainly copper was used for making these
images; the epigraphs of the Cholas refer to them as copper image (Sepputhirumeni),
though at a later period, the use of five metals (copper, silver, gold, brass and zinc) called
Pancaloha came into vogue. The five metals are said to represent earth, water, fire, air,
and ether, (the Pancabhutas) denoting metaphysically that God remains pervading the
principal elements. The early images, as may be seen from the exhibition, exhibit a golden
copper color while the images of 13th century and later show the trend towards alloys.
(For details see C.Sivaramamurthi, South Indian Bronzes)
Siva’s marriage with Parvati, after she had won Him for husband by severe penance has
been a favorite theme with the Indian Sculptor. The God, appealing as bridegroom,
endowed with enchanting youth is called Kalyanasundara—the auspicious and the
beautiful. A graphic description of Siva’s beauty and Parvati as a bride is found in
Kumarasambhava, the great poem of Kalidasa. The theme is also immortalized in a Tamil
poem, assigned to 10th- 11th century AD that speaks of the marriage of the Goddess
Minakshi of Mdhurai, with Lord Sundaresvara, a localized version, which makes Parvati
into the daughter of the Pandyan king, who becomes the goddess Minakshi, ruler and
presiding deity of the kingdom of Madurai. Her marriage with Siva, the Sundara of
Madurai, is extremely popular; the marriage itself being called Minakshi-Kalycinam.
Several literary compositions based on the theme of Minakshi-Kalyanam have come down,
including the Thiruvilaiyadalpuranam (the sports of Siva) by two eminent Tamil poets.
Here Siva’s enchanting beauty and Parvati’s bridal dress has been described with great joy.
It is Vishnu, we also learn, who gives Minakshi in marriage to Sundara, as is depicted in
stone sculptures and wall paintings of the temple.
As the temples where Siva is said to have performed one of the Samhara acts, are called
the Virasthanas, the temple of Madurai is identified as the place of marriage of Minakshi
and Sundara. It is but natural, therefore, for the festival of Minakshi-Kalyanam to be
celebrated annually in Madurai on a very grand scale in the month of Chaitra (April). In
temple worship throughout Tamilnadu, the celebration of this marriage festival
(.Kalyana Utsava) is essential, every temple conducting this festival in a subtle way. The
presence of several Kalyanasundaramurti images in the Tamil country is but natural.
The Kalyanasundara image from Vadakkalattur is not merely the earliest bronze image of
the subject so far known, but is also of die very finest quality, the Sthapati being a supreme
master who could evoke the subtlest expression by a tender handling form. Sundara and
Parvati are gently turned towards each other, the steady, Siva confident and majestic
Parvati, slender and yielding. Her legs, softer than the proverbial silk cotton (as often
described in literature), are modeled with care particularly at the back. While Siva’s feet is
adorned with Kalal, that of Parvati is beautified with Kinkims. The lower garment is of
silken cloth; Parvati’s extending below the knee and that of Siva, covering only the upper
leg. The front end of Shiva’s lower garment falls as a several bands and a girdle with a
jeweled buckle. Similarly the waistband of Parvati, less elaborate and pulled around the
waist falls over the right thigh. In addition to the Upavita made of pearls, Siva wears an
Uttariya (upper garment), which hangs down to the waist, and is looped over the left
shoulder. Of his three necklaces, one falls in a triangular shape over the chest, the other
has drooping pendants while the third, consisting of tiny beads, clasps the neck. Parvati
wears a Channavira and necklace of pearls, and a chain with pendants from which hangs a
triangular chain falling between the breasts. Her hands are adorned with Keyura and
prominent bangles. The left arm is bent, the extended right hand being held by Siva. The
Patrakundala on her ears are large and prominent. Her coiffure consists of coils of hair
twisted into a large S-shaped bun at the back and secured in the front with a band of three
stringed pearls. Siva’s coiffure consists of the usual Jatamakuta. Here fairly elaborate
with intricately arranged locks secured by three bands, one across the forehead, a garland
and the third with makara-clasp in front and a lotus like clasp at the back. The
Jatamakuta is crowned by a multi-petalled flower, to the right the crescent moon and to the
left, a delicately made umattai flower. Siva holds the axe in the right upper hand (the top
of the axe is a later repair) and the Antelope in left (which had once broken off at the
fingers, to be welded and riveted at a later period). Both Siva and Parvati wear a chain
with large Pippal-leaf pendent on the back, hanging from the necklace. Siva’s front right
arm holds Parvati’s hand in the Pamgrahana pose and the left grants freedom from fear
(.abhaya). The Sirascakra at the back of Siva’s head is very small, no such feature being
present in the image of Parvati.
Siva is here presented as a figure of great majesty, supple, young and calm; Parvati, on the
other hand, is bashful, tender and suffused by emotion, thus the broad, expanding chest and
shoulders of Siva, and Parvati’s sweet and surrendering limbs are particularly appropriate.
The divine Kalyanasundara in his wedding dress and ornaments and in the delightful pose
of taking to himself a bride (Panigrahana) has been nowhere rendered, whether in stone or
metal, with such consummate case and such masterly understanding of the mood of the
theme as in this great image from Vadakkalattur. There is here a certain freshness of
appearance, a dignified charm, that even surpasses such famous Kalyanasundeara images in
mental from Konerirajapuram, Thiruvelvikkudi (of the Sembiyan Mahadevi period) and
even the one from Thiruvenkadu ( of the Rajaraja period). So overpowering is the
aesthetic impact that even the eyes of Parvati, incised at a later period fail to detract from
its intense impact. It may also be noted that while the Chola artists of a later age employed
the tribhanga and other complicated postures to heighten the suppleness and beauty of the
figures, the artists of the Vadakkalattur image achieved the most sophisticated
expressiveness by the gentlest turns of body and face.

Symmetry> And Proportion 130
Analysis
Space Division ( or ) Measure
The panel of the sculpture is a square with its vertical division between mlm2 and wlw2
and horizontal between blb2 and yly2. The circle is enclosed within the square with the
The centerline rlr2, which passes through the right shoulder of Siva, divides the panel into
two parts. Within the space between the vertical ml m2 and rlr2, one can see that Siva’s
lower right arm holds Parvati’s hand in the Panigrahana pose; and right upper hand holds
an axe, within the space between rlr2 to wlw2, one can see that Siva’s front left lower
hand grants freedom from fear (abhaya), while the left upper hand holds an antelope.
The horizontal line lies between glg2 to iii2 cover movements in hands of Parvati and Siva,
providing an inner balancing factor. Below these horizontal lines, we find a stable base to
the composition as against to the various movements of the upper parts. The As ala3a4 and
ala3a5 correspond to the Golden Section triangles and the triangle ala3a4 consists of side
ala4 passing through tire hip, extended right hand, through the fingers of raised left hand of
parvati and through the axe in the upper right hand of Siva; Side ala3 passing through the
chest of Siva, through tire right eye of Siva; while the side a3a5 of triangle ala3a5 passing
through the legs of Siva, thigh of Parvati. We observe from the Golden As ala3a4 and
ala3a5 the ratios are

with a start mark G from the bottom acts as an index point which divides the vertical line m
the Golden section and G lies within the A Oa2a5 indicating maximum stress area.
Diameter blb4 extending through the hip, chest and through the forehead of Siva, and
diameter b2b5 extending through the hip, abdomen, front left hand and through second
raised hand of Siva while the diameter b3b6 extending through the legs, hip of Siva,
through the front right hand of Siva, which holds Parvati’s hand in Paningraha pose,
through the raised left hand, through the coils of Parvati’s hair.
We also project the reverse side of the sculpture along with its pentagonal symmetry in
order to get the clarity of the above-discussed geometrical analysis.

