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Jagarati Awasthi Satyam Gandhi Gaurav Budania

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AIR-02 AIR-10 AIR-13

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 INDEX
CHAPTERS PAGE
NO.
1. EARLY MEDEIVAL PERIOD 1
2. THE DELHI SULTANATE 37
3. BHAKTI – SUFI TRADITIONS 57
4. VIJAYANAGRA AND BAHMANI KINGDOM 74
5. MUGHAL EMPIRE 83
6. THE MARATHAS 111
7. SOCIETY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA 122
 CHAPTER-1
EARLY MEDEIVAL PERIOD

WE ARE GOING TO STUDY-

➢ RAJPUT KINGDOMS
➢ ARAB CONQUEST OF SINDH
➢ INVASION OF TURKS
➢ CAUSES FOR THE FAILURE OF THE HINDU STATES

1
RAJPUT KINGDOMS-
➢ BACKGROUND-
o After the death of Harsha, there was no political
unity in north India for about five centuries. The
country was split up into a number of states which
were constantly fighting and changing their
frontiers.
o The period from c. 1000 to 1200 CE in northern
India is primarily known as the age of conflict. It
resulted in the breakdown of the tripartite powers
(the Rashtrakutas, the Palas, and the Pratiharas)
into many smaller kingdoms all over the country.
For example, in northern India, the disintegration
of the Pratiharas empire brought to the forefront
various Rajput states under the control of different
Rajput dynasties, such as the Chahamanas
(Chauhans), Chandellas, the Paramaras of
Malwa, and so on.
o These states fought and resisted the Turkish attacks
from northwest India led by Mahmud of Ghazni
and Mohammad Ghori in the 11th and 12th
2
 centuries but their failure to stand united against the
invaders eventually led to their defeat.
o After the fall of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire
about 1000 A.D. Actually, the fall of the Gurjara-
Pratihara empire meant the loss of the ideal of
Hindus of great empires. At the same time, the
➢ RAJPUT KINGDOMS-
o Origin and Background of Rajputs-
✓ The dominance of Rajputs began from the seventh
and eighth centuries and lasted till the Muslim
conquest in the twelfth century. Even after that,
many Rajput states continued to survive for a long
time. In the period of Muslim aggression, the
Indians lost their religious and moral idealism,
their sense of social solidarity and contacts with the
outside world. It ultimately led to its cultural
debasement and subjugation by foreign Turks.
Rajputs were the main defenders of the Hindu
religion and culture.
✓ In the early 12th century, the term Rajputs came
into prominence, which referred to certain specific
lineage-based clans. The basis of Rajput society
3
 was the clan, and every clan traced its descent from
a common ancestor (real or imaginary).
✓ Foreign Descendant- Some historians believe that
they were the descendants of various groups of
foreign invaders such as the Shakas, the
Kushanas, the Hunas, and so on, who had
gradually settled down in the region of Rajasthan
and, after intermingling with Indian society,
emerged as a warrior class.
✓ Kshatriya Varna-
Other historians consider them as a part of the
Kshatriya varna of the Brahmanical system.
Scholars like B.D. Chattopadhyaya consider that
the Rajput clans emerged due to multiple factors
like the expansion of the agrarian economy.
The distribution of land among royal kinsmen
allowed many local chiefs to acquire enough
financial and political power to set up an
independent authority. Meanwhile, inter-clan
collaboration in the form of political and
matrimonial alliances as well as the construction of
fortresses on an unprecedented scale led to a
consolidation of the clan structure.
✓ These clans dominated a compact territory.
Attachment to land, family, and ‘honour’ were
the characteristic features considered important by
the Rajput clans.
✓ They made war as their chief occupation. However,
trade and agriculture also prospered. The Arab
travellers refer to the prosperity of the land and the
great trade of the cities. They built strong forts.
✓ In order to acquire legitimacy and authenticity, the
Rajput clans invited Brahmanas from the Gangetic
delta and other regions to perform royal rituals and
ceremonies. In return, they were given land and
other things as dakshina (fee).
✓ The Rajputs claimed their linking with Lord Rama
(Suryavanshi) and Lord Krishna
(Chandravanshi) to claim a dignified position of a
warrior class.
✓ Certain clans also claimed agnikula origins for
themselves, referring to a myth wherein these clans
emerged out of the sacrificial fire of sage
Vashishta on Mount Abu. The four Agnikula
Rajput clans were:
The Pratiharas
o Important Rajput Dynasties-
1. Chauhan/Chahaman of Delhi-Ajmer
✓ The Chauhanas occupy an important place among
the Rajput dynasties of this period. They were
divided into several branches. Among them, the
earliest known branch ruled at Lata up to middle of
the eighth century.
The Chahamanas/Chauhans of Ajmer
The Chandellas of Bundelkhand
The Paramaras of Malwa
✓ Apart from them, according to medieval bardic
traditions, there were about 36 Rajput clans which
included Gahadavalas of Kannauj, the Tomaras
of Delhi, the Solankis, the Chalukyas of Gujarat,
and so on.
➢ Important Rajput Kingdoms
o Introduction –
✓ The Gurjara-Pratiharas were the earliest of the
Rajput rulers. Its first great leader was
Harischandra. He conquered extensive territory in
Rajaputana and ruled with his capital at Bhinmal.
The Gurjaras were in different branches. One
branch ruled Gujarat and another at Avanthi.
✓ The Pratiharas involved themselves in a three-
cornered contest with the Palas of Bengal and the
Rashtrakutas of Deccan. Later the Pratiharas
became weak.
✓ The Chauhans, the most valiant of the Rajput
races, ruled Ajmer. Vigraharaj was their most
important king, who occupied Delhi.
✓ Therefore, the Chauhans faced the onslaught of the
Muslims under Muhammad of Ghori.
✓ The Paramaras were also important Rajput rulers
of this period. The most important king was Bhoja.
His military conquests as well as cultural
contributions remain notable in the history of
Rajputs.
✓ However, their most important branch was one
which established its supremacy in Sakambhari
pradesa, near modern Jaipur, in the early years of
the seventh century.
✓ The Chahamanas of Shakambhari, colloquially
known as the Chauhans of Sambhar, ruled in parts
of the present-day Rajasthan and its neighbouring
areas between 7th and 11th centuries CE. They were
4
 the most prominent ruling family of the
Chahamana clan.
✓ The Chahamanas originally had their capital at
Shakambari, which is identical to modern
Sambhar near Jaipur in the Sapadalaksa country
(part of present-day Rajasthan). However, the later
rulers moved the capital to Ajmer, and for this
reason, they are also known as the Chahamanas
(Chauhans) of Ajmer. They were originally
feudatories of the Pratiharas and assumed
independence during the reign of King Simharaja.
✓ Important Rulers-
Rulers
Simharaja (c. 944−971 CE)
Vigraharaja II (c. 971−998 CE)
Ajayaraja II (c. 1110−1135 CE)
Vigraha raja IV (c. 1150−1164 CE)
Prithviraja III (c.1177−1192 CE)
Information
o Founded the Chahamana/Chauhan dynasty around 10th
century CE and adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja
o Defeated Mularaja I and overran Gujarat.
o Captured Chittor
o Next important ruler who carried on the aggressive policy,
defeated the Paramaras and captured their capital
Ujjaini.
o Founded the city of Ajayameru (Ajmer).
o Also known as Visaldev, who captured Delhi from the
Tomars in c.1151 CE but allowed them to rule as
feudatories.
o He Moved the capital from Shakambhari (Sambhar) to
Ajmer.
o He Patronised literature and authored a famous play,
Harikeli Nataka. The structure that was later converted
into the Adhai Din Ka Jhopra mosque was constructed
during his reign.
o The most famous of all Chauhans, is popularly known as
Prithviraj Chauhan or Rai Pithora in the folk legends.
o He scored victories over all his neighbours, including the
Chandella king Paramardi, Chalukya Bhima II and
Gahadvala Jayachandra.
o He led an expedition in Bundelkhand against the
Chandella ruler and its capital Mahoba and it was in this
struggle the famous Chandella warriors Alha and Udal
lost their lives.
o He Defeated Muhammad Ghori in the First Battle of
Tarain in c.1191 CE. In 1192 CE, Muhammad Ghori
defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of
Tarain, and subsequently executed him.
5
 o His defeat at Tarain is seen as a landmark event in the
Islamic conquest of India, and has been described in
several semi-legendary accounts, most notably the
Prithviraj Raso.
o Two great poems, Prithviraj Raso and Prithviraj
Vijaya, were written by his court poets Chandbardai and
Jayanaka respectively
Hari-raja (c. 1193−1194 CE) o Muhammad Ghori followed up his victory by the conquest
of Ajmer and Delhi and placed the young son of
Prithviraj, Govinda, as his vassal in Ajmer. Govinda was
de-throned and banished by Prithviraja’s brother Hari-
raja for accepting Muslim suzerainty.
o Govinda then established the Chahamana branch of
Ranastambhapura (Ranthambore). Hari-raja regained
Ajmer and followed a policy of hostility against the
conquerors of Delhi.
o Qutabuddin Aibak invaded Ajmer, overthrew Hari-raja
and took the principality. The Chauhan dynasty then
retired to Ranthambhor and ruled there in diminishing
glory. But in c.1301 CE, Ala-ud-din Khilji captured
Ranthambhor and uprooted the last stronghold of Chauhan
power.

1) The Chandellas of Bundelkhand

western India. One of them was the Chandelas who

established their power in Bundelkhand.
✓ The Chandellas are well-known for their art and
architecture, most notably for the fully developed
Nagara- style temples at their original capital
Khajuraho.

✓ The Chandellas of Bundelkhand trace their

descent to a mythical ancestor named
Chandratreya, born of the moon. Chandelas have
been accepted as one of the 36 ruling Rajput
dynasties.
✓ The Chandellas initially ruled as feudatories of the
Gurjara−Pratiharas of Kannauj, and were
involved in conflicts with the Pratiharas, the
Palas, and the Kalachuris of Chedi (who
bordered the Chandellas on the south).
✓ After the break-up of the Pratihara empire, a Kandariya Mahadev Temple
number of dynasties rose to power in central and

6
✓ The Lakshmana Temple (c. 930–950 CE), the
Vishvanatha Temple (c. 999-1002 CE), and the
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (c. 1030 CE) were
constructed during the reigns of Chandella rulers
Yashovarman, Dhanga, and Vidyadhara
respectively.
✓ They also commissioned a number of water bodies,
palaces and forts at other places, including their
strongholds of Jayapura-Durga (modern
Ajaigarh), Kalanjara (modern Kalinjar), and
their later capital Mahotsava-Nagara (modern
Mahoba).
Lakshmana Temple
✓ Important Rulers-
Rulers
Nannuka (c.831−845 CE)
Vakpati (c. 845−865 CE)
Jayashakti and Vijayashakti (c. 865−885 CE)
Rahila (c. 885−905 CE)
Shri Harsha (c. 905−925 CE)
Yashovarman (c. 925−950 CE)
✓ In the first quarter of the 9th century CE, the
dynasty was founded by Nannuka, who was the
ruler of a small kingdom and established his capital
at Kharjjuravahaka (Khajuraho).
✓ The Chandella power did not fully recover from
their defeat against the Delhi Sultanate. The
Chandella power continued to decline because of
the rising Islamic influence, as well as the rise of
other local dynasties, such as the Bundelas, the
Baghelas, and the Khangars.
✓ One minor branch of the family continued ruling
Kalanjara, whose ruler was eventually killed by
Sher Shah Suri’s army in 1545 CE. Another minor
branch ruled at Mahoba, and according to certain
texts, one of its princesses married into the Gond
royal family of Mandla.
Information
o He Was the founder king of Chandellas.
o According to the Chandella inscriptions, Nannuka’s
successor Vakpati defeated several enemies.
o Vakpati’s sons Jayashakti (Jeja) and Vijayashakti
(Vija) consolidated the Chandella power.
o According to a Mahoba inscription, the Chandella
territory was named “Jejakabhukti” after Jayashakti
o In many eulogistic inscriptions, Vijayashakti’s
successor Rahila is credited with several military
victories.
o Around 914 CE, Rahila’s son Harsha played an
important role in restoring the rule of the Pratihara
King Mahipala, possibly after a Rashtrakuta invasion
by king Indra III.
o Around 10th century, Yashovarman became
practically independent, although he continued to
acknowledge Pratihara suzerainty.
7

Dhanga-Deva (c. 950−999 CE)
Ganda-Deva (c. 999−1002 CE)
Vidyadhara (c.1003−1035 CE)
o He conquered the important fortress of Kalanjara, and
according to a c. 954 CE Khajuraho inscription, he had
several military successes.
o His reign marked the beginning of the famous Chandella
style art and architecture. He commissioned the famous
Lakshmana Temple at Khajuraho.
o The first independent Chandella king who took the title
of Maharajadhiraja and under whose reign the
Chandellas had become a sovereign power as unlike the
earlier Chandella inscriptions, the records of Dhanga do
not mention any Pratihara overlord.
o A Khajuraho inscription claims that the rulers of
Kosala, Kratha (part of Vidarbha region), Kuntala,
and Simhala listened humbly to the commands of
Dhanga’s officers.
Vishvanatha Temple
o Like his predecessor, Dhanga also commissioned a
magnificent Vishvanatha Temple at Khajuraho.
o Dhanga’s successor Ganda appears to have retained the
territory he inherited.
o According to some legends, Vidyadhara killed the
Pratihara king of Kannauj (possibly Rajyapala) for
fleeing his capital instead of fighting the Ghaznavid
invader, Mahmud of Ghazni. Mahmud later invaded
Vidyadhara’s kingdom and the conflict ended with
Vidyadhara paying tribute to Mahmud.
8

Vijayapala (c. 1035−1050 CE)
Paramardi-deva (c. 1165−1203 CE)
2) The Paramaras of Malwa
o By the end of Vidyadhara’s reign, the Ghaznavid
invasions had weakened the Chandella kingdom.
Taking advantage of this, the Kalachuri king Gangeya-
deva conquered eastern parts of the kingdom.
Vidyadhara is noted for having commissioned the
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.
o Vijayapala defeated Gangeya-deva in a battle.
However, the Chandella power started declining during
the Vijayapala’s reign.
o The Kachchhapaghatas of Gwalior probably gave up
their allegiance to the Chandellas during this period.
o The later rulers’ power gradually declined as they had
to fight many battles with the neighbouring dynasties,
especially the Paramaras of Malwa and the
Kalachuris of Tripuri.
o From the 11th century onwards, the Chandellas faced
raids by the northern Muslim dynasties, including the
Ghaznavids and the Ghurids.
o He was the last powerful Chandella king. Around 1183
CE, the Chahamana ruler Prithviraj Chauhan invaded
the Chandella kingdom and sacked Mahoba (as per the
Madanpur stone inscriptions).
o It is believed that Paramardi, in a fit of cowardice, took
shelter in the Kalanjara fort.
o The Chandella force led by Alha, Udal, and other
generals, was defeated in this battle.
9

✓ Some scholars have expressed the view that the
Parmaras belonged to the family of the
Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. But it is generally
believed that The Paramaras of Malwa were
originally based in the Mount Abu area of
Rajasthan.
✓ According to tradition, the sage Vishwamitra stole
Vashishtha’s kama dhenu (wish-granting cow). In
✓ Important Rulers-
Rulers
Upendra (around first quarter of the 9th o
century CE)
Siyaka II (c. 948−972 CE)
Munja (c. 972−990 CE)
order to retrieve his cow, Vashishtha performed a
sacrifice on Mount Abu and out of this sacrificial
fire emerged a hero who seized his cow and was
named Paramara (slayer of enemies). He was
thereafter crowned the king. The earliest known
Paramara king, Upendra, was believed to be of the
lineage of this hero.
✓ There are several branches of this dynasty, though
the main branch ruled at Malwa, with its capital at
Dhara (modern Dhar, MP).
✓ The c. 949 CE Harsola copper-plates issued by the
Paramara king, Siyaka II, establish that the early
Paramara rulers were feudatories of the
Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, and were probably
established in the 10th century CE.
✓ The later Paramaras moved their capital to
Mandapa-Durga (now Mandu) after Dhara was
sacked multiple times by their enemies. Malwa
enjoyed a great level of political and cultural
prestige under the Paramaras.
✓ The Paramaras were well-known for their
patronage to poets and scholars and Bhoja was
himself a renowned scholar.
✓ Most of the Paramara kings were Shaivites and
built several Shiva temples, although they also
patronised Jain scholars
✓ Mahalakadeva was the last known Paramara king
who was defeated and killed by the forces of Ala-
ud-din Khilji of Delhi in c.1305 CE.
✓ Although epigraphic evidence (an inscription from
Udaipur) suggests that the Paramara rule continued
for a few years after his death, until c.1310 CE, at
least in the north-eastern part of Malwa. A later
inscription shows that the area had been captured by
the Delhi Sultanate by c.1338 CE
Information
It is believed that he was made ruler of Deccan by the
Rashtrakuta king Govinda III, after the latter’s successful
military expedition in Malwa. He is considered to be the founder
of Malwa’s Parmara dynasty.
o The Paramaras were temporarily eclipsed when they lost
Malwa to the Pratiharas and their power was revived in the mid-
10th century by II. Vairasimha II and Siyaka II
o Around 972 CE, Siyaka (also known as Harsha) threw off his
allegiance to the Rashtrakutas.
o He not only defeated the Rashtrakuta king, Khottiga, at
Kalighatta on the banks of the Narmada, but also sacked the
Rashtrakuta capital Manyakheta, and established the Paramaras
as a sovereign power
o Also known as Utpala or Vakpatiraja II, who extended the
empire and achieved many military successes such as that
against the Kalachuris where he sacked their capital Tripuri.
10
 o He led many expeditions into Rajputana region.
o He was finally defeated by the Western Chalukyan ruler,
Tailapa II.
o He Adopted the
titlesAmoghavarsha/Prithvivallabha/Srivallabha. Apart
from being an accomplished military leader, he was a poet and
patron of the arts and literature. He constructed many tanks
and temples during his reign.
o Munja was a poet and also a great patron of art and literature.
Many scholars of repute like Dhananjaya, Bhatta Halavudha,
Dhanika, and Padma Gupta flourished at his court.
o He also dug many tanks and built a number of temples. Munj-
Sagar lake near Dhara was also constructed by him which
exists even today.
Sindhuraja (c.990−1010 CE) o Munja’s brother, who defeated the Western Chalukya king
Satyashraya, and recovered the territories lost to Tailapa II.
o He also achieved military successes against a Huna chief, the
Somavanshis of south Kosala, the Shilaharas of Konkana,
and the ruler of Lata (southern Gujarat).
o His court poet Padmagupta wrote his biography,
NavaSahasanka- Charita
Bhoja (c.1010−1055 CE)
o Under his reign, the Paramaras extended their kingdom from
Chittor in the north to upper Konkan in the south, and from
the Sabarmati River in the west to Vidisha in the east
o He adopted the title of Parameshvara-Paramabhattaraka,
which is considered to be identical to the title of
ParamaraDeva.
o According to some medieval Muslim historians, after sacking
Somnath, Mahmud of Ghazni changed his route to avoid
confrontation with a Hindu king named Param Dev, who has
been identified as Bhoja. It is also believed that Bhoja may have
also contributed troops to support the Hindu Shahi ruler
Anandapala’s fight against the Ghaznavids.
o Around 1043 CE, he may have also been a part of the Hindu
alliance that expelled Mahmud’s governors from Hansi,
Thanesar, and other areas around.
o He is considered a righteous scholar king who himself was a
polymath.
o His writings cover a wide variety of topics such as grammar,
poetry, architecture, yoga, and chemistry.
o He patronised the arts, literature, and the sciences. He
established the Bhoj Shala, which was a centre for Sanskrit
studies, and a temple of Sarasvati in present day Dhar.

11
 Bhojshala
o He is said to have founded the city of Bhojpur, credited with
building of not only Bhojeshwar temple but also three dams in
that area. He is often compared to the fabled Vikramaditya

Jayasimha I (c.1055−1070 CE)
Jayasimha I (c.1055−1070 CE)
Bhojeshwar temple
o Bhoja’s son and successor who faced the joint Kalachuri
−Solanki invasion immediately after Bhoja’s death.
o Bilhana’s writings suggest that he sought help from the
Chalukyas of Kalyani
o Nagpur Prashasti inscription of c.1105 CE credits him with
extensive military conquests.

3) The Chalukyas of Gujarat/The Solanki Rajputs

✓ They had many branches, though three branches

were the most prominent. The oldest branch ruled
from Central India’s Mattamayura and its earliest
rulers were Simhavarman, Sadhanva, and
Avanivarman.

✓ The Solanki Rajputs are also known as the

Chalukya family of Gujarat, which was different
from the earlier Chalukyan dynasty of Badami. It
ruled parts of Gujarat and Kathiawar between ✓ The other branch was founded by Barappa in Lata
c.950 and 1300 CE. (South Gujarat); the most prominent city of their
✓ Unlike the Chalukyas of Kalyani and Vengi, the kingdom was Bhrigukachchha (Broach).
Solankis never claimed a shared descent or any ✓ Another branch was founded by Mularaja I; whose
other association with the original Chalukya capital was at Anahilapataka (or Anahilavada,
dynasty. Interestingly, they never used the term which is identical to modern Patan, Gujarat).
‘Chalukya’ to describe themselves, but chose to
use its variant, ‘Chaulukya’.
✓ Important Rulers-
Rulers Information
Mulraja I (c. 940 – 995 CE) o Mulraja I led many military expeditions against Saurashtra, Kutch,
Abhiras, and so on.
o He was a Shaiva devotee, but also patronised Jainism as he built the
Mulavasatika (Mula’s residence) temple for the Digambaras and the
Mulanatha-jinadeva (the Jina who is Mula’s lord) temple for the
Shvetambaras.

12
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Bhima I (c. 1022 – 1064 CE)
o During the later period of his reign Durlabharaja gave his throne to his
nephew Bhimaraja I. By that time the empire of the Chalukyas had
become quite powerful in northern India.
o Grandson of Mulraja, and the next important ruler after Mularaja.
o During his reign, Mahmud of Ghazni overran Gujarat and plundered
Somnath in 1025 CE.
Somnath Temple
o He built the Sun temple of Modhera.
Sun temple of Modhera
o His wife Udaymati built the Rani-ki vav (Queen’s step well) in his
memory, which is on the list of UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites.
Rani-ki vav
o It is pertinent to note that out of the five famous Dilwara temples, one
Vimal Vasahi temple dedicated to Jain lord Rishabha was built in
c.1031 CE by Vimalsha, a minister of Bhima I.
13
 Vimal Vasahi temple, Mt Abu
Karan (c. 1065 – 1091 CE) o He defeated a Bhil chieftain and founded Karnavati, which is now
known as Ahmedabad.
Jayasimha Siddharaja (c. 1092 – 1142 o He ruled for about half a century, and enlarged the kingdom to become
CE) an empire.
o Apart from Saurashtra and Kutch, Jayasimha also conquered Malwa.
One of the favourite legends of the Gujarat bards is woven around the
siege of Junagadh by Jayasimha.
o The fort was ultimately captured by him along with Ranakdevi, wife of
the Raja Rakhengar, the ruler of Junagadh. Ranakdevi preferred to
commit sati rather than remarry Jayasimha and he was persuaded to
allow her to burn herself on a pyre at Wadhwan.

Ranakdevi temple
o Ranakdevi temple still stands in Wadhwan at the site of her death.
o Hemachandra, a Jain monk, rose to prominence and had good
relationship with the king. The Rudra Mahakala Temple at Siddhapur
was built during his reign.

Rudra Mahakala Temple

Kumarapala (c. 1142−1171 CE) o During Kumarapala’s reign, Gujarat’s prosperity was at its peak.
o He too shared good relationship with Hemachandra and graciously
patronised Jainism during his rule in Gujarat.

14
 o He rebuilt the Somnath temple.
o While all other rulers of the Chalukyas far had been Saivas,
Kumarapala was inclined toward Jainism.
o Then, Mularaja II, son of Ajayapala, succeeded to the throne but, as he
was a minor, his mother Nayikadevi looked after the administration on
his behalf.
o Mularaja defeated Muhammad of Ghur in 1178 A.D. near Mt. Abu.
But he died the same year and was succeeded by his brother, Bhimadeva
II (1178-1239 A.D.).

Bhima II (c. 1177−1240 CE)
o He successfully repelled the incursions of Muhammad Ghori (at the
battle of Kayadara), who had the ambition of repeating the act
performed by Mahmud of Ghazni.
o In c.1195−97 CE, an army led by Aibak, Ghori’s deputy, invaded
again, but Bhima II defeated Aibak again and adorned himself as
Abhinav Siddharaj.
o After c.1243 CE, the Solankis lost control of Gujarat to their feudatories,
the Hindu Vaghela dynasty of Dholka, who established a short-lived (76
years) but powerful principality.
o After c.1292 CE, the Vaghelas/Baghelas became tributaries of the
Seuna (Yadava) dynasty of Devagiri in the Deccan Plateau.
o Another Dilwara temple, the Luna Vashi temple dedicated to Lord
Neminath, was built in c.1230 CE by two Porwad brothers — Vastupal
and Tejpal, who were both ministers of Virdhaval, the Vaghela ruler of
Gujarat.
o In 1299 A.D., Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan, two generals of Ala-ud-
din Khalji, wrested the whole of Gujarat from the then Baghela ruler,
Kama and Gujarat became a part of the empire of the Turk Sultans of
Delhi.

