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 Ancient History
There are total 12 Topics in this chapter.

➢ History & its Origin ➢ Golden Age/ Gupta Dynasty

➢
➢ Indus Valley Civilization

➢ Some Important
➢ The Vedic Age
Dynasties
➢ Mahajanpadas
➢ Art & Culture of South India
➢ Buddhism

➢ Jainism
➢ Foreign Travelers at the
Ancient Time

➢ Pre Mauryan Empire

➢
➢ Post Mauryan Empire
 Ancient History
➢ Origin of Earth – 4.8 Billion Years back
➢ Origin of Life on earth – 3.5 Billion Years back
➢ Start of Human Life on Earth – 42 lakh Years back.
➢ Father of History – Herodotus

Old Stone Age/ Palaeolithic Period

• 50,000 B.C – 10,000 B.C
• The main tools of lower Palaeolithic phase were handaxes, cleavers and choppers.
These are called chopping tools.

• The geographical distribution of the Palaeolithic

sites suggests that this culture was spread
throughout the length and breadth of the
Indian subcontinent like Kashmir Valley,
Sohan Valley (Rawalpindi now in Pakistan),
Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, etc.

• The Palaeolithic people practised hunting

and food-gathering for their subsistence.
They made simple stone tools for
hunting, cutting, digging and other purposes.

• They led a nomadic life and migrated to places where plant and animal resources
along with water were easily available.
 Middle Stone Age/ Mesolithic Period
• 10,000 B.C – 6,000 B.C
• The microliths used during the mesolithic period were very small in size varying in
lengths from 1 to 8 centimeters and were largely made out of chipped or flaked
pieces. Some of these tools have geometric forms such as Triangles, lunates and
Tra-pezes.
• The distribution of Mesolithic sites
indicates that the Mesolithic cultures
covered almost the entire India
from north to south and east to west,
like Langhnaj (District Mehsana)
in Gujarat; Bhimbetka (near Bhopal)
in Madhya Pradesh; Chopani Mando
(near Allahabad in Belan Valley) in
Uttar Pradesh; Birbhanpur
(District Burdwan) in West Bengal;
Sanganakallu (District Bellary) in
Karnataka; and Tuticorin in southern Tamil Nadu.

• The Mesolithic people still subsisted on hunting and gathering, but now there was a
shift in the pattern of hunting from the big animals in the Palaeolithic period to the
smaller animals which could be attacked with the help of bows and arrows. In
addition to this, fishing and fowling also became important.

• Fire had been discovered in this Period.

 New Stone Age/ Neolithic Period
• 6,000 B.C – 1,000 B.C
• The use of the sharp and polished Neolithic tools made it easier to cultivate the soil
• The Neolithic people also produced
pottery for the purpose of storing grains.
• The Neolithic tools consist of the ground
tools having smooth surfaces, and
well-rounded and symmetrical shapes.
The ground stone tools of the Neolithic
period included different types
of axes called ‘celt’.
• Besides the stone tools, the sites of this period have also yielded various types of
bone objects such as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, pendants, bangles
and earrings.
• The Neolithic sites were spread over almost all the regions of Indian subcontinent,
such as Mehargarh (Baluchistan), Burzahom & Gufkral(Kashmir Valley),etc.
• The people cultivated various kinds of crops such as wheat, barley, rice, millet,
lentils, etc,. depending on the geographical conditions. Agriculture gave impetus
to animal domestication.
• Hunting still remained an important occupation.
• The people domesticated animals which included sheep, goat, cattle, etc. and
also hunted wild animals such as boar, nilgai, gazells, etc.
• The Neolithic cultures created the conditions which helped in the growth of towns in
the later period.
 Chalcolithic Period/ Copper StoneAge
• 4500 – 3500 B.C
• Technologically before Harappa but actually overlaps with Harappa too.
• Occasional use of Low grade Bronze.
• Chalco means = copper + stone.
• Copper is mostly used Metal in the in the Chalcolithic Period.
 Some Important Facts
• Hunting was the main living Source of OLD STONE AGE.
• Around 36,000 B.C. back Humans in the form of Homo-Sapiens.
• The 1st pet of Human was --- Dog as seen in Middle stone Age.
• The 2nd pet of Human was --- Horse as mentioned in vedas.
• Humans knew about fire from ‘OLD STONE AGE’ but it had become in use by --- NEW
STONE AGE.
• Firstly the Institute of ‘STONE AGE CULTURE’ was established by – “Robert Boose Foot “
in India(1863) at Calcutta.
• 1st Weapon of Humans --- STONE
• 2nd weapon of Humans --- BONE
• 3rd weapon of Humans --- METAL
• BONE WEAPONS were found from Bihar in NEW STONE AGE.
• Firstly the metal used in weapons was -- Copper(Cu), moreover Humans knew firstly
the Metal named as— ‘COPPER(Cu)’
• Man firstly made the STONE WHEEL after that , Man then Made –WOODEN WHEEL.
• WHEEL was introduce in NEW STONE AGE
• Agriculture was introduce in NEW STONE AGE
• Firstly the clues of Agriculture was found from – Mehargarh(West of Indus River).
• Indus Valley Civilisation name was given by --- john Marshal
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
➢ HARAPPA:
• Location: Montgo Mery, Punjab, Pakistan
• River: Ravi River
• Discovered Year: 1921
• Excavator: D.R. Sahini (Daya Ram Sahini)
• Findings: Grainaries, Coffin Burrial, 1st Town which is Excavated

➢ MOHANJODARO – Biggest city in IVC

• Location: Sindh, Pakistan
• River: Sindhu (Indus River)
• Discovered Year: 1922
• Excavator: R.D. Banerjee(Rakhal Das Banerjee)
• It is the most Facilitated site of IVS.
• Findings: Great Bath(The Biggest Bath Ghat),
great Grainary, Bronze Dancing Girl
Beared Priest/ Man, Terracotta Toys, Bull Seal,
Pashupati Seal, Hidden Drainage,
A piece of woven Cloth,etc.
• It is the Most Modern Site of Indus Valley.
• It is the Largest City of Indus Valley.

Pashupati Seal
Male deity with Three-Horned Heads,
represented in the sitting posture of a
Yogi. This deity is surrounded by an
elephant, a Tiger, a Rhinoceros, & has a
Buffalo beneath his throne. At his feet are
two deer.
The depicted god is recognised as
Pashupati Mahadeva.
Beared Priest Dancing Girl
Bull Seal

➢ CHANHUDARO (Lancashire of India)

• Location: Sindh, Pakistan
• River: Sindh/ Indus
• Discovered Year: 1931
• Excavator: Gopal Mazumdar & Mackery(Foreign)
• Findings: Bead Making Factory,
Use of Lipstick, Black Liner, Comb, etc.

➢ ROPAD
• Location: Punjab
• River: Sutlej
• Discovered Year: 1953-1955
• Excavator: yagyaDutta Sharma(Y.D. Sharma)
• Findings: Burried of Dog with man,etc.
➢ DHOLA VIRA
• Location: Kutch, Gujrat
• River: Luni
• Discovered Year: 1968
• Excavator: J.P. Joshi
• Findings: Bullocks & Driven by a nude Human,
Water Harvesting & No. of Reservoirs,
Use of Rocks for Construction, Drainage system, Livelihood, Wells,
Bullocks, etc.

➢ LOTHAL
• Location: Ahemdabad, Gujrat
• River: Bhogwa (Gulf of Khambat)
• Discovered Year: 1955- 1962
• Excavator: Rangnath Rao
• Findings: Dockyard, Bead making factory,
Button seal, Fire Altars, Painted Jar,
Earliest cultivation of Rice, set of
Elephant Teeth, etc.
• It is the biggest Dockyard of IVS.
• Chess Board
• Manchester of IVC (due to production of Cotton)
➢ KALI BANGA(Black Bangles/ Non-Planned City)
• Location: SriGanga Nagar, Rajasthan
• River: Ghaggar/ Sarasvati River
• Discovered Year: 1961
• Excavator: Brij Basi Lal, Bal Krishna Thapar
• Findings: Baked/Burned bangles, Fire Altars,
Shiva Lingam, Bones of Camel,

➢ BANAWALI
• Location: Fatehabad Haryana
• River: Ghaggar/ Sarasvati River
• Discovered Year: 1973
• Excavator: R.S. Bisht
• Findings: Barley, Terracotta Figure of plough, etc.

➢ LARKANA
• Location: Larkana District, Punjab Pakistan.
• River: Sindhu/ Indus
• Discovered Year:
• Excavator:
• Findings: Barley, etc.
➢ RAKHI GARHI
• Location: Hisar, Haryana
• River: Ghaggar
• Discovered Year:1963
• Excavator: Prof. Surbhajan
• It is the Biggest/Largest Site of IVS.
• Findings: Terracotta, wheels, Toys,
Figurines, Pottery,etc.
 THE VEDIC AGE (1500-600BC)
The word veda is derived from the root vid which means ‘to know’. The word veda means
the sacred knowledge contained in the texts known as Vedic text.
Two categories of texts are included in the corpus of the Vedic literature. These are
Mantra and Brahmana.
➢ The Brahmanas not to be confused with Brahaminical class are prose texts
containing the explanations of the mantras as well as the sacrificial rituals.

➢ The Aranyakas (literally forest treatises) and the Upanishads (sitting down beside) are mainly
appendices to the Brahmanas.

• The Mantra category forms the core of the Vedic texts and has four separate
collections. These are the Rigveda, the Samaveda, the Yajurveda, and the
Atharvaveda.

RIGVEDIC PERIOD/ EARLY VEDIC PERIOD(1500-1000BC)

➢ Rigveda
• Collection 1028 Hymns
• Divided into 10 Mandalas.
• Oldest Religious Text.
• Included in the UNESCO.
• Depicts the life of Early Vedic Period
• Hymns------ 1028
• Mandalas(Chapters)----- 10
• Rigveda starts with the line ‘Agnimele Purohitam’
• Famous Gayatri Mantra is contained in the Rigveda (It is believed to have
composed by Vishwamitra).
• Contains the knowledge of chemistry & Medical science.
• It contains the Prayers of God & Gayatri Mantra.
➢ Early Vedic Society
• It was patriarchal in nature.
• Monogamy was the usual norm of marriage but the chiefs at times practiced
polygamy.
• The family was part of a larger grouping called vis or clan.
• One or more than one clans made jana or tribe. The jana was the largest
social unit.
• The Rigvedic society was a simple and largely an egalitarian society.
• There was no caste division.
• The Vedic people were fair whereas the non-Vedic indigenous people were
dark in complexion and spoke a different language.
• Here dasa has been used in the sense of a group different from the Rigvedic
people.
• The women in society enjoyed respectable position. She was married at a
proper age and could choose a husband of her own choice. She could take
part in the proceedings of the tribal assemblies called sabha and samiti.

➢ Early Vedic Religion

• The prayers to propitiate gods for physical protection and for material gains
were the main concerns of the Rigvedic people.
• The Rigvedic gods were generally personifications of different aspects of
natural forces such as rains, storm, sun etc.
• Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Dyaus, Pushana, Yama, Soma, etc. are all male
gods.
• In comparison, we have only a few goddesses such as Ushas, Sarasvati,
Prithvi, etc which occupy secondary positions in the pantheon.
• Signs & Terms that represents God are given as:
1. ThunderBolt & Strom – God Indra(Main God at that time)
2. Fire – Agni God
3. Intoxicate Plant – Soma
4. Cosmic order “Rita” – Varuna God
5. Roads, Heardsmen & Cattle – Pushan God
 • Early Vedic phase people did not construct temples nor did they worship any
statue.

➢ Early Vedic Polity

• The chief social unit of the Aryans was known as jana.
• The chief of this unit was the political leader called rajan.
• The main function of the chief was to protect the jana and cattle from the
enemies. He was helped in his task by the tribal assemblies called sabha,
samiti, vidatha, gana and parishad.
• Out of these sabha and samiti were the most important assemblies. All
aspects of life were discussed in these assemblies.

• The purohita assisted and advised the chief on various matters.

• Other than the purohita, there were a limited number of other officials who
assisted the chief in the day-to-day tribal affairs. Senani, kulapa, gramani,
etc. are some of the functionaries which find mention in the Rigveda.
 LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000-600BC)
• During later Vedic phase, agriculture became the mainstay of the Vedic people.
• The buffalo had been domesticated for the agricultural purposes. This animal was
extremely useful in ploughing the swampy land.
• The god Indra acquires a new epithet ‘Lord of the Plough’ in this period.
• The number and varieties of plant food increased. Apart from barley, people now
cultivated wheat, rice, pulses, lentils, millet, sugarcane etc.
• The items of dana and dakshina included cooked rice.
• Tila, from which the first widely used vegetable
food-oil was derived increasingly,
came to be used in rituals.
• During the later Vedic period was the
beginning of the use of iron around 1000 BC.
• The use of iron tools now helped people
clear the dense rain forests particularly the
huge stumps left after burning, in a more
effective manner.
• With the passage of time the Vedic people also acquired better knowledge of
seasons, manuring and irrigation.
• All these developments resulted in the substantial enlargement of certain
settlements such as Hastinapur and Kaushambi towards the end of the Later Vedic
period.

➢ Later Vedic Society

• The later Vedic family became large enough to be called a joint-family with
three or four generations living together.
• The institution of gotra developed in this period. This means that people
having common gotra descended from a common ancestor and no
marriage between the members of the same gotra could take place.
• Monogamous marriages were preferred even though polygamy was
frequent.
 • Some restrictions on women appeared during this period. In a text women
have been counted as a vice along with dice and wine. In another text a
daughter has been said to be the source of all sorrows. Women had to stay
with her husband at his place after marriage. The participation of women in
public meetings was restricted.
• The most important change was the rise and growth of social differentiation
in the form of varna system. The four varnas in which society came to be
divided were the brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras.
• The kshatriyas, next in the social hierarchy, were the rulers. They along with
brahmanas controlled all aspects of life.
• The vaishyas, the most numerous varna were engaged in agriculture as well
as in trade and artisanal activities.
• The brahmanas and the kshatriyas were dependent on the tributes (gifts and
taxes) paid to them by the vaishyas.
• The shudras, the fourth varna were at the bottom of the social hierarchy. They
were ordained to be in the service of the three upper varnas.
• In this period Brahmans are considered as very Powerful.
• Another important institution that began to take shape was ashrama or
different stages of life. Brahmacharya (student life), grihastha (householder),
and vanaprastha (Hermitage) stages are mentioned in the texts.
• Later, sanyasa, the fourth stage also came to be added.