Beauty reflected in a mirror Chalukyan Madanika from the Deccan

Western Chalukya, 12™ century AD, National Museum, New Delhi.
Description
The Chalukyas, who came back to power as the succeeding dynasty that ruled from
Kalyani, could also boast of a great connoisseur of art and literature in Vikramaditya VI, a
king who was as great warrior as a connoisseur'. Some of the most beautiful later Chalukya
temples, like those from Kukkanur and Haven, are of this period. The Kuruvatti temple is
particularly noteworthy for its exquisite bracket figures, carved screens, polished pillars,
and tiers of friezes showing rows of birds, animals, dwarfs, and figures of musicians and
dancers. A great sculptor of this period, Sovarasi, has given a boastful, though justified,
assertion of his skill in design and carving. Vikramaditya, who was the patron of the
famous poet Bilhana, was conscious of his duty toward sculptors and architects also.
Pleasing decorative sculpture is a characteristic of Western Chalukya work of time.
Analysis
The pentagonal symmetry of the sculpture with horizontal and vertical space division may
be noticed from the figure.
The center line rlr2 which passes through the left shoulder, abdomen, right leg and edge of
the toe of the left leg divides the panel into two parts. Within the space between the
vertical mlm2 and the center line rlr2, one can see that Madanika decorates herself with
raised left hand, while within the space between center line rlr2 and wlw2, one can see that
Madanika holds a mirror for beautification purpose with an attendant.
Horizontal lines lie between ili2 to lll2 cover Madanika's bent pose providing an inner
balancing factor. The isosceles As ala3a4 and ala3a5 correspond to the Golden Section
triangles. A ala3a4 consists of sides ala4 passing through raised left hand, right shoulder,
edge of breast of Madanika; side a3a4 passing through left ankle of Madanika, through the
thigh of the attendant; side ala3 passing through the edge of the Madanika’s head, the
mirror and through her left hand, while the side a3a5 of A ala3a5 passes through the
forehead of an attendant, through the thigh of Madanika.
The ratios are
aia3/ 8384 = a3 as/ as ai= 83D / Da4 = aias / asD = Da3/ asD = a\d^l aeG = <j>
the star mark G from the bottom acts as an index point which divides the vertical line the
Golden Section and G lies within the A Oa2a5 indicating the maximum stress area.
Diameter blb4 extending through the left shoulder, abdomen, left thigh, left leg and edge of
the right toe of the Madanika. Diameter b3b6 extending through the face of an attendant,
left thigh, navel, breast, edge of the neck and through the left shoulder of Madanika.
Diameter b2b5 extending through left hand wrist, left hand, through the stomach of
Madanika and touching the trunk of the creeper.

PARVATI, BRONZE STATUETTE, CHOLA, 12™ CENT. AD, NATIONAL MUSEUM, NEW DELHI.
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4|

al a5 /a5 D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 Cj
Parvati, Bronze statuette, Chola, 12™ cent. AD, National Museum,

New Delhi
Description
The goddess’s left hand is in three-bend pose. The proportions of the body are slightly
different from those established in Iconometry and make the representation very lively and
extremely significant of the bronze production of Southern India.
The female figure, with enormous bust and rounded hips adheres to the requirements of a
very old canon of feminine beauty, absolutely alien to the traditional taste of the Aryan
people. In both, the resulting idealization is a re-elaboration and transposition of real life,
in which movement becomes free, well-balanced, and full of vitality—perfectly in keeping
with reality and yet infinitely far from it. The artists endeavored to epitomize all possible
types of a certain category of subjects in a figure that had all the essential characteristics of
the chosen category. The acuteness of the analysis, performed both perceptually and
spiritually, demonstrates that the artists must have made a vast selection and studied a great
many subjects before concentrating on certain traits and emphasizing them better to render
the essence of the category represented. This process of idealization explains more clearly
than any commentary the original meaning of the word rupa, namely ‘form’ which was
first ‘prestige’ and later became ‘beauty’.

Analysis
The center line rlr2 which passes through the middle of the face of Parvati divides the
whole panel into two parts. Within the space between the vertical mlm2 and the center
line rlr2, one can see that Parvati’s left hand is in three-bend pose, while within the space
between rlr2 and wlw2, one can see that Parvati’s right hand is in bend pose.
Horizontal lines lie between glg2 to ili2 cover movements in the body of Parvati, providing
an inner balancing factor. The Golden Section A ala3a4 consists of sides ala4 passing
through the right ear, edge of the right shoulder and right hand of Parvati; side a3a4 passing
through the pedestal, side ala3 passing through the left ear, left shoulder of Parvati, while
the side a3a5 of Golden A ala3a5 passes through the left leg and right knee of Parvati.
The ratios,
ai&i! aaa4 = ^ as ai= asD / Da4 - a^/ asD = Da3/ asD = a^g/ agG = <j>
point of this sculpture dividing the vertical central line {Madhya Sutra) in the Golden
Section and lying within the maximum stress area A Oa2a5.