4) The Tomaras-

Suraj Kund reservoir

✓ The Tomaras established their kingdom in the
north-east of the kingdom of the Chauhanas of
Sakambhari.
✓ The Tomaras ruled the Hariyana (Haryana)
country with their capital at Dhillika (Delhi) and
they are believed to be a feudatory of the
Pratiharas.
✓ It is believed that Delhi was established by Tomaras
in 736 A.D.
✓ Medieval bardic literature names the dynasty as
“Tuar”, and classifies them as one of the 36 Rajput
clans.
✓ A 13th century Palam Baoli (step well) inscription
records that the land of Hariyanaka was first
enjoyed by the Tomaras, then by the Chauhans, and
thereafter by the Shakas (that is, the Delhi Sultans).
✓ The iron pillar at Mehrauli carries an 11th century
inscription which refers to one of the most famous

15
 kings of the Tomara dynasty, Anangapala Tomara These coins are very similar to those of the
who is widely believed as the ruler who established Shakambhari Chahamana kings Someshvara
Delhi. and Prithviraja III, indicating that Anangapala
was a contemporary of these 12th century kings
✓ The Tomaras were associated with the construction
of the earliest surviving waterworks in the Delhi
area. Anangapala II was the founder of the citadel
of Lal Kot in the Mehrauli area and also built a
tank known as the Anang Tal. Similarly, the
famous Suraj Kund reservoir (near Faridabad,
Haryana) is said to have been commissioned by a
Tomara king named Surajpala.
✓ They remained independent till the middle of the
twelfth century. Then, Chauhana Vigraharaja III
took the Tomaras under his suzerainty
✓ His coins also feature the horseman-and-bull
figure, and bear the title “Shri Samanta-deva”.
.
o The Empire of Kannauj-

1) The Ayudhas:
✓ Nothing is known about the antecedents of their that time, the Pratiharas in the west, the Palas in the
east and the Rashtrakutas in the south had become
powerful.
✓ Each of these powers tried to conquer Kannauj.
Indrayudha was first defeated by the Pratihara ruler
Vatsraj and then by the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva.
✓ Afterwards, the Pala ruler Dharmapala forced
Indrayudha to leave the throne and placed
Chakrayudha on it. Then the Rashtrakuta ruler
Govind III attacked Kannauj and got submission of
both Chakrayudha and Dharmapala. Ultimately,
the Pratihara ruler Nagabhatta II defeated
Chakrayudha and conquered Kannauj.
✓ Thus, the Ayudha dynasty failed to produce any
capable ruler. The glory of Kannauj was lost by
them. The only importance of their period is the
tripartite contest between the Palas, the
Rashtrakutas and the Pratiharas for the
family. But this family also ruled over Kannauj and
occupation of Kannauj
had three successive rulers — Vajrayudha,
Indrayudha and Chakrayudha. In 770 A.D.,
Vajrayudha was the ruler of Kannauj. In 783 A.D.
or 784 A.D. Indrayudha ascended the throne. By
.

2) The Pratiharas ✓ The glory of Kannauj was again revived by the

Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty who made it its
capital and built up again a strong and extensive
empire in north India.
✓ Many scholars expressed the view that the
Gurjaras were foreigners who came to India,
probably, along with the Hunas towards the close
of fifth century A.D. They established themselves
in Punjab, Rajputana and Gujarat.

16
✓ Their main settlements were in the west of the
Aravali hills in Rajputana which up to the sixth and
seventh centuries were called Gurjar rastra. But
now this view has been opposed by many other
scholars who claim that the Gurjaras were purely
Indians.
✓ The ruling family of the Gurjaras belonged to their
Pritahara clan. So, the empire which was created
by them was called the Gurjara-Pratihara
empire.
✓ The foundation of the Pratihara Kingdom was laid
by Harichandra near modern Jodhpur in the
middle of the sixth century A.D. Harichandra was a
Brahamana. His one wife was Brahamana while the
other one was a Kshatriya.
✓ His sons from his Brahamana wife were called
Pratihara Brahamanas while his sons from his
Kshatriya wife established the ruling dynasty of the
Pratiharas. He had four sons and each of them
established a separate kingdom for himself.
3) The Gahadavalas of Kannauj
✓ The Gahadvalas or Gaharwars, who claimed to
be Suryavanshi kshatriyas, ruled the kingdom of
✓ Important Rulers
Rulers
Chandradeva (around c. 1090 CE)
Govindchandra (c.1114−1154 CE)
✓ Harichandra, his successors and other branches of
the family ruled over Jodhpur, Nandipura.
Broach. Ujjayani (Avanti), etc. The foundations
of the greatness of the Pratihara dynasty was laid by
Nagabhatta I, the ruler of Ujjayani.
✓ Nagabhatta I ruled between 730-756 A.D. and
came into prominence because of his successful
resistance to the Arabs. He successfully claimed
suzerainty over the Pratihara rulers of Jodhpur
✓ He established an empire which extended from
Gujarat to Gwalior and resisted the Arab
invasions towards further east of Sindh.
✓ Probably, he fought against the Rashtrakuta ruler
Dantidurga as well and was defeated by him.
However, the success of Dantidurga was short-lived
and Nagabhatta left to his successor an extensive
empire which included Gujarat, Malwa and a
part of Rajputana.
Kannauj for approximately a hundred years,
beginning in the late 11th century.
✓ Interestingly, the Rathore clan of the Rajputs
claimed descent from the Gahadvala dynasty.
✓ Chandradeva founded the Gahadavala dynasty of
Kannauj around c. 1090 CE. They gradually
squeezed the Palas out of Bihar and made Banaras
a second capital
Information
o Founding ruler of this dynasty who successfully
wrested Delhi from both the Pratiharas and the
Rashtrakutas and annexed it to his state of Kannauj.
o Grandson of Chandradeva, who not only defeated the
Ghaznavids and secured the release of his father
Madan Chandra, but he also raised Kannauj to
unprecedented glory as under his reign the state of
Gaharwar reached the pinnacle of its power.
o His kingdom comprised much of the present-day
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
17
 Vijayachandra (c.1154−1170 CE)
Jaichandra (c. 1170 − 1194 CE)
➢
KINGDOM OF KASHMIR –
✓ Kashmir is situated in the north of India. Being
surrounded by mountains from all sides, it has
always lacked proper means of communication with
the rest of India.
✓ Much of the history of Kashmir and North-west
India is deduced from the legendary and historical
chronicle Rajatarangini (which means ‘the river
of kings’). It was probably written in 12th century
CE in Sanskrit by a Kashmiri Brahmana called
Kalhana, though not much is known about him
apart from what is written in the book.
✓ In early 7th century, the Karkota dynasty rulers
established their rule in Kashmir. The dynasty
marked the rise of Kashmir as a power in Central
Asia and Northern India. The Karkota dynasty (c.
625−855 CE) was founded by Durlabhvardhana
during the lifetime of the Pushyabhuti king,
Harshavardhana.
✓ .
1) Karkota Dynasty
✓ Important Rulers-
Rulers
o Son of Govindachandra, who is identified with the
names of Vijayapala/ Malladeva and he
successfully faced aggressions of the Ghaznavids.
o Son of Vijayachandra, who was the last great king of
the Gahadavala dynasty. Their power and extensive
jurisdiction was noticed by even Muslim historians.
During his reign, the Chauhans from Ajmer under
Prithviraj Chauhan – annexed Delhi.
o After the fall of Delhi, around c.1194 CE, the city of
Kannauj was attacked by Muhammad of Ghori.
o It is believed that Jaichandra was defeated in the
Battle of Chanawar and subsequently drowned in
the Ganga.
o The glory of Kannauj ended with the conquest of
Iltutmish.
✓ The Karkota emperors were primarily Hindu, who
have been known for building spectacular Hindu
temples in their capital, Parihaspur. They,
however, also patronised Buddhism, and some
stupas, chaityas, and viharas can be found in the
ruins of their capital.
✓ However, Rajatarangini does not help us in
finding out the history of Kashmir prior to the
seventh century A.D. By known facts, we simply
know that Kashmir was included in the empire of
emperor Asoka. After the death of Asoka, his son
Jaluka established an independent kingdom in
Kashmir.
✓ After many centuries we find that the Kushana
rulers Kaniska and Huviska, ruled over Kashmir.
The Gupta rulers did not conquer Kashmir.
Afterwards, the Huna ruler Mihirakula
established his rule in Kashmir
Information
18
 Durlabh Vardhana (c.598−634 CE)
Lalitaditya/Muktapida (c.697−733 CE)
Vajraditya (c.734−741 CE)
Jayapida (c.745−776 CE)
2) Utpala Dynasty-
✓ From the 8th to 10th century CE, the Kashmir
region was ruled over by the Hindu Utpala
dynasty. The kingdom was established by Avanti
Varman, ending the rule of the Karkota dynasty in
855 CE.
✓ The political history of early medieval Kashmir is
incomplete without special mention of the tantrins
(a body of foot soldiers), ekangas (a body of royal
body guards) and the damaras (landed chiefs), who
✓ Important Rulers-
Rulers
Avanti Varman (c. 855−883 CE) o He was the founder of the Utpala dynasty and was known as a great
administrator. He took actions to stabilise the state and to regain the
power.
o Also known as Prajnaditya and during his rule,
Hsuan Tsang visited Kashmir.
o Most illustrious king of the Karkota dynasty. He was
able to extend the power of Kashmir beyond the
normal mountain limits.
o He Built the famous Martand (Sun) Temple in
Anantnag district, Kashmir which is the oldest known
Sun temple in India and was also one of the biggest
temple complexes of that time
Martand (Sun) Temple
o During his reign, Arabs made frequent raids upon
Kashmir.
o One of the more powerful Karkota kings, who led
many military expeditions. For instance, he led a three
year-long expedition against the eastern countries and
claimed victory over the five chieftains of Gauda and
ruler of Kannauj
o The Karkota dynasty was followed by the Utpala
dynasty. Avanti Varman ascended the throne of
Kashmir on c.855 CE, establishing the Utpala dynasty
and ending the rule of the Karkota dynasty.
played a crucial role in the politics of that time and
at times acted as kingmakers.
✓ The history of this region is also unique in one
aspect of its tradition, namely, the legacy of
powerful queens. The Rajatarangini mentions three
women rulers, namely Yashovati of the Gonanda
dynasty, Sugandha of the Utpala dynasty, and
Didda of the Yashaskara dynasty (who had the
longest and most eventful stint; she is discussed
below)
Information
19
 o He was credited with taking major innovative works in the field of
irrigation. For instance, he took steps to prevent the flood waters of the
Mahapadma (Wular) lake from damaging crops.

Wular lake
o During his reign, the cities of Avantipur and Suyapur were founded,
and many Hindu temples dedicated to both Vishnu and Shiva and
Buddhist monasteries were built, notable of which is the Avantiswara
and Avantiswami temples.

Avantiswami temples

Sankara Varman (c. 883−902 CE)
o Son of Avanti Varman, who led military campaigns into the Punjab
and Gujarat. His military operations led to the drain of wealth from the
treasury, and as a result, heavy taxes were imposed on the people.
o Although he tried to regain some of the treasury’s wealth by fiscal
extortion, in acts such as plundering temples, the losses could not be
recovered.
o All his successors proved themselves as weak rulers, which led to the
ruin of this dynasty. Its last ruler was Sura Varman II who was
dethroned in 939 A.D.
o After Sura Varman, an assembly of the Brahmanas elected
Yasaskara, son of Prabhakaradeva, treasurer of the kings Sankara
Varman and Gopala Varman.
o Yasaskara ruled for nine years between 939-948 A.D. and restored
peace and order in the country. He was succeeded by his son,
Sangramadeva, who, after a year, was killed by his minister, Parva
Gupta.

3) Yashaskara Dynasty
✓ Parva Gupta also died after a year and his son. real power behind the throne after the death of her
Kshema Gupta, succeeded him in 950 A.D. husband. She was an ambitious woman who,
Kshema Gupta married Didda, the daughter of ultimately, captured the throne herself in 980 A.D.
Sinharaja, king of Lohara. Kshema Gupta ruled
between 950-958 A.D.
✓ He was succeeded by Abhimanyu, Nandi Gupta,
Tribhuvana, Bhima Gupta and lastly by his wife
Didda herself respectively. In fact. Didda was the

20
✓ Important Rulers-
Rulers Information
Queen Didda (c.958 – 1003 o Her career is described in the sixth taranga of the Rajatarangini. She was
CE) the wife of king Kshemagupta and the daughter of Simharaja of Lohara
(which lay around the Pir Panjal range, on a trade route between western
Punjab and Kashmir), granddaughter of Bhima Shahi, one of the Hindus
Shahis of Kabul.
o She founded towns of Diddapura and Kankanapura, and a temple called
the Diddasvamin temple. After ruling indirectly and directly, Didda placed
Sangramaraja, the son of her brother on the throne, diverting the royal
succession from the Yashaskaras to her natal family, and thus started the
Lohara dynasty in Kashmir.

4) The Lohara Dynasty:

✓ He Lohara dynasty failed to produce any capable
ruler. Sangramaraja supported Trilochanapala
of the Hindushahi dynasty against Sultan
Mahmud. In 1021 A.D Mahmud attacked Kashmir
but failed to capture it. But, otherwise,
Sangramaraja had no creditable record.
✓ His successor also proved incapable and Kashmir
was troubled by internal disruption and the
oppression of its rulers on their subjects. Ultimately,
one Muslim adventurer, Sahamera, captured the
throne of Kashmir in 1338 A.D. He called himself
Sultan Shams-ud-din. He and his successors ruled
Kashmir for a long time

o Hindushahi or Brahmanashahi Dynasty:

✓ After the decline of the Kushana Empire in the 3rd

century to the early 9th century CE, the Turkish
Shahiya dynasty ruled over the Kabul valley (in
eastern Afghanistan) and Gandhara (northern
Pakistan and Kashmir). They were split into two
eras: the Buddhist Shahis, and the later Hindu
Shahis, with the transition into Hinduism occurring
around 870 CE.
✓ In the second half of the 9th century CE, Kallar, a
Brahmana minister of King Lagaturman,
overthrew the Shahiya king and laid the foundation
of Hindu Shahi dynasty.
✓ The Shahis were rulers of predominantly Buddhist
and Hindu populations and were thus patrons of
numerous faiths, and various artifacts and coins
from their rule have been found that display their
multicultural domain.
✓ Important Rulers-
Rulers Information
Kallar (c. 890–895 CE) o In the Rajatarangini, Kallar is referred to as Lalliyashahi, and was the
Brahmana minister of the Shahi Dynasty.
o He was not able to maintain control over the Kabul valley for long, and around
c. 870 CE, he was forced to move his capital from Kabul to Udabhanda
(modern day Und village in Rawalpindi district, Pakistan) after being defeated
by the Arab, Sarrarid Yaqui ibn
Jayapala (c.964–1001 CE) o He is celebrated as a hero for his struggles in defending his kingdom from the
Turkish rulers of Ghazni.
o According to legends, King Jayapala was challenged by the armies of Sultan
Sabuktigin in the Battle of Peshawar (c.1000 CE), and later by his son,
Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni.

21
 Anandapala (c.1001 −1010 o The son of Jayapala, who was an able warrior and general. He led many battles
CE) prior to his ascension. However, during his reign as emperor, many losses were
inflicted on his kingdom by the Ghaznavids.
o For instance, during the battle of Chach between Mahmud and Anandapala,
some 30,000 Gakhars fought alongside as soldiers for the Shahi Emperor and
incurred huge losses for the Ghaznavids. They still lost the battle and suffered
much financial and territorial loss.
o He eventually signed a treaty with the Ghaznavid Empire in c.1010 CE, and
shortly a year later died a peaceful death. Out of respect for his resistance against
Mahmud of Ghazni, some historians often compare him with King Porus, who
bravely opposed Alexander.
Trilochanpala (c.1010−1022 o He tried to expand his kingdom by conquering the Shivalik Hills, the domain
CE) of the Rai of Sharwa.
o His kingdom extended from the River Indus to the upper Ganges valley.
According to Al-Biruni, Trilochanpala was honourable in his loyalty to his
father’s peace treaty to the Ghaznavids.
Bheempala (c.1022–1026 o He is referred by famous historian Utbi as the ‘fearless’ due to his courage and
CE) valour. He is known to have personally commanded the Battle of Nandana,
where he is said to have seriously wounded the commander of the Ghaznavid
army, Muhammad bin Ibrahim.
o He was final Shahi Emperor of the famed dynasty. The kingdom was
destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni in the beginning of the 12th century CE. Their
remaining army was eventually exiled into northern India.

o The chedis of Tripuri/the Kalachuris of chedi:

Pratiharas, but around the middle of the 10th

century CE, they asserted their independence. They
ruled the historical Chedi region (also known as
Dahala-mandala) with their capital at Tripuri,
near modern Jabalpur, MP.

✓ The Kalachuris of Tripuri fought several battles

✓ The state of Chedi was situated between the
Narmada and Godavari rivers, and was ruled by
the Kalachuri dynasty. Like the Chandellas, the
Kalachuris of Chedi (also known as the Kalachuris
of Tripuri) were formerly subordinate to the
against the Chandellas of Jejakabhukti, and later
had matrimonial alliances with them. They also had
to defend their territory against the Palas, and a
confederacy of the Cholas, Pallavas, and the
Pandyas

✓ Important Rulers-
Rulers
Kokkala I (c.845−885 CE)
Information
o He was the founder of the dynasty and undertook many military campaigns.
He invaded Northern Konkan and helped the Rashtrakuta king, Krishna II,
against the Eastern Chalukyas and the Pratiharas.

22
Yuvaraja (c. 915–945 CE)
Lakshmanaraja (around the o
third quarter of the 10th century
CE)
Gangeya-deva (c.1019–40 CE)
Lakshmi-Karna (c.1041–73 CE)
Yashkarna (c.1073–1125 CE)
Vijayasimha (c.1177−1211 CE)
o Another important ruler who defeated and drove out the Rashtrakuta forces. In
order to celebrate this great victory, the famous poet Rajasekara staged his
drama Viddhasalabhanjika.
o The Kalachuri inscription credits Yuvaraja with successful raids against
Kashmir and the Himalayan region.
He was also a great conqueror as he not only invaded and defeated Vangala
(south Bengal), and the Somavamsi king of South Kosala, but he also
invaded Lata in the west, then ruled over by a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas,
and defeated the king of Gurjara, probably Mularaja I, the founder of the
Chalukya Dynasty.
o One of the most important rulers of the Kalachuri dynasty, who, due to his
military genius, made the Chedis one of the greatest political powers in India
at the time.
o As a token of his great victory, he assumed the proud title of
Trikalingadhipati (the Lord of Trikalinga).
o He also assumed the title of Vikramaditya. Some historians believe that an
important factor in his success was the fact that his kingdom escaped the
devastating raids of Sultan Mahmud, which affected most of the other great
powers to its north and north-west.
o He issued coins of different sizes, weights, and metals such as in gold, base
gold, silver gold, Silver, silvery copper (billon), and copper.
o The four-armed Lakshmi, seated cross-legged on the lotus, holding a lotus in
the upper two hands, with inscriptions in Nagari script “Shrimad- Ga/
ngeyade/va” on the reverse side, was introduced during his reign.
o Also known as the Karna, and like his father was one of the greatest generals
of his time.
o He is said to have defeated many dynasties in the south such as the Pallavas,
Kungas, Muralas, Pandyas (South) and Someshvara I
o His reign was marked by a series of invasions as the Chalukyas of Deccan
raided his kingdom, and the Paramaras plundered his capital and encamped
for some time on the Narmada.
o He was also defeated by the Chandellas. All these defeats gradually weakened
the Kalachuris.
o The last king of the dynasty when Chandella ruler Trailokyavarman
conquered nearly the whole of the Kalachuri kingdom, included Baghelkhand
and Dahala Mandala
o Towards the beginning of the 12th century CE, the Chedi possessions were
also lost to rising dynasties such as the Ganpatis of Warangal, the Yadavas
of Devagiri, and the Vaghela Rajputs.
23
o The Guhilas of Mewar:
✓ The Atpur inscription, dated 977 A.D. gives the
names of 20 kings of the dynasty of the Guhilas or
Sisodiyas but does not give the name of Bappa
Rawal.
✓ It seems that the dynasty was founded by Guhadatt
who established his small principality near
Udaipur in the sixth century. Bappa Rawal, the
most illustrious ruler of this dynasty, was the ninth
ruler in succession. He recaptured Mewar from the
Arabs and has, therefore, been regarded as the real
founder of this dynasty.
➢ THE GANGAS/CHODAGANGAS OF ORISSA-
Bappa Rawal.
✓ He also raised the power and prestige of Mewar.
Both Guhadatt and Bappa Rawal were
Brahamanas though, afterwards, they were regarded
as Rajputs and their descendants claimed their
ancestory from Ramachandra, the hero of
Ramavana. The Guhilas of Udaipur constituted
the main branch of Guhilas. Another branch of this
family established its rule at Jaipur.
✓ The Guhilas accepted the suzerainty of the
Pratiharas when Pratiharas became powerful. The
Sisodiyas also belong to one branch of Guhilas.
✓ The Sisodiyas gained prominence in the twelfth
century and Mewar became the most powerful
kingdom of Rajputana under them. However, Rana
Ratansinha of Mewar was defeated by Ala-ud-din
Khalji and Mewar was occupied by him in 1303
A.D
✓ The Eastern Ganga dynasty, popularly known as the
Chodagangas, were a Hindu dynasty. They reigned
from the 11th century to the early 15th century at
Kalinga, and their kingdom consisted of the whole
of the modern-day state of Odisha as well as parts
of West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and
Chhattisgarh.
✓ Their capital was known by the name
Kalinganagara, which is the modern
Srimukhalingam in Srikakulam District of
Andhra Pradesh bordering Odisha. They are
remembered as the builders of the Sun Temple at
Konark, which is an UNESCO World Heritage
site. It is pertinent to note that the Kesaris, who used
to rule Orissa before the Gangas, built the
Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneshwar.
✓ The dynasty was founded by King Anantavarman
Chodaganga, who claimed lineage from the
Western Ganga Dynasty (that ruled southern parts
24
 of modern Karnataka state from the 4th century to
the end of the 10th century) and the Chola dynasty.
✓ The Eastern Ganga rulers, who hailed from
southern India and who were matrimonially related
to the Chola empire and Eastern Chalukyas,
✓ Important Rulers-
Rulers
naturally carried south Indian culture to Odisha,
which is very well reflected in their currency. This
kingdom prospered through trade and commerce
and the wealth was mostly used in the construction
of temples.
Information

Anantavarman Chodaganga o He assumed the title of Trikalingadhipathi in 1076 CE, that is, the
(c.1076–1150 CE) ruler of the three Kalingas, which comprises of Kalinga proper (South),
Utkal (North), and Kosal (West), and probably was the first king to
rule all three divisions of Kalinga.
o He was a religious person as well as a patron of art and literature.
Credited for having built the famous Jagannath Temple of Puri in
Odisha.

Narsimhadeva (c.1238–1264 CE)
o Another important king of this dynasty who constructed the Sun temple
of Konark which is an UNESCO World Heritage site.
o In the early 15th century, the rule of the dynasty came to end under the
reign of King Bhanudeva IV (c.1414–34 CE). After the decline of the
early Eastern Gangas reign, the Chalukyas of Vengi took control of the
region.

o Western Chalukyas or Kalyani/Later Western Chalukyas

25

✓ Important rulers-
Rulers
Tailapa-II (c.957−997 CE)
Satyasraya (c.997−1008CE)
Someshvara-I (c.1043−1068 CE)
Vikramaditya VI (c.1076−1126 CE)
✓ The Chalukyas who ruled from Kalyani (modern
Basavakalyan in Karnataka) between the 10th
and the 12th centuries CE are referred to as the Later
Western Chalukyas.
✓ Their kingdom covered most of western Deccan
and southern India. Prior to the rise of the
Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Rashtrakuta empire
of Manyakheta controlled most of Deccan and
central India for over two centuries.
✓ In 973 CE, taking advantage of the confusion
caused in the Rashtrakuta ranks by invasion of
Manyakheta by the Paramaras of Malwa, Taila or
Tailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas ruling
from Bijapur region, defeated his overlords and
made Manyakheta his capital. The dynasty quickly
rose to power and grew into an empire under
Someshvara I, who moved the capital to Kalyani
Information
o The founder of the later Western Chalukyas, who consolidated his
realm with the help of earlier Chalukya family and with the help of the
Kadambas and recovered much of the lost territories of earlier
Chalukyas.
o The Kadambas were rewarded with the control over Banavasi and
Goa.
o Taila was succeeded by his son Satyasraya, who achieved a victory
against the Chola king, Rajaraja, who had invaded Satyasraya’s region.
Rajaraja’s territories were thus conquered by him.
o The successors of Satyasraya were Dasavarman, Vikramaditya V,
and Jayasimha I (c. 1015−1042 CE).
o Jayasimha repelled invasions from the north as well as southern
invasions from the Chola king, Rajendra
o The son of Jayasimha, who expelled Rajadhiraja Chola, but the capital
had already been plundered by the Cholas prior to it.
o Vikramaditya conquered the Cholas, Kerala, and Ceylon as a general of
his brother’s army.
o The greatest ruler of this dynasty, who earned the title Permadideva and
Tribhuvanamalla (meaning “lord of three worlds”.)
Mallikarjuna temple
26
 Mahadeva temple
➢ He introduced Chalukya−Vikrama era in c.1076 CE. During the rule
of Vikramaditya VI, the Western Chalukyas convincingly contended
with the Cholas.
➢ They ruled over territories that spread over most of the Deccan, between
the Narmada River in the north and the Kaveri River in the south.
He had several queens who ably assisted him in administration.