➢ Later Vedic Religion

• Vishnu and Rudra which were smaller deities in the Rigveda became
extremely important.
• The increase in the frequency and number of the yajna which generally
ended with the sacrifices of a large number of animals. This was probably the
result of the growing importance of a class of brahmanas and their efforts to
maintain their supremacy in the changing society.
• These yajnas brought to them a large amount of wealth in form of dana and
dakshina. Some of the important yajnas were - ashvamedha, vajapeya,
rajasuya etc.
 • A large number of cattle and other animals which were sacrificed at the end
of each yajna must have hampered the growth of economy.
• Therefore, a path of good conduct and self-sacrifice was recommended for
happiness and welfare in the last sections of the Vedas, called the Upnishads.
• The Upnishads contain two basic principles of Indian philosophy viz, karma
and the transmigration of soul, i.e., rebirth based on past deeds.
• According to these texts real happiness lies in getting moksha i.e. freedom
from this cycle of birth and re-birth.

➢ Later Vedic Polity

• The people started to loose their control over the chief and the popular
assemblies gradually disappeared.

• The chiefship had become hereditary.

• The brahmanas helped the chiefs in this process.
• The elaborate coronation rituals such as vajapeya and rajasuya established
the chief authority.

• The authority of the popular assemblies started waning.

• The officers were appointed to help the chief in administration and they
acquired the functions of the popular assemblies as main advisors.

• The chiefs of this period belonged to the kshatriya varna and they in league
with the brahmanas tried to establish complete control over the people in
the name of dharma.

➢ Samveda
• Deals with Music.
• Hymns--- 1875
• Adhayas(chapters)--- 6
• It is the origin of Indian Classical Music.
• Sama Veda deals with Music.
• Sama Vedic hymns are meant to be
sung by priests called Udgatri.
 ➢ Yajurveda
• Procedures for the performance of Sacrifices.
• The Yajurveda is found in two recensions, Black and White
• Hymns--- 1975
• Adhayas(chapters)--- 40
• Contains the knowledge of all
Sacrificial formula & Weapons.
• Experts of Yajurveda were called -- Adhvaryu
• Only veda divided into two parts –
Krishna Yajur Veda & Shukla Yajur Veda.

➢ Atharvaveda
• Deals with Medicines.
• also called “veda of Magical Formulas”
• Hymns--- 730
• Khandas(chapters)--- 20
• Atharva veda is a collection of spells and incantations.
• Contains the knowledge of Ayurveda, also charm and
spells hence it is known as Black Veda.
• The saying, ‘‘War begins in the minds of men’’ is from
Atharva Veda.

Vedic Officials
Ratnis Responsibilities
Purohit Chief Priest, also something referred to as the Rashtragopa
Senani Supreme Commander of the army
Vrajapati Officer Incharge of the Pasture Land
Jivagribha Police Officer
Spasaa/Dutas Spies, who also sometimes worked as Messengers
Gramani Head of the Village
Kulapati Head of Family
Madhyamasi Mediator of Disputes
Mahishi The Chief Queen
Suta Charioteer & Court Minister
Govinkartana Keeper of Games & Forests
Palagala Messenger
Kshatri Chamberian
Akshavapa Accountant
Athapati Chief Judge
Takshan Carpainter

The Mahajanpadas
• Most of these states were monarchical in nature but some of them, called
ganasangha, had an oligarcharical system of governance.

• At that time Silver and Copper time in use.

• Post under the Magadh are given below :

▪ Senani -- Senapati
▪ Purohit -- Pujari
▪ Amatya – Amatya
 • The most important of these are given below:

S.No. Mahajanapadas Capital Modern location

1 Anga Champa Munger and

Bhagalpur(Bihar)
2 Magadh Girivraja / Rajagir Gaya and Patna(Bihar)

3 Kasi Varanasi Banaras

4 Vatsa Kausambi Allahabad(U.P)

5 Kosala Sravasti Eastern Uttar Pradesh

6 Sursena Mathura Mathura(U.P)

7 Panchala Ahichchatra and Western Uttar Pradesh

Kampilya
8 Kuru Indraprastha Merrut Delhi region

9 Matsya Viratnagar Jaipur

10 Chedi Suktimati / Banda Bundelkhanda (U.P)

11 Avanti Ujjain / Mahismati Madhya Pradesh &

Malwa
12 Gandhar Taxila Peshawar (Pakistan)

13 Kamboja Rajpura Near Gandhar

14 Asmak Pratisthan / Paithan Bank of Godavari

(Maharashtra)
15 Vajji (Ganasangha) Vaishali Muzaffarpur (Bihar)

16 Malla Kusinara/ Pava Gorakhpur, U.P.

 Mahajanpads
Mahajanpad Capital Current Location
Magadha Girivraj or Rajgriha District Patna, Gaya & Part of
Shahabad in Bihar.
Anga Champa or Munger & Bhagalpur district of Bihar
Chapanagari
Kashi Varanasi Varanasi district of U.P
Koasala Saravasti Faizabad, Gonda Region or Eatrern
U.P
Malla Kushinagar or Pawa South of Vaishali distt. in U.P
Kuru Hastinapur Haryana & Delhi
Chedi Shaktiman Eastern Part of Bundelkhand
Panchal Ahichharta, Kampilya Rahilkhand western U.P
Sursena Mathura Brajmandal Mathura Region
Matsya Viratnagar Alwar, Jaipur, Bharatpur in Rajasthan

Avanti Malwa/Ujjain Ujjain District

Gandhara Taxila Western part of Pakistan &
Afghanistan
Kamboj Rajput/ Hataka Punch area in Kashmir & Hazara
District of Pakistan
Ashmika Potana / Patali Between river Narmada & Godavari
Vatsa Kaushambi Dist. Of Allahabad Mirzapur of U.P
Vajji Vaishali Vaishali district of Bihar

Some Important Fact about Mahajan padas

✓ Kashi was famous for its cotton textiles and market for horses.

✓ Champa was noted for its trade and Commerce.

✓ Vajji represented a confederacy of eight clans.

✓ The Buddha died in the vicinity of Kushinagar.

✓ The Northern Panchalas had their capital at Ahicchatra.

✓ The Southern Panchalas had their Capital at Kampilya.

✓ Viratnagar was used as the hiding place by Pandavas.

✓ Mathura was located at the junction of two famous trade routes i.e. Uttara patha

and Dakshinapatha.

✓ The Kambojas were regarded as uncultured by the Brahamanical texts.

✓ The Buddha calls himself Kosalan in the Majjhima Nikaya.

✓ Kashi had emerged as a cloth manufacturing centre by the time of Buddha.

 JAINISM(600BC)
➢ 1st Tirthankara : Rishabhanath
➢ 23rd Tirthankara: Parshvanath

➢ 24 or Last Tirthankara: Vardhaman Mahavira

• Birth – Kundagrama near Vaishali (540Bc)
• Childhood Name – Vardhman
• He belonged to the Jnatrika kashatriya clan.
• Father – Siddhartha(Head of janatrika clan)
• Mother – Trishla(Sister of Lichhavi chief chetaka)
• Elder Brother -- Nandiverdhan
• Wife – Yashoda
• Daughter – Annoja Priyadarsni
• At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home & became a
wandering ascetic for 12 Years.
• Mahavira’s first disciple was Jamali.
• Austerity Place – Jrambhik Village
• Attainment of Knowledge – 12 (Rajupalika River, Under the Saal tree
near Jrimbhikgrama)
• 1st Follower – Jamali
• Language – Natural (Prakrit)
• He was Contemporary to Bimbisara.
• Death – 468BC (PavaPuri)

Tri- Ratna or Three Novels

1. Samyaka Darshan – Right Faith
2. Samyaka Gyan – Right knowledge
3. Samyaka Acharan – Right Action
4.

Note: Bimbisara Contemporary to both

Mahavira & Buddha.
 FIVE MAIN TEACHINGS
✓ Non-injury (ahimsa)
✓ Non-lying
✓ Non-Stealing (asateya)
✓ Non-Possession (aparigraha)
✓ Observe continence (Brahamcharya). It was added by Mahavira.

JAINA LITERATURE
• Most of the literature is written in Prakrit.
• The Jaina Literature includes,
(1) The 12 Angas
(2) The 12 Upangas
(3) The 10 Prakirna
(4) The 6 Chhedsutras
(5) The 4 Mulasutras
 JAINA COUNCILS
➢ First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third
century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 1 Purvas.

➢ Second Council was held at Valabhi in the 6th (513 AD) century AD under the

leadership of Devaradhikshamasramana and resulted in final compilationd 12

Angas and 12 Upangas.

Facts about Jainism

Mahavira, Arhat Titles of Vardhamana

Vardhamana Original name of Mahavira

Kundagram Mahavira's birth place

Trisala Mahavira's Mother

Yashoda Mahavira's Wife

Jamali Mahavira's Son in Law.

Jnatrika Clan to which Mahavira belonged.

Rijupalika River on the bank of which Mahavira got

Kaivalya.
Sal tree The tree under which Mahavira got
Kaivalya.
Pava Place where Mahavira died.

➢ Explanation of formation of Digambaras and Shvetambaras: After the

death of Mahavira during the reign of king Chandragupta Maurya a severe fam-
ine led to the migration of some jains under Bhadra- bahu to the Deccan.
Sthulabhadra remained in North and allowed wearing white garments Bhadrabahu
maintained nudity leading to division as Digambaras (sky clad or naked) and
shwetambars (white clad).
 24 TIRTHANKARAS AND THEIR SYMBOL
Name Symbol
1. Rishabha Bull
2. Ajitnath Elephant
3. Sambharnath Horse
4. Abhiaandam Swamy Monkey
5. Sumathinath Curlew
6. Padamprabhu Red Lotus
7. Suparaswanath Swastik
8. Chandraji Prabhu Moon
9. Suvidhinath Crocodile
10. Shitalnath Srivatsa
11. Shreyansnath Rhinoceros
12. Vasupujya Buffalo
13. Vimalnath Boar
14. Ananthanth Falcon
15. Dharamnath Vajra
16. Shantinath Deer
17. Kuntunath He-Goat
18. Arnath Fish
19. Mallinath Water Pot
20. Muniswasth Tortoise
21. Naminath Blue Lotus
22. Arishtanemi (Neminath) Conch Shell
23. Parswanath Serpent
24. Mahavir Lion
 Some other facts about Jainism
• The names of two Jaina Tirthankaras, Rishabha and Aristanemi, are found in the
Rigveda,
• The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagvata Purana describe Rishabha as an incarnation
of Narayana.
• In the course of wandering Mahavira met Makkhali Gosala (the founder of Ajivika
sect).
• Ashoka's grandson Samparati accept Jainism.
• In First century A.D. Mathura became the Centre of Jaina art and culture.
• The spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to Chandragupta Maurya.
• Many Jaina followers went to south under the leadership of Bhadrabahu.
• These southern followers later formed the Digambra sect (lives nude).
• Those who remained at Magadha, under the leadership of Sthulabahu, formed
Shvetambar sect (wears white garments).

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

• Both opposed Brahmanical domination and caste system but uphold the essence
of Vedas, Preached Truth, non violence, celibacy and detachment from material
comforts, believed in karma and rebirth and were liberal towards women.

• Aacharangsutra about rules and regulation for Jain Bhikshus.

Differences between Buddhism and Jainism

Buddhism Jainism

Followers Monks Lay man

Salvation Moderate one Extreme one

Spread Died in India but spread to foreign lands Confined to India and
survived
Ahimsa Liberal Policy Over-emphasis

Soul Did not believe in soul Believed in Soul

 BUDDHISM(600 BC)
Lord Buddha
• Birth – 563 BC, Lumbini, Nepal
• Childhood Name – Siddhartha
• Other Name – Tathagat
• Family Name -- Gautam
• Father – Suddhodana(Ruler of kapilvastu)
• Mother – Mahamaya Devi (Kosala Dynasty)
• Foster Mother – Pajapati Gotami
• Wife – yashodhara
• Son – Rahul
• Cousin brother – Devdatt
• First teacher – Alara Kalama
• Second Teacher – Rudraka Ramputta
• Austerity Site -- Baudhgaya
• Austerity Duration – 6 Years
• Home sacrifice – In the age of 29 (Mahabhinishkraman)
• He was Contemporary to Bimbisara & Udayan.
• He got Niravana – at the age of 35 years at Uruvela (Niranjana River)
(Gaya)
• Samobdhi – He took Bodhtawa on 49th day from starting Meditation in
Gaya.
• He perfomed 1st Sermon – Dharmachakkaparvatna in Sarnath near
Varanasi.
• He gave Maximum Sermon at Shravasti.
• He was Contemporary to BimbiSara
• In Sarnath he established Sangha & the 1st Lady Pupil was Pajapati
Gotmi (Foster Mother).
• Buddha’s last words were “ All composite things, strive diligently”.
• After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, Buddha
decided to become a Wanderer.
• Asvajit, Upali, Mogallana, Sariputra & Ananda were five disciples of
Buddha.

• Five Great Symbols of Lord Buddha:

 ✓ Birth – Lotus, Elephant, & Bull
✓ Great Departure / Renunciation –
Horse
✓ Enlightenment (Nirvana)– Sign of Feet
✓ First Sermon – Wheel (Noble Path)
(Dharm Chakra Parvartan)
✓ Death – Stupa & Foot Print
(Parinirvana)
• Death – 483 BC, Kushinagar(Village Kasia), Uttar Pradesh.
• Four Noble Truths
✓ The world is full of Sorrows.
✓ Desire is root cause of Sorrow.
✓ If desired is conquered, all sorrows can be removed.
✓ Desire can be removed by following 8 fold Paths.

8 Fold Path has to be followed in Buddhism

1. Samyak Dristi – Right Understanding
2. Samyak Sankalpa – Right Resolve
3. Samyak Vani – Right Speech
4. Samyak Karma – Right Action
5. Samyak Ajiv - Right Living
6. Samyak Vyayam – Right Efforts
7. Samyak Smriti – Right Mindfulness/ Thought
8. Samyak Samadhi – Right self- Concentration

IMPORTANT FACTS RELATED WITH BUDDHA

Titles of Buddha
Sakya Clan to which Buddha belong
Gautama Gotra of Buddha
Suddhodana Buddha's Father
Mahamaya Buddha's Mother
Prajapati Gautami Foster Mother
Yasodhara Buddha's Wife
Rahul Buddha's Son
Kanthaka Buddha's Horse
Channa Buddha's Charioteer
Alara Kalam Buddha's Teacher
Sujata Girl who offered rice and milk
Niranjana River on the bank of which Buddha attained
Nirvana

Mara King of spirit who trouble Buddha during

meditation

Chunda The person who offered pork to Buddha

Sravasti Buddha preached most of his sermons here

THREE RATNAS
• Buddha
• Dhamma
• Sangha
Code of Conduct
(1) Do not covet the property of others

(2) Do not commit violence

(3) Do not speak a lie

(4) Do not indulge in corrupt practices

Four Buddhist Councils

1st Buddhist Council • Time Period – 483 BC
– Rajgriha (Bihar) • King – AjatShatru (Haryankya Dynasty)
• Chairman – Mahakassapa
• Outcome – Vinay pitaka & Sutta Pitaka were written.