GANGA, FROM BENGAL, SENA, 12th CENT. AD, NATIONAL MUSEUM, NEW DELHI
ml n1 o1 p1 q1 r1 s1 t1 u1 v1 w1
m2 n2 o2 p2 q2 r2 s2 t2 u2 v2 w2
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4_

al a5 /a5 D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 (jr
Golden section = A al a3 a4, aia3 a5

Symmetry And Pi oportion 137
Ganga, from Bengal, Sena, 12™ cent. AD National Museum, New Delhi.
Description
The Senas, who succeeded the Palas, continued the tradition of their predecessors.
Lakshmanasena, the famous monarch of this dynasty and also the last, was the patrons of
Jayadeva, Dhoyi, and other poets. Some of the most important sculptural creations of the
Sena school are worthy of especial note, in particular the inscribed Sadasiva in the Indian
Museum in Calcutta, since the motif was, for the first time, introduced into Bengal by the
Senas, a southern family. An exquisite Ganga image now is in the National Museum, New
Delhi. Here the jar in Ganga's hand and the tree behind her suggest the river and the
celestial sphere where she flows amid wish - fulfilling trees.
Analysis
Within the space between the vertical mlm2 and Hie center line rlr2, one can see that
Ganga’s left hand is in two bend pose, while within the space between center line rlr2 to
wlw2, one can see that Ganga’s right hand also is in two bend pose.
MADAMKA IN DANCING POSTURE, HOYSALA, 12™ CENT. AD, BELUR, KARNATAKA
ml n1 o1 p1 q1 r1 s1 t1 u1 v1 w1
b4 ai
m2 ' n2 o2 p2 q2 r2 s2 t2 u2 v2 w2
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4_

al a5 /a5 D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 (Jr
Golden section = A al a3 a4, aia3 as

Horizontal lines lie between glg2 to ili2 cover band movements of Ganga providing an
inner balancing factor. The Golden Section triangles, A ala3a4 consists of side ala4 passing
through the tree, edge of the right shoulder and hand of Ganga; side a3a4 passing through
the edges of the feet of Ganga; side a4a3 passing through the left ear and ring, left hand
shoulder of Ganga while the side a3a5 of Golden triangle ala3a5 passing through the legs of
Ganga.
We observe the ratios.
aia3/ a3a4 = a3 a5/ a5 ai= a3D / Da4 = aia5/ ajD = Da3/ a5D = aja&/ a6G = <|>
Based on the square enclosing the sculpture we observe a point indicated with a star mark
G from the bottom acts as an index point which divides the vertical central line in the
Golden Section and G lies within the A Oa2a5 indicating the maximum stress area.
Madanika, Hoyasala, Belur, 12th Cent. AD
Description
Hoyasala temples are no doubt inspired by the construction of the Cholas and the Pandyas
of the South, Ganga and Nolamba creations of the Mysore country and the Kalyana
Chalukyan monuments of the Deccan. But they are not an imitation of any one of them;
they have incorporated the notable traits of those earlier styles; more than that, the
Hoyasala builders proved themselves to be peerless innovators and thus moved towards the
founding of a new style.
The sculptural art under the Hoyasalas reaches a high degree of perfection. It is remarked
very appropriately that these creations were “ architects’ architecture” or even more
specifically “ sculptors’ architecture”. The craftsman-cum-architects reveled in then-
display of plastic exuberance. Hence much of what could have been described under this
section has already been touched upon previously. But some works of sculpture are so
superb that they need a special mention. The exterior of the whole of the wall surfaces are
literally covered with some kind of carving that every inch of the mural surface is a product
of sculptors. Delicate, realistic and enchanting plant, creeper, flower designs, themes from
animal, bird, insect life and human and mythical beings, in short, all sorts of imaginable
themes have been employed by the engraver to make his creations appear-eye-catching and
beautiful. To add to the impressive appearance of this mural decoration, the wall surface
was provided with indentations and thus it was subjected to the play of light and shade to
enhance the force of expressions and feelings of the sculptured scenes.