Kaitabheshvara temple
➢ The two great writers, named Bilhana and Vijnaneswara, flourished
in the court of Vikramaditya VI.
➢ He was the hero of Bilhana’s Vikramankadeva Charitra. Bilhana
came to his court from Kashmir and compared his rule to Ramarajya.
➢ Vijnaneshwara, the noted jurist in his court, wrote Mitakshara, a
commentary on Yagnavalkya Smriti (on Hindu family law). Of the
king he wrote, “A King like Vikramarka is neither to be seen nor heard
of.”
➢ Vikramaditya VI was a Shaiva by faith and his rule saw prolific temple-
building activity. Notable constructions include the Mallikarjuna
temple, the Mahadeva temple, the Kaitabheshvara temple, and the
Kalleshvara temple.

27
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 Kalleshvara temple

➢ BENGAL-
1) Palas of Bengal-

✓ The Palas contested for the sovereignty of

Kannauj against the Pratiharas and the
Rastrakutas, established an extensive empire with
Bengal as its base and provided it unity, prosperity
and glory for about four centuries.
✓ The Extinction of the Pala Dynasty:

✓ Another great empire in Northern India was

established by the Palas in the middle of the
eighth century A.D. Nothing is certain about the
antecedents of the Palas but it is certain that their
homeland was Bengal.

✓ Kumarapala, Gopala III and Madanapala ruled

in succession for thirty- years after the death of
Ramapala. D
✓ The Sena ruler Vijayasena snatched away Gonda
from them and the Nanya ruler Gangeyadeva
occupied north Bihar. Thus, the power of
Madanapala, the last ruler of the Palas, was
restricted to central Bihar. Nothing is known about
the successors of Madanapala.
✓ Thus, by the middle of the twelfth century A.D., the
power of the Palas was finished and their last ruler,
Madanapala, died as an ordinary noble.
✓ Importance of Palas-

28

University of Vikramasila
The Pala emperors established an extensive empire
in north India which kept up the importance of
Bengal for nearly 400 years.
The Palas were the patrons of Buddhism and
therefore, encouraged Buddhist learning, literature,
religion and fine arts.
They contributed to the growth of Buddhism and
formation of Tantric sect or the religion of
Thunderbolt in Buddhism.
They constructed and repaired many Buddhist
monasteries and Viharas. The University of
Vikramasila was established with their support and
all possible help was given to the University of
Nalanda.
They also helped in the growth of Bengali
literature and developed an art of architecture,
sculpture and painting which influenced the arts of
even South East Asia.
Thus, the Palas helped in enriching the Indian
culture and also in extending it beyond the
frontiers of India

2) The Senas of Bengal

staunch Hindus. The rulers of the Sena Dynasty

traced their origin to the south Indian region of
Karnataka, as indicated by the Deopara
inscription.

✓ The Sena Dynasty was a Hindu dynasty that ruled
Bengal for little over a century (c. 1097−1225 CE).
The empire at its peak covered much of the north-
eastern region of the Indian subcontinent.
✓ Earlier, both Bihar and Bengal were under the
domination of the Pala dynasty. They called
themselves Brahma Kshatriya, and unlike the
Palas who were Buddhist, the Sena rulers were
✓ Important Rulers-
Rulers
✓ The Deopara inscription speaks of one of the
founders in the South, Samanta Sen, whose
successor was Hemanta Sen, the first of the family
to whom royal epithets are given in the family
records and who usurped power from the Palas and
styled himself king in c. 1095 CE. His successor,
Vijay Sena, helped lay the foundations of the
dynasty
Information

Vijaya Sena (c.1095−1158 CE)
o Founder of the dynasty who had an unusually long reign of over 60 years,
which restored peace and prosperity to Bengal and made a deep
impression among its people.
o He is believed to have taken advantage of the revolt of Samantachakra
in the Varendra region during the reign of Mahipala II, and gradually
consolidated his position in western Bengal. He ultimately assumed an
independent position during the reign of Madanapala.
o He conquered Vanga, defeating Bhojavarman Vijaya Sena had two
capitals: Vikrampura & Vijaypura

29

Ballal Sena (c.1158−1179 CE)
o The famous poet, Sriharsha, composed the Vijay Prasasti (Eulogy of
Vijay) in memory of Vijay Sena.
Vijay Prasasti
o The Deopara Prashasti is a stone inscription eulogising the Sena kings,
particularly Vijaya Sen, composed by the court poet Umapati Dhara.
Another inscription, the Barrackpore copper-plate, describes him as
Maharajadhiraja.
Deopara Prashasti
o The best-known Sena ruler who consolidated the kingdom. He
conquered Mithila/ portions of eastern Bihar.
o According to a tradition in Bengal, Ballal Sena’s kingdom consisted of
the five provinces of Banga, Barendra, Rar, Bagri (possibly a portion
of lower Bengal), and Mithila.
30
 o He made Nabadwip the capital as well. Ballal Sena is associated with
the revival of orthodox Hindu practices in Bengal, in particular with the
establishment of the reactionary tradition of Kulinism, although there is
no historical authenticity to these accounts.
o He wrote the Danasagara and Adbhutsagara.

Lakshamana Sena (c.1178−1207 o The military glory of the Sena dynasty reached its climax under
CE) Lakshmana Sena, who expanded the Sena Empire to Assam, Odisha,
Bihar, and probably to Varanasi as well.

o He also defeated Jayachandra of the Gahadavalas dynasty. Seven

copper-plate inscriptions pertaining to his reign describe him as a great
military commander.
o His victories over the kings of Gaur, Kamrupa, Kalinga, and Kashi
have been mentioned in these inscriptions. He is also said to have erected
pillars commemorating his military activities at Puri, Benares, and
Allahabad.
o He was the first Bengali ruler to extend his suzerainty beyond Benaras.
Some inscriptions found in Gaya shortly after his reign attest to his rule
in the Gaya region.
o On his accession, he assumed the title of Ariraja-MadanaSankara.
o Along with the traditional title of Gaureswara, he also assumed the title
Paramvaishnava in place of the earlier epithet of Paramaeshwara used
by both Vijay Sena and Ballal Sena.
o This indicates that Lakshmana Sena was a devout Vaishnav, unlike his
father and grandfather, who were proclaimed Shaivas.
o This is also supported by the fact that all the official proclamations from
then on started with an invocation to Narayana.
o Lakshmana Sena’s court was adorned by Jayadeva (the famous
Vaishanava poet of Bengal and the author of Geet Govinda), Dhoyi,
and Umapati Dhar, among other distinguished poets.

Jayadeva

31
 o His prime minister, Halayudha, was himself a great poet. The king
himself was a man of letters and according to tradition, completed the
work Adbhutsagara begun by his father.
o Towards the beginning of the 13th century (around c.1203–1204 CE),
one of the generals of Muhammad Ghori, Muhammad Bin Baktiyar
Khalji attacked Nabadwip and invaded Bengal and Bihar and annexed
them to the Islmaic empire.
o He captured north-west Bengal, although eastern Bengal remained
under Sena control. However, by the middle of 13th century, the Senas
were overthrown by the Deva dynasty.

ARAB CONQUEST OF SINDH-

Muhammad bin Qasim

➢ BACKGROUND-
o The Arabs made various attempts to establish their
control over Sindh. The first attempt was made in
636-637 AD under the guidance of Caliph Umar
but it failed.
o In 711 AD- Calpih Obedullah tried to conquer
Sindh but he was defeated by the King Dahir.
King Dahir
o In 712 AD – Caliph sent Muhammad bin Qasim.
He defeated Dahir, the ruler of Sind and killed him
in a well-contested battle. His capital Aror was
captured.
o Qasim extended his conquest further into Multan.
Qasim organized the administration of Sind. The
people of Sind were given the status of zimmis
(protected subjects). There was no interference in
the lives and property of the people. Soon, Qasim
was recalled by the Caliph.
o However, Sind continued to be under the Arabs. But
the Muslims could not expand their authority
further into India due to the presence of the
powerful Pratihara kingdom in western India.
Although the conquest of Sind did not lead to
further conquests immediately, it had resulted in the
diffusion of Indian culture abroad.
o Many Arab travelers visited Sind. Indian medicine
and astronomy were carried to far off lands
through the Arabs. The Indian numerals in the
Arabic form went to Europe through them. Since
Sind was a part of the Arab empire, the inflow of
Indian knowledge was great.
o The various theories were prevalent about the
causes that led to the Conquest of Sindh by the
Arabs. The real factors which motivated the Arabs
is to establish their control of Sindh was to spread
the Islam and enriched themselves by the plunder of
Sindh.
o The Arab Conquest of Sindh was a part of wider
design and aggressive policy followed by the
Arabs during that time.

➢ Effects-
o Political Consequences-

32
✓ Politically, the success of Arabs against the Sindh
was not of much significance for India as a whole.
The Arabs organised 3 provinces in the newly
conquered territories. These provinces were
Mansura (Modern Karachi), Alahfuja (Modern
Hyderabad in Sindh) and Multan.
✓ The direct political effect of Arab Conquest of
Sindh over India was insignificant but the system of
administration organized by the Arabs in Sindh
influenced the administrative policies of Turku-
Afghan rulers later on. These influences can be
seen in the form of soliciting support of important
groups of local population.
✓ The practise of maintaining administrative control
from urban centres also influenced the Turks. The
rules framed by the Arabs to settle the status of non-
Muslim population also influenced the Turkish
administration.
o Cultural consequences-
✓ The success of Arabs against the Sindh led to the
growth of composite culture. This culture was the
synthesis of Indian and Arabian practices. Both
the Indian and Arabian culture were benefitted from
mutual interaction.
✓ The conquest also sowed the seeds of Islam in
Sindh. The rise of Islam led to the decline of
Buddhism in Sindh.
✓ The Arab scholars learned Indian philosophy,
mathematics, astronomy, medicine etc. from the
Brahmanas and Buddhist scholars.
✓ The numerical system which European learned
from the Arabs were originally learned by the Arabs
from Indians. The Arabian numerical are still
known as Hindshahi.
INVASION OF TURKS-
➢ INVASION OF MAHMUD OF GHAZNI
o By the end of the ninth century A.D., the Abbasid
Caliphate declined. The Turkish governors
established independent kingdoms and the Caliph
became only a ritual authority. One among them
was Alptigin whose capital was Ghazni. His
successor and son-in-law Sabuktigin wanted to
conquer India from the north-west.
✓ The Arabs also gained the knowledge about the use
of Decimals and zero from Indians.
✓ The Arabs gave the name of Hindustan to India.
✓ The Arabs also leanred the game of chess and the
art of writing of Dastan.
✓ The Indian Art and Architectural practices also
influenced the Arabian Architecture. The Dome of
Temple became the Dome of Islamic Mosques and
Tombs.
✓ The Indian Towers of victory were accepted by
the Arabs and found manifestations in the form of
Minarestes of Mosque.
✓ The Indian Philosophy also influenced the
Arabians. The theory of Transmigratin of Soul
gave rise to the Mystical Sects in Islam.
✓ The Arabs gave an earliest script of the Sindh and
thus enriched Sindhi language and culture. The
various Indian books belonging to the fields of
Mathematics, Astronomy and Philosophy were
translated into Arabian language. The Books which
were translated into Arabian languages were
Surya-Siddhantha, Samhitas of Charak and
Sushruta, Panchatantra etc.
o Economic Effect-
✓ The Arabs encouraged Agriculture and introduced
the practise of dry of farming. This led to the
economic prosperity of general masses of Sindh.
✓ They developed the leather craft and brought a
technique of producing soft and smooth white
leather.
✓ These people also encouraged trade and
commerce which led to the growth of urbanisation
in India. The various Urban centres were emerged
in Sindh and associated area after the conquest of
Sindh by the Arabs.
o He succeeded in capturing Peshawar from
Jayapala. But his raids did not produce a lasting
effect. He was succeeded by his son, Mahmud
o Mahmud of Ghazni (A.D. 997-1030)-
✓ Mahmud is said to have made seventeen raids into
India. At that time, North India was divided into a
number of Hindu states. On the frontier of India,
33
 there existed the Hindu Shahi kingdom which
extended from the Punjab to Kabul.
✓ The other important kingdoms of north India were
Kannauj, Gujarat, Kashmir, Nepal, Malwa and
Bundelkhand. The initial raids were against the
Hindu Shahi kingdom in which its king Jayapala
was defeated in 1001.
✓ His successor Anandapala fought against Mahmud
but he was also defeated in the Battle of Waihind,
the Hind Shahi capital near Peshawar in 1008. In
this battle, Anandapala was supported by the rulers
of Kanauj and Rajasthan. As a result of his
victory at Waihind, Mahmud extended his rule over
most of the Punjab.
✓ The subsequent raids of Mahmud into India were
aimed at plundering the rich temples and cities of
northern India. In 1011, he raided Nagarkot in
the Punjab hills and Thaneshwar near Delhi. In
1018, Mahmud plundered the holy city of Mathura
and attacked Kannauj.
✓ The ruler of Kannauj, Rajyapala abandoned
Kannauj and later died. Mahmud returned via
Kalinjar with fabulous riches. His next important
raid was against Gujarat. In 1024, Mahmud
marched from Multan across Rajaputana, defeated
the Solanki King Bhimadeva I, plundered
Anhilwara and sacked the famous temple of
Somanatha.
✓ Then, he returned through the Sind desert. This
was his last campaign in India. Mahmud died in
1030 A.D.
➢ INVASION OF MUHAMMAD GHORI
o The Ghoris started as vassals of Ghazni but became
independent after the death of Mahmud. Taking
advantage of the decline of the Ghaznavid empire,
Muizzuddin Muhammad popularly known as
Muhammad Ghori brought Ghazni under their
control. Having made his position strong and secure
✓ Mahmud was not a mere raider and plunderer of
wealth. He built a wide empire from the Punjab in
the east to the Caspian Sea on the west and from
Samarkand in the north to Gujarat in the south.
✓ The Ghaznavid empire roughly included Persia,
Trans-oxyana, Afghanistan and Punjab. His
achievements were due to his leadership and
restless activity. Mahmud was considered a hero of
Islam by medieval historians.
✓ He also patronized art and literature. Firdausi
was the poet-laureate in the court of Mahmud. He
was the author of Shah Namah. Alberuni stayed in
Mahmud’s court and wrote the famous Kitab-i-
Hind, an account on India.
✓ His conquest of Punjab and Multan completely
changed the political situation in India. He paved
the way for the Turks and Afghans for further
conquests and make deeper incursions into the
Gangetic valley at any time. He drained the
resources of India by his repeated raids and
deprived India of her manpower.
✓ The exhaustion of India’s economic resources and
man power had its adverse effect on the political
future of India. The Hindu Shahi kingdom was
guarding the gates of India against foreign invaders.
Mahmud destroyed it and thus India’s frontiers
became defenceless. The inclusion of Punjab and
Afghanistan in Ghazni’s kingdom made the
subsequent Muslim conquests of India
comparatively easy.
at Ghazni, Muhammad Ghori turned his attention to
India.
o Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he wanted to conquer
India and extend his empire in this direction. In
1175, Muhammad Ghori captured Multan and
occupied whole of Sind in his subsequent
expeditions.
o In 1186 he attacked Punjab, captured it from
Khusru Malik and annexed it to his dominions.
The annexation of Punjab carried his dominion
eastward to the Sutlej and led his invasion of the
Chauhan kingdom.
o The Battle of Tarain (1191-1192)-
34
1) First Battle of Tarain (1191)
✓ Realising their grave
situation, the Hindu
princes of north India
formed a confederacy
under the command of
Prithiviraj Chauhan.
✓ Prithviraj rose to the
occasion, and defeated Ghori in the battle of
Tarain near Delhi in 1191 A.D. Muhammad Ghori
felt greatly humiliated by this defeat.
2) Second Battle of Tarain- (1192)
✓ In the ensuing Second Battle of Tarain in 1192,
Muhammad Ghori thoroughly routed the army of
Prithiviraj, who was captured and killed. The
second battle of Tarain was a decisive battle. It was
a major disaster for the Rajputs.
✓ Their political prestige suffered a serious setback.
The whole Chauhan kingdom now lay at the feet of
the invader.
3) Changes after Battle of Tarain-
✓ The first Muslim kingdom was thus firmly
established in India at Ajmer and a new era in the
history of India began.
✓ After his brilliant victory over Prithiviraj at Tarain,
Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni leaving
behind his favourite general Qutb-uddin Aibak to
make further conquests in India. Aibak consolidated
his position in India by occupying places like Delhi
and Meerut
✓ In 1193 he prepared the ground for another
invasion by Muhammad Ghori. This invasion was
directed against the Gahadavala ruler
Jayachandra. Muhammad routed Jayachandra’s
forces. Kannauj was occupied by the Muslims after
the battle of Chandawar. The Battles of Tarain
and Chandawar contributed to the establishment
of Turkish rule in India.
➢ Effect/Significance of Turkish invasion and rule
in India- The establishment of Turkish rule in India
was of considerable significance for the Indian
socio-cultural, economic, and political life-
o Impact on Politico-Administrative life-
✓ The Turkish rulers established centralised
administrative authority by uprooting the elements
of feudal polity.
✓ They implemented portfolio system of
administration.
✓ Iqta system was also introduced by Turks in India.
This system was based on the concept of
distribution of conquered among the Nobles.
✓ The Iqtadars looked after the administrative,
land-revenue and military responsibilities.
✓ The Turks also introduced Shariat in India.
o Impact on Military system-
✓ The military force of India also underwent a no. of
radical changes after the establishment of Turkish
rule in India.
✓ The fighting was no more of any particular social
groups.
✓ The Turks recruited persons from any group into the
Army. So multi-class and multi-racial military
force emerged.
✓ The Turks relied more on cavalry and the
prominent force of Elephant declined.
o Impact on socio-cultural life-
✓ The Turks gave birth to a syncretic Indo-Islamic
Culture. The egalitarian character of Islam
influenced the leaders of Bhakti movement.
✓ A no. of Sufi saints came to India along with the
Turkish invaders. The arrival gave birth to a liberal
Sufi movement in India.
✓ A no. of evils of Indian Society penetrated into
Islamic system. A no of castes and sub-castes
emerged amongst the Mulsim as well.
✓ The Turks brought Persian language and their
patronage to Persian adversely affected the
popularity of Sanskrit which led to the decline of
Sanskrit language in India.
✓ They also brought Islamic Architecture in India.
This architecture was classified by the use of
Arches, minarets and domes as a post to the use
of columns and beans in Indian architecture. An
amalgamation of Islamic Arcucate style and Indian
Trabeate style gave birth to Indio-Islamic
Architecture.
o Impact on Economic life-
✓ The Turks brought a no. of new technologies which
revolutionised the Indian production system.
✓ The Persian wheel (Sakiya) brought by the Turks
revolutionsed the water-lifting system in India.
✓ They also introduced a gear mechanism which
enabled the more effective use of animal power.
✓ The Turks alo brought paper manufacturing
technique.
✓ These people also introduced the technique of book
binding which gave birth to new occupation.
✓ The Spinning wheel brought by the Turks
revolutionize the Textile Industry.
✓ These invaders also brought the technique of
printing Calicoes.
✓ They also introduced a technique of Metal plating.
Before an arrival of Turks, Indian used Copper and
Brass utensils for having food. The storge of food
for comparatively longer time used to make it
poisonous. This difficulty was sorted by putting a
thin layer of Tin over the Copper and Brass utensils.
✓ The Turks also introduced a no. of techniques
associated with Architecture. They started using
35
 lime mortar as a cementing material. Before this,
mud mortar was used in India.
CAUSES FOR THE FAILURE OF THE
HINDU STATES
o Lack of Unity- The most important cause was that
they lacked unity. They were divided by factions.
The Rajput princes exhausted one another by their
mutual conflicts. For example, Tripartite
struggle between Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas and
Palas ended the strong empires in India.
o Outdated Military methods- Secondly, many
Hindu states were declining in power. Their
military methods were out of date and far inferior
to those of Muslims. Indians continued to rely on
elephants while the Muslims possessed quick-
moving cavalry.
o Lack of effective and visionary leadership-
✓ Indian leaders lacked effective and visionary
leadership skills. They failed to understand the
nature and character of Arab and Turkish
Invasion.
✓ After the Arab conquest of Sindh and continouos
invasion of Mahmud Ghazni did not make Indian
rulers to being unite and secured their land. But
instead fought with each other which makes the way
easier for invasion of Arabs and Turks.
✓ The rulers like Prithvi Raj Chauhan represented
an exception who fought bravely against the
Invasion of Muhammad Ghori. In this struggle also,
some Indian rulers supported Ghori and many not
supported the Prithviraj Chauhan which ultimately
led to the defeat of Prithviraj by the Ghori.
o Economic Factors-
✓ The economic weakness of Rajput Hindu rulers also
played an important role in their defeat at the hands
of Turks.
✓ The Rajput economy was mainly depended upon
Agriculture whereas Trade and Commerce, Arts
and Crafts were in an underdeveloped state.
✓ The Rajput Rulers failed to undertake any effective
measure for the progress of secondary economic
activities. This led to the ignorance of Indian Rajput
rulers from the world happenings in contemporary
time which make them unaware about the nature
and character of Turks threat in India.
✓ Also, the weak economic base adversely affected
the politico-administrative strength of Rajputs.
Because of this they failed to put forward a serious
challenge in front of Turks.
o Other factors- The religious zeal and greed of
Turks for the greater wealth of India provided
stimulus to them. Among the Hindus, the duty of
fighting was confined to a particular class, the
Kshatriyas. Moreover, the Hindus were always on
the defensive, which was always a weak position.
36
 CHAPTER-2

THE DELHI SULTANATE

TOPICS TO BE COVERED
1. Slave Dynasty/Mameluk Sultans 1. Bahlol Lodhi (1451 -1489)
1. Qutub -ud -din -Aibak (1206-1210) 2. Sikander Lodhi (1489–1517)
2. Iltutmish (1210 -36) 3. Ibrahim Lodhi (1517- 26)
3. Raziya Sultan (1236 -39) 6. Administration under Sultanate Period
4. Balban (1566- 86) o The Sultan
2. Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320) o Central Administration
1. Jalauddin Khalji o Provincial government
2. Alauddin Khalji Economy
▪ Administration under o Peasants and Rural Gentry
Alauddin Khalji o Trade, Industry and the Merchants
1. Military Reforms Social System
2. Market Reform o Religious Freedom under the Sultanate
3. Land-Revenue o Art and Architecture
Administration o Music
3. Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (1316 -20)
3. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 -1414)
1. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-25)
2. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-51)
▪ 5 major experiments done by
Muhammad bin Tughlaq
1. Transfer of capital
2. Introduction of the
"token currency".
3. Scheme to extend and
improve cultivation in
doab
4. The Khurasan
Expedition
5. The Qarachil
Expeditions (The
Qarachil expedition
(1333) took placed
soon after the
Khurasan expedition.)
3. Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88)
4. Nasiruddin Mohammad (1390-98)
5. Daulat Khan
4. Saiyyad Dynasty (1414 -51)
1. Khizr Khan (1414-21)
2. Mubarak Shah (1421 -33)
3. Muhammad Shah (1434 -43)
4. Alauddin Alam Shah (1443 -51)
5. Lodhi Dynasty (1451- 1526)

37
THE DELHI SULTANATE 3. Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88)
4. Nasiruddin Mohammad (1390-98)
5. Daulat Khan

Saiyyad Dynasty (1414 -51)

1. Khizr Khan (1414-21)

2. Mubarak Shah (1421 -33)
3. Muhammad Shah (1434 -43)
4. Alauddin Alam Shah (1443 -51)

Lodhi Dynasty (1451- 1526)

1. Bahlol Lodhi (1451 -1489)

2. Sikander Lodhi (1489–1517)
3. Ibrahim Lodhi (1517- 26)
Siri Fort, in the city of New Delhi, was built during the
rule of Alauddin Khalji , the ruler of the Delhi Sultanate,
to defend the city from the onslaught of the Mongols.

• The invasions by Mahmud of Ghazni and Mohd.