2nd Buddhist Council • Time Period – 383 BC

– Vaishali (Bihar) • King – kalaShoka (ShishuNaga Dynasty)
• Chairman – Sarvakamini
• Outcome – 1st time Buddhism divided in two sects:
Sithavira & Mahasnghiska.

3rd Buddhist Council • Time Period – 255 BC

– Pataliputra (Bihar) • King – Ashoka (Mauryan Dynasty)
• Chairman – MoggaliPutta Tisya
• Outcome – AbhiDhamma Pitaka was written here.
4th Buddhist Council
– Kushan (Kashmir)
• Time Period – 1st Century A.D(72 A.D)
• King – Kanishka (Kushan Dynasty)
• Chairman – Vasumitra & Ashvagosha
• Outcome – Finally Buddhism divided in two sects:
Hinayana & Mahayana.

5th Buddhist Council • Time Period – 1871 A.D

• Held in – Burma

6th Buddhist Council • Time Period – 1954 A.D.

• Held in – Burma

SECTS OF BUDDHISM
➢ Hinayana:
(a) Its followers believed in the original teachings of Buddha.
(b) They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.
(c) They did not believe in idol-worship.
(d) Hinayana, like Jainism, is a religion without God, Karma taking the place of God
(e) Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all
(f) the oldest school of Hinayana Buddhism is the Sthaviravada (Thervada in Pali) or the
'Doctrine of the Elders'.
(g) Its Sanskrit counterpart, which is more philosophical is known as Sarvastivada or the
doctrine which maintains the existence of all things, physical as well as mental.
(h) Gradually, from Sarvastivada or Vaibhasika branched off another school called
Sautaantrika. Which was more critical in Outlook.

➢ Mahayana :
(a) Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha and sought the salvation of all
through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisatvas.
(b) Believes in idolworship.
(c) Believes that Nirvana is not a negative cessation of misery but a positive state of bliss.
(d) Mahayana had two chief philosophical schools: the Madhyamika and the Yogachara.
(e) The former took a line midway between the uncompromising realism of Hinayanism
and the idealism of Hinayanism and the idealism of Yogachara.
(f) The Yogachara school founded by Maitreyanatha completely rejected the realism of
Hinayana and maintained absolute idealism.

➢ Vajrayana:
(a) Its followers believed that salvation could be the best attained by acquiring the
magical power, which they called Vajra.
(b) The chief divinties of this new sect were the Taras.
(c) It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

BUDDHIST LITERATURE
• The Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitaka i.e. Three fold
Basket.
• Tripitaka includes Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• The Vinayapitaka comprires of suttavibhanga, Khandakas and Parivarpatha.

➢ The Vinay Pitaka:

(a) Mainly deals with rules and regulations, which the Buddha promulgated.
(b) It describes in detail the gradual development of the Sangha.
(c) An account of the life and teaching of the Buddha is also given.

➢ The Sutta Pitaka is divided into five Nikayas.

• The five Nikayas are Digh Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya, Anguttara
Nikaya and Khuddaka Nikaya.
• The Khuddaka Nikaya consists of large number of miscellanceous works,
• The Jatakan are a part of Khuddaka Nikaya of Sutta Pitaka.

➢ The Sutta Pitaka consists chiefly of:

(a) discourses delivered by Buddha himself on different occasions.
(b) Few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Moggalana and other are also included in it.
(c) It lays down the principles of Buddhism.

➢ The Abhidhama Pitaka consists chiefly of:

 ▪ The Abhidhamma Pitaka is written in the form of questions and Answers.
▪ It consists of seven books of which Kathavattu is most important.
▪ Kathavattu is attributed to Moggaliputta Tissa.
▪ The Abhidhamma Pitaka:
(a) Contains the profound philosophy of the Buddha's tecahings.
(b) It investigates mind and matter, to help the understanding of things as they truly
are.

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
Buddhist architecture developed essentially in three forms, viz.
(a) Stupa (relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monks are preserved)
(b) Chaitya (prayer hall)
(c) Vihara (residence)
BODHISATTVAS
• Vajrapani (holds thunderbolt).
• Avlokitesvara/Padmapani (lotus bearer)
• Manjushri (holds books describing 10 paramitas)
• Ksitigarbha (guardian of purgatories)
• Maitreya (the future Buddha)
• Amitabha/Amitayusha (Buddha of heaven)
S.no Buddhist Universities Location Founder
1 Nalanda Badagaon, Bihar Kumargupta-1

2 Vikramshila Bhagalpur, Bihar Dharmapala (Pala ruler)

3 Somapuri North Bengal Dharmapala (Pala ruler)

4 Jagadal Bengal Ramapala (Pala ruler)

5 Odantpuri Bihar Sharif, Bihar Gopala (Pala ruler)

6 Vallabhi Gujarat Bhattarika (Maitrak rule)

 PRE- MAURYAN EMPIRE
HARYANKYA SHISHUNAGA NANDA MAURYAN
DYNASTY DYNASTY DYNASTY DYNASTY
(544-413BC) (413-343 BC) (343-321BC) (321-184BC)

HARYANKYA DYNASTY (544-413BC)

➢ The epic Mahabharata has provided information about the early period of
Magadha.
➢ Jarasandh and Brihdrath were the rulers during the period of Mahabharata.
➢ Girivraja was the magadhan capital during the early period.

➢ Founder/ 1st Ruler—Bimbisara (Son of Bhattiya) (544 – 491B.C)

• Also called – Sreniya
• Capital(Magadh)—Grivraja/ Rajgirha
• Contemporary of Buddha.
• In Jain Literature he has been called
as “Shrenika”
• He had three wives – Mahakosala,
Chellana & Kshema.
• Mahakosala was the Sister of Kosal ruler Prasenjit & Chellana was Lichchhavi
Princess.
• He defeated Anga & annexed it.
• He send his Physician Jivak to treat Chand Pradyot of Avanti.
• He was Prisoned by his son “ Ajatshatru” & died in 493 B.C.
• Follow marriage alliance for expansion
of Magadh.
➢ 2nd Ruler – Ajatshatru (Son of Bimbisara & Chellna)
• Contemporary of Buddha.
• 492 – 460 B.C. (Title – Kunika)
• Took throne(Magadha) by killed his father
• 1st Buddhist Council held at Rajgir.
• He followed an expansionist Policy.
• After a long struggle he defeated Kasi & Vajji
confederacy.
• He took the services of his minister Vassakar to divide the Vajji confederacy.
• He got a large stupa constructed in Rajgriha.
• Gautam Buddha died during his reign.
• Ajatshatru constructed a fort around Rajgriha to protect it from Lichcchavi
attack.
• He was killed by his son Udayin in 461 B.C.
• Won War against Kosala & Vaishali
• He had 2 main weapons: Rathmusal, Mahashilakantika

➢ 3rd Ruler – Udayin (460 – 444 B.C.)

• Also called ‘Udaya Bhadra’
• Shifted capital of Magadh – Patliputra
• Founder of Patna/Patliputra.
• Follower of Jainism.
• He killed his father “Ajatshatru”

➢ 2 kings Succeeded: Annirudha & Manda

➢ Last Ruler – Naga Dasak (437-413Bc)
 SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY (413-343 BC)
• Founder/ 1st Ruler – Shishu Naga
• Minister of Naga dasak

• He killed the Naga dasak

• 413 – 395 B.C.

• Shifted capital of Magadh --- Vaishali

• Won Avanti Area to Magadha.

• 2nd Ruler – Kalashoka (son of Shishu Naga)

• 2nd Buddhist Council held at Vaishali

• 395 – 367 B.C.

• Shifted capital of Magadh --- Patliputra

• Last Ruler – Nandivardhan

 NANDA DYANSTY (343-321BC)
• Founder/1st Ruler – Mahapadma Nanda
• 1st Non- Kshatriya Ruler.(343 – 329 B.C.)

• Also called ‘Ekrat & Empire builder of India’

• Also called ‘Sarva kashtriyantaka’

• He conquered Kalinga.

• 2nd Ruler – Dhana Nanda(329-321 B.C)

• Also called ‘Xan-drammes & Aggrames’

• Alexander invaded during his reign.

• Alexander feared about the army of

Dhana Nanda & ran away.

• Contemporary of Alexander.

Note: Nandas have been termed as first empire builders of India.

 Battle of Hydaspes(326BC – on Jhelum River)
• Alexander Vs Porus (king of Kashmir)
• Alexander defeated Porus & ran towards
fight Dhana Nanda(Magadh) but
returned back after saw Dhana
Nanda’s Army & left his
Governor --- Seleucus Nicator at Baluchistan(Pakistan).
• Later Seleucus Nicator fight with Chandra Gupta Mauryan
• Then Chandra Mauryan defeated Seleucus Nicator with the help of ‘Chanakya or
Kautilya’.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF MAGADHA

• Magadha enjoyed an advantageous geographical position.
• Iron deposits were situated close to Rajgir, the earliest capital of Magadha.
• Rajgir and Pataliputra were situated at very strategic points.
• Pataliputra was surrounded by rivers from all sides it was called as jaladurga (water-
fort).
• Magadha lay at the centre of the middle Gangetic plain.
• Magadha for the first time used elephants on a large scale in wars.
• Greek sources have mentioned that the Nanda maintained 6000 elephants.
• Magadha society was unorthodox and was recently Aryanized.
• Ambitious rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatshatru and Mahapadma nanda established
Magadha as a powerful kingdom.

FOREIGN INVASION
• North-West India was ruled by smaller principalite like Kambojas and Gandharas.
• The Period of 6th century B.C. marked by politica instability in North-West India.
• In 516 B.C. the Iranian ruler Darius penetrated int North-West India.
• Darius annexed Punjab, west of Indus and Sindh.
• This area constituted the 20th kshatrapy (province) of Iran.
• The Indian Kshatrapy included Sindh, the North-West frontier and part of Punjab.
• The Indian Kshatrapy paid a tribute of 360 talents of Gold.
• Xerxes, the successor of Darius, employed Indians the long war against the Greeks.
 • The Iranian Scribes brought into India Kharosh script.
• Under the leadership of Alexander of Macedonia, the Greeks destroyed the Iranian
Empire.
• Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 B.C.
• Ambhi was the king of Taxila.
• Porus ruled between Jhelum and Ravi.
• Porus provided a strong resistance to Alexander.
• Alexander remained in India for 19 months (326-325 B.C.).
• Alexander's campaign opened up four distinct routes by land and sea.
• Alexandria and Boukephala were Greek settlements which were established in the
North West.
• Alexander's historian Nearchus has left valuable geographical accounts.
• Battle of Hydaspes was fought between Porus and Alexander.
• Alexander sent 20,000 oxen to Macedonia for use in Greece.
• The Sati system and slave trade was prevalent in the society.
• Alexander's invasion paved the way for the expansion of Mauryan Empire in North
West India.

EFFECTS OF ALEXANDER'S INVASION

✓ It exposed India to Europe by opening up four distinct lines of communication three
by land and one by sea
✓ The Hindu and the Buddhist religious faiths and philosophies had an impact of the
Greek world of philosophy following Alexander's time.
✓ Due to cultural contacts, a cosmopolitan school of art came up in Gandhara.
✓ It paved the way for the unification of North India under chandragupta by
weakening small states.
 MAURYAN DYANSTY (321-184 BC)
• Founder/1st Ruler – Chandra Gupta Mauryan(321-297 B.C)
• He defeated Seleucus Nicator with the help of ‘Chankya or Kotalya’.

• Also called ‘Sandrocottus or Androcottus’

• Expension in western Part.

• In 305 BC he defeated ‘Seleucus Nicator’

• Seleucus surrendered a large territory including

Paropanisadai(Kabul), Aria(Herat), Arachosia
(Gandhara) & Gedrosia(Baluchistan), in return
For 500 Elephants.
• Seleucus sent an ambassador “Megasthenes” to the Mauryan Court.

• “Megasthenes” wrote the texts “Indica”.

• He adopted Jainism Later.

• Brahamanical texts say he was born of Mura, a Sudra women in the court of the

Nandas.

• An earlier Buddhist tradition says he belonged to the Moriya Kshatriya Clan.

• In some texts he is referred to as Vrishala & Kulahina.

• His origin is not clear(from which caste)

• He died at Sharven Belagola Hill(Karnataka)

• 2nd Ruler – Bindusara (Son of Chandra Gupta Maurayan)
• His Greek Name – Amitro Chattes
• (297 – 268 B.C.)
• Called ‘Amitra Ghat’ by Greek Writers.
• Expansion in South
• In Jain Literature he has been called as
“Simhasen”
• Antiochus sent Deimachus (from Syria) as an
Ambassador to Bindusara’s court.
• Ptolemy Philedelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius as ambassador.
• He wrote to Antiochus 1 of Syria & asked for some sweet,wine, dry figs & a
Sophist.
• The Syrian ambassador Deimachus was sent to his court.
• During his reign, a revolt took place at ‘Taxila’ & later Ashoka ended that revolt.
• He is said to have conquered “The land between two seas i.e, The Arabian sea
& Bay of Bengal”

• 3rd Ruler – Ashoka (Dev Nama Piya)(268 - 232 B.C.)

• Greatest Mauryan Ruler
• He was holding viceroyalty of Taxila & Ujjain during his father’s lifetime.
• After his fathers death he ascended the throne but formal consecration was
delayed for 4 years.
• A Buddhist text says he usurped the throne after killing his 99 brothers.
• Under Ashoka, the empire reached its zenith. And in the history, for the first time, the
entire Indian sub-continent came under a single umbrella (except extreme
Southern India).
• In course of his second Dharmayatra tour (in 21st year of his reign), he visited
Lumbini.
• In the 14th year of his reign he started the institution of Dharma Mahamatras.
• The reverberation of the war drum (Bheri Ghosha) was to become the
reverberation of the law (Dhamma Ghosha).
• His Hellenistic contemporaries were Antiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy II of Egypt,
Antigonas of Macedonia. Magas of Cyrene and Alexander of Epirus.
• Ashoka banned animal sacrifice, regulated the slaughter of animal for food.
• According to his Maski and Gurjara Inscriptions he was known as Devanam Priya
Priyadarshi.
• He was converted to Buddhism by Nigrodh.
• Ashoka sent peace missionaries inside India as well as abroad.
• His 1st & Last war was ---- ‘Kalinga war (261Bc), Results – Massive Blood shed & “13
Rock Edict of Ashoka”.
• After ‘Kalinga War’ he adopted ----“Buddhism”(under UpaGupta Guru)
• Ashoka’ Mother – Subhadrangi
• The emblem of Indian Republic has been adopted from the 4-lion capital of
Ashokan Pillar at Sarnarth.
• Built the Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh)
• He sent his son Mehendra and Daughter
Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka for Propagation of
Buddhism.