Probably the most outstanding of the Hoyasala sculptural art are the Salabhanjikcis also
known as bracket figures, Madanikais or Sdabalikas. They represent the highest peak of
aesthetic creations from the chisel of the sculptor. They are known to have been originally
incorporated into pillar-capital-roof scheme of the structures at the Tripurantaka at
Balligave, Chennakesava at Nagalapura, Chamundesvari at Undigenahala, Kesava at
Marale, Brahmesvara at Kikkeri, Hoyasalesvara at Halebidu; they have, for reasons
unknown, been mostly lost irretrievably. But they are preserved on the 38 pillars on the
exterior and 4 pillars in the interior of the Kesava temple at Beluru. These fortytwo
Salabhanjika figures, the finest probably in their class, represent the feminine beauty in all
sorts of po^es and activities depicting each of the navarasas of Indian aesthetics. While
some are engaged in the act of dancing, singing or playing on musical instruments, other
are shown busy with decorating their bodies like bathing, dressing of their hair, applying
unguents or vermilion and yet others are depicted as though they are hunting. But the
thread of love-Iom damsel concept or sringararasa runs through all of them. One of the
foremost of the Kannada men of letters Dr.D.V.Gundapaa has extolled the heavenly grace
and immortal beauty of those peerless damsels.
While dealing with these Madanikai sculptures it is proper that the criticism by some, that
the Hoyasala sculptures in general and the Madanikai figures in particular are not properly
balanced in their bodily delineation and the lower part of the body is generally short and
stumpy and all the attention is bestowed on the facial treatment. Though, this may be
partly true, it must be borne in mind while considering this criticism that these Madanika
figures were meant to be kept in a slanting position at one hundred and thirty six degrees
from the ground at a height and the spectators standing on the ground would have seen
them at the correct perspective.
Analysis
The Pentagonal symmetry of the sculpture with horizontal and vertical space division may
The centre line rlr2 which passes through face of the Mandanika almost divides the
dancing sculpture into two halves. Within the space between the vertical ml m2 and the
center line rlr2, one can see the Madanika’s right leg, right hand in bend pose, an attendant
beating the drum, while within the space between rlr2 to wlw2, we see the Madanika’s left-
hand, left leg in bent pose with an attendant playing flute.
Horizontal lines between flf2 to ili2 cover vertical space between Madanika’s right
shoulders in raised position to her left hand in a movement providing an inner balancing
factor. Below these horizontal lines, we find a stable base to the composition as against the
restless movements of the upper parts. The isosceles As ala3a4 and ala3a5 correspond to
the Golden section triangles. Side ala4 passing through the creeper, right shoulder of the
Madanika and side a3a4 passing through the thigh of an attendant, the right foot of
Madanika, the left feet of the attendants, while side ala3 passing through the creeper, edge
of left hand shoulder, through an attendant who is playing flute. The side a3a5 of A ala3a5
passes through left leg anklet, right thigh and hip of Maclanika and through the creeper.
The ratios are
aia3/ a3a4 = a3 a5/ a5 ai= a3D / Da4 = aia5/ a3D = Da3/ a5D = aia6/ a6G = (j>
Based on the square enclosing the sculpture we observe that their exists a point indicated
with a start mark G from the bottom acts as an index point which divides the vertical line in
The essential diameters related to movement of the composition are blb3 and b2b4.
Diameter blb3 extending through the creeper, left hand, near navel of Madanika. Diameter
b2b4 extending through right foot, left heel, stomach, right eye of the Madanika and
through the creeper.
The smaller figurers (attendants) on either side show a closer analysis that their presence
and position are by no means accidental but provide an anchorage and counterweight to
many of the multifarious movements and space directions projected by the main figure.
Lady applying Tilak, Lepakshi, Vijayanagara , 16™ Cent. AD
Description
The Vijayanagara period is of supreme importance to know the continuity of traditions in
art, literature and culture in South India. The Emperor Krishnadevaraya so caught the
imagination of people in his vast empire, that, like Asoka with whom almost every stupa is
associated and the myth of 84,000 stupas built by him created, almost every large-sized
gopura in a temple in South India is called a rayala-gopura and often associated with
Krishnadevaraya, who like Asoka is believed to have built innumerable towering gateways
to temples.
Krishnadevaraya himself, it cannot be denied, was a great connoisseur of literature and art.
That he himself composed in chaste Telugu the book Amuktamalyada, glorifying the life of
Andal as a devout Vishnubhakta that he was, and that he patronized in a singular manner,
like an earlier royal poet Bhoja of Dhara, the greatest poet in his realm in Telugu, Alasani
Peddana, and even bore the palanquin for him, to proclaim to the world that scholarship
was even above royal birth, only shows the trends at the highest level in the Vijayanagara
empire. Under such auspices, it is no wonder, art and literature flourished.
Some of the finest monuments of South India belong to the Vijayanagara period. The
capital of the empire at Hampi, that aroused the admiration and an enthusiastic description
in the superlative of the flourishing city on the banks of Tungabhadra, can well be
imagined in its glory during its heyday, when the devastated city today, looking a desolate
and straggling hotchpotch of rains, still has so much of sculptural and architectural wealth,
after six months of continuous devastation by the combined forces of five Sultanates of
the Deccan, the came together for once in a joint effort to crush the supremacy of the
Vijayanagara empire. The Hazara-Ramasvami temple, the Virupaksha temple itself, the
Queen’s bath, the plinth of the Audience Hall, the Lotus Mahal, the Queen's palace,
elephants ’ stables are all a dream of the past still alive and visually wonder-inspiring.
Another secular buildings, the Mahal or Palace at Chandragiri shaped like a temple Vimana
answering the description Prasado devabhubhujam suggesting similarity of form to
temple and royal palace is here obvious. Among fortresses the loveliest creation is at
Vellur, which still looks as fresh as when it was occupied by Chinnabomma Nayaka, the
famous patron of the illustrious polymath Appayya Dikshita. The Kalyanamandapa of the
Jalakanthesvara temple at Vellur is unsurpassed among the Vijayanagara monuments for
sheer delicacy of carving the tasteful choice of decorative motifs and bold execution of the
pillared hall.
The Portuguese travelers have left wonderful accounts of the achievements of the painter in
the Vijayanagara court. That the painters were not only well-read in texts of Silpasastras
and iconography, but were attuned to nature around and studied the details of form and
anatomy, to achieve the best in portraiture as well, is all clearly indicated in such
magnificent portraits of the greatest Emperor of the period, Krishnadevaraya himself,
whose bronze statue along with his consorts Tirumalamba and Chinnadevi, in the
temple of Lord Venkatesvara at Tirupati, and a similar portrait in stone, from one of the
Gopura towers at Chidambaram, confirm the talent at its best in portraiture of the
Vijayanagara craftsmen.
Viewed against this background, the portraits of the brothers Viranna and Virupanna at
Lepakshi not only rouse our curiosity but also satisfy our desire to know how the builders
of the lovely temple of Lepakshi looked like. The temple at Lepakshi was built by the
chieftains Viranna and Virupanna with special devotion to their tutelary deity Virabhadra,
whose painting on the ceiling of the inner hall is probably the largest ever attempted as a
mural in India, even exceeding the size of magnificent Tripurantaka, the creation of
Rajaraja’s painter in the Rajarajesvara temple at Tanjavur. The Natyamandapa of Lepakshi
temple is indeed a fine one with sculptural work suggestive of Sandhya-tandava of Siva
with divine musicians in attendance around, each individually carved on a pillar with the
dancing Lord as the principal figure.
Analysis
The pentagonal symmetry may be observed from the figure.
Within the space between the vertical ml m2 to the centre line rlr2 , one can see clearly the
movements in the right hand, right leg of the lady, while within the space between the
center line to wlw2, the bent head, left hand and left leg of the lady may be observed.
Horizontal lines lay between dld2 to ili2 cover the movements m the right hand, neck and
left hand providing an inner balancing factor. A ala3a4 consists of sides ala4 passing
through the breast and right ear and edge of face and through edge of right hand fingers;
side a3a4 passing through the right thigh, heel and through the left foot of the lady; side
al a3 passing through the left ear, shoulder, thigh and through left foot of the lady; while
the side a3a5 of the Golden A ala3a5 passes through left foot, right hip, right breast of the
lady.
*
We observe from the Golden triangles ala2a4 and a5a2a4 , have the ratios
aia3/ a3a4 = a3 a5/ a5 ai= a3D / Da4 = ata5/ a5D = Da3/ a5D = aia6/ a6G = <j>
b3b6 extending through the edge of right eye, breast, through the right ankle of the lady
and b2b5 extending through the left leg, breast, through the hair knot of the lady. While
blb4 extending through the left breast, left shoulder and near the wrist of left hand.
SCENE FROM LIFE A COURT: A PRINCE RECEIVING FRUIT AS A SIGN OF HOMAGE
AND WELL-WISHING, MUGHAL SCHOOL, AKBAR PERIOD OR SHORTLY AFTER.
NATIONAL MUSEUM, NEW DELHI
ml n1 o1 p1 q1 r1 s1 t1 u1 v1 w1
m2 n2 o2 p2 q2 r2 s2 t2 u2 v2 w2
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4_

al a5 /a5 D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 d

Chords = b2 b3, bl b4
Scene from life at court: a Prince receiving fruit as a sign of HOMAGE AND
WELL-WISHING, MUGHAL SCHOOL, AKBAR PERIOD OR SHORTLY AFTER. NATIONAL
Museum, New Delhi.
Description
The Mughal emperors-especially Akbar and Jahangir-were taken with the artful perspective
effects of European works and had them studied and imitated though they were foreign to
Islamic taste. For this reason, Mughal miniature painting has been considered a spurious
production, half Persian and half Westernizing, whereas, instead, it is an important page in
the history of Indian art. True, the changes of fashion in architecture had repercussions m
miniature painting and minor arts, but the personalities of great artists such as Basawan,
Daswanth, and Miskina, in no way inferior to the topmost Persian miniaturists, gave a
miniature painting a stature of its own. In the early Mughal period, in the regions of
Humayun, Akbar and Jahangir, the interest in painting was keen. Shah Jahan, appreciated
the art, no doubt, but as one of the minor artistic activities at his court, despite the fact the
Muhammed Faqirullah and Mir Hasim, heads of his painting studios, were miniaturists
and calligraphers fully equal to the best of their predecessors. The time of Shah Jahan,
however, lacked the creative impulse and zest for life of the days of Akbar and the quiet
and careful attention to detail to be found in the works of Jahangir’s time. The effort
toward serial production and industrialization of the first large Mughal workshops had
drained the original creative vein. Moreover, the interest in Western works and their
perspective effects, introduce by Jesuit fathers at the court of Akbar, had stirred up many
problems.
Analysis
Space Divison (or) Measure
The Pentagonal symmetry may also be observed in the geometrical analysis of an art piece
viz. a Mughal Painting. As usual the vertical and horizontal space division of the panel is
earned out following the same notation.
Within the space between two verticals ml m2 to rlr2, we see that fruits offered to king by
public as a sign of homage and the same is watched by the members of the court, while
within the space between center line rlr2 and wlw2, we find that king is receiving the
fruits.
The horizontal lines lie between ele2 to yly2 cover the movements in the body of the
king providing an inner balancing factor. The Golden A ala3a4 consists of side ala4
passing through the cap of a member in the court and through the inscription.; side a3a4
passing through the edge of the miniature painting; side ala3 passing through the knees of
a member who is offering fruits and king , folded hands and chest of members of the
court. The side a3a5 of Golden A ala3a5 passing through the edge of the cap of a member
who is offering fruits to king and through the inscription. We denote the point of
intersection of the sides as D and the star mark G denotes the stress point of this sculpture
dividing the vertical central line (.Madhya Sutra) in the Golden section lying within the
maximum stress area A Oa2a5.