Ghori into India resulted in the establishment of the
Delhi Sultanate.
• Five different dynasties are collectively called as
the Delhi Sultanate
1. Slave / ILBARI (1206-1290)
2. Khalji (1290-1320)
3. Tughlaq (1320-1413)
4. Saiyyad (1414-1451)
5. Lodhis (1451-1526)

Slave Dynasty/Mameluk Sultans

1. Qutub -ud -din -Aibak (1206-1210)

2. Iltutmish (1210 -36)
3. Raziya Sultan (1236 -39)
4. Balban (1566- 86)

Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320)

1. Jalauddin Khalji
2. Alauddin Khalji
o Administration under Alauddin Khalji
▪ Military Reforms Administration under the Sultanate Period
▪ Market Reform
▪ Land-Revenue Administration 1. The Sultan
3. Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (1316 -20) 2. Central Administration
3. Provincial Government
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 -1414)
Economy under the Sultanate Period
1. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-25)
2. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-51) 1. Peasants and Rural Gentry

38
 2. Trade, Industry, and the Merchants. Qutbuddin Bakthiyar Kaki, which was completed
by Iltutmish later.
Social System under the Sultanate Period • He died in 1210 CE, while playing Chaugan (horse
polo).
1. Religious Freedom under the Sultanate
2. Art and Architecture
3. Music
4. Literature

SLAVE DYNASTY (MAMELUK SULTANS)

• Slave Dynasty/ILBARY/The Mameluk Sultans

(1206–1290 CE)
• Mameluk: a Arabic word meaning “owned", this
term was used for those category of slaves who
were very important for military service.
• Three dynasties were established during this period
1. Qutbi dynasty (1206–1211) founded by
Qutbuddin Aibak. Adhai Din ka Jhopra built by Qutub-ud-din at Ajmer
2. First ILBARI dynasty (1211–1266) founded by
Iltutmish.
3. Second ILBARI dynasty (1266–1290) founded
by Balban.

➢ QUTUB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206–10)

• Founder of slave dynasty.

• He was a Turkish slave of Muhammad Ghori, who
played an important role in the expansion of the
Turkish Sultanate in India after the Battle of Tarain
and was made the governor of Ghori’s Indian
possessions.
• He raised a standing army and establish his hold
over north India even during the lifetime of Ghori.
• Legally, a slave could not be a sovereign. Therefore, Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque
after some time, Qutub-ud-din Aibak received a
deed of manumission (freeing him from his slave ➢ ILTUTMISH (1210–1236)
status) and a chatr from Sultan of Ghurid Empire,
recognizing his position as a sovereign. This finally Real founder of Turkish rule in India. He belonged to
ended the legal claim of Ghurid Empire over the Ilbari tribe and hence his dynasty is known as Ilbari
Turkish conquest in Hindustan. dynasty.
• He assumed the title of "Sultan" and made Lahore
his capital. His brief reign is considered significant Consolidation of Delhi Sultanate
because it marked the rise of the first independent
Turkish ruler in India. • After Muhammad Ghori’s death, his favourite
• He did not issue any coins. slave, Yalduz, succeeded him at Ghazni while the
• He was known as "Lakh Baksh" or giver of lakhs Turkish rule in Hindustan was divided into four
for his magnanimity. portions:
• He built first mosque in India- Quwwat-ul-Islam o Multan and Uchch and up to the sea in Sindh
(Delhi). was under the control of Qubacha, a slave
• He started the construction of the Qutub Minar in officer of Ghori.
the memory of the famous Sufi saint, Khwaja

39
 o Lahore which was coveted by Yalduz,
Qubacha, and Iltutmish had passed under the
control of one or the other according to
circumstances.
o Delhi under control of Iltutmish.
o Lakhnauti under the control of the Khalji
maliks.
• Aibak appointed him as the Iqtadar of Gwalior.
• He disposed of Aram Shah (son of Qutbuddin
Aibak) and become the Sultan with the name of
Shamsuddin.
• He shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi. He
made Delhi Sultanate an independent entity.
o It was under Iltutmish that the Delhi Sultanate
can be called a truly independent state, not tied
up to a foreign sovereign living at Ghazni or
Ghur.
o He re-established the territorial integrity of the
Delhi Sultanate created by Muhammad and
which was in danger of being split up.
o He defeated efforts of ambitious rivals such as
Yalduz and Qubacha to divide the Sultanate.
o He had realised early in his age that his policy
must be one of steady consolidation rather than
rapid expansion.
• With his diplomatic skills, he prevented Mongol
attack and saved India from the wrath of Chengiz
Khan.
• He led an expedition against the Chalukyas of
Gujarat, but it was not successful.
• He divided his empire into Iqtas (assignment of
land in lieu of salary).
o Every Iqtadars had to maintain law and order
and collect revenue. After deducting own salary
and expenses, they had to send the surplus to
central government.
o Iqtadars were transferable.
• Organized turkan-i-chahalgani, a new class of
ruling elite of forty powerful military leaders. These
were Turkish amirs (nobles) who advised and
helped the Sultan in administering the Sultanate.
o After the death of Iltutmish, this group assumed
great power in its hands. For a few years they
decided on the selection of Sultans one after the
other. The group was finally eliminated by
Balban.
• His authority was recognized by the Abbasid
Caliph of Baghdad in 1229 as he received the
mansur (the letter of recognition), by which he
became the legal sovereign ruler of India.
• He issued for the first time purely Arabic coinage of
silver tanka weighing 175 grams, which remains the
basis of the modern rupee and copper Jital.
• He is considered the father of tomb building
(Sultangarhi in Delhi).
• He completed the construction of the Qutab Minar
at Delhi, the tallest stone tower in India.
• He can be credited with making Delhi the cultural
centre of Turkish rule in India. His presence at
Delhi was a major factor in this as also the fact that
Delhi became the refuge for nobles, bureaucrats,
scholars, poets and religious divines from Central
Asia to escape the Mongol depredations.
• By his military prowess, pleasing manners and
liberality, he earned the deep respect and
attachment of the people of Delhi to his family, in
consequence of which the right of his children to
succeed him was accepted.
o Thus, he set up first hereditary sovereignty at
Delhi. However, his children were not
successful because he had not been able to
create a well-knit and compact state.
o He declared his daughter Razia as successor.
• He patronised Minhaj-i-Siraj (contemporary
historian) who wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasiri.
• Expansion of Delhi Sultanate:
o He captured Ranthambor from the Chauhan
successors of Prithvi Raj. This was deemed to
be a great success because Ranthambor was
considered an impregnable fortress.
o The Paramar ruler of Gwalior were forced to
evacuate the Gwalior fort.
o He raided Bhilsa and Ujjain in Malwa. The
famous temple of Mahakal at Ujjain was
destroyed, and rich plunder obtained. But little
effort was made to extend Turkish dominion
over the area.
➢ ILTUTMISH AS A RULER
• Re-established the territorial integrity of the Delhi
Sultanate.
• Made Delhi Sultanate an independent entity.
• Made Delhi as the cultural centre.
• Earned deep respect of the people of Delhi.
➢ RAZIA SULTAN (1236–1239)
• First and only female Muslim ruler of medieval
India.
• She discarded female apparel and purdah.
• Her attempts to create a counter nobility of non-
Turks invited the wrath of the Turkish amirs.
Conspiracy against Razia
Lahore Rebellion
40
• The first rebellion was at Lahore by its Governor,
Kabir Khan.
• She marched to Lahore and forced Kabir khan to
submit. Then, she appointed him as Iqtadar of
Multan in place of Lahore.
Tabarhinda Rebellion
• She marched against Altunia, but did not know that
he was in touch with a powerful group of Turkish
nobles at Delhi, who wanted to overthrow her in
order to clear their own way to power.
• When she reached Tabarhinda, the Turkish nobles
rose in revolt.
➢ BALBAN (1266–1286)
• He ruled in an autocratic manner and worked hard
to elevate the position of the Sultan. He was himself
one of the Chilalgani Turks under Iltutmish.
• He followed the Iranian theory of kingship.
According to the Iranian theory, the king was divine
or semi-divine in character, and answerable to God,
not to any set of intermediaries, i.e. religious
figures. He said sultan was the"shadow of
God"(zil-i-ilahi).
• He knew that the real threat to the monarchy was
from the nobles called the Forty.
o He got every member of Iltutumish's family
killed and gave a deadly blow to Chahalgani.
• He was not prepared to share power with anyone,
not even with the members of his family, and
poisoned his cousin Sher Khan for opposing him.
• To get the Nobles support, he declared that he
would not give any post in the government or an
iqta, or a post of authority in the local
administration to any person belonging to a low or
ignoble family. These included posts of accountant
(khwaja or musharif).
• He was deeply racist and excluded non-Turks from
administration. Indian Muslims were not given
important posts in the government.
• He introduced rigorous court discipline and new
customs such as sijada (prostration) and paibos
(kissing the Sultan ‘s feet) to prove his superiority
over the nobles.
• He introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz.
• He organized a strong centralized army, both to deal
with internal disturbances and to repel the Mongols.
o Soldiers had been given villages in the doab as
iqta in lieu of salary.
o He attached great importance to horses and
elephants.
▪ Balban had a ready supply of elephants from
Bengal and Assam.
• He separated the Diwan-i-unzarat (Finance
Department) from the Diwan-i-Arz (Military
Department).
• The disturbances in Mewat, Doab, Awadh, and
Katihar were ruthlessly suppressed. He secured
control over Ajmer and Nagaur in eastern
Rajputana, but his attempts to capture Ranthambore
and Gwalior failed.
• Instead of expanding his kingdom, Balban paid
more attention to the restoration of law and order.
He was not engaged in any expansionist activities
due to the fear of the Mongols.
• Balban gave great emphasis on justice. He
developed an efficient spy system appointed spies
(barids) in all the cities, districts and iqtas to keep
himself informed of the doings of the officials, and
to ensure that no acts of oppression or high-
handedness was perpetrated by them on anyone,
including their slaves and domestic servants.
• He patronized the men of letters, Amir Khusrau.
• When the Mongols reappeared in the north-West,
Balban sent his son, Prince Mahmud, against them.
But the prince (Khan-i-Shahid) was killed in the
battle and his death was a smashing blow to Balban.
He died in 1287 CE.
• Balban was extremely harsh when he found any
rebelliousness on the part of the people.
o When the Meos (Muslim Rajput community of
North-West India) around Delhi affecting the
trade with their attacks, Balban slaughtered
many Meos, built a fort, and established many
thanas (military outposts) and assigned them to
Afghans. Thus, Delhi was freed from the fear of
the Meos.
• To deal with robbers and dacoits in the Doab, strong
forts were established, and Afghans and other
Muslims with tax-free lands were allowed to settle
there to maintain law and order. Thus, the roads
were freed for the traders and banjaras. The prices
of cattles and domestic animals, including slaves,
fell at Delhi.
41
• These harsh methods of Balban have been called by
some modern historians a policy of "blood and
iron".
KHALJI DYNASTY (1290–1320)
• Many non-Turks, such as the Khaljis, had come to
India at the time of the Ghurid invasion. They had
never received sufficient recognition in Delhi, and
had to move to Bengal and Bihar for an opportunity
for advancement. They had also found employment
as soldiers, many of them being posted in the north
west to meet the Mongol challenge.
• After the death of Balban in 1286, there was
confusion in Delhi. Balban’s chosen successor,
Prince Muhammad, had died earlier in a battle with
the Mongols.
• A second son, Bughra Khan, preferred to rule over
Bengal and Bihar. Hence a grandson of Balban was
installed in Delhi. But he was too young and
inexperienced to cope with the situation.
• For these reasons, a group of Khalji nobles led by
Jalaluddin Khalji, who had been the warden of the
marches in the north-west and had fought against
the Mongols, overthrew the incompetent successors
of Balban in 1290.
• The Khalji rebellion was welcomed by the non-
Turkish sections of nobility.
o During the time of Balban, there had been a
good deal of resentment and opposition at the
attempt of the Turkish nobles to monopolize
high offices.
o Khaljis did not exclude the Turks from high
offices, but the rise of the Khalji to power
ended the Turkish monopoly of high offices.
• With the accession of the Khaljis, the empire passed
from the hands of the so-called high-born Turks.
Now, it broadened the social base of the ruling
class.
➢ JALAUDDIN KHALJI (1290–1296)
• He laid the foundation of the Khalji dynasty. He
ruled only for a brief period of six years. He tried to
mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Balban’s rule.
• He was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate to
clearly put forward the view that state should be
based on the willing support of the governed, and
since the large majority of the people in India were
Hindus, the state in India could not be truly Islamic
state.
• He was the first Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate to
have a benevolent attitude towards Hindus.
• He tried to win the goodwill of the nobility by
adopting policy of tolerance. He avoided harsh
punishments.
• The Delhi Sultanate faced numerous internal and
external foes, and fir this reason there was a sense
of insecurity.
• Jalaluddin ‘s policy was revered by Alauddin who
awarded drastic punishments to all those who
oppose him.
➢ ALAUDDIN KHALJI (1296–1316)
• He came to the throne by treacherously murdering
his uncle and father-in-law, Jalaluddin Khalji.
o As the governor of the Awadh, Alauddin had
accumulated a vast treasure by invading Deogir
in the Deccan. After murdering his uncle, he
won over most of the nobles and soldiers to his
side by a lavish use of gold.
• To overawe his opponents, he adopted methods of
utmost severity and ruthlessness.
• He decided to curb the powers of the nobles and the
interference of the ulemas in the matters of the state.
He framed a series of regulations to prevent nobles
from conspiring against him.
o They were forbidden to hold banquets or
festivities, or to form marriage alliances
without the permission of the sultan.
o To discourage festive parties, he banned use of
wines and intoxicants.
o He also instituted a spy service to inform the
Sultan of all that the nobles said and did.
o He confiscated the properties of the nobles. The
intelligence system was reorganised and all the
secret activities of the nobles were immediately
reported to Sultan.
42
• He established a huge permanent standing army to
satisfy his ambition of conquest and to protect
country from Mongol invasion.
• The military conquest of Alauddin Khalji include
his expedition against Gujarat, Rajputana, and the
Deccan.
• Although the Sultan was illiterate, he patronised
poets like Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlvi.
• He built famous gateway known as Alai Darwaza,
Hauz Khas, Alai Minar, Jamait Khana Mosque.
• He adopted the title of Sikander-i-Azam and gave
Amir Khusrau the title of Tuti-i-Hind (Parrot of
India).
• He included non-Turks in his service.
• He was the first ruler to fix land revenue in cash.
• His theory of kinship was secular and he
proclaimed, "Kingship knows no Kinship".
• He denied the suzerainty of the Caliph.
There was no any open resentment voiced against him
by the Muslim nobles or by the population of Delhi. It
showed that the Muslims of Delhi and the neighbouring
areas were no longer swayed by racist considerations
and were prepared to obey anyone irrespective of his
family or racial background. This helped in broadening
the social base of the nobility still further.
He made nobles completely subservient to the crown.
No further rebellions took place during his lifetime. But,
in long run, this method proved harmful to the dynasty.
The old nobility was destroyed, and the new nobility
was taught to accept anyone who could ascend to the
throne of Delhi. This became apparent after Alauddin
Khalji’s death in 1316. His favourite, Malik Kafur,
raised a minor son of Alauddin to the throne and
imprisoned or blinded his other sons, without
encountering any opposition from the nobles. Malik
Kafur was killed by the palace guards, and a Hindu
convert, Khusrau, ascended to the throne. In 1320, a
group of officers led by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq raised the
banner of revolt. They broke out into open rebellion. In
a hard-fought battle outside the capital, Khusrau was
defeated and killed.
Administration of Alauddin Khalji
Military Reforms
• He was the first Sultan to have a large permanent
standing army and paid them in cash.
• An innovate Chehra and Dagh System was
introduced by him wherein Chehra (detailed
description of each soldier) and Dagh (branding of
horses) was maintained.
Market Reforms
• Since Alauddin wanted to maintain a large army, he
therefore lowered and fixed the price of the
commodities of daily use.
• He established four separate markets in Delhi
1. Grain market (Mandi) for grain.
2. Cloth and groceries market (Sarai Adl) for
cloth, sugar, dried fruits, butter and oil.
3. Market for horses, slaves, cattle, etc.
4. Market for miscellaneous commodities.
• Each market was under the control of a
superintendent called Shahna-i-Mandi who was
assisted by an intelligence officer.
• No hoarding was allowed and even during the
famine the same price was maintained.
• Every merchant was registered under the Market
Department.
• The sale of liquor and intoxicants was prohibited,
and gambling too was banned.
Land Revenue Administration
• He was the first Sultan of Delhi who ordered for the
measurement of land.
• Land revenue was collected in cash to enable Sultan
to pay the soldiers in cash.
• The state officials measured the cultivated land and
fixed land revenue.
• Biswa was the standard unit of measurement.
• State demanded one-fifth of the produce and along
with-it house tax (Grahi) and pasture tax (Chari)
were imposed, but headmen cess (Kismat-i-Khuri)
was abolished.
• He centralised administration and even confiscated
religious endowments and free lands (Inam and
Wakt).
➢ QUTBUDDIN MUBARAK SHAH (1316–1320)
• He was the son of Alauddin who declared himself
Caliph.
• He cancelled the harsh regulations of his father.
• He was not able to run the administration smoothly.
• He was murdered and Nasiruddin Khusrau Shah
ascended the throne.
43
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320–1414)
• They are also known as the Quaraunah Turks as
the father of Ghazi Malik was a Quaraunah Turk in
origin.
• The Tughluqs provided three competent rulers--
Ghiyasuddin, his son Muhammad bin Tughlaq
(1324-51), and his nephew Firuz Shah Tughlaq
(1351-88).
o The first two of these sultans ruled over an
empire which comprised almost the entire
country.
o The empire of Firuz was smaller but even then,
it was almost as large as that ruled over by
Alauddin Khalji.
• After the death of Firuz, the Delhi Sultanate
disintegrated, and north India was divided into a
series of small states.
• Although the Tughlaq continued to rule till 1412,
the invasion of Delhi by Timur in 1398 may be said
to mark the end of the Tughlaq empire.
➢ GHIYASUDDIN TUGHLAQ (1320–25)
• He was the founder of Tughlaq dynasty and the first
Sultan to take the title of Ghazi/Slayer of Infidels.
• He was the first sultan to start irrigation works.
• He built a strong fort called Tughlaqabad near
Delhi.
• He had a troublesome relationship with the Sufi
saint, Sheikh Nizamuddin Aulia.
• He sent his son, Jauna Khan/Mohammad bin
Tughlaq to re-establish his authority in Warangal
(Kakatiyas) and Madurai (Pandayas).
➢ MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ (1325–51)
• Next to Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad bin Tughlaq
(1324-51) is best remembered as a ruler who
undertook a number of bold experiments and
showed a keen interest in agriculture.
• He was deeply read in religion and philosophy and
had a critical and open mind. He conversed not only
with the Muslim mystic, but also with the Hindu
Yogis and Jain saints such as Jinaprabha Suri. He
was also prepared to give high offices to people
based on merit, irrespective of whether they
belonged to noble families or not.
o This was not liked by many orthodox
theologians who accused him of being a
'rationalist'.
• Unfortunately, he was inclined to be hasty and
impatient. That is why so many of these
experiments failed and he has been dubbed an "ill
starred idealist".
• Although the share of the state remained half as in
the time of Alauddin, it was fixed arbitrarily, not
based on actual produce. He increased the land
revenue on the farmers of doab (half of the
produce).
• He was very tolerant in religious matters. The
nobility of Muhammad Tughlaq consisted of many
divergent sections.
• During his reign, the famous traveller Ibn Batuta
came to India in 1334. He acted as a Qazi at Delhi
for eight years.
• He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans
(loans for cultivation) were given to the farmer to
buy seed and to extend cultivation. This experiment
was further continued by Firoz Tughlaq.
• He did not believe in Alauddin Khalji’s policy of
trying to reduce the khuts and muqaddams to the
position of ordinary cultivators.
• He built the fort of Adilabad and the city of
Jahanpanah.
• During his last days, the whole of South India
became independent and three major states were
emerged
o Vijayanagar kingdom--Harihara and Bukka
(1336 CE)
o Bahmani Kingdom (Deccan)--Hasan Gangu
(1347 CE)
o Sultanate of Madurai--Hasan Shah
5 major experiments done by Muhammad bin
Tughlaq
1. Transfer of capital
o The most controversial step which he
undertook soon after his accession was the so-
called transfer his capital from Delhi to Deogir
(Daulatabad) to have better administration.
o Deogir had been a base for the expansion of
Turkish rule in south India. The attempt to bring
the entire south India under the direct control of
Delhi had led to serious political difficulties.
o It appears that the sultan wanted to make Deogir
a second capital so that he might be able to
control south India better.
o For this purpose, he ordered many of the
officers and leading men, including many Sufi
saints, to shift to Deogir which was renamed
Daulatabad. No attempt was made to shift the
rest of the population. Delhi remained a large
and populous city in the absence of the Sultan.
44
 o Though Muhammad Tughlaq had built a road
from Delhi to Daulatabad and set up rest houses
on the way to help the travellers, Daulatabad
was more than 1500 km away. Many people
died due to the rigours of the journey and the
heat since this movement took place during the
summer season. Many of those who reached
Daulatabad felt homesick. Hence, there was a
good deal of discontent.
o The people of the area were restive under what
they felt was an alien rule. A number of Muslim
nobles had tried to take advantage of this
situation to proclaim their independence. The
most serious rebellion was that of a cousin of
Muhammad Tughlaq, Gurshasp, against whom
the sultan had to proceed personally.
o After a couple of years, Muhammad Tughlaq
decided to abandon Daulatabad, largely
because he soon found that just as he could not
control the south from Delhi, he could not
control north India from Daulatabad.
o Lack of water supply in Deogir was also one of
the reasons of shifting back the capital to Delhi.
Though the attempt to make Deogir a second
capital failed, the exodus did have several long-
range benefits. It helped in bringing north and
south India closer together by improving
communications. Many people, including
religious divines who had gone to
Daulatabad, settled down there. They became
the means of spreading in the Deccan the
cultural, religious and social ideas which the
Turks had brought with them to north India.
This resulted in a new process of cultural
interaction between north and south India, as
well as in south India itself.
2. Introduction of the "token currency".
o There was a shortage of silver in the world in
the 14th century. Moreover, Qublai Khan of
China had already successfully experienced
with a token currency. A Mongol ruler of Iran,
Ghazan Khan, had also experimented with it.
o Muhammad Tughlaq decided to introduce a
bronze coin which was to have the same value
as the silver tanka.
o The idea of token currency was a new one in
India, and it was difficult to induce the traders
as well as the common man to accept it.
o Muhammad Tughlaq might still have been
successful if the government had been able to
prevent people from forging the new coins. The
government was not able to do so, and soon the
new coins began to be greatly devalued in the
markets. Finally, he decided to withdraw the
token currency.
3. Scheme to extend and improve cultivation in doab.
o He set up a separate department called diwan-i-
amir-i-kohi.
o The area was divided into development blocs
headed by an official whose job was to extend
cultivation by giving loans to the cultivators
and to induce them to cultivate superior crops
(wheat in the place of barley, sugarcane in place
of wheat, grapes and dates in place of
sugarcane, etc).
o The scheme failed largely because of men
chosen for the purpose proved to be
inexperienced and dishonest. The large sums of
money advanced for the project could not be
recovered.
4. The Khurasan Expedition
o A far more serious problem with which
Muhammad bin Tughlaq had to contend was
that of security of the frontiers.
o In the early years of Muhammad Tughlaq's
reign, the Mongols under their Tarmashrin
burst into Sindh, and a force reached up to
Meerut, about 65 km from Delhi. Muhammad
Tughlaq not only defeated the Mongols in a
battle near Jhelum, but also occupied Kalanaur
and for some time his power extended up to
Peshawar beyond the Indus.
o Ghur, Ghazni, Afghanistan etc. which provided
access to India was a bone of contention
between the Muhammad Tughlaq and the
Mongols. To realise his objective to occupy
these areas, he invited and gave lavish grants to
some of the leading men of those areas.
▪ He raise a large army of 370000 soldiers and
they were paid by the grant of iqtas. But no
care was taken about enforcing the brand of
the horses or the description of soldiers.
They were kept idle for a year, and then
dispersed since it was not possible to pay
them any longer.
o After a year and following the failure of the
experiment of establishing a token currency, the
army was disbanded.
o Meanwhile, the situation in Central Asia
changed rapidly. In due course, Timur united
the entire area under his control and posed a
fresh threat to India.
45
5. The Qarachil Expeditions (The Qarachil expedition
(1333) took placed soon after the Khurasan
expedition.)
o This expedition was launched in the Kumaon
hills in the Himalayas, allegedly to counter
Chinese incursions.
o After success, the armies went too far into the
inhospitable region, and suffered a disaster.
Almost the entire army of 10,000 was
destroyed.
o This expedition was not a total failure because
after some time, the ruler of the area patched up
a treaty with Muhammad bin Tughlaq, agreeing
to pay him a certain sum of money for the use
of the territory lying at the foot hills. He also
accepted the sultan’s overlord ship.
number of heretical Muslim sects (Shia Muslims
and Sufis).
• He had great regard for Caliph of Egypt.
• He was the first Sultan to impose Sharb (irrigation
tax). He built number of canals and also set up a
separate department of public works.
• He not only revived the Iqtadari system was but also
made it hereditary. Soldiers were given land
assignments (jagir system), and even their
recruitment was made hereditary.

• About 300 new towns were built during his reign.