• Mauryan Administration
• Mantriparishad – A Council of Ministers.
• The council consisted of Purohit, Mahamantri, senapathi & Yuvaraja.
• The important Functionaries were known as the Trithas.
• Amatyas – Civil servants who were appointed to maintain day-to- day
Administration.
• Rajukas – responsible for rewarding & Punishing the People.
• In order to spread of Dhamma, Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed.
• Spies -- maintained to track the Foreign enemies & Officers.
• Patliputra (capital) was administrated by 6 Committees each Consist of Five
Members.
 Names & Titles of Ashoka
Ashoka Personal name

Piyadassi Official name

Ashoka Maski minor rock edict

Ashoka Vardhan Puranas

Ashoka Maurya Junagarh inscription

Piyadassi Dipavamsa, Kandhar inscription

Piyadassi Raja Barabar hill cave inscription

Piyadassi Raja Bhabru-Bairat minor rock edict

Magadh
Raja Ashoka Udegolum minor rock edict
Dewanampiya
Raja Ashoka Nittur minor rock edict

Devanampriyas Gurjara minor rock edict

Ashoka Rajas

EDICTS OF ASHOKA RELATED PLACES

LOCATION OF MAJOR ROCK EDICTS
(1) Kalshi (Dehradun) (2) Manshera (Hazara dist. Pakistan) (3) Shahbazgarhi (Peshawar) (4) Girnar
(Gujarat) (5) Sopara (Near Mumbai) (6) Dhault (Odisha) (7) Jaugada t (Odisha) (8) Maski (Andhra
Pradesh) (9) Yerragudi (Andhra Pradesh)

Location of Minor Rock Edicts

1) Bairat (2) Rupnath (3) Sahsaram (4) Rupnath (5) Brahmagir! (6) Gavimath (7) Jatinga
Rameshwar (8) Maski (9) Palkigundu (10) Rajula-Mandagiri (11) Suvarnagiri (12) Yerragudi
(13) Gurjara (14) Ahraura

LOCATION OF PILLAR EDICTS

(1) Allahabad (4) Nigalisagar (7) Rampurva

(2) Delhi-Topra (5) Lauriya-Araraj

(3) Delhi-Meerut (6) Laurtya-Nandangarh

 INFORMATION ABOUT ASHOKAN INSCRIPTIONS
➢ 1st major rock edict declares prohibition of animal sacrifice.
➢ 2nd major rock edict mentions medical treatment of human and animals.
➢ 3rd major rock edict mentions Pradeshikas, Rajukas and Yukta.
➢ 4th major rock edict mentions Bheri Ghosha is replaced by Dhamma Ghosha..
➢ 5th major rock edict mentions the appointment of Dhamma Mahamattas.
➢ 6th major rock edict mentions Mantri Parishad and officers like pulisani and
Prativedikar.
➢ 7th major rock edict mentions religious toleration amongst all sects.
➢ 8th major rock edict mentions that he went to Sambodhi in Bodh Gaya.
➢ 9th major rock edict mentions the uselessness of various ceremonies.
➢ 10th major rock edict mentions that the king desires no more fame.
➢ 11th major rock edict explains the policy of Dhamma.
➢ 12th major rock edict appeals for toleration among sects.
➢ 13th rock edict mentions Kalinga war.
➢ 14th major rock edict mentions the purpose of the rock edicts.

There are 7 pillar edicts.

➢ In the 1st pillar edict, social code has been mentioned.
➢ In the 2nd pillar edict eye donation has been mentioned.
➢ In the 3rd pillar edict soul and sin has been mentioned.
➢ In the 4th pillar edict Rajukas have been mentioned.
➢ In the 5th pillar edict animal killing is mentioned.
➢ The 6th pillar edict mentions the welfare of people.
➢ The 7th pillar edict mentions the Dhamma Mahamattas.

FACTS ABOUT ASHOKAN INSCRIPTIONS

➢ Maski edict discovered in 1915 is the only edict which mentions the name Ashoka.
➢ The Topra & Meerut pillars were brought to Delhi by Feroz Shah Tughlaq.
➢ Ashokan edicts were deciphered by James Princep in 1837.
➢ The Kausambi pillar was brought to Calcutta by Jahangir.
➢ The Bairat inscription was brought to Allahabad by Cunningham.
➢ Two major rock edicts as Mansehra and Sahbazgarhi are in Kharoshti script.
➢ The Kandhar inscription is bilingual-Greek and Aramaic.
➢ Most of the Ashokan edicts are written in Brahmi script.
➢ The language used in Ashokan edicts except Kandhar is Prakrit.
➢ The inscription in fragmentary condition found at Lampak/Lamghan is in Aramaic,
➢ In all the edicts except the Maski edict Ashoka refers to himself by his title
Devanampiya Piyadasst.
➢ The Allahabad pillars (brought from Kaushambi contains the inscription of Samudra
Gupta and Jehangir also.
➢ Major rock edicts are fourteen in number.
➢ Total number of pillar edicts is thirteen, they are inscribed in ten pillars. Out of
thirteen seven are major pillar edicts, four are minor pillar edicts and two are
commemorative pillar edicts.
➢ Of the four minor pillars edicts one is known as Queen's edict and it is on Allahabad
pillar.
➢ Schism edicts (one each) are found in Allahabad, Sanchi and Sarnath Pillars.
➢ The commemorative pillar edicts are Rumeindel and Nigalisagar (both in Nepal).
➢ The longest among the major rock edict is 13th rock edict (in Odisha).
➢ 7th pillar edict is longest among all the edicts.
➢ The Allahabad pillar contains first six pillar edicts. Queen's edict, Kosam Schism
edicts, Prasasti of Samudragupta written by Harisena and some decrees of
Jehangir.
➢ Kharosthi script was derived from Persian Aramaic.
➢ He constructed Sanchi Stupa at Vidisha (M.P.)
 18 TIRTHAS MENTIONED IN ARTHASHASTRA
1. Mantrin Chief Minister

2. Purohita Chief Priest

3. Senapati Commander in Chief

4. Yuvaraja Crown prince (These four were the highest

functionaries among the tirthas).

5. Dauvarika Chamberlain

6. Antarvesika Chief of the harem.

7. Prasastri Inspector general of prisons

8. Samaharta Collector general

9. Sanidhata Treasury Chief

10. Pradeshtri Divisional Commissioner

11. Nayaka City Constable

12. Paura Governor of the City.

13. Vyavaharika Chief Judge

14. Karmantika Chief of the Mines

15. Mantri President of the Council, Parishadhyaksha

16. Dandapal Police Chief

17. Dvarapala Chief of the Home Defence.

18. Antapala Chief of the Frontier Defence

IMPORTANT ADHYAKSHAS AND THEIR DUTIES
1. Panyadhyaksha Commerce

2. Samsthadhyaksha Markets, checking wrong practices

3. Pautavadhyaksha Weights and measure

4. Navadhyaksha State Boats

5. Sulkadhyaksha Tolls/Customs

6. Akaradhyaksha Mines

7. Lohadhyaksha Iron

8. Savvarnika Gold

9. Sitadhyaksha Crown lands

10. Aksha pataladhyaksha Accounts

11. Rathadhyaksha Chariot

12. Hastyadhyaksha Elephant force

13. Ayudhagaradhyaksha Production and maintenance of

armaments
14. Kosadhyaksha Treasury

15. Kosthagaradhyaksha Store house

16. Kupyadhyaksha Forest produce

17. Manadhyaksha Measurement

18. Mudradhyaksha Passports

19. Pattanadhyaksha Ports

20. Ganikadhyaksha Courtesan

21. Devatadhyaksha Religious institutions

22. Lakshanadhyaksha Mint

 IMPORTANT OFFICIAL
Amatyas The Secretaries

Antapala Governer of the Frontier

Akshapatala Accountant General

Durgapala Governer of Fort

Dhamma A New Post created by Ashoka.

Gopa Responsible for accounts

Lipikaras Scribes

Kumaras The Viceroys-in-change of a province

Mahamatras Functions of Propagating Dhamma

and taking care of the common folk
for their material well being.
Pra deshikas Modern District magistrate.

Rajukas later day Patwaris

Sthanika The tax collector officers

THE VILLAGE LEVEL OFFICERS

• Gramika: Head of Village
• Gram widdhas: Village elders.
 MAURAYAN ART & CULTURE

• Pillars
• Ashoka’s Pillar -- The famous edicts of Ashoka
propagating the Dhamma (laws of the Buddha) or
the imperial sermons of Ashoka to his people.
• Rising to an average height of about 40 feet.
• The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital
figures like the bull, the lion, the elephant etc.

• The lion capital of Sarnath, the bull capital of

Rampurva and the lion capital of Laurya Nandangarh.
• These pillars were carved in two types of stone.
Some were of spotted red and white sandstone from the region of Mathura.

• Sarnath Lion Pillar :

• The Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath popularly known as the Lion
Capital is the finest example of Mauryan sculptural tradition.
• The first sermon or the Dhammachakrapravartana by Buddha at Sarnath, the
capital was built by Ashoka.
• The capital originally consisted of five component parts:
(i) The shaft (which is broken in many parts now)
(ii) A lotus bell base
(iii) A drum on the bell base with four animals
proceeding clockwise
(iv) The figures of four majestic addorsed lions, and
(v) The crowning element, Dharamchakra, a large wheel.
 • The capital without the crowning wheel and the lotus base has been
adopted as the National Emblem of Independent India.
• The abacus has the depiction of a chakra (wheel) having twenty four spokes
in all four directions and a bull, a horse, an elephant anda lion between
every chakra is finely carved.
• The motif of the chakra becomes significant as a representation of
Dhammachkrain the entire Buddhist art.

• Stupas
• The stupa was not unknown in India before the time of Ashoka.
• The stupa was crowned by an umbrella of wooden fence enclosing a path for
pradaskshina (circumambulatory path).

• The great stupa at Sanchi was built with bricks during the time of Ashoka and
later it was covered with stone and many new additions were made.

• Thus events from the life of the Buddha, the Jataka stories, were depicted on the
railings and torans of the stupas.

• Caves
• The notable rock-cut caves carved at Barabar and Nagarjuni hills near Gaya in

Bihar are Sudama and Lomus Rishi cave.

• The facade of the Lomus Rishi cave is decorated

with the semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance.

• The elephant frieze carved in high relief on the

chaitya arch shows considerable movement.

• The cave was patronised by Ashoka for the

Ajivika sect.

• The two important features of the caves of this period were –

1) Polishing inside the cave.

2) Development of artistic gateway

• Sculpture (DIDARGUNJ YAKSHINI)
• Large statues of Yaksha and Yakshiniare found
at many places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura.

• These monumental images are mostly

in the standing position.

• Yakshini is considered as folk goddess in

all major religions.

• Pottery
• The most highly developed technique is seen in a special type of pottery known
as Northern Black polished ware (NBPW).
• The NBPW is made of finely levigated alluvial clay.

Mauryan Architecture
• Carved Elephant at Dhauli.
• Sanchi Stupa built by Sanchi Stupa.
• 4 Lion Capital, 1 Lion Capital & 1 Bull Capital
• Rock Edict 13th – Horrors of Kalinga War & Ashoka Spread Buddhism.
• 14 Major Rock Edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts & other Edicts.
 POST MAURAYAN EMPIRE
In around 187 BC, the Mauryan Empire met its end. In the present section we shall study
about the political and cultural developments in the Indian subcontinent from the end of
the Mauryas to the rise of the Guptas, i.e., from BC 200 and 300 AD. In these five hundred
years we see not only the rise of multiple political powers in different parts of the
subcontinent but also the introduction of new features in art, architecture and religion.

Native Rulers of Post Mauryan

Empire

SHUNGA KANVA SATVAHANAS

DYNASTY DYNASTY DYNASTY

SHUNGHA DYNASTY(185 – 73 B.C.)

• They ruled from vidisha in Madhya Pradesh
• Founder/ 1st Ruler – Pushya Mitra Shungha(185-151BC)
• He performed – 2 Ashwameha yagya Under Patanjali. It was corroborated by
Patanjali and Malavikagnimitram.
• Ruling in North- India.
• They were the “Brahmins”
• He promted “Brahminism”
• This Period saw the revival of Bhagvatism.
• Patanjali’s Classic “Mahabhashya” was
written at this time.
• Capital – Patliputra
• The Great Buddhist Stupa at Bharhut (M.P)
was built during his reign.
• The fin Gateway railing which
Surrounds the Sanchi Stupa, built by
Ashoka was Constructed during
the Shunga Period.
• Pushyamitra killed the last Mauryan ruler Brihdrath in 185 B.C.
 • Patanjali was a contemporary of Pushyamitra Sunga.

• 2nd Ruler – Agnimitra (149-141BC)

• He was the son of “Pushya Mitra Shungha”
• ManuSmriti also complied in this period.
• The Greek King Antialcidas 1 – sent his Ambassador named ----
Heliodorus(King Bhagbhadra) to the court of Shungas.
• Heliodorus constructed a pillar --- Garudadhwaja in the honour of God
Vasudeva with inscriptions in Prakrit Language.
• Agnimitra was the hero of kalidasa's Malavika-gnimitram
• Heliodorus came during the reign of Bhagbhadra.
• He was the ambassador of Greek king Antialkidas of Taxila.

• 3rd Ruler – Vasumitra (149-141BC)

• 4th Ruler/ Last Ruler – Deva Bhuti (149-141BC)

KANVA DYNASTY(73- 28 BC)

• They ruled from Patliputra

• Founder/ 1st Ruler – Vasu Deva

• 2nd Ruler – Bhumi Mitra

• 3rd Ruler – Narayana

• 4th / Last Ruler – Sasur Maan

ANDHARAS/ SATVAHANAS DYNASTY(120 – 159 A.D.)
• The Satvahanas became the dominant power in Deccan and Central India with
Pratishtana or Paithan as the Capital.
• Most important Port city --- Bhrauch.
• The Puranas speak only of Andhra rule and not
of Satvahana rule.
• They issued mostly coins of lead.
• They were the successors of the Mauryans in
the Deccan and the central India.
• Satvahanas were the first rulers to make land
grants to Brahamanas.
• Nasik and Nanaghat are important inscription
of the Satvahana period.