The ratios are
aia3/ a3a4 = a3 a5/ a5 a1= a3D / Da4 = aia5/ a5D = Da3/ a5D = aia6/ a6G = (|)
The essential diameters related to movements of the composition are blb3 and b2b4.
Diameter blb3 extending through the right shoulder of a member, edge of knee of the
member who is offering fruit, edge of the cap of the king and through the inscription.
Diameter b2b4 extending through the face of a member (who offers fruit) and through the
face of king, through the cap of the member.

KANADA RAGINI, A MELODY AS PLEASING AS A BEAUTIFUL WOMAN IN A GARDEN, REP
RESENTED BY THE MOTIF ’ A LADY IN A GARDEN ' HIGHLY STYLIZED MINIATURE IN THE
DECCAN STYLE, 17™ -18™ CENT. AD, PRINCE OF WALES MUSEUM OF WESTREN INDIA,
BOMBAY
m2 n2 o2 p2 q2 r2 s2 t2 u2 v2 w2
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4

al a5 /a5 D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 (&

Symmetry> And Proportion 150
Kanada Ragini, A melody as pleasing as a beautiful woman in a garden,

REPRESENTED BY THE MOTIF ‘A LADY IN A GARDEN’, HIGHLY STYLIZED MINIATURE, IN
the Deccan style, 17th -18™ cent. AD, Prince of Wales Museum of Western
India, Bombay.
Description
The influence of the imperial art spread far and wide, surmounting diverse local tendencies
and foreign influences of varying intensity and different degrees of adaptability. The
Deccanese current of the states of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, and Golconda is not noticeably
different from the Mughal current, though it shows a preference for stiff, stylized,
decorative forms and gold backgrounds. It constitutes an intermediary tradition between
the Islamizing aesthetics of the early Mughal phases and the ever re-emerging Hindu Indian
tradition. The fondness for music of some of the emperors also were reflected in the figural
arts, giving rise to a particular type of ‘musical’ painting; in other words, to transpositions
into painting of the values contained in melodic themes and in the poetry they had inspired.
To this type belong the Ragamala or ‘garlands of Raga’ raga meaning melodic mood
(sometimes connected with seasons). The interest in music, which equaled the Mughals
interest in architecture, distinguished the two cultural spheres, which were different not in
rank but in the favor given to either one of these contrasting, though complementary,
artistic expressions. Portraits, also, which at the Mughal court were often celebrative and
official in the Deccan remained on a more human level despite the artists’ liking for
imaginative (though not imaginary) settings with exotic trees and unrealistic light effects,
and their excessive concern with clothes and costumes. The Mughal conquest brought
destruction to much art works at both Golconda and Hyderabad (the cultural center of a
former state of the same name), but did not hinder the influence on the Rajput production in
the areas neighboring on the southern borders of Mughal Empire (before Aurangazeb’s
conquest).
The painting consists of a lady posing under a bent tree with several branches and two
symmetrically placed little plants. We find the lady who is in garden; with her right hand in
bend pose stands under the shade of the tree the bigger tree and ornamental plant. Branch
of tree with her left hand as well as the other ornamental plant.
Analysis
The painting is also subjected to geometrical analysis as in the earlier case.
The horizontal lines lie between flf2 to ili2, cover movements in right hand, face and left
hand of the lady providing an inner balancing factor. The golden triangle ala3a4 consists
of side ala4 passing through the small tree which gives shade to lady; side a3a4 passing
through the border of miniature, side ala3 passing through the branches of the tree. The
side a3a5 of Golden triangle ala3a5 passes through the knees of the lady and through the
small plant in garden.

The ratios are /
aja3/ a3a4 - a3 as aj= a3D / Da4 = aia5/ asD = Da3/ a5D = &\&g/ agG = <j>
Diameter blb3 extending through the branches of the tree, through the fingers of the left
hand, the left hand shoulder and through the right foot of the lady. Diameter b2b4 extending
through the small plant, breast and right shoulder and through the branches of a tree.
Smaller plants on either side provide counterweight to many movements and space
directions projected by the main figure.

TARA, GILDED SATUETTE SET WITH TURQUOISE AND SEMIPRECIOUS STONES,
NEPALESE, 18™ CENT. AD, PRINCE OF WALES MUSEUM OF WESTREN INDIA, BOMBAY
ml n1 o1 p1 q1 r1 s1 t1 u1 v1 w1
m2 n2 o2 p2 q2 r2 s2 t2 u2 v2 w2
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4_

al a5 /as D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 (Jr
Tara, Gilded Statuette set with turquoise and semiprecious stones,