The famous among them was Firozabad near Red
Fort in Delhi, now called Firoz Shah Kotla, Hisar,
Jaunpur.
• He also developed royal factories called karkhanas
Jahanpanah was the fourth medieval city of Delhi in which thousands of slaves employed, organized
established in 1326–1327 by Muhammad bin Tughlaq
(1321–51), of the Delhi Sultanate. To address the
constant threat of the Mongols, Tughlaq built the
fortified city of Jahanpanah (meaning in
Persian:"Refuge of the World".

➢ FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351–1388)

• He was chosen as Sultan by the nobles. So, his

policy aimed to appease the nobles, the army and
theologians.
• He appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu
Brahmin convert, as Wazir (prime minister).
• Instead of reasserting his authority over the Deccan
and south India, he tried to safeguard his authority
over north India.
• He led two unsuccessful campaigns to Bengal,
which, as a result, became free from the control of
Delhi Sultanate
• He strictly followed the advice of the ulemas in
running the administration.
• He treated Hindus as second grade citizens and
adopted a very harsh attitude towards them.
• He also prohibited Muslim women from going to
worship at the grave of saints and also persecuted a
under the Diwan-i-Bandagan (department of
slaves). The officer-in-charge was the Wakil-i-dar.
• He introduced two new coins
1. Adha (50% Jital)
2. Bitch (23% Jital)
• Kharaj: 10% of produce
• Zakat: Alms for Muslims
• Khams: 20% spoils of war
• A new department called Diwan-i-Khairat
(Department of Charity) was created to take care of
orphans and widows.

46
• He patronized scholars like Barani and Khwajja
Abdul Malik Islami.
• Old monuments like the Jama Masjid and the Qutab
Minar were repaired. Ashokan pillars from Topara
and Meerut were brought to Delhi.
➢ NASIRUDDIN MUHAMMAD (1390–1398)
• Timur invaded India in 1398 CE. When he entered
Delhi, there was no opposition and he sacked Delhi
for three days murdering thousands of people and
looting enormous wealth.
• Daulat Khan: He was defeated by Khizr Khan who
founded the Saiyyad Dynasty.
SAIYYAD DYNASTY (1414–51 CE)
➢ KHIZR KHAN (1414–21)
• Before his departure from India, Timur appointed
Khizr Khan as the governor of Multan. He captured
Delhi and founded the Sayyid dynasty in 1414.
• He did not assume the title of Sultan.
• Coins were struck and khutba was read in name of
Timur.
➢ MUBARAK SHAH (1421–33 CE)
• He was son of Khizr Khan.
➢ MUHAMMAD SHAH (1434–43)
• He was always busy acting against conspirators and
gradually lost control over his nobles.
➢ ALAUDDIN ALAM SHAH (1443–51)
• He proved to be an incompetent Sultan.
• His Wazir, Hamid Khan, invited Bahlol Lodhi to
take charge of the army and after realising that it
would be difficult to continue as Sultan, he left for
Badaun.
LODHI DYNASTY (1451–1526 CE)
• The Lodhis were the last ruling family of the
Sultanate period and the first to be headed by the
Afghans.
➢ BAHLOL LODHI (1451–89 CE)
• He was a capable general. He was aware of the fact
that to establish control over the Sultanate, he would
require help of Afghan nobles. He publically
declare that he considered himself one of the
Afghan peers and not the king.
• He did not sit on the throne, nor did he insist on his
nobles standing in his court. This policy worked
well throughout his long reign and he did not face
any trouble from his powerful Afghan nobles.
• He failed to re-occupy Bengal, Gujarat, and the
Deccan.
➢ SIKANDER LODHI (1489–1517)
• He was the greatest and noblest of the three Lodhi
rulers.
• He brought the whole of Bihar under his control and
defeated many Rajput chiefs.
• He was a good administrator.
• Roads were laid and many irrigational facilities
were provided for the benefit of the peasantry.
• He introduced a new measurement yardstick, the
Gazz-i-Sikandari, and a system of auditing of
accounts.
• He was a bigot and showed little tolerance towards
the non-Muslims. He destroyed many Hindu
temples and imposed many restrictions on Hindus.
He re-imposed jaziya on non-Muslims.
• He compelled nobles and amirs to show formal
respect to the Sultan in darbar.
• He founded Agra in 1504 and wrote Persian verses
under the name "Gulrakhi".
➢ IBRAHIM LODHI (1517–1526)
• He was the eldest son of Sikander Lodhi. He was
not only arrogant but a repressive ruler too.
• He was defeated by Rana Sanga of Mewar.
• Disaffection between king and courtiers became
very common during his reign. He openly insulted
and humiliated his nobles in court and put to death
those nobles who revolted against him.
• Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of the Punjab,
greatly displeased by the arrogance and insult of
Ibrahim, invited Babur to invade India.
• Babur marched against Delhi and defeated and
killed Ibrahim Lodhi in the first Battle of Panipat.
The Afghan kingdom thus lasted for 75 years only.
Famous quote by a scholar, "The Sultanate of Delhi,
which had its birth on the battlefield of Tarain in 1192
CE, breathed its last in 1526 CE, a few miles away on
the battlefield of Panipat."
47
ADMINISTRATION UNDER SULTANATE • The Sultans considered themselves as
PERIOD representatives of the Caliph. Many of the Turkish
sultans in India declared themselves "lieutenant of
the faithful" i.e., of the Abbasid Caliph at Baghdad.
• The STATE set up by the Turks towards the end of
The Caliph had only moral position. By
the 12th century in northern India gradually
proclaiming his supreme position, the sultans at
developed into a powerful and highly centralized
Delhi were only proclaiming that they were a part
state which, for some time, controlled almost the
of the Islamic world.
entire country extending as far south as Madurai.
• They included the name of the Caliph in the khutba
• The Delhi Sultanate disintegrated towards the
or prayer and inscribed it on their coins. This
beginning of the 15th century and a series of
practice was even continued by Balban, who called
independent states were set up in different parts of
himself the "shadow of God".
the country. However, the administrative system of
• Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and Firoz
the Sultanate had a powerful effect on many of
Tughlaq obtained mansur (letter of investiture)
them, and also influenced the Mughal system of
from the Caliph.
administration which developed in the 16th century.
➢ CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
➢ THE SULTAN
• The Sultan was assisted by a number of ministers
• The title of "Sultan" was started by Turkish rulers
who headed different departments and aided in
and Mahmud of Ghazni was the first to assume the
administration.
title of Sultan.
• These ministers were chosen by Sultan and they
• The office of Sultan was the most important in the
remained in office at his pleasure.
Sultanate and he was the ultimate authority for the
• The post of Naib was the most powerful one. The
military, legal, and political matters. He was
Naib practically enjoyed all powers of the Sultan
responsible for the safety and security of the state.
and exercised general control over all the
He was responsible for administration and was also
departments.
the commander-in-chief of the military forces.
• Next to him, was the Wazir, who headed the finance
• The dispensation of justice was another important
department called Diwan-i-Wizarat.
function performed by the Sultan and he acted as a
o A separate Auditor General for scrutinising
court of appeal. To discharge this function, he
expenditure and an accountant general for
appointed judges.
inspecting income worked under the Wazir.
• The dispensation of justice was regarded as a very
o The period of Wazir-ship of Firuz Tughlaq
important function of any ruler. A direct appeal
Khan-i-Jahan is generally considered as the
could be made to him against the highhanded
high-water mark period of the Wazir’s
o Balban dispensed justice with extreme
influence.
impartiality, not sparing even the high officers
• The military department was called Diwan-i-Arz. It
of state.
was headed by the Ariz-i-mumalik who was
o Muhammad bin Tughlaq even gave harsh
responsible for recruiting the soldiers and
punishments to ulemas, who were previously
administering the military department.
exempted.
o Sultan himself was the commander-in-chief
• There was no clear law of succession during this
of the armed forces.
period. All the sons had equal claim to the throne.
o The military department was first set up by
o The idea of primogeniture was fully acceptable
Balban and it was further improved by
neither to the Muslims nor to the Hindus.
Alauddin Khalji, who insisted on a regular
o But such nomination or successions were to be
muster of the armed forces.
mostly accepted by the nobles.
o Alauddin introduced the Chehra and Dagh
o Sometimes, ulemas also played crucial role in
system, so that along with a descriptive roll of
getting a favourable public opinion. However,
each soldier, a system of branding of the horses
military superiority remained the main factor in
was also in place which would allow only good
matters of succession.
quality horses to be part of muster.
• The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its
o Alauddin was also the first Sultan to pay his
religion as Islam.
soldiers salary in cash.

48
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 o Alauddin had the largest standing and efficient
army of about three lakhs, which was definitely
a main factor in containing the Mongol
invasions along with his Deccan expansion.
o The Turks also maintained a large number of
elephants properly trained for war purposes. A
corps of sappers and miners was also attached
to the army for clearing the roads and removing
the obstacles for the march of the army.
o There was predominance of the Cavalry which
was considered more prestigious. During the
Sultanate period Hindus were largely employed
in the infantry.
• Diwan-i-Rasalat was the department of religious
affairs, which dealt with pious foundations and gave
stipends to deserving scholars. It was headed by
chief Sadr who also functioned as Chief Qazi, as the
head of the judicial department. Qazis were
appointed in various parts of the empire,
particularly in those places where there was a
sizeable Muslim population.
o Grants were made by this department for the
construction and maintenance of mosques,
tombs, and madrasas.
o Muslim personal law or sharia was followed in
civil matters.
o The criminal law was based on the rules and
regulations made by the Sultans.
o The Hindus were governed by their own
personal law and their cases were dispensed by
the village panchayats.
The department of correspondence was called Diwan-i-
Insha. All the correspondence between the ruler and the
sovereigns of other states as well as with his subordinate
officials was dealt with by this department.
The rulers posted intelligence agents called barids in
different parts of the empire. Only a nobleman who
enjoyed the fullest confidence of the ruler was
appointed as chief barid.
The ruler’s household was another important
department of the state. It looked after the personal
comforts of the sultan and the requirements of the large
numbers of women in the royal household. It also
looked after a large number of karkhanas or departments
in which goods and articles needed by the king and the
royal household were stored.
Firuz Tughlaq had set up a separate department of
slaves, many of whom were employed in these
royal "work-shops".
➢ PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT
• The provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were called
iqtas. They were initially under the control of the
nobles.
• The governors of the provinces were called the
muqtis or walis. They were to maintain law and
order and collect the land revenue.
• The provinces were further divided into shiqs,
which was under the control of the shiqdar, and the
next division was pargana, comprising several
villages and was headed by the amil.
• The villages were grouped into units of 100 or 84
(traditionally called chaurasi) The village remained
the basic unit of the administration.
• The village headman was known as muqaddam or
chaudhari.
• The village accountant was called patwari.
o Iqtas (province) → muqtis or walis (governor)
o Shiqs (Districts) → shiqdar
o Pargana (subdistricts) → amil
o Village → muqaddam or chaudhari
ECONOMY
• We have very little information about the economic
condition of the people under Delhi Sultanate.
o The historians of the period were more
interested in the events at the court than in the
lives of ordinary people.
• Ibn Battutah, a resident of Tangier in North Africa,
visited India in the 14th century and lived at the
court of Muhammad Tughlaq for eight years.
o He travelled widely all over India and has left a
very interesting account of the products of the
country, including fruits, flowers, herbs, etc.
The condition of the roads, and the life of the
people.
o Ibn Battutah says that the soil was so fertile that
it could produce two crops every year, rice
being sown three times a year. Sesame,
sugarcane, and cotton were also grown. They
formed the basis of many village industries,
such as oil pressing, making of jaggery,
weaving, etc.
➢ PEASANTS AND RURAL GENTRY
• Peasants formed the overwhelming majority of the
population. They continued to work hard and to eke
out bare subsistence.
• There were recurring famines and wars in different
parts of the country.
• The village headmen (muqaddams) and smaller
landlords (khuts) enjoyed higher standard of life. In
49
 addition to their own land holdings, they held lands
for which they pay revenue at concessional rates.
o Sometimes, they misused their offices to force
ordinary peasants to pay their share of the land
revenue also. Alauddin Khalji took stern action
against them and curtailed many of their
privileges.
• A section which enjoyed a high standard of life
were the Hindu rais or autonomous rajas, many of
whom continued to hold their previous estates.
• After consolidating their position in India, Delhi
Sultans introduced reforms in the land revenue
administration. The lands were classified into three
categories
1. Iqta land: Lands assigned to officials
as iqtas instead of payment for their
services.
2. Khalisa land: Land under the direct
control of the Sultan and the revenues
collected were spent for the
maintenance of royal court and royal
household.
3. Inam land: Land assigned or granted to
religious leaders or religious
institutions.
• The general peasantry paid one third of their
produce as land revenue, and sometimes even one
half of the produce. They also paid other taxes and
always led a hand-to-mouth living.
• Sultans like Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz
Tughlaq took efforts to enhance agricultural
production by providing irrigational facilities and
by providing takkavi loans. They also encouraged
the farmers to cultivate superior crop like wheat
instead of barley.
• Firoz encouraged the growth of horticulture.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq created a separate
agricultural department, Diwan-i-Kohi. The Sultan
and his nobles took keen interest in improving the
quality of fruits in India.
➢ TRADE, INDUSTRY, AND THE
MERCHANTS
• With the consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate, the
improvement of communication, and the
establishment of a sound currency system based on
the silver tanka and the copper dirham, there was a
definite growth of trade in the country.
• Construction of roads and their maintenance
facilitated for smooth transport and communication.
In addition to royal roads from Peshawar to
Sonargaon, Muhammed bin Tughlaq built road to
Daulatabad.
• In those days, travel was always risky due to
robbers and dacoits and various marauding tribes.
However, the royal roads were kept in good shape.
Sarais or rest houses on the highways were
maintained for the convenience of the travellers.
• There were arrangements for the post being carried
quickly from one part of the country to another.
This was done by relays of horses or even more
efficiently and quickly by runners who were posted
every few kilometres in towers which were built for
the purpose.
• When Muhammad Tughlaq was at Daulatabad,
which was 40 days journey from Delhi, he regularly
used to receive the Ganga water for drinking
purpose by means of these relays.
• The system of coinage had also developed during
the Delhi Sultanate. Iltutmish issued several types
of silver tankas. One silver tanka was divided into
48 jitals during the Khalji rule and 50 jitals during
the Tughlaq rule.
• Gold coins or dinars became popular during the
reign of Alauddin Khalji after his South India
conquests.
• Copper coins were less in number and dateless.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq had not only experimented
with token currency but also issued several types of
gold and silver coins. They were minted at eight
different places. Atleast twenty-five varieties of
gold coins were issued by him.
• During the Sultanate period, the process of
urbanization gained momentum. A number of cities
and towns had grown during this period. Lahore and
Multan (in the north west), Broach, Cambay and
Anhilwara (in the west), Kara and Lakhnauti in the
east, Daulatabad, Delhi, and Jaunpur were
important among them.
• India exported a large number of commodities to
the countries on the Persian Gulf and West Asia and
also to the South East Asian countries. Bengal
(specially Sonargaon for muslin, i.e. the fine cotton
cloth) and the towns in Gujarat were famous for fine
quality fabrics. Cambay in Gujarat was famous for
textiles and for gold and silver work.
o Sericulture was introduced on a large scale,
which made India less dependent on other
countries for the import of raw silk.
o The paper industry had grown and there was
an extensive use of paper from 14th and 15th
centuries.
o The production of textiles was also improved
by the introduction of the spinning-wheel.
50
 Cotton could be cleaned faster and better by
the use of the cotton carder's bow (dhunia).
Indian textiles had already established their
position in the trade to the countries on the Red
Sea and the Persian Gulf. During this period,
fines Indian textiles were introduced to China
as well as where it was valued more than silk.
• India imported high grade textiles (satin),
glassware, and horses from West Asia. From China,
it imported raw silk and porcelain.
• India's foreign trade both overland and overseas
was truly an international enterprise. Although the
Arabs were the dominant partners in the Indian
Ocean trade, they had been by no means ousted the
Indian traders like Tamils and Gujaratis, both Hindu
and Muslim. Overseas trade was under the control
of Multanis (mostly Hindus) and Khurasanis
(Afghan Muslims).
• Inland trade was dominated by Gujarati, Marwari
and Muslim Bohra merchants. Gujarati and
Marwari merchants were mostly Jains and they
spent large sums for the construction of temples.
These Indian merchants were extremely wealthy.
• Economic life was quickened in the period by the
improvement of communications and the growth of
trade both overland and by sea. Turks introduced
and popularised a number of new crafts and
techniques which includes the following
o Use of iron stirrup.
o Use of armour both for the horse and rider.
o Improvement of rahat (Persian wheel through
which water could be lifted from a deeper level
for irrigation).
o Paper making, glass making, the spinning
wheel, and an improved loom for weaving.
o Use of superior mortar, which enabled the
Turks to erect magnificent buildings based on
the arch and dome.
• This led to the growth of the metallurgical industry,
and metal crafts.
• Not all these crafts were new, but their expansion
and improvement, based on the legendary skill of
the Indian craftsman, and agricultural growth were
the two of the most important factors which made
the second half of the 14th century a period of
growth and relative affluence.
• An even more important development was the
improvement of the rahat (Persian wheel) so that
water could be lifted from a deeper level for
irrigation.
SOCIAL SYSTEM
• There was little change in the structure of the Hindu
society during this period.
• Traditional caste system with the Brahmins on the
upper strata of the society was prevalent.
• The subservient position of women continued and
practice of Sati was widely prevalent.
• The Arabs and Turks brought the purdah system
into India and the seclusion of women, and the
wearing of purdah became widespread among the
women in the upper Hindu classes of north India.
• During the Sultanate period, the Muslim society
remained divided into several ethnic and racial
groups. The Turks, Iranians, Afghans, and Indian
Muslims developed an exclusive group and there
were no intermarriages between them.
• The Muslim nobles occupied high offices and very
rarely the Hindu nobles were given high position in
the government.
• The Hindus were considered zimmis or protected
people, for which they were forced to pay a tax
called jaziya.
• In the beginning jaziya was collected as part of land
tax. Firoz Tughlaq separated it from the land
revenue and collected jiziya as a separate tax and
levied it on Brahmans also.
• Even though slavery had existed in India since
ancient times, it flourished during the Sultanate
period. There were slave markets for men and
women and slaves were hired for varied jobs
ranging from household chores to skilled
professions.
➢ RELIGIOUS FREEDOM UNDER THE
SULTANATE
• In the early phase of the conquest many cities were
sacked, and temples formed a special target partly
to justify the conquest and partly to seize the
fabulous treasures they were supposed to contain.
During this period, a number of Hindu temples were
converted into mosques. The most notable example
of this is the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque near Qutab
Minar in Delhi; formerly, it had been a Vishnu
temple. In order to convert it into a mosque the
inner sanctum which contained the deity was pulled
down, and in front of it a screen of arches containing
inscribed verses from the Quran was put up.
• But as soon as the Turks were settled, they started
building their own mosques. Their policy towards
temples and places of worship of the Hindus, Jains,
etc., rested on the Muslim law (sharia) which
51
 forbade new places of worship being built "in
opposition to Islam”. But it allowed the repair of old
temples. This meant that there was no ban on
erecting temples in the villages since there were no
practices of Islam there. Temples could be built
within privacy of the homes.
• But this liberal policy was not followed in times of
war. Then the enemies of Islam, whether the human
beings or gods, were to be fought and destroyed.
• In times of peace, within the Turkish territories and
in those areas where the rajas had submitted to the
Muslim rule, the Hindus practised their religion
openly and ostentatiously. According to Barani,
Jalaluddin Khalji observed that even in the capital
and provincial centres, the idols were publically
worshipped and the texts of Hinduism publically
preached.
o He said,"The Hindus pass beneath the wall
of the royal palace in processions, singing,
dancing and beating drums to immerse the
idols in the Yamuna, and I am helpless."
• Despite the pressure of a section of the orthodox
theologians, this policy of broad toleration was
maintained during the Sultanate, though with
occasional lapses.
• Sometimes, prisoners of war were converted, or
criminal exempted from punishment if they
accepted Islam. On the other hand, there are some
instances of conversion of Muslims to Hinduism.
For example, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the great
Vaishnavas reformer, converted a number of
Muslims.

➢ CONCLUSION

• On the whole, conversion to Islam were not affected

with the strength of the sword. If that was so, the
Hindu population of the Delhi region would have
been the first to be converted. The Muslim rulers
had realised that the Hindu faith was too strong to
be destroyed by force.
• Conversion to Islam were due to hopes of political
gain or economic advantage or improve one’s social
position. Sometimes, when an important ruler or a
tribal chief converted, his example was followed by
his subjects.
• There is no evidence that large numbers of persons
belonging to the lower castes embraced Islam due
to discrimination against them in the Hindu society
and to the influence of the Sufi saints. Yet, the
saintly character of some of the Sufi saints created
a receptive climate for Islam.

52
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
• The art and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate period Qutub Minar in Delhi was formerly a Vishnu temple.
was distinct from the But later, they began to construct new structures.
Indian style. • Their policy towards temples and places of Hindu
• The Turks introduced worship forbade new places of worship but allowed
arches, domes, lofty the repair of old temples.
towers or minarets and • The most magnificent building of the 13th century
decorations using the was the Qutub Minar, which was founded by Aibak
Arabic script. and completed by Iltutmish.
• They used the skill of • Later, Alauddin Khalji added an entrance to the
the Indian stone- Qutub Minar called Alai Darwaza.
cutters. They also • The buildings of the Tughlaq period were constructed
added colour to their by combining arch and dome. They used the cheaper
buildings by using and easily available grey colour stones. The palace
marbles, red and complex called Tughlaqabad with its beautiful lake
yellow sand stones. was built during the period of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
• In the beginning, they The Kotla fort at Delhi was the creation of Firoz
converted a number of Hindu temples into mosques. Tughlaq.
For example, the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque near • The Lodhi garden in Delhi is an example of the
architecture of the Lodhis.

53
 Arches and Domes (known as ‘arcuade’ style of Baoli or Water pools in the premises of the building
architecture) which replacec the traditional Trabeat used for cooling, decorative and religious purposes.
style of architecture.

Pietra Dura and Mosaic designs using cut and fitted Calligraphy used as a means of decoration and arabesque
highly polished gems and stones. method which involved the use of geometrical
ornamentation. In addition, the decorations followed a
symmetrical pattern.

Jaali work as a feature allowing light into the Charbagh style of gardening by dividing a square block
structures. into 4 adjacent identical gardens.

54
Foreshortening technique in the buildings, such that the Mortar used as a cementing agent in their constructions.
inscriptions appear to be closer than it really is.