• Founder/ 1st Ruler – Simuka

• Official Language – Prakrit
• 120 – 96 B.C.
• They were the Successors of the Mauryans in the Deccan & the Central India.
• GautamiPutra SataKarni (106 – 130 AD) – Famous King of this Dynasty. Who
raised the power & prestige of Satavahans to greater heights.
• Sathavanas issued coins of Lead, copper, Bronze & Potin.
• The third ruler of the dynasty Satakarni I, raise the power and prestige of
the dynasty by conquests. He performed Vedic sacrifices.
• Hala, its 17th ruler, was the author of “Gathasaptasati” or, Sattasai in
Prakrit. The text contains the love lures.
• The 23rd ruler of the dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni (106 –
130 A.D.) who revived the Satavahana power and defeated the Saka
Ksatrap Nahapana. He was the greatest Satavahan ruler.
• The achievements of Gautamiputra Satakarni are recorded in the Nasik
inscription by his mother, Gautami Balasri.
• Vasishthiputra Sri Satakarni, its 24th ruler, was married to the daughter of Saka
Kstrapa Rudradaman, but the former was defeated twice by the latter.
• Yajna Sri Satakarni, its 27th ruler, was the dynasty‘s last great ruler.
• Yajnasri Sri Satakarni its 27th Ruler (165-194 A.D.) recovered Malwa from the
Shaka rulers.
• Pulamavi III, its 30th ruler, was the last Satavahana rulers.
• Satavahanas started the practice of donating land with fiscal and
administrative rights to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks, which eventually
weakened their authority and resulted in the rise of feudalism in the later
period
 • The famous Stupas built during the Satavahana period are located at
Amravati and Nagarjunakonda.
• The Satavahanas issued their coins in lead (mainly), copper and bronze.
• Two important religious construction was
1) chaitya --- bhudh temple
2) Vihar --- monasteries
• Vashisthaputra Pulmari (130-158 A.D.) set up his capital at Paithan.
• He enlarged Amravati Stupa and decorated it with marble.
• He has been praised in Nanaghat Inscription.
• Ship is depicted on the coins of Vashisthaputra Pulmari & yajna Sri Satakarni.
• Satavahanas were finally succeeded by the Vakataka dynasty in
Maharashtra and Ishuvaku dynasty in Andhara Pradesh.
• The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit.
• Prakrit text Gathasaptashati is attributed to Satvahana king Hala. They had
brisk trade with Romans.
• In Junagarh Rock Inscription (Girnar Rock Inscription), Rudraman claims that
he defeated Vashishthaputra Satakarni Twice.

Chedi Dynasty(185 – 73 B.C.)

• After Mauryas, the Chedi dynasty emerged in the Kalinga region, i.e. modern
Odisha
• The capital city of this dynasty was Sisupalgarh
• The important ruler of this dynasty was Kharwela.
• Kharvela patronized Jainism and the Hatigumpha inscription gives a reference of
his victories.
 Foreign Rulers of Post Mauryan
Empire

KUSHANAS

INDOGREEKS SAKAS PAHLAVAS

INDOGREEKS
• A series of invasions from central Asia began around 200 B.C.
• The first to cross the Hindukush were the Indo- Greeks.
• Demetrius, the king of Bactria invaded India about 190 B.C.
• Important Ruler: Menander/ Milinda(165-145Bc)
• Converted to Buddhism under Naga Sena or Nagarjuna.
• INDO GREEKS were the 1st to introduce Coins in India.
• They ruled over the North western Part of
the Country in the Post – Maurya Period.
• Capital – Sialkot
• He is mentioned in the famous Buddhist
text – “Milind- Panaho”.
• The Last king of the Indo Greek --- Hesatrius.
• Demtrius was the first came after Alexeandar
(greek).
• They were the first rulers in India to issue
coins definitely attributed to the kings.
• First issued Gold Coins in India.
• They also introduced practice of military
governorship. The governors were
called 'Strategos.
• The Greek ambassador Heliodorus set up
a pillar in honour of Vishnu at Vidisha.
• The term Horashastra used for astrology in
Sanskrit is derived from the Greek term
Horoscope.
 THE SAKAS/SCYTHIANS(130 – 152 AD)
• The Shakas overthrough the Greeks
• They are referred to as Scythians.
• The Saka poured into India through the Bolan Pass.
• The earliest Indian textual reference to the Sakas are found in the Mahabhasya.
• The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in
Gandhara.
• Maues was succeeded by Azes who successfully attacked the last of the Greek
kings in Northern India, Hippostratos.
• Important Ruler – Rudra Daman(130 AD -150 AD) who fought against
Satvahanas.
• He is famous not only for his military conquests but also for his public works.
• The Junagarh inscription in Gujarat is attributed to Rudradaman is first ever
inscription written in Sanskrit.
• He repaired the famous Sudarsan lake of the Mauryan period and gave patronage
to Sanskrit language
• Other important Saka rulers in India were Nahapana, Ushavadeva,
Ghamatika, Chashtana etc.
• 1st Shaka King (Indian) – Maues or Moga.
• A king of Ujjain --- Vikramaditya defeated the Shakas.
• An era called the Vikram Samvat is reckoned from the event of his Victory over the
Shakas in 57 BC.
• Among the five branches of Sakas with their seats of power in different parts of
India, the most important was the one which ruled in Western India till the 4th
Century AD.
The five seats of power or Satraps were:
1. Kapisa (Afghanistan)
2. Taxila (Pakistan)
3. Mathura (Uttar Pradesh)
4. Upper Deccan
5. Ujjain
THE PARTHIANS/ PAHLAVAS(19 – 226 AD)
• Originally the Parthians (Pahlavas) lived in Iran
• They replaced the Sakas in North-Western
India, but controlled an area much smaller
than the Sakas.
• Famous Parthian king was

Gondaphernes (19 – 45 AD) in whose

reign St. Thomas is said to have come to India
from Israel for the propagation of Christianity.
• Pahlavas restricted themselves to issuing copper coins and in rare instance silver
money
• After the death of Gondaphernes, this empire started fragmenting & the Kushans
under Kujula Kadphises began absorbing the northern Indian part of this Parthian
Kingdom.

KUSHANAS(30 – 375 A.D.)

• They are referred to as Yuch-Chis or Tocharians.
• The Kushans were one of the five Yeuchi clans of Central Asia.
• They came from North Central Asia near China. Their empire included a good part
of central Asia a portion of Iran a portion of Afghanistan, Pakistan and almost the
whole of North India.
• They replaced the Parthians in North-Western India and then expanded to the
lower Indus basin and the upper and middle Gangetic basin.
• The Kushans controlled famous silk route starting from China, passing through their
empire on to Iran & Western Asia. This route was a source of great income to the
Kushans.
• Kujula Kadphises initiated copper imitation of Roman coins.
• The dynasty was founded by Kadphises I or Kujula Kadhphises.
• The Kushans were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a wide scale..

• Important Ruler – Kanishka (2nd Ashoka, 78-144 A.D)

• He started Saka Era(78A.D)
• Headly statue of Kanishka in ‘Mathura’
• 4th Buddhist Council held during his reign.
• Kushanas were the 1st to issue Gold Coins.
• He started an era in 78 AD which is now
known as the Saka era and is used
officially by the Government of India.
• Charak was the court physician of Kanishka.
• The Gandhara School of art recieved royal
patronage of the Kushans.
• The Kanishka group of rulers used the title 'Shah Naushahi'.
• The Kushanas started erecting mortuary temples called Devakulas.
• Kushanas divided their empire into strips.
• The empire of Kanshika was spread over a large area in the portion of five countries
i.e. Russia, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan and India.
• His two capitals were Peshawar & Mathura.
• He erected a monastery stupa at Peshawar.
• He was a great patron of art and literature.
• At Toprak-Kala a huge Kushan palace has been unearthed.

• He was a great patron of Buddhism.

• Kanishka controlled the famous Silk route in central Asia.
• Kanishka provided patronage to Ashvaghosha and Nagarjuna.

• The last great Kushan ruler was Vasudeva I.

 Foreign Rulers of Post Mauryan
Empire

CHOLAS CHERAS PANDYAS

CHOLAS EMPIRE( 300 B.C.)

• Capital: Uraiyaur & Puhar/Kaveri Pattanam
• Emblem: Tiger
• Important Ruler – karikala(Foundation

of Kaveri Patanam Port)

• Location -- North- East of Pandyas between Penner
& Vellar Rivers
• Famous Port – Puhar
• Famous Rule –
▪ Elara was the earliest known Chola King. He conquered Sri Lanka & ruled over
it for 50 years.
 ▪ Karikala founded the capital city Puhar/ Kaveripatnam & Constructed
embankment along Cauveri river.
• The Kingdom was known as CholaMandalam or CholaMandal.

• Uraiyur – a famous place for Cotton Trade

• Main source of wealth was Trade in Cotton Cloth.
• The Chola kingdom was destroyed by the attack of Pallavas from the North.

CHERAS EMPIRE
• Capital: Vanjji (Kerala Country)
• Emblem: Bow
• Important Ruler – Senguttuvan(Red Chera)
• Famous Port – Muzris Todi, Bandar
• It owed its Importance to trade with the Romans.
The Romans set up Two regiments there to
protect their interest.
• Famous Rules:
▪ Udiyangera is one of the earliest known Chera rulers. This Title of Udiyangeral
was given to him because it is said that he served both the armies of
Kurukshetra war.
▪ Senguttuvan / Red Chera – was the greatest Chera king. He invaded north &
Crossed Ganga. He is remembered for building a temple of “kannagi” the
Goddess of chastity & foubded the famous Pattini cult.
• It has well established trade with Romans & also set up two regiments at Muzris to
protect their interest, They built temple of Augustus a Muzris.

PANDYAS EMPIRE
• Capital: Madurai
• Emblem: Fish/ Carp
• Important Ruler – MenduJeelian
• Famous Port -- Korkai
• Famous for pearls
• 1st mentioned by Megasthenes.
• The Pandya Kings profited from trade with the Roman Empire & Sent Embassies to
the Roman Emperor Augustus.
• Famous Rules:
▪ Mudukudumi was the earliest known Pandyan ruler.
▪ Nedunjelian was the most important king of Pandaya. He accused Kovalon
of Madurai was laid under a curse by Kannagi (Kovalan’s Wife).
• This Kingdom was first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their Kingdom was
famous for pearl & was a ruled by a woman, Also find mention in the Ramayana &
Mahabharata.

POST MAURYAN ART

• Caves Tradition
• Mainly three architectural types were executed –
(1) Apsidal Vault – Roof Chaitya halls (found at Ajanta, Pithalkhora, Bhaja)

(2) Apsidal Vault – Roof pillarless hall (found at Thana – Nadsur)

(3) Flat- Roofed quadrangular hall with a circular chamber at back (found at
Kondivite).

• The second important development in the caves was excavation of Viharas.

• Purpose of Cave Structures –

 1. Chaitya – Prayer Hall for Monks
2. Vihara – Residence/ Rest Palce for Monks.

• Stupas:
• Stupa – 1 at Sanchi has upper as well as lower pradakshinapatha or
circumbulatory path. It has four beautifully decorated toranas depicting
various events from the life of the Buddha and the jatakas.
• Symbols continued to be used representing the Buddha and the Manushi
Buddhas.

• According to tradition, there are 24 Buddhas but only 1st one dipankar and
last six are pictorially represented at Sanchi -1.

• Sculptures: Gandhara, Mathura , Amravati

Basis Gandhara
Influence Greek or Hellenistic
influence also called Indo-
Greek
Types of Grey/Bluish grey
Sandstone sandstone
Religious Mainly Buddhist
influence
Patronized by Kushana dynasty
Areas North West frontier
Features of Spiritual Buddha (Sad
Sculptures Buddha) represents
calmness, Bearded,
Moustache
• wearing less ornaments
• wavy hair (Greek)
• large forehead (Greek)
• Buddha is seated in
position of yogi
• Having large ears
(Greek)
• Eyes half closed
• Protuberance on his
head (signifies that
Buddha knows all)
• Later Development in Gandhara Scuplture:
• Gandhara Two Schools
1. Early – Use of Bluish Grey Stone
2. Later – Use of Mud and Stucco (Lime Plaster)
Mathura
No outside influence;
Indigenous
Spotted red sandstone
All 3 religions – Jainism,
Buddhism, Hinduism
Kushana Dynasty
Mathura, Sonkh,
Kankalitila (Mostly Jaina)
Delighted Buddha i.e. not
spiritual
• head and face Shaven
• dress is tight; energetic
body
• face reflects grace
• seated in Padmasana.
• Right hand in
AbhayMudra (Indicate
reassurance) raised
above shoulder, Left
hand on left thigh (reflect
muscularity).
• Protuberance on head
Vengi(Amravati)
Indigenous
White marbles
Mainly Buddhist
Satavahans and
Icchavakus
Krishna-Godavari lower
valley
Reflects narratives
theme based on life of
Buddha and Jataka
stories.
• Stories of previous
births of Buddha - both
in human as well as
animal form.
• Sculptural
composition is more
complex and
characterized by
intense emotions,
bodies are shown with
three bents (i.e.
tribhanga)
 GUPTA DYNASTY/Golden Age (3rd Century 250 A.D)
• Founder/1st Ruler – Sri Gupta(Vaishya Clan)
• 240 -280 A.D.
• Used the Title of -- Maharaja

• 2nd Ruler – Ghatotakacha(Son of Sri Gupta)

• 281AD – 319 A.D.

• 3rd Ruler – ChandraGupta 1

• Real founder of Gupta Empire
• Son of Ghatotakacha (319 – 335 A.D.)
• He enhanced his Power & Prestige by
Marrying Kumara devi (Princess of
Lachchavi Lan of Nepal).

• He acquired the Title of

“Maharajadhiraj & Dhiraja”.