Nepalese, 18th cent. AD, Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay.
Description
The crowned, bejeweled goddess is in the act of dancing. Whether white or green in
complexion, Tara is probably the first Buddhist goddess that is not linked with other
religions. Although it is possible that two historical personages, the two wives (one
Chinese and one Indian) of a Tibetan King, Strong-tsan Gampo (A.D.629-650), contributed
to her definitive form, the cult of Tara is certainly much older. She is the woman’s ‘flavor’
that helps one through life to the Absolute, dispelling physical and metaphysical fears and
permitting one to satisfy all one’s desires.
Analysis
Space Division (or) measure
The Pentagonal symmetry may be observed from the figure.
The space between the vertical ml m2 and the central line rlr2, indicates the movements in
right hand and left leg of Tara, while the space between rlr2 and wlw2, correspond to the
movements in the face, raised left hand and right leg which is in bend pose.
The horizontal line lies between glg2 to ili2 cover movements in right hand shoulder,
chest and raised left hand providing an inner balancing factor. The Golden Section
A ala3a4 consists of side ala4 passing through the crown, right hand shoulder, edge of the
fingers of Tara, side a3a4 passing through the garland, left hand shoulder, through the left
ear and crown of the Tara while the side a3a5 of A al a3a5 passing through the left knee,
right thigh and right hand wrist of Tara.
The ratios are
aia3/ a3a4 = a3 &$! as ai= a3D / Da4 = ai as / asD = Da3/ asD = aiae / agG = <(>
with a start mark G from the bottom acts as an index point which divides the vertical line
in the Golden section and G lies within the A Oa2a5 indicating maximum stress area.
Diameter blb3 extending through the raised left hand, through the abdomen and right thigh
and diameter b2b4 extending through the legs, abdomen and through the edge of right ear.
THE GODDESS OF EARTH EVOKED AS A WITNESS BY THE BUDDHA TO CONFOUND HIS
OPPONENT, MARA, BRONZE, STYLE OF BANGKOK, FIRST HALF OF THE 19™
CENT. AD, NATIONAL MUSEUM, BANGKOK
ml n1 o1 p1 q1 r1 s1 t1 u1 v1 w1
al a3/a3 a4 - a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4l

al a5 /as D = a3 D/D as = al a6/a6 Q
The goddess of earth evoked as a witness by the Buddha to confound his

opponent, Mara, Bronze, Style of Bangkok, first half of the 19th cent. AD,
National Museum, Bangkok.
Description
The goddess is wringing her hair, which is soaked by the libations made in his previous
lives by Buddha himself. In this way she causes a flood, which puts Mara and his army to
flight.
Analysis
The Pentagonal symmetry may be observed from the figure.
The center line rlr2 passing through the face of Goddess of Earth divides the panel into
two parts. To the right of the center line rlr2 we find the movements in face, raised right
hand, holding hair tied in tuft, the right breast and folded leg of the the Goddess of Earth
are seen .To its left we observe the movements in left hand holding the tail end of painted
hair soaked by the libations made in the previous life by Buddha, the breast and the left
folded leg.
The horizontal line lies between flf2 to ili2 cover movements in the breasts and both hands
providing inner balancing factor.
The Golden A. ala3a4 consists of sides ala4 passing through die wringing hair, right side
cheek, shoulder, the breast and the knee of the Goddess; side a3a4 passing through the
Symmetry> And Proportion, 156
pedestal, side ala3 passing through the edge of the pedestal, through the left sided hand,
shoulder and through the top of the left eye of the Goddess. The side a3a5 of A ala3a5
passes through both the kneecaps. We denote the point of intersection of the sides as D and
the star mark G denotes the stress point of this sculpture dividing the vertical central line
(Madhya Sutra) in the Golden section and lying within the maximum stress area A Oa2a5.
The ratios are
a^/ a3a4 = a3 &$! a$ &i= aaD / Da4 = a^s / asD = Da3 / asD = aiag/ agG = <j>
The essential diameters related to movements of the composition are b2b4 and blb3.
Diameter b2b4 extending through the pedestal, left sided thigh, breast and through the
right shoulder of the Goddess and diameter blb3 extending through the right sided knee,
breast and left hand of the Goddess.

GIULIANO DE MEDICI, 19™ CENT AD, (REPLICA), SALARJUNG MUSEUM,
HYDERABAD
ml n1 o1 p1 q1 r1 s1 t1 u1 v1 w1
a1 b1
m2 n2 o2 p2 q2 r2 s2 t2 u2 v2 w2
ai a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4

al as /as D = a3 D/D as = al a6/a6 <jr
Stress area = A Oa2 as
Giuliano De Medici—19t"Cent.AD-(Replica), Salarjung Museum, Hyderabad
The original sculptor of this sculpture is Michel Angelo Buonarroti (1475-1564)
Analysis
To the right of this central line rlr2 we find the movements in right hand and right leg
which is bend position. While to its left we see the movement in left hand and maximum
bent left leg. The horizontal line lies between glg2 to ili2 cover movements in hands
providing an inner balancing factor. The Golden Section isosceles A ala3a4 consists of
sides ala4 passing through the right ear, shoulder, right hand fingers and through near the
right knee of Giuliano; side ala3 passing through right ankle and left foot of Giuliano; The
side a3a5 of A ala3a5 passing through the knees of Giuliano.
The ratios are
aja3/ a3at = a3 a5/ as ai= ajD / Da4 = ai&5/ asD = Daa/ a5D = a^/ agG = <|>
with a start mark G from the bottom acts as an index point which divides the vertical line
m the Golden section and G lies within the A Oa2a5 indicating maximum stress area.
Diameter blb3 extends through the right cheek, chest and through the right foot of
Giuliano, diameter b2b4 extends through the right shoulder, chest and left knee and foot of
Giuliano.
A CHILD-19™ CENT. AD, SALARJUNG MUSEUM, HYDERABAD
al a3/a3 a4 = a3 a5/a5 al = a3 D/D a4_

ai a5 /a5 D = a3 D/D a5 = al a6/a6 (IT
A child— 19™ Cent. AD, Salarjung Museum, Hyderabad
The sculptor is Albert-Emest, (1824-1887), an European.
Boy seated on the raised base (covered by drape) holding a round black stone plate on his
right shoulder probably to bare something like a globe on it.
Analysis
To the right of the centre line rlr2 we observe the movements in right shoulder and leg of
the child, while to its left we see the movements in face, left hand and leg of the child. The
horizontal line lies between ele2 to jlj2 cover movements in both hands and chest of the
child providing an inner balancing factor. The Golden Section A ala3a4 consists of sides
ala4 passing through the right eye, shoulder and elbow of the child; side a3a4 passing
through the right feet, raised base; side ala3 passing through left eye, shoulder and fingers
and through the edges of the raised base. While the side a3a5 of A ala3a5 passing through
left ankle, right knee and hip of the child.