55
➢ MAINS PRACTICE
1. Delineate some of the most striking and unique
features of Indo-Islamic architecture.
2. Compare and contrast the Indo-Islamic architecture
with that of temple architecture in India.
➢ MUSIC
• New musical instruments such as the sarangi and
the rabab were introduced during this period.
• Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as
Ghora and Sanam. He evolved a new style of light
music known as qawwalis by blending the Hindu
and Iranian systems. The invention of sitar is also
attributed to him.
• The Indian classical work, Ragadarpan, was
translated into Persian during the reign of Firoz
Tughlaq.
• Pir Bhodan, a Sufi saint, was one of the great
musicians of this period.
• Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great lover of
music. He encouraged the composition of a great
musical work called Man Kautuhal.
➢ LITERATURE
• The Delhi Sultans patronised learning and
literature. Many of them had great love for Arabic
and Persian literature.
o Learned men came from Persia and Persian
language got encouragement from the rulers.
• Some of the Sultans had their own court historians.
The most famous historians of this period were
Hasan Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ziauddin Barani
and Shams Siraj Asif.
• Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi contains the history
of Tughlaq dynasty.
• Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasari: a general
history of Muslim dynasties up to 1260 CE.
• Amir Khusrau (1252-1325) was the most famous
Persian writer of this period. He created a new style
of Persian poetry called Sabaq-i-Hind or the Indian
style. He also wrote some Hindi verses.
o Amir Khusrau's Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about
Allauddin’s conquests. His famous work, the
Tughlaq Nama, deals with the rise of
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
• Many Sanskrit works on medicine and music were
translated into Persian. In Arabic, Alberuni’s Kitab-
ul-Hind is the most famous work.
• Regional languages also developed during this
period. Chand Bardai was the famous Hindi poet
of this period who wrote Prithviraj Raso.
• Bengali literature had also developed and Nusrat
Shah patronised the translation of Mahabharata into
Bengali.
56
 CHAPTER-3

BHAKTI – SUFI TRADITIONS

CHANGES IN RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND DEVOTIONAL TEXTS (8TH-18TH CENTURY)

➢ TOPICS TO BE COVERED
1. Origin of bhakti movement
2. Two different ideological streams of the bhakti
movement
3. The alvars and nayanars of tamil nadu
4. Bhakti movement in Maharashtra
1. Jnaneswar or Jnandeva (13th Century)
2. Namdeva (1270-1350 CE)
3. Saint Eknath (16th Century)
4. Tukaram (17th centurry)
5. Ramdasa (17th Century)
5. Prominent leaders of bhakti movement
1. Shankaracharya (8th Century)
2. Ramanujam (11th Century)
3. Madhavacharya (13th Century)
4. Nimbraka (Contemporary
Ramanujam)
5. Vallabhacharya (15th Century)
6. Vidyapati (14th Century)
6. Bhakti movement in North India
7. Non-sectarian Bhakti Movement
1. Ramananda (15th Century)
2. Kabir (15th Century Indian mystic poet
and saint)
3. Dadu Dayal (1544-1603)
8. Vaishnavite Movement
1. Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (16th
Century : Bengal)
2. Narsingh Mehta (1414-1481)
3. Saint Tyagaraja (1767-1847)
4. Shankaradeva (15th Century)
9. The Virashaiva tradition in Karnataka
10. Sufism
1. Sufism and its further development
2. Silsilas
3. Khanqahs
4. The Chisti Silsilah
5. The Suhrawardi Silsilah
6. The Naqshbandi Silsilah
7. The Qadri Silsilah
of 8. Impact of sufism
9. Some other important aspects related to
Islam
11. Sikh movement
12. Importance of Bhakti movement
13. Women in Bhakti movement
1. Mirabai
2. Bahinabai
3. Janabai
4. Akkamahadevi

57
ORIGIN OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT
• The Bhakti movement rose as a reaction against
feudal oppression and against conformist Rajput-
Brahman domination.
• There is anti-feudal tone in the poetry of Bhakti
saints like Kabir, Nanak, Chaitanya, and Tulsidas.
• The socio-economic changes in the early medieval
period provided the necessary background for the
emergence of Bhakti movement.
• People turned towards Bhakti since it focused on
equality and people at that time were dissatisfied
with the low status accorded to them by the
Brahmanical system.
During the 13th-14th centuries, the demand for
manufactured goods, luxuries, and other artisanal
goods increased, leading to the movement of
artisans into the cities. In the cities, there was less
domination of Brahmanical order and this less
unequal world experience gave them impetus to
move towards Bhakti movement.
TWO DIFFERENT IDEOLOGICAL
STREAMS OF THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT
1. Saguna (god with attributes or form)
o Saguna form of Bhakti include the worship of
specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and his
avatars (incarnations) and forms of the goddess or
Devi.
o Example: Saguna Bhakta Tulsidas (Hindu
Vaishnavite Saint-poet, renowned for his devotion
to the deity Ram).
• He upheld the caste system and the supremacy
of the Brahmans.
• He had strong commitment towards idol
worship.
• He preached a religion of surrender and simple
faith in a personal God.
2. Nirguna ( god without any attributes or form)
o Nirguna Bhakti means the worship of an
abstract form of god.
3. Similarity between the two ideologies of Saguna and
Nirguna
1. Both focused on the mystical love for God.
2. Saints of the both branches composed their poems
in vernacular and dialects spoken across the north
India, as opposed to the Sanskrit, the language of
the elite priesthood. This helped them to transmit
their ideas among the masses and also the various
lower classes.
3. Both were highly critical of ritual practices as
maintained by the Brahman priesthood. Many poet-
saints were themselves of lower caste lineages.
THE ALVARS AND NAYANARS OF TAMIL
NADU
• Some of the earliest bhakti movements (6th
Century) were led by the Alvars and Nayanars.
1. Alvars
• Those who are immersed in devotion to
Vishnu.
• There were 12 Alvars, who came from equally
divergent backgrounds. The best known are:
▪ Periyalvar, his daughter Andal,
Tondaradippodi Alvar and
Nammaalvar. Their songs were compiled
in the Divya Prabandham.
2. Nayanars
• Those who are devotees of Shiva .
• There are 63 Nayanars, who belonged to
different caste backgrounds. The best
known among them are
▪ Appar , Sambandar , Sundarar and
Manikkavasagar
▪ There are two sets of compilations of
their songs- Tevaram and
Tiruvacakam
▪ They travelled from place to place in
praise of their gods.
▪ They drew upon the ideals of love and
heroism as found in the Sangam
literature and blended them with the
values of bhakti.
58
• Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of
protest against the caste system and the dominance
of Brahmanas.
• Their followers came from the diverse social
backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans
and cultivators and even from castes considered
"untouchables" like the Pulaiyar and the Panars.
• They were sharply critical of the Buddhists and
Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu
as the path to salvation.
• Nalayira Divyaprabandham (Four thousands
sacred compositions):
o By the 10th century, the compositions of 12
Alvars were compiled in an anthology known
as Nalayira Divyaprabandham.
o It is frequently described as the Tamil Veda.
This text is considered as significant as the four
Vedas in Sanskrit.
Sangam Literature is the name given to the earliest
available Tamil literature. It is dated between 400 BCE
and 300 CE, although most of the work is believed to
have been composed between 100 CE and 250 CE. The
word 'Sangam' literally means association.
➢ WOMEN DEVOTEES
1. Andal or Goda Devi (7th-8th Century)
o She is the only
female saint
among the 12
Alvars saints of
South India.
o She considered
herself as the
beloved of Vishnu.
➢ ALVARS, NAYANARS, AND THE STATE
• Chola rulers (9th-13th centuries) supported
Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, making land
grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and
Shiva.
o Under the patronage of Cholas, some of the
most significant Shiva temples were
constructed at Chidambaram, Thanjavur,
and Gangaikondacholapuram.
o During this period, the most spectacular
representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture
were produced.
• The Chola kings often attempted to claim divine
support and proclaim their own power and status by
building splendid temples.
• Chola kings also introduced the singing of Tamil
Shaiva hymns in temples under royal patronage and
took the initiative to collect and organize them into
a text called Tevaram.
o Tevaram: It consists of the poems of
Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar. It is a
collection that was compiled and classified
in the 10th century on the basis of music of
the songs.
• Both Alvars and Nayanars were revered by the
Vellala peasants.
• In the Tamil bhakti hymns, the poets had opposed
the Buddhism and Jainism. This is particularly
marked in the compositions of the Nayanars. It may
be because of the competition between the members
of other religious traditions for royal patronage.
➢ NATARAJA (TAMIL) [SHIVA, THE DIVINE
DANCER]

2. Karaikkal Ammaiyar
(6th Century)

o One of the
prominent person
in Tamil literature.
o A devotee
of Shiva
o Adopted the path of
extreme asceticism
in order to attain
her goal.
o Her compositions
were preserved UPSC CSE Main 2013
within the Nayanar tradition. • Discuss the Tandava dance as recorded in the
early Indian inscriptions. (5 marks |100 words)

59
 3. Tukaram
➢ NATHPANTHIS, SIDDHAS, AND YOGIS
➢ JNANESWAR OR
• They advocated renunciation of the world. JNANDEVA (13TH
• To them, the path to salvation lay in meditation on CENTURY)
the formless Ultimate Reality.
• They advocated intense training of mind and body • He wrote commentary on the
through practices like yogasanas, breathing Bhagvat Gita called
exercise, and meditation. Jnanesvari which served as
• These groups particularly became famous among the foundation of Bhakti ideology in Maharashtra.
"low castes". • He was against the caste distinctions.
• Their criticism of conventional religion created the
ground for devotional religion to become a popular ➢ NAMDEVA (1270-1350 CE)
force in northern India.
• They criticized the ritual and other aspects of
• He was a poet-saint
conventional religion and the social order, using
from Maharashtra
simple and logical arguments.
who belonged to the
Varkari sect.
THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN • He was a tailor who
MAHARASHTRA had taken to banditry
before he became a
• Bhakti movement in Maharashtra centered saint.
around the shrine of Vithoba or Vitthal, the • He is considered one
residing deity of Pandharpur, who was regarded as of the five revered
manifestation of Krishna. gurus in the
• In Maharashtra, the Bhakti movement drew its Dadupanth tradition
inspiration from the Bhagavata Purana and the within Hinduism,
Shiva Nathpanthis. other four being are Dadu, Kabir, Ravida and
• These saint-poets rejected all forms of ritualism, Hardas.
outward display of piety and social differences • He attracted individuals from diverse classes and
based on birth. castes during community driven bhajan singing
• In fact they even rejected the idea of renunciation sessions.
and preferred to live with their families, earning • It is believed that his Abhangas were included in
their livelihood like any other person, while humbly the Guru Granth Sahib.
serving fellow human beings in need. • In north India he is remembered as a nirguna
• In Maharashtra, the Bhakti Movement is broadly saint, in Maharashtra he is considered to be part of
divided into 2 sects the Varkari tradition (the Vaishnava devotional
1. Varakaris: They are devotees of God tradition).
Vitthala of Pandharpur, who were
emotional and abstract in their view point. ➢ SAINT EKNATH (16TH CENTURY)
2. Dharakaris: They were the followers of the
cult of Ramadasa, the devotee of God
• He was a prominent
Rama, who are more rational and practical
Marathi saint, scholar
in their thoughts.
and religious poet of
• The realisation of God as the highest end of human
Varkari sampradaya.
life is common aim of both the sects.
• In the development of
• 3 great saints belonging to Vithoba cult
Marathi literature,
1. Jnaneswar or Jnandeva
Eknath is considered to
2. Namdeva
be a bridge between his
predecessors
Dnyaneshwar and
Namdeva and the later
Tukaram and Ramdas.

60
• He was a family man and believed that resignation o Advaita: The
from the world is not necessary for leading a reality of the
religious life. world is denied
• He introduced a new form of Marathi religious song and Brahman is
called Bharood. considered as the
• His teachings in Marathi attempted to shift the only reality.
emphasis of Marathi literature from spiritual to Once we attain
narrative compositions. realization and
see it is Brahman
➢ TUKARAM (17TH CENTURRY) all along, we do
not see the world
anymore.
• He was a poet-saint of the Bhakti movement in
Maharashtra.
• His famous quote is "Brahma Satyam Jagat
• He was a Shudra by
birth and was also part Mithya Jivo Brahmatra Naparaha" (means The
of Varkari tradition. Absolute Spirit is the reality, the world of
appearance is Maya).
• He is known for his
• His famous analogy to understand Advaita is the
Avangas (dohas).
snake and the rope.
• His poetry was
o According to him, in the dark, we may
devoted to Vitthala, an
mistake a rope for a snake. This darkness
avatar of the Hindu
lead us to see the world, which do not exist.
God Vishnu.
Only Brahman is the reality. Once we attain
• He was contemporary realization (true knowledge or Gyaan), we
of Shivaji and was do not see the world again.
responsible for creating • According to him, gyaan (knowledge) alone can
a background for lead to salvation.
Maratha nationalism, • He established mathas at Sringiri, Dwarka, Puri,
"Parmaratha". and Badrinath.
• He wrote commentary on the Bhagvat Gita,
Ramdasa (17th Brahmasutra, and the Upanishads.
Century) • He wrote books like Upadesh Shastri, Vive
Chudamani, Bhaja Govindum Stotra.
• He was born in 1608 CE and was the spiritual guide
of Shivaji. ➢ RAMANUJAM (11TH CENTURY)
1. He wrote Dasabodha, combining his vast
knowledge of spiritual life. • He was born at Sriperumbudur near modern
Chennai in the 11th century.
PROMINENT LEADERS OF BHAKTI • He was deeply
MOVEMENT influenced by the
Alvars.
➢ SHANKARACHARYA (8TH CENTURY) • According to him, the
best means of attaining
• He was born in Kerala (Kaladi). salvation was through
• He was the leader of the Hindu revivalist movement intense devotion to
of the 8th Century, which gave a new orientation to Vishnu.
Hinduism. • He opposed the
• He propounded the Advaita (monism) Philosophy mayavada of
and Nirgunabrahman (god without attributes). Shankracharya.
• He propounded the
philosophy of Vishista
Advaitavada and founded the Shri vaishnava sect.
According to him, God is Saguna Brahman.

61
 o Vishista Advaita: The world and Brahman are • The Bheda-Abheda
also considered two equally real entities and the school believes that
world is formed out of Brahman. the world and
• He gave the famous analogy of the sea and wave Brahman are both
to understand the relation of the Brahman and the equally real, and
world. the world is a part
o He said that Brahman is the sea and the objects of Brahman. The
of the world are like waves upon this sea. All world is a
waves are ultimately the sea only, but as long as manifestation of
we see the wave we think it to be different from Brahman, but it is a
the sea. very small
• Brahman is a personal god with omniscient manifestation, and
qualities. the difference with
• He considered Brahman to be Vishnu or one of his Brahman is very large.
avatars. • A particular analogy of Bheda-Abheda is the sun
• He advocated prabattimarga or the path of self- and the sun beam.
surrender to God. He invited the downtrodden to • The sun beam cannot be
Vaishnavism and advocated salvation by bhakti. called separate from the sun,
• He wrote Sribhashya, Vedanta dipa, Gita as it arises from the sun, and
Bhasya, Vedantasara. is attached to it. Yet it is not
the sun.
➢ MADHAVACHARYA (13TH CENTURY) • He was the preacher of
Vaishnavite Bhakti in the
• Madhav from Kannada region propagated Dvaita or Telangana region.
dualism of the • He was the worshipper of
Jivatma and Krishna and Radha and
Paramatma. establish his ashrama in Braja (Mathura).
• He founded the • He founded the Sanak Sampradaya.
Brahma
Sampradya. ➢ VALLABHACHARYA (15TH CENTURY)
• According to his
philosophy of • Born in Benaras in the 15th Century and lived at the
dualism or Dvaita, court of Krishnadeva Raya.
World is not an • Surdas was the disciple of Vallabhacharya who
illusion but a reality, was blind but he was largely instrumental in
full of real popularizing the Krishna cult in north India.
distinction. • He propounded the Shudhadvaita (pure monism),
• Brahman and the world are considered to be two where he considered both the world and the
equally real entities and not related in any way. Brahman a reality.
• God of dualism is the Hindu God Vishnu. Vishnu • According to him, there is no change of Brahman
has created the world, and the world stands separate into the world, world exist as it were as an aspect of
from God and in an inferior position to God with no Brahman without undergoing any change, it is a part
link between two. of Brahman.
• He gave an example of coin.
➢ NIMBRAKA (CONTEMPORARY OF o According to him, Brahman is the one side of
RAMANUJAM) coin and the world is another. There is no
change, the world is a part of coin that is
• He propounded the Dvaita-Advaita philosophy and Brahman.
the philosophy of Bheda-Abheda (difference/non- • This is called Shudh Advaita, because it is said that
differences) there is only one and there is no change.
• According to him, Brahman transforms itself into • It recognizes both the world and the Brahman as
the souls of the world, which are real, distinct and reality but it put emphasis on the non-difference the
different from the Brahman. world from Brahman. It said that world is an
inseparable aspect of the Brahman.
• Its philosophy is Pushtimarga.

62
• He founded the Rudra Sampradya.
➢ VIDYAPATI (14TH
CENTURY)
• Born in Bihar (1352).
• He was a Maithili poet
known for his poetry
dedicated to Shiva.
• He addressed Shiva
as Ugna.
THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN NORTH
INDIA
• The period after the 13th century saw a new wave
of Bhakti movement in north India.
• This was an age when Islam, Brahmanical
Hinduism, Sufism and various strands of bhakti,
and the Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis influenced
one another.
• During this time, some of them like Kabir and Baba
Guru Nanak rejected all orthodox religions, and
others like Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing
beliefs and practices but wanted to make these
accessible to all.
o Tulsidas conceived of God in the form of
Rama. His composition written in Awadhi is
important as an expression of his devotion and
as a literary work.
• Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna. His
compositions compiled in the Sursagara,
Surasaravali, and Sahitya Lahari express his
devotion.
• This tradition also include saints like Dadu Dayal,
Ravidas, and Mirabai.
• Mirabai became a disciple of Ravidas, a saint from
a caste considered "untouchable". She was a
devoted to Krishna and composed innumerable
Bhajans. Her songs openly challenged the norms of
the "upper" castes.
• During this time in north India, deities such as
Vishnu and Shiva were worshipped in temples,
often built with the support of the rulers.
• In north India this was the period when several
Rajput states emerged. In most of these states,
Brahmans occupied positions of importance,
performing a range of secular and ritual functions.
There seems to have been little or no attempt to
challenge their position directly.
• At the same time other religious leaders, who did
not function within the orthodox Brahmanical
framework, were gaining ground. These included
the Naths, Jogis, and Siddhas.
• Many of them came from artisan groups, including
weavers, who were becoming increasingly
important with the development of organized craft
production. Demand for such production grew with
the emergence of new urban centers, and long
distance trade with Central Asia and West Asia.
• Many of these new religious leaders questioned the
authority of Vedas, and expressed themselves in
languages spoken by ordinary people.
• In spite of their popularity, these religious leaders
were not in a position to win the support of the
ruling elites.
• With the establishment of Delhi Sultanate (13th
century), power of many Rajput states undermined
and also the Brahmans who were associated with
these kingdoms. This lead to the change in the realm
of culture and religion. The coming of the Sufis was
a significant part of these developments.
• Bhakti movement in northern India is seen as a
continuation of the movement that originated in the
south.
• It included socio-religious movements.
• The northern medieval Bhakti Movement had the
influence of the spread of Islam in India.
• The distinctive characteristics of Islam such as
monotheism, equality, and brotherhood of man,
rejection of rituals and class divisions influenced
the Bhakti Movement.
• Preaching of Sufi teachers shaped the thinking of
Bhakti reformers like Ramananda, Kabir, and
Nanak, as the Bhakti movement also initiated
certain reforms in the society.
NON-SECTARIAN BHAKTI MOVEMENT
• Non-sectarian Bhakti movement belong to those
who were not linked with any particular religious
creed and did not believe in rituals and ceremonies.
• They condemned polytheism and believe in one
god.
• They denounced all forms of idolatry.
• They helped the common people to shed age-old
superstitions and attain salvation through bhakti or
pure devotion.
• They greatly emphasized on the fundamental unity
of all religions.
• Some of the important non-sectarian bhakti saints
are:- Ramananda, Kabir, Guru Nanak Dev, Dadu
Dayal.
➢ RAMANANDA (15TH CENTURY)
63
• He was born in Allahabad and was a follower of
Ramanuja.
• He is considered to be
the link between the
South India Bhakti and
North India Vaishnava
Bhakti traditions.
• Ramananda brought to
North India what
Ramanuja did in South
India.
• He looked upon Ram
and not Vishnu as the
object of Bhakti.
• He worship Ram and Sita and came to be identified
as the founder of the Ram cult in north India.
• He rejected the caste hierarchies and preached in the
local languages to popularize the cult.
• His most outstanding contribution is the abolition of
distinctions of caste among his followers.
• He put emphasis on bhakti and avoided both gyana
marg and karma marg.
• His followers are called Ramanandis. His disciples
were Kabir, Ravidas, Nanak, Bhagat Pipa.
➢ KABIR (15TH CENTURY INDIAN MYSTIC
POET AND SAINT)
• He was born near Benares to a Brahman widow, but
was brought up by a Muslim couple who were
weavers by profession.
• He laid great emphasis on the equality of man
before God.
• His object was to reconcile Hindus and Muslims
and establish harmony between the two sects.
• He emphasized the oneness of all religions by
describing Hindus and Muslims "as pots of the same
clay".
• Kabir's teachings were based on a complete, indeed
vehement, rejection of the major religious
traditions.
• His teachings openly ridiculed all forms of external
worship of both Brahmanical Hinduism and Islam,
the pre-eminence of the priestly classes and the
caste system. He drew his followers from among
both Hindus and Muslims.
• He rejected the varnashrama and all conventions
based on caste distinctions.
• Kabir believed in a formless Supreme God and
preached that only path to salvation was through
bhakti or devotion.
• He rejected the authority of Brahmans and attacked
the caste system and the practice of idolatry.
• The Nirguna Bhaktas are also known as
Monotheistic Bhakti saints, who gave more
importance to the personal experience of Bhakti
saints with god.
• He was among the disciples of Ramananda. His
verses are found in the Sikh holy scripture, Adi
Granth.
• His followers are called Kabirpanthis.
• Bijak is the best known of the compilations of the
compositions of Kabir.
o The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth
in Varanasi and elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh.
• Kabir Granthavali is associated with Dadupanth in
Rajasthan, and many of his compositions are found
in the Adi Granth Sahib.
• All these manuscript compilations were made long
after the death of Kabir.
• Kabir's poems have survived in several languages
and dialects.
• Kabir drew a range of traditions to describe the
Ultimate Reality. He described the Ultimate Reality
as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir. He used Vedantic
traditions, mystical connotations and yogic
traditions to describe the god.
• Among those who were influenced by Kabir were
Raidas, Guru Nanak.
➢ DADU DAYAL (1544-1603)
• He was a saint from
Gujarat .
• Emperor Akbar was one
of his followers. His
followers are called
Dadupanthis.
• Kabir ,Ravidas and
Namdeva were his gurus.
VAISHNAVITE MOVEMENT
• Bhakti Movement in North India developed around
the worship of Ram and Krishna, two of the
incarnations of the God Vishnu.
• Ram cult was popularized by saint-poet Tulsidas.
His great poem, the Ramacharitamanasa, popularly
called Tulsi-krita Ramayana is very popular among
Hindus, which shows Ram as all powerful
(Parambrahma)
• The followers of the Krishna cult founded Radha
Ballabhi sect under Hari Vamsa in 1528.
• In the early 16th century, Vallabhacharya, a
popular bhakti saint popularized the Krishna Bhakti
cult. Vallabhacharya was followed by Surdas and
Mirabai.
64
• Surdas wrote Sursagar in Brajbhasha, which is full • Emerged as one of the leading proponents of
of verses on the charm of Lord Krishna and his Vaishnavism in Assam.
beloved Radha.
• Vaishnava Bhakti movement in Bengal was very
different from its counterparts in north India and the
south . It was influenced by the Bhagavata Purana
and Nathapanthis traditions.

➢ SRI CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU (16TH

CENTURY: BENGAL)

• He was well-known
saint, ascetic Hindu
monk and social
reformer of Bengal. • His teachings, often known as the
• He popularized the Bhagavatidharma because they were based on the
Krishna cult in the 16th Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana.
century. • He emphasized the need for naam kirtan, recitation
• With him, the Bhakti of the names of the lord in satsanga.
Movement in Bengal • He also encouraged the establishment of sattra or
began to develop into a monasteries for the transmission of spiritual
reform movement as it questioned social division on knowledge, and naam-ghar or prayer halls.
the basis of caste. • His major compositions include the Kirtana –
• He popularised the Kirtan system (group devotional ghosha.
songs).
• He proclaimed the universal brotherhood of man
and condemned all distinction based on religion and
caste, and emphasized love and peace.
• He accepted disciples from all classes and castes.