• Followed Matrimonial Alliances

• Rule over Magadh, Saket & Prayag
• His empire included Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Bengal.
•
• 4th Ruler – Samudra Gupta/ Dharm Pruchar Bandhu (335 – 375 A.D.)
• Greatest Ruler of Gupta Empire.(Prakramana)
• Napolean of India(by the historian V.A. Smith)
• He assumed the Title of “Kaviraj & Vikramanka”
• He intersted in Music & issued the coins
of Played vina.
• His campaigns are Mention in the Eran
Inscriptions (M.P)Allahabad Pillar.
 • His achievements are mentioned in the Prayag- Prasasti composed by
Harisena.
• He captured and annexed the Aryavrata rulers.
• He defeated 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha.
• These rulers were first captured and then
released by Samudragupta.
• Harisena and Vasubandhu adorned his court.
• Samudragupta had a disputed accession to
the throne.
• Virasena was the commander of Samdragupta
during his southern campaign.
• Samudragupta performed the Aswamedha Yajna and struck gold coins of
Yupa type.
• He granted permission to the Buddhist king of Ceylon Meghavarman to build
a Monastery at Bodh Gaya.
• The historian V.A. Smith complemented Samudragupta as the "Indian
Nepoleon'.
• Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but Chandragupta II killed him
and married his queen Dhruvadevi.

• 5th Ruler – Vikram Aditya/ Chandra Gupta 2 (376 – 415 A.D. )

• 1st Gupta to issue silver coins
• His court at Ujjain
• Got the title of “Vikramaditya” by defeating Rudrasimha-3, a Kshatrap king of
Ujjain.
• The Iron Pillar Inscription, fixed near Qutabminar in Delhi mentions a king
Chandra (Considered by many as a Chandra Gupta 2)
• His Court was adorned by celebrated
nine Gems (Navaratnas)
including Kalidasa.
• Chinese Pilgrim – “Fahien” visited
India during his reign.
• He entered into matrimonial alliance with
the Nagas by marrying princess
Kubernaga.
• He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III
and annexed his kingdom.
• Mehrauli iron pillar inscription mentions his
authority over North western India and a portion of Bengal.
• Virasena's Udaigiri cave inscription refers to his conquest of the whole world.
• He made Ujjain his second capital.
 • Veerasena Saba was the court poet and minister of Chandragupta II.
• Amarkhaddava was his army general.
• He issued silver and copper coins.
• His predecessors had issued only gold coins.
• The gold coins were called 'Dinara.

• 6th Ruler – Kumar Gupta 1 (415 – 455 A.D.)

• He founded ‘Nalanda University’(Bihar)
• He fought with “Hunas”
• In the last year of his reign, the Peace
& Prosperity of the Empire was
disturbed due to invasion of
Turko – Mongol tribe, Hunas.

• During the war with the Hunas he died.

• Title: Shakraditya
• His inscriptions are the Bilsad inscription, the Karandanda inscription, the
Mandsor Inscription the Damodarpur copper plate inscription.
• Towards the last year of his reign, the Gupta empire faced foreign invasions.

• 7th Ruler – Skanda Gupta (455 – 467 A.D.)

• He deafeted Hunas 2 times
• He repaired “Sudashan Lake”
 • He was a “Vaishnavite”
• After his death, the great days of Gupta
were Over. The Empire continued but
central control weakened, and Local
Governors became feudatory
kings with Hereditary Rights.
• The Junagarh inscription of his reign tells that his governor Parnadatta got the
Sudarshan lake repaired.
• Some of the successors of Skandagupta were Buddhagupta, Vainyagupta
Bhanugupta Narsimhagupta Baladutya, Kumaragupta-2 & Vishnugupta.

➢ VishnuGupta:
• Last known ruler of the Gupta Dynasty(540 AD – 550 AD)

Administrations of Gupta Period

• Mantri Parishad – Council of Ministers.
• Kings – kings
• Kumaramatya – High Ranking Officer (kingdom)
• Mahadandanayaka – high Rank Officer (Judicial & Military)
• Uparika – Governor
Titles of the Gupta Kings
Srigupta Adiraja, Maharaja

Ghatotkach Maharaja

Chandragupta-I Maharajadhiraja

Samudragupta Sarva-raj-ochhchetta, kaviraja

Chandragupta-II Vikramaditya

Kumargupta Mahendraditya, Shakraditya

Skandagupta Vikramaditya, Karmaditya

 Taxes Levied during the Gupta Dynasty
Bhag Kings share of produce

Bhoga General tribute

Hiranya Tax on special produce taken in

cash
Bedak bhog Irrigation tax

Bhatta Police tax

Charasana Grazing tax

Chat Security tax

Prataya Toll tax

Halivakar Tax on Ploughing

Kalipta/ Upkilpta Sales tax

Taradaya Navigation tax

Udaka bhag Water Tax

Bali An additional Oppressive tax on

People
Sarvarishti Forced Tax

Uparnik Tax taken from Border Areas

Uparikar Tax collected from all subjects

Rajju Tax for measurement of Land

 Gupta Temples
Temples Places

Vishnu temple Tigawa (Jabalpur)

Shiva temple Bhumara (Nagaud)

Parvati temple Nachna Kuthara

Dashavatar temple Deogarh (Jhansi)

Shiva temple Koh (Nagaud)

Bhitargaon temple Bhitargaon

Lakshman temple (brick made) Kanpur

Laxman temple Sirpur (Raipur)

Mukund Darra temple Kota

Dhamekh stupa Sarnath

Jarasandh's sitting Rajgrih (Bihar)

Gupta Art & Culture

• Vishnu Temple --- Deogarh(Near Jhansi)
• Brick Temple --- Bhitargaon
• Ajanta cave Paintings & Bagh Cave Paintings.
• The Great Boor – Varah (Sculpture of VISHNU GOD) outside cave of Uday Giri .
• Temple – Shikhar Style with GARBHA GRIHA.
 Gupta Art & Culture
• Rock Cut Cave:
• Ajanta Caves:
▪ It is located in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state.
▪ Ajanta has twenty nine caves.
▪ Ajanta is the only surviving example
of the paintings of the first century
BCE and the fifth century CE.

▪ Fresco Mural Paintings inside the Cave

▪ Padampani, Mural Paintings of

Ajanta & Flying Apsara(Pics).

• Ellora Caves :
▪ Another important cave site located in Aurangabad district is Ellora.
▪ It is located a hundred kilometers from Ajanta and has thirty-two
Buddhist, Bramhanical and Jain caves.
▪ Cave no 16 is a rock cut temple, known as Kailash leni and it has been
carved out of a single rock, a unique achievement of the artisans.
▪ Pics Added

• Elephanta Caves:
 ▪ The Elephanta caves located near Mumbai, were originally a Buddhist
site which was later dominated by the Shaivite faith.
▪ It is contemporary with Ellora and its sculptures show slenderness in the
body, with stark light and dark effects.

• Bagh Caves:
▪ It is located near Indore in Madhya Pradesh.
▪ There are 9 sandstone Buddhist Caves with beautiful Frescos and
sculptured work.
▪ It is dated around sixth century CE.

• Junagarh Caves (Uparkot):

▪ It is ancient fortress. Its entrance, in the form of an archway is a fine specimen
of Hindu torana.
▪ Uparkot has many interesting Buddhist caves and was evidently the site of a
Buddhist monastery in ancient times.

• Nashik Caves:
▪ It is located to SW of Nashik, in Trimbak range of hills.
▪ There are 23 Buddhist caves belonging to Hinayana Period of Buddhist
architecture and dating back to the 1st Century CE.
▪ These are called as Panduleni meaning group of caves.

• Montepzir/Mandapeshwar Cave
▪ The caves are of particular interest as they are probably the only
Bramhanical caves to be converted into a Christian shrine.

• Sculpture
• One new school was added i.e. Sarnath school
of sculpture, which developed near Sarnath.

• example is Sultanganj Buddha (7.5ft in height)

• Temple Architecture
Gupta period marks the beginning of Indian temple architecture. Manuals were
written regarding how to form temples. The Gupta temples were of five main types:

1. Square building with flat roof shallow pillared porch; as Kankali Devi temple at
Tigawa and the Vishnu Varaha temples at Eran.
2. An elaboration of the first type with the
addition of an ambulatory (paradakshina)
around the sanctum sometimes a second
storey; examples the Shiva temple at
Bhumara(M.P.) and the lad-khan at Aihole.
Another noteworthy example is Pārbati
temple at Nachnakuthara (M.P.).

3. The square temple with a low and squat tower (shikhara) above; pillared
approach, a high platform at the base; notable examples are the Dasavatara
temple (Deogarh Jhansi) and the brick temple at Bhitargaon Kanpur. Famous
styles are . "Shikhara". "Nagara Style " temple.
4. Rectangular temple with an apsidal back and barrel-vaulted roof above such as
the Kapoteswara temple at Cezarla( Krishna district).
5. Circular temples with shallow rectangular projection at the four cardinal faces;
the only monument exemplifying the style is the Maniyar Math shrine at Rajgir,
Bihar.

• Styles of Temples
• Nagara School of Architecture: The style of temple architecture that became
popular in northern India is known as Nagara.
▪ Three subtypes of Nagara temple depending upon the shape of Shikhara –
1) Rekha Prasad or Latina – Simple Shikhara, most common type, square
at the base and its walls curve or slope inward to a point on the top. The
top is called 'latina' or the rekha-Prasad type of Shikhara.
 2) Phamsana – Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than
latina buildings. There roofs are
composed of several slabs that
gently rise to a single point over
the center of building, unlike the
latina ones which look like sharply
rising tall towers. Phamsana
buildings do not curve inwards,
instead they slope upwards on a straight incline. In many North Indian
temples Phamsana was used for mandapa and latina for Garbhgriha.

3) Valabhi type – Rectangular building with a roof that rises into a vaulted
chamber. They are usually called as wagon vaulted buildings. Example :
Nandi devi or Nav durga temple Jogeshwar.

• Three sub schools developed under Nagara style –

A. Odisha School: The main architectural features of Odisha temples

are classified in three orders, i.e. rekhapida, pidhadeul and khakra. Most
of the main temple sites are located in ancient Kalinga— modern Puri
District, including Bhubaneswar or ancient Tribhuvanesvara, Puri and
Konark.
B. Khujuraho/Chandel school: Under the Chandela kings of
Bundelkhand, a great school of architecture flourished in the 10th and
11th century. An example of this style is a group of temples at Khajuraho,
in Madhya Pradesh. The finest is the shaivite temple known as Kandariya
Mahadev, built around CE 1000.

C. Solanki School: The Chalukya (Solanki) kings of Gujarat patronized

this school of architecture that flourished from the 11th to 13th century. The
Vimala, Tejpala and Vastupala temples at Mount Abu exhibit this style.
 Pushyabhuti Dynasty
• Harsha Vardhan (606 AD – 647 AD)
• Belonged to Pushyabhuti family &
son of Prabhakar Vardhan.
• Originally belonged to Thaneshwar,
but shifted to Kannauj.
• Defeated by Pulakeshin –II, the great
Chalukya king, on the banks of
Narmada in 620 A.D.
• Chinese pilgrim, Hieun Tsang (prince
of travellers) visited during his reign.
• He established a large monastery
at Nalanda.
• Banabhatta, who adorned his court
wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari.
• Harsha himself wrote 3 plays-
Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda.
Harsha Vardhan (606AD- 647 AD)
• Harshavardhan ascended the Pushyabhuti throne in 606 A.D.
• Harshavardhan was also known as Siladitya.
• Harsha was not successful in his first expedition against Gauda.
• In his second expedition Harsha conquered Magadha and Sasanka's empire.
• Gauda was divided between Harsha and Bhaskarvarman.
• The Aihole inscription mentions that Harsha met defeat at the hands of
Pulakesin II.
• Harsha's empire extended from the Punjab to northern Orissa and from
Himalayas to the banks of Narmada.
• Harsha showed equal respect to all religious sects.
• Harsha built rest houses, hospitals, and endowed numerous Brahamanical,
Buddhist and Jaina establishments.
• The Kannauj assembly was held in the honour of Hiuen-Tsang.
• Harsha used to celebrate religious festivals at the end of every five years at
Prayag.
• Harsha sent an emissary in 641 A.D. to the Chinese emperor.
• Harsha also received a Chinese emissary in return.
• Harsha died in 647 A.D.
 Officials in Harshavardhana's administration
Singhnada Chief of Armed Forces

Amatya Revenue and Finance Minister

Uparika Provincial Head

Dandapashik Police Officer

Brihadeshwara Head of Cavalry

Baladhikrita The Commander

Skandagupta/Katuka Head of Elephant Brigade

Ayuktaka Ordinary officer

Maha Sandhi Vigraha Officer to decide on war and peace

 South Indian Dynasties
➢ Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami) (543 - 757 A.D.)
• The Vakatakas in the deccan were followed by the Chalukyas of Badami.
• The Chalukyas established their base at Badami (Vatapi) in Bijapur district of
Karnataka.
• The Chalukyas claimed their descent
either from Manu or Moon.

• Founder – Pulakesin-I.
• Pulakesin-I established a small kingdom
with Badami/ Vatapi in Bijapur District
as its capital.
• Pulakesin – II was their most famous king.
• He Was a contemporary of Harsha.
• Pulakesin II was able to check Harsha's design to conquer Deccan.
• Kirtivarman-1 expanded the kingdom by wars against the Kadambas of
Banavasi and the Nalas of Bastar.
• Aihole inscription is a eulogy written by his court poet Ravikirti.
• Pulakesin II sent an ambassador to Persian king Khusrau II in 625 A.D. and also
received one from him.
• The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang Visited his kingdom.
• Pallava ruler Narsimhavarman I invaded the Chalukya kingdom killed
Pulakesin II and captured Badami.
• Vishnuvardhan, son of Pulakesin II, founded the eastern branch of the
Chalukyas with its capital at Vengi .
➢ The Pallavas (560 – 803)
• Founder -- Simhavishnu. They set up their
capital at Kanchi (south of Chennai).
• Narsimhavarman was their greatest king.
• He founded the town of Mamalapuram
(Mahabalipuram) which he adorned with
beautiful rock-cut Raths or Seven Pagoras.
• Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign.
• Narsimhavarman -1 made Ratha Temple at
Mahabalipuram.
• Mahendravarman king (Contemporary
To Harsha & Pulakeshin) & he was a
Poet and a Muscian too.
• He belonged to jaina but later
Converted to Shaivism by Appar,
(Tamil Saints).
• Pulakeshin –II defeated the
Mahendravarman captured his
kingdom,But later Narsimhavarman
(Pallava King) defeated the
Pulakeshin –II & acquired his Kingdom back.