We observe the ratios are
aia3/ a3a4 = a3 a5/ a5 a)= a3D / Da4 = aia5/ a5D = Da3/ a3D = a^/ agG = 4>
point of this sculpture dividing the vertical central line (Madhya Sutra) in the Golden
section and lying within the maximum stress area A Oa2a5.
Diameter blb3 extending through the raised left hand which holds a round black stone
plate, through abdomen, the left knee and through the raised base and diameter b2b4
extending through the left ankle, abdomen, chest and edge of right ear of the child.
Conclusion
We have analyzed here, quite a good number of (art & architectural pieces) Vaishnava,
Saiva, Sakta, Bauddha and Jina images, and buildings of various styles, belonging to
different periods and regions varying from 1st BC to medieval period. The results of our
findings and analysis are:
> All compositions fit into either the Hexagonal or pentagonal symmetry exhibiting a
golden ratio theme.
> The compositions (buildings) with hexagonal symmetry can easily be grouped as
inorganic forms or inanimate forms exhibiting static rectangles having rational
fractions, corresponding to the space division and this may be called as “Static
Symmetry”.
> The composition (sculptures & Icons) with pentagonal symmetry are grouped as
Organic forms or animate forms exhibiting dynamic rectangles having irrational
fractions corresponding to space and time division, and this may be called as “Dynamic
Symmetry”.
> The sculptures exhibiting Dynamic Symmetry, which involves irrational ratios,
including the golden ratio cp, produce the most flexible and varied eurhythmy.
> The space-directions embodied m the diameters and their parallels are the vital nerve
lines of these compositions. They create currents of energy that run either parallel or
cross each other in their trajectory, that act and react upon one another in various ways
according to their position in space, that is to say, their position in the relief-field.
These life currents transform a composition into a functional organism. The forms
animated by them become functional stresses, and an image conceived on such a

pattern will never be a static configuration, even if the single figures represented are at
rest. The currents of energy circulating within them will ever be at work and animate
their forms.
> The two fundamental space-directions, the vertical and the horizontal primarily divide
all compositions. Along the vertical the space is divided into right and left and along
the horizontal it is divided into a lower and an upper half. The two halves are always
the reverse reflection of one another but while between right and left there is only a
difference in quality, there is between the lower and the upper half a difference of
degree. In the horizontal extension the right side represents the Male, Shiva, the left the
Female, these categories, although not equal, are equivalent and complementary. But in
the vertical extension there is an irreversible order of values, the lower being always
inferior in kind to the upper. The lowest region represents bhu, the physical plane of
existence; the middle region represents bhuvar, the mental plane of sensation and
perception, and the uppermost svar, the spiritual plane of pure consciousness. This
ultimately depends on the metaphysical symbolism of the vertical and the horizontal
planes.
> The different planes of inclination of the diameters determine the position and
orientation of all form-elements within the comparison. Each direction has its own
specific character and function.
> Different inclinations of the diameter indicate differences in the dynamic stress. The
more an oblique line approaches the horizontal, the more forceful and violent is its
movement, and the more it approaches the vertical, the more restrained and composed
its movement will become. This is not strange in view of the fact that the horizontal has
mostly an expanding quality, while the vertical is eminently static and firm.
> Different horizontal levels are often used in these compositions to indicate the three
worlds and the different levels of existence and of consciousness. They are
characterized by the smaller figures, which surround the main deity. The lowest is the
earth-level (bhu), the existential physical plane of life, occupied by Nagas, Yakshas,
demons, animals, which stand, sit or lie on the ground. The middle space is the
atmosphere (bhuvar), the region of psychic life, of perception, feeling and thought, the
plane of exalted human life, occupied by Rsis, and Yogins. The uppermost region is
heaven (svar), the region of pure spirit, in which heavenly beings such as clevcis,
Siddhas, Dikpalakas, gandhrvas and Vidhyadhras are floating. The great divine figures
that are the subject matter of the compositions cover all three regions, since they are not
bound to any of them, and display their action across the entire field, the universe.
Their feet reach down into the earth-plane but generally do not touch the ground. They
are raised either upon a lotus-pedestal, or a lion-throne, or a sheet of water, or on their
vehicle or on two of these supports combined.
> When divine figures are represented in highly dynamic and destructive aspects, it may
happen that the center is at the point of disruption, from where the limbs are thrown out
in different directions of space. This is usually at the root of the thigh or the groin and is
probably meant to indicate the place of the Muladhara Chakra, the earth-center at the
base of the vertebral column. In such cases the central bindu has a symbolic function
quite apart from its compositional importance, because its composition on one or the
other chakra determines the particular character of the deity.

> Since in all traditional conceptions of the universe, there is perfect correspondence
between the macrocosm and the microcosm, between the cosmic whole and the cycle of
human existence, the movements in these diagrams may refer to eternal processes in
one order as well as in the other.
> The analysis of the single sculptures will show, how far their space-directions, their
lines and forms may, quite apart from their objective content, embody the sense and
significance outlined above and justify the claim of their inherent symbolism.
> The elements of these diagrams are not arbitrary inventions, but correspond, to certain
irreversible cosmic principles. The fundamental character of space-directions can never
be altered and their functions cannot be interchanged. The vertical, the horizontal and
the oblique have all their natural, specific and intrinsic meaning, which the human mind
realizes intuitively. The same can be said of the straight line and the curve and of all
fundamental geometrical forms, which have their particular unmistakable character,
obeying cosmic laws. When brought into mutual relationship in the way they are in any
work of art, be it architecture, sculpture or painting, they act upon one another, they
condition and qualify, they complete or oppose and contend with one another, but they
never lose their own intrinsic character. The patterns resulting from these varied
interrelations create visual reactions, psychological and spiritual associations in the
beholder. Their meaning is grasped intuitively, without effort, because human
personality is of one order with the forces of the universe and responds spontaneously,
from the depth, to these elemental aspects.
> The various classes of Indian religious art are symbols of a divine presence and they
vary only in their degree of abstraction: The yantra is purely linear diagram, the
mandala is geometrical diagram filled with figural symbols, and the pratima is a figural
composition arranged on a geometrical pattern. These three forms of representation
have identical functions and are therefore equivalent and interchangeable.
> The Hindu theory of art still withholds the secret of the formal affinity between the
figural composition and the geometrical scheme, and thinks that only the study of the
purely linear schemes of the yantras could sharpen the eye for the general properties of
their figural relatives, properties inherent in their nature of being essential expressions
of a supersensible order.
> In a country like India, where the methods of disciplining impulses, of controlling
physical and mental processes, of ordering the chaotic world of the subconscious and of
concentrating thought, have for millennia been elaborated in theory and practiced in
life, it would be rather strange to find no trace of such methods in the conceptions and
practice of the arts. Composition is a serious discipline of concentration, which,
exactly as all other such disciplines, is not meant to smoother inborn faculties, but on
the contrary to enhance and strengthen them to a far higher degree of efficiency.
> There is another and in a certain sense even more relevant feature in these images,
which seems to derive directly from tantnc doctrines. It is the emphasis laid on the
cakras in the figures of these divinities, and of their position with respect to the entire
composition. Whatever cakra is made to coincide with the central point, the
madhya - bindu of the composition, that cakra determines the character of the entire
image. A Lakshmi image whose centre lies at the navel, at die Mampura cakra, has a
different aspect from a Lakshmi, whose centre is placed at the throat, at the
Visuddhci cakra. And a Siva whose a centre at the Muladhara cakra, at the
Earth - centre, is different form a Siva whose centre is at the Anahata or Prana cakra.
> The pentagon, the geometrical shape obtained by the forms (scupltures) is symbolic of
five elemental chakras (centres of energy). The central point of composition (bincht) is
identified either with Manipura cakra (creative fire - centre at the navel), or Anahata or
Prana cakra, (in the chest, the centre of the breadth and vital energy), or Visuddha
cakra (at the base of the throat, the centre of speech and discriminative knowledge)
> What however is quite obvious is that different mclinations for the diameters indicate
differences in dynamic stress. The more an oblique line approaches the horizontal, the
more forceful and violent is its movement, and the more it approaches the vertical, the
more restrained and composed its movement will become. This is not strange in view
of the fact that the horizontal has mostly an expanding quality, while the vertical is
eminently static and firm.
> When we compare the great variety of styles of Indian Art, in spite of regional and
individual development, the artists followed common laws of composition.
Panchayatana worship or the worship of five divinities Ganapathi, Vishnu, Siva, Sakti
and Surya symbolically represents the function of Pentagon and very interestingly these
five shrines are located in pentagonal shape.
> Many times, the subject matter of the imagery in these temples is on the whole drawn
from the Puranas, but the very pronounced geometrical symbolism, which the analysis
of their composition revealed, could hardly be attributed to purely Pauranic
conceptions. It is much more in conformity with tantnc doctrines to interpret the
mystery of existence and to represent cosmic and metaphysical conceptions in terms of