➢ NARSINGH MEHTA (1414-1481)

• Saint from Gujarat who

wrote songs in Gujarati
depicting the love of
Radha-Krishna.
• He was the author of
Mahatma Gandhi's
THE VIRASHAIVA TRADITION IN
favorite bhajan– KARNATAKA
"Vaishanava jan ko"
(They are Vaishnavas • 12th century witnessed the emergence of a new
who understand the pain of others). movement in Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named
Basavanna (1106-68).
➢ SAINT TYAGARAJA (1767-1847) o Basavanna was initially a Jaina and a
minister in the court of a Chalukya king.
• He was the greatest composer of • His followers are known as Virashaivas (heroes of
Carnatic music. Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga).
• He composed thousands of • They worship Shiva in his manifestation as a linga,
devotional compositions, most and men usually wear a small linga in a silver case
in Telugu and in the praise of on a loop strung over the left shoulder.
Lord Rama. • Lingayats believe that on death, the devotee will be
united with Shiva and they will not return to this
➢ SHANKARADEVA (15TH world. Therefore, they do not practice funerary rites
such as cremation, prescribed in the
CENTURY)

65
 Dharamashastras. Instead, they ceremonially bury
their dead.
• Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the
"pollution" attributed to certain groups by
Brahmanas.
• They questioned the theory of rebirth.
• Lingayats encouraged certain practices disapproved
in the Dharamashastras, such as post-puberty
marriage and the remarriage of widows.
• They argued strongly for the equality of all human
beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste
and the treatment of women. They were also against
all forms of ritual and idol worship.
• Understanding of the Virashaiva tradition is derived
from the vachanas (sayings) composed in Kannada
by women and men who joined the movement.
SUFISM
➢ (TASAWWUF: USED FOR SUFISM IN
ISLAMIC TEXTS)
• In the early centuries of Islam, a group of religious-
minded people called sufis turned to asceticism and
mysticism in protest against the growing
materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and
political institution.
• They were critical of the dogmatic definitions and
scholastic methods of interpreting the Qu’ran.
• They laid emphasis on seeking salvation through
intense devotion and love for God.
• They regarded the Prophet Muhammad as a perfect
human being.
• They rejected idol worship and considerably
simplified rituals of worship into collective prayers.
• Like the Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis, the Sufis
too believed that heart can be trained to look at the
world in a different way.
• They developed elaborate methods of training using
zikr (chanting of a name or sacred formula), sama
(singing), raqs (dancing), breath control under the
guidance of a master or pir.
➢ SUFISM AND ITS FURTHER
DEVELOPMENT
• Sufism emerged in the 8th century, and the early
known Sufis were Rabia al-Adawiya, Al-Junaid,
and Bayazid Bastami.
• Sufism evolved into a well-developed movement by
the end of the 11th Century.
• Al Hujwiri, who established himself in north India,
was buried in Lahore and regarded as the oldest
Sufi in the sub-continent.
• Sufis were regarded as people who kept their heart
pure and communicate with God through their
ascetic practices such as contemplation,
renunciation, and self-denial.
• God, man, and the relation of love between God and
man, is fundamental to Sufism.
• The ideas of Fana (self-annihilation),
Hulul (infusion of divine spirit), Ishq (divine love),
Qurbat (divine proximity), and Ruh (soul) are
central to the theory of Sufism.
• The Sufi saints, transcending all religious and
communal distinctions, worked for the interest of
humanity at large.
• Ideas emphasized by Sufism are
o meditation
o good actions
o repentance for sins
o performance of prayers and pilgrimages
o fasting
o charity
o suppression of passions by ascetic practices
➢ SILSILAS
• Silsila literally means a chain, signifying a
continuous link between master and disciple.
• By the 12th Century, the Sufis were organized in
Silsilahs (order) which represent a chain between
the Pir (teacher) and the murids (disciples)
• The 4 most popular Silsilahs were the
1. Chistis
2. Suhrawardis
3. Qadiriyahs
4. Naqshbandis
➢ KHANQAHS
• The khanqah (the hospice) emerged as important
centres of learning and preaching.
• When the pir died, his dargah (tomb/shrine),
became a centre for his disciples and followers.
• The murid (disciples) passes through maqamat
(various stages) in the process of experiencing
communication with the divine.
• Many Sufis enjoyed the sama (musical
congregation) in their khanqahs.
• Qawwali developed during this period.
• The Ziyarat or pilgrimage to the tombs of the Sufi
saints soon emerged as an important form of ritual
pilgrimage.
• Who were "Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs,
Haidaris"?
o They were those who had lack of respect for
Khanqah and took to mendicancy (practice of
begging).
66
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 o They observed celibacy and did radical
interpretation of sufi ideals.
o They ignored rituals and observed extreme
form of asceticism.
o They are also called to be be-shari'a because of
their deliberate defiance of the Shari'a.
➢ THE CHISTI SILSILAH
1. The Chisti order was established in India by
Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, who moved to India
after the invasion of Muizzuddin Muhammad
Ghori, and settled in Ajmer around 1206 CE.
2. He argued that the highest form of devotion to God
was to redress the misery of those in distress,
fulfilling the need of the helpless, and to feed the
hungry.
3. His fame grew more after his death in 1235 CE,
when his grave was visited by the then Sultan
Muhammad Tughlaq.
4. His mosque and the dome were erected by Mahmud
Khalji of Malwa.
5. The patronage to the dargah reached unprecedented
heights after the support of Mughal Emperor Akbar.
6. In Delhi, the presence of Chisti was established by
Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (the Qutub Minar is
named after him), who settled in Delhi from his
homeland in Transoxiana in 1221 CE.
7. Qutbuddin's presence in Delhi was considered a
threat by the Suhrawardis and they forced him to
leave, but the Sultan of Delhi, Iltutmish, dismissed
their attempts.
6. A major feature of the Chishti tradition was
austerity.
7. The sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations
from the political elites. They accepted donations in
cash and kind, but rather than to accumulate the
donations, they preferred to use these fully on
immediate requirements such as food, clothes,
living quarters, and ritual necessities. All this
enhanced the moral authority of the Shaikh's, which
in turn attracted people from all walks of life.
➢ OTHER IMPORTANT CHISTIS WERE
1. Baba Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar: Who
established himself at Hansi in Haryana.
2. Nizamuddin Auliya: who lived in the 14th century
(a period of political change and turmoil).
o He had a conflicting relationship with different
Sultans such as Mubarak Khalji and
Ghiyasauddin Tughlaq, as he maintained a
strict policy of not involving himself with
various groups and factions of the Sultan’s
court in Delhi.
o He earned huge respect of masses.
3. Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dehlavi: (Disciple of
Nizamuddin Auliya) Was another Chisti saint who
played an active role in the political affairs of the
period.
4. Saikh Burhanuddin Gharib: He established
Chisti order in Deccan in 13th century.
5. Muhammad Banda Nawaz: The Deccan city of
Bijapur emerged as an important centre for Sufi
activity, and he emerged one of the famous pir of
the region.
1. They were active in Delhi, Rajasthan,
and parts of western Gangetic plains,
and in later years in the eastern region
of the Gangetic plains of Bihar and
Bengal and into the Deccan.
2. They also adopted several features of
Indian devotional traditions.

Sufi teachers Year of Dargah

death location
Shaikh Muinuddin 1235 Ajmer
➢ CHISTI BELIEVED IN
Khwaja Qutbuddin 1235 Delhi
Bakhtiyar Kaki
1. Simplicity of life, renunciation of worldly Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj- 1265 Ajodhan
possessions, and selfless devotion to God. I Shakar (Pak)
2. Tolerance between people of different faiths. Shaikh Nizamuddin 1325 Delhi
3. Chisti who held liberal views favored the Auliya
assimilation of local traditions.
Shaikh Nasiruddin 1356 Delhi
4. Use of simple language and the refusal to accept any
Chirag-I
grant for their maintenance from the Sultans.
5. They believed that the relationship between man
➢ AMIR KHUSRAU AND THE QAUL
and God was that of a lover and beloved.

67
• Amir Khusrau (1253-1325), the great poet,
musician and disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin
Auliya, gave a unique form to the Chishti sama by
introducing the qual.
• Qual is a hymn sung at the opening or closing of
qawwali.
➢ LANGUAGES AND COMMUNICATION OF
CHISHTIS
• Chishtis adopted local languages in sama and
conversed in Hindavi, the language of the people.
• Baba Farid composed verses in the local language,
which were incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib.
• In the Deccan, the sufis were inspired by the pre-
existing bhakti tradition of the Kannada vachanas of
the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of the saints
of Pandharpur. So, sufis composed poetry in
Dakhani (a variant of Urdu) who lived in this region
during the 17th-18th centuries.
➢ THE SUHRAWARDI SILSILAH
• The Suhrawardis, unlike the Chistis, accepted
maintenance grants from the Sultans.
• Founded by: Shihabuddin Suhrawardi in
Baghdad and established in India by Bahauddin
Zakariya.
• They were active in Punjab and Sindh.
• They believed that
o A Sufi should have three attributes:
1. Property
2. Knowledge
3. Hal (mystical enlightenment)
o They did not believe in excessive austerities or
self-mortification.
o They mingled with the Muslim aristocracy and
took active part in politics.
o They stressed on the observance or external
forms of religious belief.
o They advocated a combination of ilm
(scholarship) with mysticism.
➢ THE NAQSHBANDI SILSILAH
• This order was established by Khwaja Bahauddin
Naqshbandi.
• It was propagated by the successor of Khwaja
Bahauddin, Sheikh Baqi Billah, and Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi.
• They believe in followings
o They followed the Shariat and attempted to save
Islam from all liberal and "un-Islamic" practices.
o They opposed the listening of sama (religious
music) and the practice of pilgrimage to the
tombs of saints.
o They strongly opposed interaction with Hindus
and Shias.
o They criticized the liberal policies of Akbar such
as the high status accorded by Akbar to many
non-Muslims, the withdrawal of the Jizya, and
the ban on cow slaughter.
o They believed that the relationship between man
and God was that of the slave and the master.
o Naqshbandi Silsilah who held the Orthodox view
of Shariat believed that the other Silsilahs are
diluting the purity of Islam.
➢ THE QADRI SILSILAH
• It was initiated under the teachings of Sheikh
Abdul Qadir. It was popular in Punjab.
• Mughal princess Jahanara and her brother Dara
were enrolled in this Silsilah as disciples.
• They believed in the following
o They gave the concept of Wahdat al
Wajud (meaning "Unity of Existence" or "Unity
of Being"). It mean that the God and his creation
are one and similar.
o They dismissed Orthodox elements.
o They believe that one who did not recognized the
reality was an infidel.
In spite of all different Silsilahs, the majority of the
Sufis found resonance with the liberal opinion and
argued against the narrow definition of Islamic laws by
the ulema.
➢ IMPACT OF SUFISM
1. Brought the communities of Hindu and Muslim
together
o The liberal and unorthodox features of Sufism
had a great influence on medieval Bhakti saints.
o In later period, the Mughal emperor, Akbar,
appreciated Sufi doctrines, which shaped his
religious outlook and religious policies.
o Both the Sufism and the Bhakti cult were based
on the doctrines of love and selfless devotion
which brought the both the communities of
Hindu and Muslim close together.
o Sufism brought the feelings of solidarity and
brotherhood between these two religious
communities. That is why, today not only
Muslims but a large number of Hindus revered
these Sufi saints.
2. Brought Peace and Harmony
68
 o Sufism took roots in both rural and urban areas
and exercised a deep social, political, cultural
influence on the masses.
o It rebelled against all forms of religious
orthodoxy and hypocrisy, and tried to create a
new world order in which spiritual bliss was the
only and ultimate goal.
o Sufism reminded the people of their moral
obligations when the struggle for political
power was prevailing madness.
3. Sufis and the state
o When the Turks set up the Delhi Sultanate, they
resisted the insistence of the ulama on imposing
Shari'a as State law because they anticipated
opposition from their subjects, the majority of
whom were non-Muslims.
o Then, the Sultans took the help of Sufis who
derived their authority directly from God, to get
required legitimation from them.
➢ SOME OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS
RELATED TO ISLAM
• Ulama: They are scholars of Islamic studies, who
perform various religious, juridical and teaching
functions.
• Jizya: It was a tax paid by those category of people
who followed religions other than Islam and lived
under Muslim ruler ship. By paying this tax, they
gained the right to be protected by Muslims.
• Shari'a: It is the law governing the
Muslim community. It is based on the Qur'an
[It is the word of Allah, revealed through Prophet
Muhammad (Peace be upon him) to all the mankind
as the ultimate source of guidance] and hadis
[Traditions of the Prophet including a record of his
remembered words and deeds].
o In areas where customs and traditions were
different, qiyas (reasoning by analogy) and
ijma (consensus of the community) were
recognized as two other sources of
legislation. Thus, Shari'a evolved from:-
Qu’ran, hadis, qiyas and ijma.
• The five pillars of the faith in Islam:
1. There is one God, Allah.
2. Prophet Muhammad is his messenger
(shahada)
3. Offering prayers five times a day
(namaz/salat)
4. Giving alms (zakat)
5. Fasting during the month of Ramazan and
performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).
➢ ASSIMILATION OF ISLAM WITH THE
DIVERSE LOCAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA
1. For example, Arab Muslim traders who settled
along the Malabar coast (Kerala) adopted the local
language, Malayalam. They also adopted local
customs such as matriliny and matrilocal residence.
2. Even the architecture of mosques also get
influenced with the local traditions. For example,
many mosques were built in Kerala having the
Shikhara (roof like structure).
3. Khojahs, a branch of the Ismailis (Shia’s sect)
developed new modes of communication and
disseminated the ideas derived by Qu'ran through
indigenous literary genre, like devotional poems in
Punjabi, Multani, Sindhi, Gujarati, and Hindi.
4. Mlechchha (Sanskrit term means one who does not
practice Hinduism)
o This term used for foreigners (Muslims and
others) who did not observe the norms of caste
society and spoke those languages which were
not derived from Sanskrit.
SIKH MOVEMENT
➢ GURU NANAK (1469-1539)
• Founder of Sikhism.
• Born in a Khatri household in
the village of Talwandi near
Lahore.
• He was a Nirguna Bhakti
saint and a social reformer.
• For Baba Guru Nanak, the
Absolute or "rab" had no gender or form.
• He proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine
by remembering and repeating the Divine Name,
expressing his ideas through hymns
called "shabad" in Punjabi.
• Rejected the authority of Vedas.
• Denounced caste distinctions and rituals like
bathing in holy rivers. Caste and honour should be
judged by the acts of the individual.
• He emphasized the importance of the worship of
one God. He insisted that caste, creed, or gender
was irrelevant for attaining liberation.
69
• His idea of liberation was not that of a state of inert
bliss but rather the pursuit of active life with a
strong sense of social commitment.
• He himself used the terms nam, dan, and insan for
the essence of his teaching, which actually meant
right worship, welfare of others, and purity of
conduct.
• Promoted equality among all human beings,
including women.
• He preached the new idea of God as the supreme,
formless, the eternal truth.
• He refused idol worship and did not favor
pilgrimage.
• He did not accept the theory of incarnation. He
condemned formalism and ritualism.
• Advised people to follow the principles of conduct
and worship
1. Sach (truth)
2. Halal (lawful earning)
3. Khair (wishing well of others)
4. Niyat (right intension)
5. Serviceto the lord
• His philosophy consist of three basic elements
1. A leading charismatic personality (Guru)
2. Ideology (Shabad)
3. Organization (Sangat)
• He introduced the concept of Langar (a
community kitchen). Irrespective of their
former creed, caste or gender, his followers ate
together in the common kitchen. The sacred
space thus created by Guru Nanak was known
as dharmsal. It is now known as Gurudwara.
• His main teachings include worship of the
name and necessity of the guru in worship of
the name.
• He conceptualized God as Nirguna (attribute
less) and Nirankar (formless).
• He organized his followers into a community
and set up rules for congregational worship
(sangat) involving collective recitation.
• He appointed one of his disciple, Angad, to
succeed him as the preceptor (guru).
➢ GURU ANGAD (1539-1552)
• His real name was Bhai Lehna.
• He popularized Gurumukhi script of the Punjabi
language.
• He popularized the institution of Guru ka Langar.
• He started the tradition of Mall Akhara for physical
as well as spiritual wellness.
➢ GURU AMARDAS (1552-1574)
• Strengthen the Langar community kitchen system.
• Preached against the Hindu society's sati system,
advocated widow-remarriage and asked the women
to discard the purdah.
• Divided his spiritual empire into 22 parts called
Manjis.
• Asked Akbar to remove the toll-tax (pilgrim's tax)
for non-Muslim’s while crossing Yamuna and
Ganga rivers.
➢ GURU RAMDAS (1574-1581)
• He composed the four Lawans (stanzas) of the
Anand Karaj, a distinct marriage code for Sikhs
separate from Orthodox and traditional Hindu
Vedic system.
• He had cordial relations with Akbar. Akbar granted
him a plot of land where Harmandir Sahib was
later constructed.
• Guru Ramdas laid the foundation stone of Chak
Ramdas or Ramdas Pur, now called Amritsar.
➢ GURU ARJUN DEV (1581-1606)
• He compiled the Adi Granth (Guru Granth Sahib)
and installed it at Sri Harmandir Sahib.
• He completed the construction of Amritsar, Taran,
and Kartarpur.
• He was executed by Jahangir for helping his
rebellious son Khusrau.
o So, he is considered as the first Martyr of
the Sikh religion and as Shaheendan-de-
Sartaj (The crown of martyrs).
➢ GURU HAR GOVIND (1606-1644)
• He had longest tenure as Guru.
• He transformed Sikhs into a militant community,
established the Akal Takht, and fortified Amritsar.
• He waged war against rulers of Jahangi rand Shah
Jahan, and defeated Mughal army at Sangrama.
• He took the title of Saccha Padshah.
• He was the proprietor of the concept of miri and piri
(keeping two knives).
➢ GURU HAR RAI (1644-1661)
• He was persecuted by Aurangzeb, who framed
charges of anti-Islamic blasphemy against the Guru
and the Guru Granth Sahib because Guru Har Rai
gave shelter to Dara Shikoh who was brother and
rival of Aurangzeb.
➢ GURU HAR KISHAN (1661-1664)
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• He died at a young age of 8 years due to smallpox,
which he contracted while healing the sick people
during an epidemic.
➢ GURU TEGH BAHADUR (1665-1675)
• He revolted against Aurangzeb, but he was
executed and beheaded before the public in Delhi's
Chandni Chowk in 1675.
• At present day, there is Sis Ganj Sahib Gurudwara
is there, where he was beheaded.
• He appointed Banda Bahadur as the military leader
of the Sikhs.
• He spread Sikhism to Bihar and Assam.
➢ GURU GOBIND SINGH (1675-1708)
• He was the last Sikh Guru in human form. He
passed the Guruship of the Sikhs to the Guru Granth
Sahib.
• He was born in Patna.
• He organized the Sikhs as a community of warriors
and called them Khalsa in 1699. He defined its five
symbols
1. Kesh (uncut hair)
2. Kaccha - also spelt, Kachh, Kachera (cotton
underwear)
3. Kirpan (steel sword)
4. Kara (a steel bracelet)
5. Kanga (a wooden comb)
• Under him the community got consolidated as a
socio-religious and military force.
• He compiled the supplementary granth of Deswan
Padshan ka Granth.
• He selected five persons known as the Panj piyare
(the five beloved).
The number of Guru Nanak's followers increased
through 16th century under his successors. They
belonged to a number of castes but traders,
agriculturists, artisans, and craftsmen predominated
because of Nanak's insistence that his followers must be
householders and should adopt productive and useful
occupations. They were also expected to contribute to
the general funds of the community of followers.
IMPORTANCE OF THE BHAKTI
MOVEMENT
Bhakti Movement had a great impact in medieval India.
It led to the development of the following
• Development of regional languages: Bhakti
movement led to the development of various
regional languages such as Hindi, Bengali,
Kannada, etc. because various preachers spoke and
wrote in the regional languages.
• Social Change: The caste system and the lower
position of women was condemned by the Bhakti
saints . Position of lower castes and women
improved in the society.
• Unity among the two communities, Hindu and
Muslim:
o With the mutual influence of Sufism and Bhakti
movement , masses got an opportunity to
understand each other’s religious traditions and
practices, which resulted in not only
appreciation of each other tradition but also
developed mutual respect among each other.
o Emergence of Urdu as a new language is the
result of synthesis and interaction between
Sufism and Bhakti tradition.
➢ VARIOUS OTHER CHANGES BROUGHT BY
THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT
• Increasing visibility of a wide range of gods and
goddesses in sculpture as well as in texts and the
major deities- Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess were
visualized in a variety of forms.
• This period also began to disseminate Brahmanical
ideas which were exemplified by composition,
compilation and preservation of Puranic texts in
simple Sanskrit verse, explicitly meant to be
accessible to women and Shudras, who were
generally excluded from Vedic learning.
• During this period the Brahmans also started to
accept the beliefs and practices of other social
categories.
• This period witnessed the integration of various
cults. At Puri, Orissa, where the principal deity was
identified as Jagannatha (lord of the world), a form
of Vishnu. At the same time, Vishnu was visualized
in a way that was very different from that in other
parts of the country.
• The principal deities of the Vedic pantheon, Agni,
Indra, and Soma, became marginal figure, rarely
visible in textual or visual representations. But still,
the Vedas continued to be revered as authoritative.
• This period saw the widespread use of Tantric
practices which were a form of worship of the
goddess. They were open to women and men, and
the practitioner often ignored differences of castes
and class within the ritual context.
WOMEN IN THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT
• Female poet -saints played a significant role in the
Bhakti movement. Many of these women had to
71
 struggle for acceptance within the largely male - • She wrote in the form of abangas, women's folk
dominated movement. songs which shows the working life of woman,
• Women bhaktas wrote around the issues such as the especially in the fields.
obstacles they faced at home , family tensions, the
absent husband, meaningless household chores, and
restrictions of married life, including their status as
married women.
• In many cases, the women saints rejected traditional
women's roles and societal norms by leaving
husbands and homes altogether, while many tried to
engage with Bhakti without discarding their
household roles.

➢ MIRABAI (16TH CENTURY MYSTIC POET

AND DEVOTEE OF KRISHNA)

• She belonged to high

class ruling Rajput
family.
• Her poetry speaks of
her vision of Lord
Krishna when she was
s child and since then, Janabai: 13th Century Marathi religious poet
she vowed that she
would forever be his
bride.
• She was married to
Rana Sanga of Mewar
at an early age,
against her wishes.
• She describes in her accounts the unsuccessful
attempts made by her husband to kill her, and her
sisters-in-law's efforts to obstruct Mirabai to join
the company of wandering saints.
• Mirabai left her husband and family and went on a
pilgrimage to various places associated with her
divine husband, Krishna.
• She was rejected initially because she was s women,
but her devotion towards the lord Krishna led her
inclusion within the community of the saints of
Brindavan.
• Mirabai's poetry shows a unique relationship with
Krishna as she is not only being portrayed as the • She belonged to a low caste Shudra family.
devoted bride of Krishna, but Krishna is also • She worked in the household of one of the most
portrayed as in the pursuit or love of Mira. revered of the bhakti poets, saint Namdeva.
• According to some traditions, her preceptor was • She wrote over 300 poems focusing on domestic
Raidas, a leather worker, which indicate her chores and about the restrictions she faced as a low
defiance of the norms of caste society. caste woman.
Bahinabai (17th century)
Akkamahadevi (12th century)
• She was a poet-saint from the Maharashtra.
• One of the prominent person in Lingayat religion in
• Disciple of Tukaram.
12thcentury.
• She wrote in Marathi language.

72
• She was a female poet of Kannada literature
belonged to the southern region of Karnataka.
• She established herself as an ardent devotee of
Shiva whom she addressed as
Chennamallikarjuna.

73
 CHAPTER-4

VIJAYANAGRA AND BAHMANI KINGDOM

TOPICS TO BE COVERED

Vijayanagar Kingdom

1. Sources for the study of Vijayanagar kingdom

2. Vijayanagra’s main rivals
3. Sangam dynasty
4. Saluva Dynasty
5. Tuluvas Dynasty
6. Aravidu dynasty
7. Administration of Vijayanagar Kingdom
8. Army and Military Organization
9. Social life
10. Economy
11. Cultural contribution

74
 3. Copper plate inscriptions such as the Srirangam
VIJAYANAGRA KINGDOM copper-plate of Devaraya-II.
4. The ruins of Hampi and other monuments (provide
information about the genealogy and achievements
of Vijayanagar rulers).
5. The numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar
rulers contain figures and legends explaining their
titles and achievements.

Hampi

• A name derived from the that of the local mother

goddess, Pampadevi.
• The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by
an engineer, named Colonel Colin Mackenzie, who
was appointed the first Surveyor General of India in
1815.
• Hampi declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO
in 1986.

➢ THE VIJAYANAGAR KINGDOM (1336-1672)

Contemporaries described the Vijayanagar empire as
the Karnataka samrajyamu. The empire included people
from different cultural regions– the Tamil, Telugu, and
Karnataka region– who spoke different languages and
belonged to different cultures. Vijayanagar kingdom
constituted four dynasties.
Lotus Mahal, Hampi
1. Sangama (1356-1485) ➢ VIJAYANAGRA’S MAIN RIVALS
2. Saluva (1485-1503)
3. Tuluva (1503-1570) • In the south, Sultans of Madurai. By 1377 CE, the
4. Aravidu (till the end of 17th century) Sultanate of Madurai was wiped out and the
Vijayanagara kingdom comprised the whole south
➢ SOURCES FOR THE STUDY OF India.
VIJAYANAGAR KINGDOM • In the north, they had continuous hostility with the
Bahmani Sultanate and Gajapati Rulers of Orissa
1. There are some of the indigenous literature of this for control over the fertile river valleys and the
period. resources generated by lucrative overseas trade.
1. Krishnadevaraya’s → Amukthamalyada
2. Gangadevi’s → Maduravijayam SANGAM DYNASTY
3. Allasani Peddanna’s → Manucharitam
2. Foreign travellers who visited Vijayanagar • Founded by Harihara and Bukka (1336–1377),
kingdom and made valuable accounts on the socio- who were originally feudatories of the Kakatiyas
economic conditions of the time are:- of Warangal.
1. Moroccan → Ibn Batuta o Then they went to Kampili where they were
2. Venetian → Nicolo de Conti imprisoned and converted to Islam. Later, they
3. Persian → Abdur Razzak returned to Hindu fold at the initiative of the
4. Portuguese → Domingo Paes saint Vidyaranya.