• The Pallavas played an important role after the fall of Satvahanas in 3rd
century until the rise of the Cholas.
• The origin of Pallavas is a debatable issue.
• Mahendravarman-I was defeated by Pulakesin-II.
• Narasimhavarman was the greatest king. He defeated Pulakesin II and
captured Badami/Vatapi. So, took the title of Vatapikonda.
• Narsimhavarman also defeated Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas, thus became
supreme in South India.
• Narsimhavarman was a great builder, having constructed Mamallapuram
and the various buildings here. During his reign Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi.
 • Narsimhavarman II constructed the shore temple of Mamallapuram and the
Kallasnath temple of Kanchi. He sent emissaries to China to encourage
maritime trade.
• The Chalukya Vikramadita-ll attacked the Pallava capital during the reign of
Paramesvar Varman.
• Nandivarman-II was a worshipper of Vishnu. He built Vaikuntaperumal temple
at Kanchi.
• The last Pallava ruler, Aparajita Pallava was defeated by Aditya Chola.
• Kanchi, Pallavas capital was a great centre of Sanskrit learning.
• Both Bharavi and Dandin, the authors of Kirtarjunlyam' and
'Dashkumarcharitam' respectively lived in the Pallava court.
• The scientific works of Varahamihira and the poetry of Kalidasa were well
known in the Pallava country.
• Most of the kings were accomplished scholars and Mahendravarman-1
himself wrote the famous burlesque 'Mattavilasa Prahasana."

➢ Gurjara Pratiharas (730 – 1036 AD)

• Founder – Harichandra ( Originated from Ujjain or mandsaur)
• The Pratiharas emerged from Gurjaratra or South West Rajasthan.
• They resisted Arab incrusions from Sindh into Rajasthan.
• Pratihara dynasty was founded by Nagabhatta-I.
• Pratihara power revived under Nagabhatta-II. He defeated Dharmapala
near Monghyr (Mudgir).
• Pratiharas traced their descent from Lakshamana (the solar race).
• Their capital was at Mahodaya (Kannauj).
• The real founder and the greatest king was Bhoja (836-885 A.D.).
• Bhoja is also called Mihir Bhoja. He defeated Devapala and got Kannauj
back.
• Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha.

IMPORTANT PRATIHARA RULERS

➢ Vatsaraja -- 773-793
➢ Nagabhata I -- 793-833
➢ Bhoja -- 836-885
➢ Mahipala -- 908-942
➢ Rashtrakutas (753 – 982 A.D.)
• Founder – Dantidurga in deccan.

• Their king Krishna – I is remembered for

constructing the famous rock-cut
Kailash temple at Ellora.

• Their king Krishna – III set up a pillar of

victory and a temple at Rameshwaram.

• Rashtrakutas are credited with the

building of cave shrine of Elephanta.
• Their capital was at Manyakhet or Malkhed
near modern Sholapur (earlier at Ellora).
• Dantidurga built the Dashavatara temple at Ellora.
• Krishna-I built the Kailasa or Shiva temple at Ellora in the 9th century.
• The great Apabhramsha poet Svayambhu and his son lived at the
Rashtrakuta court.
• Amoghvarsha rulled for 68 years.
• Amoghvarsha wrote 'Kaviraja-marga'. a book on Poetics Kannada. It was the
earliest Kannada book on poeties.
• Amoghavarsha first transferred capital from Ellora to Manyakhet or Malkhed.
• Indira III (915-927) defeated Mahipala (Pratihara) and sacked Kannauj in 915, Indra
was the most powerful ruler of his time.
• Rashtrakutas imported horses from Arabia, West-Asia and central Asia.
• In the Rashtrakuta kingdom, the directly administered areas, were divided into
Rashtras (provinces). Visaya and Bhukti.
• The last ruler Karka was overthrown by Tailap, the founder of Chalukyas of Kalyani.
 Important Rashtrakuta Rulers
1 Dantidurga 753-756
2 Krishna-I 756-773
3 Govinda-II 773-780
4 Dhruva 780- 792
5 Govinda-II 792 -814
6 Amoghavarsha 814 – 880
7 Krishna-II 880 – 915
8 Indra-III 915 – 927
9 Amoghavarsha 927 – 930
10 Govinda-IV 930 – 935
11 Amoghavarsha-II 935 – 940
12 Krishna-III 940 – 967
13 Khottiga 967 – 972
14 Karka 972 – 973

TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE (PALAS, PRATIHARAS AND RASHTRAKUTAS)

• A number of powerful empires arose in Northern India and the Deccan between
750 A.D.-1000 A.D.
• The Gurjara Pratiharas, the Palas and the Rastrakutas emerged almost at the same
time.
• These three powers fought for the supremacy over Kannauj.

➢The Palas of Bengal (Capital – Monghyr)

• Its founder was Gopala (750 AD).
• Their king, Dharampala founded
Vikramsila University & and revived
Nalanda University.

• Dharmapala(770-810 AD)
• Dharmapala Succeeded Gopala as ruler
in around 770 AD

• Dharmapala was the 2 ruler of Pala Empire.

nd

• He was the son of Gopala.

• He fought a no. of battles against the
Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas.

• Dharmapala captured Kanauj & conducted a Grand Darbar.

 • He took the greatest imperial titles of the period, including
Paramabhattaraka, paramesvara & Maharajadhiraja.

• Palas established their rule in Bengal and Bihar.

• Dharmapala (770-810) was defeated by Dhruva (Rashtrakuta) and
Nagabhatt II (Pratihara).

• During Dharmapala, two brothers Indra & Chakra clashed for Kannauj.
Important Pala Rulers
• Gopala -- 750-770 A.D.
• Devapala -- 810-850 A.D.
• Dharmapala -- 770-810 A.D.
• Vigrahapala -- 850-854 A.D.

Note: 3 rival powers – Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas declined almost

simultaneously as there was extra pressure to maintain their armies as well as the rise of
feudatories.

➢ The Gangas (250 – 1004 A.D.)

• Their king Narsimhadeva constructed
the Sun Temple at Konark.

• Their king Anantvarman Ganga built the

famous Jagannath temple at Puri.

• Kesaris, who used to rule Orissa before Gangas

built the Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneswar.

THE KADAMBAS
• The Kadamba dynasty was founded by Mayur Sarman.
• The Kadambas ruled from Banvast from 345 A.D. to 365 A.D.
• Kakusthavarman (435-455 A.D.) was the most powerful ruler of the dynasty.
• Kakusthavarman established matrimonial relations with the Gangas and the
Guptas.
➢ The Rajputs (647 – 1200 A.D)
• They were divided into 4 clans

• Pratihara or Pariharas of Rajasthan.

• Chauhans of Rajasthan.

• Chalukyas or Solankis of Kathiarwar.

• Parmaras or Pawars of Malwa.

➢ The Imperial Cholas (846 – 1279 AD) (Medieval Cholas)
• Founder- Vijayalaya.
• Capital was Tanjore.
• The greatest Chola rulers were
Rajaraja – I (985 – 1014 ) and
his son Rajendra – I (1014 – 1044 ).
• Rajaraja – I constructed the Rajrajeshwari
temple (also called as Brihadeshwar
Shiva temple) at Thanjavur.
• His son Rajendra – I annexed the whole
of Sri Lanka. In the North, went as far as
Ganga and the dominions of the Pala
king Mahipala. He took the title of ‘Gangaikonda’ after that.
• Dancing figure of Shiva called Nataraja belong to this period only.
• Cholas temples has massive ‘Vimanas’ or towers and spacious courtyards.
The entrances had elaborate Gopurams (gateways).
• Local self government was there (concept of Panchayati Raj has been
borrowed from it).
• The Cholas were the feudatories of the Pallavas.
• The founder of Chola dynasty was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory of
the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D.
• The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985-1014 A.D.) and his son Rajendra I
(1014-1044 A.D.).
• Raja built a Salva, a temple of Rajarajeshwara at Tanjore.
• Rajendra -1 assumed the title of Gangaikondachola and built a city called
Gangalkondacholapuram.
• The Chola empire was divided into Mandalams or provinces and these in turn
were divided into Valanadu and Nadu.
• Chola rulers marked their victories by erecting a number of Shiva and Vishnu
temples.
• During the reign of Rajendra I a naval expedition was sent against the Sri
Vijaya empire.
• The Bay of Bengal was converted
into a 'Chola lake.
• The Chola rulers fought constantly
with the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
• Rajaraja I granted a village for the maintenance of Buddhist vihara at
Nagapattam.
• The king was the most important person in the Chola administration.
• The Cholas maintained a large army consisting of elephants, cavalry and
infantry.
• Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundaval to Vimaladitya (Eastern Chalukya of
Vengi) and restored Vengi to him.
• Rajaraja-I sent his son Rajendra-1 to capture Banaras and sack Manyakhet of
Western Chalukyas.
• During the reign of Rajaraja Maldives was captured.
• Rajaraja conferred the title of 'Mahadandanayaka upon Rajendra-1 for his
victory over Pandyas & Keralas.
• Rajaraja-I started the system of land survey called 'kadamb'.
• Adhirajendra was killed in a public revolt.
• Kulotunga-1 of Vengl united the kingdom of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and
Chola kingdom. His other name was Rajendra-II. He was given the title of
Sangam Tavirtta (he who abolished tolls).
• Rajendra II was crowned in the battle field of Koppam. He was given the title
of Prakesari.
• Vira Rajendra Rajakesari defeated Western Chalukyas king Someswara-1
Ahvamalla in the battle of Kudal Sangman (Kurnool district). He foiled all
efforts of Vijayabahu of Sri Lanka to extend his authority and drive away the
Cholas from Sri Lanka.
• After the decline of Cholas, their place was taken by the Hoysalas of
Dwarsamudra and Pandyas of Madurai.
• The gopuram style was developed under the Cholas. The system of canals in
south is a contribution of the Cholas.
• Rajendra-1 built Shiva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram.
• The Cholas were famous for the bronze statue of Nataraja.
• Kamban wrote Ramayana. Sivagasindamant was also produced.
• Temple architecture in south attained its climax under the Cholas.
• The style of architecture which came into vogue during this period is called
Dravida.
• 'Mandap' was the pillared hall.
• 'Garbhgriha' was the room of the chief-delty.
• Ceremonial dances were performed by Devadasis.
 Titles of the Chola Kings
King Titles

Parantaka-1 Maduraikonda

Rajaraj-1 Rajkesari, Arumoli , Cholormand, Mumadichola

Dev.
Rajendra-1 Gangaikondachola, Mudigundchola,
Panditchola.
Kulotunga-1 Kataikondachola, Malaindu & Kondachola.

Administrative Units of Chola Dynasty

Mandalam Province

Kottam Division

Nadu District

Kurtam Group of villages

CHOLA KINGS
1 Vijayalaya 846-887 A.D.
2 Aditya 871-907 A.D.
3 Parantaka-I 907-955 A.D.

4 Ganaraditya 955-956 A.D.

5 Arinjaya 956-957 A.D.
6 Parantaka-II 957-973 A.D.
7 Uttamachola 973-985 A.D.
8 Rajaraja-I 985-1014 A.D.
9 Rajendra-1 1014-1044 A.D.
10 Rajadhiraja 1044-1054 A.D.
11 Rajendra II 1054-1064 A.D.
12 Virarajendra 1064-1069 A.D.
13 Kulottunga-I 1070-1118 A.D.
14 Vikramachola 1118-1135 A.D.
15 Kulottunga-II 1135-1150 A.D.
16 Rajaraja-II 1150-1173 A.D.
 Temples Architecture in South India
➢Dravida Style
• South Indian temple architecture, also called Drāvida Style, architecture
invariably employed for Hindu temples in modern Tamil Nadu from the 7th to the
18th century.
• The superstructure or tower above the
sanctuary is of the kūtina type and
consists of an arrangement of gradually
receding stories in a pyramidal shape.
• The origins of the Drāvida style can be
observed in the Gupta period.
• The South Indian style is most fully realized
in the splendid Brhadīśvara temple at
Thanjāvūr, built about 1003–10 by Rājarāja
the Great, and the great temple at
Gangaikondacōlapuram, built about 1025 by his son Rājendra Cōla.
• Four stages of temple architecture had been observed in South India Mainly
during the Pallava's rule, around 6th century AD. Which are as follows:

▪ Stage–1 Mahendra Group :– It marked the beginning of Rock cut cave

architecture and word Mandap was used instead temple.

▪ Stage-II–Narsimha Group :– Major development during this period was

initiation of Decoration in rock cut cave structures and Mandap’s now
became ‘Ratha’s’ which is a refined cave famous for beauty. The biggest
Ratha was called as Dharamraj Rath and smallest one was called as
draupadi Rath. Dharamraj Rath is considered as precursor of Dravidian style
of temple making.

▪ Stage–III–Rajsimha Group :– At this stage the real structural development of

temple’s started and it moved outside the cave, earlier temples were part of
caves. Example: Shore temple at Mahabalipuram, (TN) Kailashnath temple at
Kanchipuram.
 ▪ Stage IV – Nandivarman Group: It is said to be the declining stage of south
Indian temple architecture and only small temples were constructed in this
period.

➢ Chola Sculpture: NATRAJ

• Shiva is associated with the end of the cosmic world with which this dancing
position is associated.
• In this chola sculpture he has been shown
balancing himself on his right leg and
suppressing the apasmara, the demon
of ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot
of same leg. At the same time he raises his
left leg in bhujangtrasita stance, which
represents tirobhava that is kicking away
the veil of maya or illusion from the
devotee’s mind.

Sub Styles of Dravida Temples

➢Nayaka Style:
• The Nayakas rose on the fall of Vijayanagara empire.
• They continued, indeed furthered, the artistic
tradition of Dravida style.
• The most famous architectural landmark of this
period is the Meenakshi- Sundareswara temple
at Madurai.
• The great temple complex has actually two shrines; the first one dedicated to Shiva
as Sundareswara and the second one to his wife Meenakshi.

➢Vijaynagar Legacy:
• They introduced the concept of enlarged high enclosure walls and more
decoration on these high enclosure walls and Gopuram’s. Sculpture or motif of
supernatural horses was used very frequently.
• They also introduced the concept of secular buildings (Example-Lotus Mahal).
• Typically Vijaynagar period structures in the temple are the Amman Shrine (male
deity of temple) and Kalyan Mandapam for exhibition and worship.

Vesara Style/Chalukya Style/Karnataka Style

• This style has features of both Nagara and Dravidian style.
• It consists of two principle components like Dravidian style i.e.
(i) Vimana
(ii) Mandap.
• And departing from Dravidian style it does not have covered ambulatory around
sanctum.
• Example: Lad Khan temple at aihole, Temples at Badami, Virupaksha temple –
Pattadakal.

Foreign Travellers at the time of Ancient Period

 Travellers Visited India Contemporary Rulers Contribution.

Deimachos Came India in the reign of –

Period: (320-273 BC) Bindusara.
Who: Greek Ambassador

Megasthenes Ambassador of Seleucus Wrote an interesting book Indica.

Period: (302-298 B.C.) Nicator, who visited in the court
Who: Greek ethnographer of Chandragupta Maurya.
& ambassador.