geometrical symbolism. They consider all divinities as different aspects only of the one
Supreme Principle and its inherent Creative Energy.
> The concentric diagrams on which these images are composed remind the structure of
yantras. The disposition of their forms along the lines of essential space-directions
resolves these compositions into a play of dynamic stresses. These stresses, in various
and innumerable combinations achieve certain figurations, which reveal their essential
meaning. The protagonists of the drama, whose movements are governed by these
dynamic lines, cease to be persons and become pure embodiments of certain powers,
actions or tendencies.
Notes and References
1. We have seen that the law of the minimum surface potential energy introduces for a
given volume the solution giving the smallest possible surface agreeing with the linking
forces. Another consequence is the tendency to obtain a homogeneous or symmetrical
disposition of molecular and atomic elements, hence plane force as in crystals (and in
regular arrangements of piles of shot or cannon - balls), and the "law of rational indices.
2. The Principle is infact a mathematical test of discrimination between inorganic and

organic systems. It is not that the Physico-Chemical laws are really in abeyance within
a closed system containing life, but that life in such a system can act as an "external
force"; the system, although apparently closed, doesn’t behave as a closed system. The
tendency of plant to absorb carbon dioxide and to give up oxygen is a most
"improbable" reaction; so is also the continuous photosynthesis by which plants, with
low-grade elements (water and carbon dioxide) and low tension energy, build up,
stocks of substances of high-grade chemical potential (dextrose, etc.)
3. It is regular dodecahedron, which never appears there; irregular dodecahedra, with non
identical faces, do (but very seldom) appear in iron pyrites, as the different angles may
so adjust themselves to each other as to produce a stable equilibrium and an isolated
irregular crystal.

10 - Chapter 4 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

10 - Chapter 4 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Symmetry And Proportion 53

3 SYMMETRY AND PROPORTION

inorganic and organic systems of composition in terms of the principles of composition,

maximum possibility being at the same time that of maximum entropy.

hexagonal or cuboctahedral symmetry is notable in Inorganic system in contrast to the

pentagonal or dodecahedral symmetry playing a dominant role in the shape of living

systems^. Keeping this in view, in this chapter we make a geometrical (Harmonic)

consideration their nature of symmetry.

the following compositions.

1. Asokan Lion - Capital at Saranath, Mauryan Period, 3rd Cent. BC

2. Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal, Western Chalukya, 8th Cent. AD

3. Vimana over Garbhagriha, Tirumala Temple, 8th Cent. AD

4. Votive Stupa in Bronze, style of Lop Buri, 13th - 14th Cent. AD

5. Lotus - Mahal, Hampi, Vijayanagaram, 15th - 16th Cent. AD

6. Raja Birbal’s House, Fatehpur Sikri, 16th Cent. AD

8. Vajrakireetam, Tirumala, 1985

9. Sankam with Silver coverings and studded with Diamonds, Tirumala

Asokan Lion-capital at Saranath, Mauryan Period, 3rd cent. BC

destiny in accordance with the ideals symbolized by the Chakra.

The Cosmos is known as Brahmanda-Chakra; the World Order as Sansara-Chakra;

Mathematically the spokes demonstrate the principle of diversity as One, Two,

Three............ , infinity exemplified in manifestation. Each spoke is like a geometry of life

Life is comprised of a thousand spokes, Sahasrara-Chakra. Metaphysically human speech

or sum total of ideas is designated as Thousand-syllabled, Sahasrakshara Vak; so also the

Rhythm and Activity.

thousands of years in the accumulated tradition of the Indian people.

In short, the several prepositions established are as follows:

sided significance, were exemplified in the free-standing pillars of ancient India.

and religion, overflowing with luxuriant lotus petals.

world creation conceived as central Mount Mem, or Lake Manasarovara, or Anavatapta

also of its persistent continuity.

Udgharshantam Maghvan vajinanyud Viranam jayatametu ghoshah/ Prithag ghosha

ululayah ketumanta vdiratam, deva Indrajyeshtha Marutoyantul setiaya.

in keeping with their Parama-Bhagavata denomination.

vogue for about two centuries.

India who were the Founders of her civilization.

Chakra-dhvaja form, (refer Pt. Nehru’s Speech in the Constituent Assembly).

Indian tradition as it evolved in her religion, philosophy, cult-worship and universal

life. It is comprised of the following elements:

have their faith, and all creatures have their being;

Mahat-Tattva, i.e.Universal Intelligence or Budclhi;

Ahankara, i.e.the individual consciousness or the principle of egoistic assertion, which

Manas, Mind as the consciousness-principle synthesizing the sense data;

(5-9) Five Cognitive sense organs; (Jnanendriya);

(10-14) Five motor sense organs (Karmendriya);

water and earth.

(Purusha). The Bhagavatas therefore named it as Chakra-Purusha or the human symbol

of their Maha-Narayana Vishnu.

horizontal extremities of the Lion Capital.

In accordance with the principle of an inanimate structure in which the hexagonal,

The hexagonal symmetry has the following proportions

AD = Total height of the structure from its base

AC = Height of the mane of the Lion

AO = Height of the central point of the structure

AB = Height of the feet of the Lion

VirupakshaTemple,Pattadakal,Western Chalukya 8t"Cent. AD

being now ruined.

portion of the structure known as the Vimana.

style, and six in the Dravidian or southern, as follows.

peoples has also been a subject of considerable research.

architecture in the regions of the south came into being.

chiseled by artisans accustomed to large schemes; the intricate bas-reliefs of figure-subjects

applied bespeak more than ordinary knowledge. Although lavishly disposed, it is so