Ptolemy – Wrote “Geography of India”

Period: 130 A.D. which gives the description of
Who: From Greece and Ancient India.
Geographer.

Fa-Hien Came to India in the reign of – Visited the birth place of

Chandragupta II Vikramaditya. Buddha, Lumbini.
Period: (405-411 A.D.)
– His Travelogue “Records of
Who: Chinese Buddhist Buddhist Kingdoms”.
Monk
– Wrote Fo-Kyo-Ki.

Hiuen-Tsang Visited India during the reign of – Came through Tashkent

Harshavardhana. and Swat Valley.
Period: (630-645 A.D.)
– Book is “Si-Yu-Ki or the
Who: Chinese Buddhist records of western world”.
Monk

I-tsing Visited India in connection with – His works are Biographies of

Buddhism. Eminent Monks.
Period: ( 671- 695 A.D.)
– Gives useful information
Who: Chinese traveller about the social, religious and
cultural life of the people of this
country.
Al-Masudi – Gives an extensive account of
India in his work “Muruj-ul-Zahab”.
Period: (957 A.D.)

Who: Arab Traveller

Al- Beruni or Abu Rehan Came along with Mahmud – First Muslim Scholar to study
Mahamud Ghazni during one of his Indian India also known as founder of
raids. Indology.
Period: (1024-1030 A.D.)
– Wrote “ Tahqiq-i-
Who: Muslim Scholar and Hind/Kitab-ul-Hind.
Polymath
Marco Polo Visited South India in 1294 A.D
during the reign of Pandyan
Period: (1292-1294 AD) ruler of Madurai, Madverman,
Kulshekhara (1272-1311)
Who: Venetian Traveller
His work “The Book of Sir Marco
Polo” which gives an invaluable
account of the economic history
of India.

Ibn Batuta Visited India during the reign of His book “ Rehla” (the travelogue)
Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq.
Period: (1333-1347 A.D.)

Who: Morrish traveller

Shihabuddin al-Umari – He gives a vivid account of India

in his book “ Masalik albsar fi-
Period: (1348 A.D.) mamalik al-amsar”

Who: Came from

Damascus

Nicolo Conti Came during the rule of Given a graphic account of

Devraya I of Sangam Dynasty of Vijayanagaras capital.
Period: (1420-1421 A.D.) Vijayanagar empire.

Who: Venetian traveller

Abdur Razzaq – Came during the rule of Given a brief account of this
Devraya II of Sangam dynasty countryside, in his Matla us Saddin
Period: (1443-1444 A.D.) of Vijaynagar Empire. wa Majuma ul Baharain.

Who: Persian traveller, – Came in India at

Ambassador of Shahrukh Zamorin’s Calicut.
of Timurid dynasty.

Athanasius Nikitin Visited South India in 1470. -He describes the condition of the
Bahmani kingdom under
Period: (1470- 1474 A.D.) Muhammad III (1463-82).

Who: Russian merchant – His narrative “ The journey

beyond 3 seas”

Duarte Barbosa – He has given a brief description of

the government and the people
Period: (1500-1516 A.D.) of Vijayanagar Empire.

Who: Portuguese traveller

Domingo Paes Visited the court of Krishnadeva –

Raya of Vijayanagar Empire.
Period: (1520-1522 A.D.)

Who: Portuguese traveller

Fernao Nuniz Came during the rule of Wrote history of the empire from its
Achyutdeva Raya of Tuluv earliest times of the closing years
Period: (1535-1537 A.D.) dynasty of vijayanagar Empire. of Achyutdeva Raya’s reign.

Who: Portuguese
merchant

John Hughen Von – Given a valuable account of the

Linschotten social and economic life of South
India.
Period: (1583 A.D.)

Who: Dutch traveller

William Hawkins Came in India at the reign of –
Jahangir,the great Mughal
Period: (1608-1611 A.D.) Emperor. William finch came
with him.
Who: Ambassador of
James I, king of England.

Sir Thomas Roe Came in India at the reign of –

Jahangir,the great Mughal
Period: (1615-1619 A.D.) Emperor.

Who: Ambassador of
James I, king of England.

Edward Terry – Describe about Indian social

(Gujarat) behaviour.
Period: (1616 A.D.)

Who: Ambassador of
Thomas Roe.

Franciso Palsaert – Gave a vivid account of the

flourishing trade at Surat,
Period: (1620-1627 A.D.) Ahmadabad, Broach, Cambay,
Lahore, Multan etc.
Who: Dutch traveller
stayed at Agra.

Peter Mundy Came in the reign of the Gives valuable information about
Mughal Emperor, Shahjahan. the living standard of the
Period: (1630-34 A.D.) common people in the Mughal
Empire.
Who: Italian traveller

John Albert de Mandesto Reached Surat in 1638 A.D. –

Period: (1638 A.D.)

Who: German traveller

Jeen Baptiste Tavernier Visited India 6 times in the reign –
of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb.
Period: (1638-1663 A.D.)

Who: French traveller

Nicolao Manucci He got service at the court of –

Dara Shikoh.
Period: (1653-1708 A.D.)

Who: Italian traveller

Francois Bernier Danishamand Khan, a noble of –

Aurangzeb was his patron.
Period: (1656- 1717 A.D.)

Who: French physician

and Philosopher.

Jean de Thevenot – Given an account of cities like

Ahmadabad, Cambay,
Period: (1666 A.D.) Aurangabad and Golconda.

Who: French traveller

John Fryer - Given a vivid account of Surat

and Bombay.
Period: (1672-1681 A.D.)

Who: English traveller

Gemelli Careri – His remarks on the Mughal

emperor’s military organisation
Period: (1695 A.D.) and administration are important

Who: Italian traveller who

landed at Daman.
 THE SANGAM AGE
• The word Sangam is associated with the assembly of royal Tamil Scholars and Poets
flourished under the patronage of the Pandyan Kings at Madurai.
• Tolkapiyam belongs to second Sangam.
• Tokapiyam is a work on grammar.
• The Sangam literature was compiled in circa A.D. 300-600.
• Thirukural of Kural by Tiruvalluvar is sometimes called the 'fifth Veda' or 'Bible of the
Tamil land'.
• Silpaddikaram literally The jeweled Anklet' by Ilango Adigal is an epic, deals with
the love stories of Kovalan and Madhavi.
• Manimekhalai is written by Sattalai Sattanar, considered the 'Odysseus of Tamil
poetry'.
• Jivaga Chintamani, a third eple by the Jaina Tiruttakadevar.
• Roman king built a temple of Augustus at Muziris.
• Murugan was the God par excellence of the also known as Subramaniyam.
• Yavan Priya is a Sanskrit terms for pepper.
• Muslin, gems, pearls and spices were the important export items to Rome.
• The Sangam Age was marked by three political powers. These were Pandyas,
Cholas and Cheras.
• The Chola dominion was known as Tondaimandlam.
• Karikala was the greatest Chola king.
• He constructed 160 km of embankment along the Cauvery river.
• Nedunjeral Adan is the first known Chera king.
• He earned the title of Udiyanjeral.
• Senguttuvan was the greatest Chera king.
• He established the Pattini cult.
• Nedunjhelian was the most important Pandya king.
• He ordered the execution of Kovalan the husband of Kannagi.
• Megasthenes has pointed out that Pandyas were rules by a woman.
• Korkai and Saliyur were important sea ports of Pandyas.
• Earliest known Pandya king is Palyagasalai Mudukuduml.
• Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for 50 years.
• Karikala defeated the joint forces of Cheras and Pandyas.
• Captains of army were invested with the title Enadi.
• The ruling class in Sangam Age was called Arasar.
• The lowest class in society was of Kadaistyar.
• Purananuru contain the poems of Kapilar, Avval and Kovur-kilar.
• In Silppadikaram there is a reference to Ceylonese king Gajabahu.
• In the battle of Talaiyalanganam Nedunjelian defeated Chera and Chola kings.
• Muziris was a great centre of cotton trade.
• Uraiyur was famous for pearls and muslins.
• Yavana ships used to arrive at Kaveripattinam.
• Kadamai and Kavalmaram are tutelary tree.
• 'Yal' was a stringed instrument like lute.
• Puliyars were the craftsmen.
• Tamil work Jivak Chintamani highlights the importance of Jaina philosophy.
• Jivak Chintamani was written by Tiruttakkadevar.

FIVE TINAIS
Area Occupation God

Forest land (Mullai) Lended cattle, sheep Mayon

Hill area (Kurinji) Hunting Seyon (Murugan)

Cultivable land (Marudam) Cultivators Vendan (Indra)

Coastal regions (Neidal) Fishing Varunan

Sandy region (Palal) Robbery Korraval

Panchtinai (five Tamil Inhabitants Occupation

regions/lands)

Kurinji (hilly backwoods or Kurvar, Vetar Hunting, Gathering

montane)
Palai (Pastoral tract) Eyinar, Maravar Cattle lifting, Highway
Robbery

Mullal (Pastoral land) Ayar, Idalyar Shifting Agriculture, Animal

husbandry

Marutam (Wetland) Neital Ulavar, Vellalar Paratavar, Plough Agriculture Fishing,

(costal) Valayar Salt extraction
 Important Officials in Sangam Administration
▪ Armaichchar -- Minister
▪ Purohitar -- Religious Affair
▪ Dutar -- Envoys
▪ Orrar -- Spies
▪ Senapatiyar -- Cheif of Armed Forces
▪ Vetar -- Food gatherers and Hunters
▪ Panar -- Wandering Balladmanger
▪ Paratavar -- Fisherman
▪ Umnar -- Salt producer

Social groups in Sangam Dynasty

▪ Ulavar -- Agriculturists
▪ Kuravar -- Shifting Agriculturists
▪ Idalyar -- Cattle holders
▪ Kallar -- Plunderer of cattle

Sangam Literature
▪ The word Sangam is associated with a college or assembly of Tamil scholars and poets
flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyan kings.
▪ The whole Sangam age is called Golden or Augustan Age. According to Tamil sources, the
father of Tamil literature is 'Agastya.'

Sangams Venue Chairman Surviving Text

1st Ten- Madurai Agastya --
2nd Kapatapuran Alvai Agastya (Founder) Tolakappiyan
Tolakappiyan (Tamil Grammar)
(Later Chairman)

3rd North Madurai Nakkirar Ettutogati

Patinenki
lakanakku, pattu -
Pattu
 Important Sangam Works
▪ Tokapiyam by Tokapiyar (Tamil Grammar).
▪ Tirukunal or Kunal by Tiruvaluvar is sometimes called the 'Fifth Veda' or 'Bible of the
Tamil land'. It explains the doctrine of dharma, artha, kama and moksha.
▪ Aggatiyam comprises grammar of letters and life, in three parts written by saint
Aggatiyar.

Epics

➢ Silappadikarma the jewelled anklet: by Ilango Adigal is an epic, dealing with love
story of Kovalan and Madhavi also called 'Illiyad' of Tamil Poetry.

➢ Manimekalai is one of the two greatest epics and a sequel to Silappadikaram

written by Satallai Sattannam.

➢ Jivaka Chintamiui (Sivaga Sindamani) a third epic by a Jaina Tiruttakrdeva. It has

elements of Jainism.

➢ Bharatman written by Perudevanar.

Revenue Terminologies

Karai Land tax

Irai Tribute paid by feudatories and body collected

in war
Iravu Extra demand or forced gift
Ulgu Custom dutie
Variyar Tax collector
Variyan A well known unit of territory yielding tax

✓ The land was very fertile with proper irrigation facilities The chief local God was Murugan,,
also called as Subramaniya
ANCIENT INDIANS BOOKS & ITS AUTHORS
Books Author
Ashtadhyay Panini
Buddhacharita Asvaghosha
Charak Samhita Charak
Devi Chandraguptam Vishakadutta
Gita Govind Jayadeva
Harsha Charita Banabhatta
Kadambari Banabhatta
Kumar Sambhava Kalidas
Kumarpalcharita Hemchandra
Mahabhashya Patanjali
Mahavir Charita Bhavabhuti
Malvikagnimitram Kalidas
Meghduta Kalidas

Mitakshara Vijnaneshwara
Mrichhkatikam Sudraka
Mudra Rakshasha Vishakhdatta
Nagananda Harshavardhana
Natya Shashtra Bharata
Nitisara Kamandaki
Priyadarshika Harshavardhana
Ramcharita Sandhyakara Nandi

Ritu Samhara Kalidas

Sisupal Vadha Magha
Susruta Samhita Susruta
Swapna Vasavadatta Bhasa
Tilakmanjari Dhanpala
Vikram Deva Charita Bilhana
Vikramourvasi Kalidas
Manu Smriti Manu
Arthshastra Kautilya
Chhanda-Sutra Pingala
Buddhacharita Ashvaghosha
Sariputra Prakama Ashvaghosha
Saundaranand Ashvaghosha
Sisupalvadha Magha
Ratnavali Harshavardhana
Maltimadhav Bhavabhuti
Uttararamcharita Bhavabhuti
Gaudvaho Vakpati Raj
Daskumarcharita Dandin
Vashvadatta Subandhu
Kathasaritsagar Somdeva
Panchatantra Vishnu Sharma
Hitopdesha Narayan Pandit
Kamasutra Vatsayan
Mattavilasa Mahendra-

Prahasana varman I
Nitisara Kamandaka
Dayabhaga Jimutavahana
Nighantu Yaska
Mitakshara Vijneshvra
Brihat Kathamanjari Kshemendra

Mahaviracharita Bhavabhuti
 FAMOUS SCHOLARS AND THEIR PATRONS
Scholar Patron
Udayraja Mahmud Begrha (Gujarat)
Hemchandra Kumarpala (Chalukyas of Anhilwara)
Nagarjuna Kanishka

Amar Singh Chandragupta

Vikramaditya

Ravikirti Pulkesin-II
Vakpatiraj Yashovarman of Kannauj
Bhav Bhuti Yashovarman of Kannauj
Harishena Samudragupta
Rajshekhar Mahendrapala and Mahipala

Somadeva Prithviraja III

Chandarbardai Prithviraja III

Banabhatta Harshavardhana
Dandin Narsinghavarman (Pallava)

Bharvi Simhavishnu(Pallava)
Gunadhya Hala (Satvahana)
Mahaviracharya Amoghvarsha (Rashtrakuta)

Jinasen Amoghvarsha (Rashtrakuta)

Sakatyayan Amoghvarsha (Rashtrakuta)
Jayadeva Lakshman Sena (Bengal)
Bilhan Vikramaditya VI (Chalukya of Kalyani)

Vijnaneshwar Vikramaditya VI

Lakshmidhar Govind Chandra

Shri Harsha Jaychand