75
 o They founded a new city Vidyanagar on the
south bank of river Tungabhadra, which was
later renamed as Vijayanagar (city of victory)
by Bukka I.
• The decline of Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara
and Bukka to expand their newly founded kingdom.
By 1346, they brought whole of the Hoysala
kingdom under their control.
• The struggle between Vijayanagar and Sultanate of
Vijayanagar lasted for about four decades.
o Kumarakampana’s expedition to Madurai was
described in the Maduravijyam. He destroyed
Madurai Sultans and as a result, the
Vijayanagar Empire comprised the whole of
South India up to Rameswaram.
o His greatest success was in wresting Belgaum
and Goa in the west from Bahmani Sultanate.
➢ HARIHARA II (1377-1406 CE)
• His greatest success was in wresting Belgaum and
Goa in the west from Bahmani Sultanate.
➢ DEVA RAYA-I (1406-1422)
• He constructed dam across river Tungabhadra and
Haridra for irrigation purpose.
• He modernised the Vijayanagar army by improving
cavalry, employing Turkic archers, and procuring
horses from Arabia and Persia.
• He maintained a secular attitude in administrative
matters. He had 10,000 Muslims in his army.
• Italian traveller, Nicolo Conti (1420), and Russian
merchant Nikitine (author of Voyage to India),
visited during his reign.
• Hazare Rama Temple, an excellent example of
Deccan architecture, was constructed during his
reign.
• He was a patron of Kannada literature and
architecture. Madhura, a poet was in his and his
father’s court, wrote Dharmanathapurana on the life
of the 15th Jain Tirthankar in Kannada, as well as
poem in eulogy of Gommateshvara
of Shravanabelagola.
➢ DEVA RAYA-II (1425-46)
• He authored well known works in the Kannada
language (Sobagina Sone and Amaruka) and in
Sanskrit language (Mahanataka Sudhanidhi).
• Noted Kannada poet of medieval period,
Chamarasa and Kumara Vyasa gained his
patronage.
• Sanskrit poet Gunda Dimdima, and Telugu poet
Kavisarvabhauma Srinatha(author of
Haravilasam), was also present at his court.
• He acquired the title of Gajabetegara, means
"Hunters of Elephants" or victorious against the
enemies who were as strong as elephants.
• He extended his territories up to the Krishna River.
SALUVA DYNASTY
• Founded by Saluva Narasimha who was the
minister of earlier kings reigned only for a brief
period (1486-1509).
➢ TIRUMAL AND IMMADI NARASHIMA
(1491-1505)
• Both were minors during the regency of Narsa
Nayak.
• Vasco Da Gama landed in Calicut in 1498.
TULUVAS DYNASTY
1. Founded by Vira Narasimha Raya (1505-1509).
➢ KRISHNA DEVA RAYA (1509-30)
• The greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, was also
known as Abhinava Bhoja, Andhra Pitamah,
Andhra Bhoja(as he was a great patron of literature
and art).
• He had great military ability.
o His first task was to check the invading
Bahmani forces. By that time the Bahmani
kingdom was replaced by Deccan Sultanate.
o The Muslim armies were decisively defeated by
Krishna Deva Raya in the battle of Diwani.
• He invaded Raichur Doab (land between Krishna
and Tungabhadra river) which had resulted in the
confrontation with the Sultan of Bijapur,Ismail Adil
Shah. But Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and
captured the city of Raichur in 1520. From there he
marched on Bidar and captured it.
• His Orissa campaign was also successful. He
defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataprudra and
conquered the whole of Telungana.
76
• He maintained friendly relations with the
Portuguese.
o King Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to the
court of Krishna Deva Raya.
o The Portuguese travellersDomingo
Paes andBarbosacame to India during his
reign.
• He was a Vaishnavaite, but respected all religions.
Eight eminent scholars of Telugu known as the
"Ashta Diggajas" adorned his court.
o Allasani Peddanna wasbthe greatest scholar
and he was called Andhrakavita Pitamaga. His
important works includeManucharitam and
Harikathasara.
o Pingali Suranna and Tenali
Ramakrishna were other important scholars.
• The famous temple of Tirupati greatly developed
during his period as the deity there was his titular
deity.
• He founded a suburban township near Vijayanagar
called Nagalapuram after his mother.
• He composed a work on statecraft in Telugu known
as Amuktamalyada and Sanskrit work Jambavati
Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
• He repaired most of the temples of south India. He
built the famousVittalaswamy and Hazara
Ramaswamy temples at Vijayanagar.
• He built the famousVijaya Mahal (House of
victory).
• Relation between the Sultans and the Rayas were
not always hostile.
o For example, Krishna Deva Raya supported
some claimants to the power in the Sultanates
and took pride in the title "establisher of the
Yavana kingdom".
o Similarly, the Sultan of Bijapur intervened to
resolve succession disputes in Vijayanagara
following the death of Krishnadeva Raya.
• Yavana is a Sanskrit word used for the Greeks and
other peoples who entered the subcontinent from
the North West.
• Unlike the Cholas and some early Vijayanagar
rulers, Krishna Deva seems to have paid scant
attention to the development of navy.
➢ ACHYUTA DEVA RAYA (1529-1542)
• A Portuguese traveller, Fernoa Nuniz, came to
India during his reign.
• The Thiruvengalanatha temple, which is now
popularly known as the Achyutaraya temple, was
built in Vijayanagar empire during his reign.
➢ SADA SIVA RAYA (1542-1570)
• Last ruler of Tuluva dynasty.
• The Deccan states (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar,
Golkonda, and Bidar) formed a confederacy and
inflicted a crushing blow on the Vijayanagar armies
at Bannihatti in the battle of Talaikotta in 1565.
This battle is also known as Rakshasa Thangadi.
• The battle of Bannihatti is generally considered to
mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire.
ARAVIDU DYNASTY
• After the battle of Bannihatti, the Vijayanagar
kingdom continued to exist under Aravidu dynasty,
which ruled from Penukonda and later from
Chandragiri.
• Thirumala, Sri Ranga, Venkata-II were important
rulers of this dynasty.
• Last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga
III (1642=1646).
➢ ADMINISTRATION OF VIJAYANAGAR
KINGDOM
• The Rayas (king) had absolute authority in
executive, judicial, and legislative matters. He was
the highest court of appeal. He was assisted by a
council of ministers in his day-to-day
administration.
• Succession to the throne was on the principle of
hereditary, but sometimes usurpation to the throne
also occurred.
• Kingdom was divided into different administrative
units called Mandalams, Nadus, Sthalas, and
finallyinto gramas.
• The governor of the Mandalam was called
Mandaleswara or Nayak.
• Vijayanagar Rulers gave full powers to the local
authorities in the administration.
• Chola traditions of village self-government
weakened under the Vijayanagar rulers. The growth
of hereditary nayakships tended to curb their
freedom.
• Governors of provinces were royal princes at first.
Later, persons belonging to vassals of rulings
families and nobles were also appointed as
governors.
• Provincial governors had a large measure of
autonomy as they held their own courts, appointed
their own officers, and maintained their own
armies. They even issued their own coins.
• Each governor paid a fixed contribution in men and
money to the central government. Thus,
Vijayanagar was more a confederacy than a
centralised empire.
77
• Land revenue was fixed at generally one sixth of the
produce.
• Besides land revenue, tributes, and gifts from the
vassals and feudal chiefs, customs collected at
ports, taxes on various professions were other
source of income to the government.
• The expenditure of the government includes
personal expenses of kings and charities given by
him and military expenditure.
• In matter of justice, harsh punishments such as
mutilation and throwing to elephants were
followed.
➢ ARMY AND MILITARY ORGANIZATION
• Vijayanagar army was very well-organized and
efficient.
o Vijayanagar rulers imported high quality horses
from across the Arabian Sea from Arabia and
Gulf countries. Port of Malabar was the centre of
this trade.
• The amara-nayaka system was a major political
innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. It is likely
that many features of this system were derived from
iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.
o The amara-nayakas were military commanders
who were given territories to govern by the
Raya.
o They collected taxes and other dues from the
peasants, craft persons, and traders in the area.
o The amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king
annually and personally appeared in the royal
court with gifts to express their loyalty.
o Kings occasionally asserted control over them
by transferring them from one place to another.
• The top-grade officers of the army were known as
Nayaks or Palaiyagars or Poligars. They usually
spoke Telugu or Kannada. These officers were
granted land calledamaram in lieu of their services
while soldiers were usually paid in cash.
o The Nayaka was responsible for expanding
agricultural activities in his amaram (land).
o He collected taxes in his area and with this
income maintained his army, horses, elephants,
and weapons of warfare that he had to supply to
the Raya (the Vijayanagara ruler).
o The nayaka was also the commander of forts.
Some of his revenue also used for the
maintenance of temples and irrigation works.
o Soldiers were usually paid in cash.
o In the 17th century, several of these nayakas
such as those of Tanjore and Madurai became
independent and established separate states and
emerged as a powerful section that challenged
Vijayanagar authority.
• The Vijayanagar state also employed Turkish and
Portuguese experts to train the soldiers.
• They had both small firearms such as rifles and
pistols, and certain heavy arms such as canons,
which had to be put on a bullock cart or on an
elephant and pushed into the battlefield.
➢ SOCIAL LIFE
• There were four castes – Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas, and Shudra in the Vijayanagara society
and there was prevalence of slavery.
o Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of
slavery.
• Sangam rulers were mainly Shaivaites and
Virupaksha was their family deity while other
dynasties were Vaishnavites.
• Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was very popular.
• All kings were tolerant towards other religions.
o Muslims were employed in administration
and they were freely allowed to built
mosques and worship.
• The Epics and the Puranas were popular among the
masses.
• Position of women was not much improved.
However, some of them were learned. Gangadevi,
wife of Kumarakampana authored famous work
Maduravijyam.
• Sati was honoured (Sahagaman). The practice of
devadasi was in place. Polygamy was prevalent
among royal families.
• Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling, and cock-
fighting were some of the amusements.
• Temples were rich and also took part in both
internal and overseas trade.
• Local communities of merchants known as kudirai
chettis or horse merchants used to participate in
horse trade.
• Silk and cotton clothes were usually used for dress.
➢ ECONOMY
• Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation of
the people.
• Vijayanagar rulers constructed new dams across
rivers and built new tanks to provide stimulus to
agriculture.
• The most such important tank was built in the early
years of 15th century and is now called
Kamalapuram tank.
• There were numerous industries and they were
organized into guilds.
• Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and
Anantapur district.
78
• Vijayanagar was a great centre of trade. The chief
gold coin was the Varaha but weights and
measures varied from place to place.
• There were number of seaports on the
Malabarcoast, the chief being Cannanore. The
chief items of exports were cotton and silk clothes,
spices, rice, iron, saltpetre, and sugar.
• Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia, South
Africa, and Portugal on the west and, with Burma,
Malay peninsula and China on the east flourished.
• Imports: horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury,
China silk, and velvet clothes, sandalwood,
elephants.
• Theart of shipbuilding had developed.
Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia
to Calicut in the 15th century mentioned that not only
the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests
were fortified. No mortar or cementing agent was used
anywhere in construction. The stone blocks were wedge
shaped, which held them in place, and the inner portion
of the wall was of earth packed with rubble.
Why agricultural tracts were fortified?
• The objective of the medieval sieges was to starve
the defenders into submission.
• These sieges could last for several months and
sometimes even years.
• Usually rulers tried to be prepared for such
situations by building large granaries within
fortified areas.
• The rulers of Vijayanagara adopted a more
expensive and elaborate strategy of protecting the
agricultural belt itself by fortification.
➢ CULTURAL CONTRIBUTION
Temple architecture
• The temple building activity further gained
momentum during the Vijayanagar rule. Temples
also functioned as centres of learning. Rulers and
others often granted land and other resources for the
maintenance of temples.
• Consequently, temples developed as significant
religious, social, cultural, and economic centres.
• From the point of view of the rulers, constructing,
repairing and maintaining temples were important
means of winning support and recognition for their
power, wealth and piety.
• It is likely that the very choice of the site of
Vijayanagar was inspired by the existence of the
shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. The
Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the
god Virupaksha. All royal orders were signed "Shri
Virupaksha".
• The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagar
architecture were the construction of tall Raya
Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam
with carved pillars in the temple premises.
o The raya gopurams or royal gateways often
dwarfed the towers on the central shrine, and
signalled the presence of the temple from a
great distance.
o Kalyanamandapa meant to celebrate divine
weddings.
o Ex: The gopuram or gateway of the
Brihadishvra temple at Thanjavur.
• The sculptures on the pillars were carved with
distinctive features. The horse was the most
common motif found on these pillars.
• Large mandapams contain one hundred pillars as
well as one thousand pillars in some big temples.
These mandapams were used for seating the deity
on festive occasions.
• Most important temples of Vijayanagar style were
found in the Hampi ruins.
• Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples
were the best example of this style.
• Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at
Kanchipuram.
• The Rayagopurams at Thiruvannamalai and
Chidambaram speak of the glorious epoch of
Vijayanagar.
• The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his
queens at Tirupati are examples for casting of metal
images.
Gopuram Architecture
79

Chariot Temple at Hampi
Literature and Language
• Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu,
Kannada, and Tamil flourished in the regions. There
was a great development in Sanskrit and Telugu
literature.
• The peak of literary achievement was reached
during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya. He himself
was a scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu. His famous
court poet Allasani Peddanna was distinguished in
Telugu literature.
The Mahanavami dibba is a massive platform rising
from the base of about 11,000 sq.ft. Rituals associated
with this structure probably coincided with
Mahanavami of the ten day Hindu festival, known
variously as Dusehra, Durga Puja, and Navaratri. The
Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige and power
on his occasion.
BAHMANI SULTANATE (1347-1527)
• Deccan region was a part of provincial
administration of the Delhi Sultanate.
• In order to establish a stable administration in the
Deccan, Mohammad bin Tughlaq appointed
amiran-i-sada also called as Sada
Amir (administrative heads of hundred villages).
• From 1337 CE, the conflict between the officers in
Deccan and Delhi Sultanate accelerated, which
ultimately resulted in the establishment of an
independent state in the Deccan in 1347 CE with the
capital at Gulbarga, in Andhra Pradesh.
• Its founder, Hasan Gangu, assumed the title
Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah, as he traced his
descent from the mythical hero of Iran, Bahman
Shah, and the kingdom was named the Bahmani
Sultanate.
➢ FIRUZ SHAH BAHMANI (1397-1422)
• He was the most remarkable figure of the Bahmani
Kingdom.
• He was well-acquainted with the religious sciences,
that is, commentaries on the Quran, jurisprudence,
etc. He was fond of the natural sciences such as
botany, geometry, logic, etc.
• He was a good calligraphist and a poet and often
composed verses. He was well versed not only in
Persian, Arabic, and Turkish, but also in Telugu,
Kannada, and Marathi.
• He was determined to make the Deccan the cultural
centre of India. With the decline of Delhi Sultanate,
many learned people migrated from Delhi to
Deccan.
• He had read the Old and New Testaments and
respected the tenets of all religions.
• He introduced Hindus in the administration on a
large scale.
• He encouraged the pursuit of astronomy and built
an observatory near Daulatabad.
• He paid much attention to the principal ports of his
kingdom, Chaul and Dabhol, which attracted
trading ships from the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea,
and poured in luxury goods from all parts of the
world.
➢ MAHMUD GAWAN
• The power of Bahmani kingdom reached its peak
under the rule of Muhammad Shah III. He
extended from Arabian sea to Bay of Bengal. The
success of Mahammad Shah was due to advice and
service of his minister Mahmud Gawan.
• He was an Iranian by birth and was at first a trader.
He was a Persian merchant and came to India at the
age of forty two and joined the services to Bahmani
Kingdom. He was introduced to the Sultan and soon
he became a favourite, and was granted the title
"Chiefs of the Merchants" (Malik–ul-Tujjar).
80
• He possessed great knowledge of mathematics. He
made endowments to built a college at Bidar which
was built in Persian style of architecture. He was a
military genius also.
• He waged successful wars against Vijayanagar,
Orissa and the sea pirates on the Arabian sea. His
conquests include Konkan, Goa and Krishna–
Godavari delta. Thus he expanded the Bahmani
empire through his conquests.
• His major military contribution was the over-
running of the western coastal areas, include
Dabhol and Goa.
• He carried out many internal reforms also. He
divided the kingdom into 8 provinces or taraf.
Each taraf was governed by a tarafdar.
• The salaries and obligations of each noble were
fixed. The salary could be paid in cash or by
assigning a jagir.
• Those who were paid by means of jagir were
allowed expenses for the collection of land revenue.
• In every province, a tract of land (khalisa) was set
apart for the expenses of Sultan.
• Efforts were done to measure the land and to fix the
amount to be paid by the cultivator to the state.
• He was a great patron of arts. He built a magnificent
madarasa or college in the capital Bidar.
• His administrative reforms were important. They
were aimed to increase the control of Sultan over
the nobles and provinces. Royal officers were
appointed for this in each province. Most of the
forts were under control of these officers.
• Allowances were reduced to the nobles who shirked
their responsibility. This was disliked by the nobles.
So, the Deccani nobles organized a plot against
Gawan. They induced the Sultan to punish him with
the death sentence. After his execution, the
Bahmani kingdom began to decline.
• Muhammad Shah was succeeded by weak Sultans.
During this period the provincial governors
declared their independence.
• By the year 1526, the Bahmani kingdom had
disintegrated into five independent Sultanate.
• They were:- Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Berar,
Golkonda and Bidar and known as Deccan
Sultanates.
CONFLICT BETWEEN THE
VIJAYANAGAR KINGDOM AND BAHMANI
SULTANATE
• There were constant conflicts between the
Vijayanagar kingdom and the Bahmani Sultanate as
their interests clashed in three separate and distinct
areas
1. Over the control of the Raichur doab
(between the rivers Krishna and
Tungabhadra).
o This area was fertile and rich in mineral
resources. The famous diamond mines
of Golkonda were located in the eastern
part of the doab region.
2. The Krishna-Godavari basin (Tungabhadra
Doab)
o Apart from being fertile, this region
had the additional advantage of control
of foreign trade ports.
o On account of its wealth and economic
resources, it has been the bone of
contention between the western
Chalukyas and the Cholas in the earlier
period.
3. Over the Marathawada region
o Here, the main contention was for the
control of the Konkan belt which was
extremely fertile and included with it
the port of Goa which was an important
outlet for export as well as import.
o The import of horses from Goa was of
great importance to the southern states.
Often, the battles between the Vijayanagar and the
Bahmani states are perceived to be as Hindu-
Muslim conflicts. But, in reality, it was not due to
any religious differences but for territorial and
economic motives. Both the powers were so
involved amongst themselves that they never
realised the increasing power of the Portuguese on
the coast of South India.
➢ BAHMANI ADMINISTRATION
• The Sultanate was divided into four administrative
units called "taraf" or provinces.
• These provinces were= Daultabad, Bidar,
Berar, and Gulbarga.
• Every province was under tarafdar who was also
called subedar.
• In every province, a part of land (Khalisa) was set
apart from the jurisdiction of the tarafdar as it was
used for meeting the expenses of the king and the
royal household.
• The salaries and obligations of every noble was
fixed. They either to get their salary in cash or in the
form of grant of land or jagir.
• Bahmani rulers dependent for military support on
his amirs.
• There were two groups in the ranks of amirs:
81
 1. The Deccanis who were immigrant Muslims
and had been staying for a long time in Deccan
region.
2. The Afaqis or Pardesis who had come from
Central Asia and settled in Deccan region
recently.

• There was always tension between these groups to

appropriate better administrative positions.

South India: 14th-18th Century

82
 CHAPTER-5

MUGHAL EMPIRE
TOPICS TO BE COVERED
1. Who were the Mughals? 8. Economic and Social Life under the
2. Babur (1526-30) Mughals
1. 1526 → Defeated Ibrahim Lodhi 1. Growth of Trade
and his Afghan supporters at 2. Different regions emerged as
Panipat prominent trading stations
2. 1527 → Defeated Rana Sanga, 3. Agrarian Society and Mughal
Rajput rulers and allies at Khanwa Empire
3. 1528 → Defeated the Rajputs at 9. Two kinds of peasants
Chanderi, established control over 10. Cultivator, Panchayat, and the Village
Agra and Delhi before his death Headmen
4. 1529 → Battle of Ghagra (near 11. Caste, Poverty and Social Status
Bihar) 12. Zamindars and Zabt
5. Significance of Babur’s Advent 13. Enormous inequality
into India 14. Mughal Traditions of Succession
3. Nasiruddin Humayun (1530-40, 1555-56) 15. The Production of Chronicles
1. Battle of Chausa (near Buxar, 16. A divine light
1539) 17. A unifying force
2. Battle of Bilgrama / Battle of 18. Just sovereignty as Social contract
Kannauj (1540) 19. Capitals and Courts
4. Jalaluddin Akbar (1556-1605) 20. Beyond the Frontiers
1. 1556-1570
2. 1570-1585
3. 1585-1605
4. Art and Architecture
5. Administrative System under the
Akbar
1. Organisation of
Government
2. Central Administration
3. Provincial Administration
4. Port Administration
5. Land Revenue
Administration
6. Mansabdari System
7. The Jagirdari System
8. Religious Policy
5. Jahangir (1605-27)
1. Art and Architecture during
Jahangir's reign
2. Mughal paintings reached its zenith
under Jahangir
6. Shah Jahan (1628-58)
7. Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

83
WHO WERE THE MUGHALS?

• They were descendants of two great lineages of Central Asia. From their father’s side they were the
rulers. From their mother side, they were descendants successors of Timur, the ruler of Iran, Iraq and
of Genghis Khan, ruler of Mongol tribes, China, and modern -day Turkey.
• The name Mughals derives from Mongol. They
referred to themselves as Timurids, as descendants of
the Turkish ruler Timur on the paternal side. Mughals
were proud of their Timurid ancestry because their
great ancestor had captured Delhi in 1398.
• Mughals did not like to be called as Mughal or
Mongol because Genghis Khan’s memory was
associated with the massacre of innumerable people.
It was also linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongol
competitors.

84
• Babur, first Mughal ruler, spoke Turkish and referred
Mongols as barbaric hordes.
• The founder of the empire, Zahiruddin Babur, was
driven from Central Asian homeland, Farghana, by
Uzbeks. He first established himself at Kabul in 1504.
And then, he pushed steadily southward into India
from Afghanistan through the Khyber pass. He was
successful in capturing Bhira (1519-20), Sailkot (
1520), and Lahore ( 1524 ) in Punjab.
• Reason for Babur coveting the Punjab parganas was
the meager income of Kabul, which was not sufficient
to maintain an empire, and his apprehension of Uzbek
attack on Kabul. Thus, he considered India to be a • Babur’s soldiers were less in number but the
good place to find refuge and develop a suitable base organisation of his army was far superior.
for operations against the Uzbeks. • He used great military tactics and applied the
• The unstable political situation in India after Sikandar Rumi ( Ottoman ) method of warfare wherein he
Lodhi’s death further aided his entry. encircled Ibrahim Lodhi’s army from both flanks
and his cavalry mounted attack with arrows and
gun-fires under expert Ottoman gunners Ustad
Ali and Mustafa.
• Babur occupied Delhi and sent his son Humayun
to seize Agra. Babur proclaimed himself as the
"Emperor of Hindustan".

➢ 1527 → DEFEATED RANA SANGA, RAJPUT

RULERS AND ALLIES AT KHANWA.

➢ RANA SANGHA
• Then in 1526 pushed further into Indian subcontinent
in search of territories and resources to satisfy the • It is believed that Babur was invited to fight
needs of the members of his clan. against Ibrahim Lodhi by Daulat Ram Lodhi
• In 1526, he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim (Governor of Punjab), Alam Khan (uncle of
Lodhi, at Panipat and captured Delhi and Agra. Ibrahim Lodhi), and Rana Sanga of Mewar.

BABUR ( 1526-30)
➢ 1526 → DEFEATED
IBRAHIM LODHI AND
HIS AFGHAN
SUPPORTERS AT
PANIPAT
Some key aspects of First Battle
of Panipat ( 1526 )

85
• Rana Sanga of Mewar expected Babur to return to
Kabul after the first battle of Panipat, but his decision
to remain in India was a big jolt to Rana's territorial
ambitions. Thus, the battle between the two was
inevitable.
• Rana Sanga of Mewar and his allies were defeated
and Babur secured his position in the Delhi-Agra
region.
• Babur declared the war against Rana Sanga to be a
jihad and adopted the title of Ghazi after the victory.
➢ 1528 → DEFEATED THE RAJPUTS AT
CHANDERI; ESTABLISHED CONTROL
OVER AGRA AND DELHI BEFORE HIS
DEATH.
• Battle of Chanderi (1528) was fought between Babur
and Medini Rai, the Rajput ruler of Malwa.
➢ 1529 → BATTLE OF GHAGRA (NEAR BIHAR)
• This battle was fought between Babur and Mahmud
Lodhi (brother of Ibrahim Lodhi, head of Afghan
chiefs).
• The Afghans surrendered Delhi, but they were still
powerful in east (Bihar and parts of Jaunpur).
➢ SIGNIFICANCE OF BABUR’S ADVENT INTO
INDIA
1. He established an all-India Empire by breaking the
power of the Rajput Confederacy.
2. Introduced new mode of warfare and led to the
popularization of gun powder, cavalry, and artillery
in India. Although gun powder was used earlier too in
India, it is Babur who popularized its use.
3. He re-established the authority of the king in Delhi,
which had been eroded since the death of Firoz Shah
Tughlaq.
4. He introduced the Char-Baghs and symmetrically laid
out gardens with running water and fountains.
5. He was a keen lover and observer of nature and has
described the flora and fauna of India in considerable
detail.
6. He was deeply learned in Persian and Arabic, and
regarded as one of the most famous writers of his
mother tongue, Turkish.
7. He wrote his memoir in Turki called Tuzuk-i-
Babri/Babarnama (translated into Persian by Abdur
Rahim Khan-i-Khana) and also wrote Masnavi.
8. Though an orthodox Sunni, he was neither bigoted
nor led by religious divines. He was a devoted
follower of Naqshbandiya Sufi Khwaja Ubaidullah
Ahrar.
9. He built two mosques, one at Panipat and another at
Sambhat in Rohilkhand.
NASIRUDDIN HUMAYUN (1530-40, 1555-56)
He succeeded Babur at the young age of 23 and had to
cope up with number of problems left behind by Babur.
The main problems faced by Humayun were
• The newly conquered territories and administration
was not consolidated and the finances were
precarious.
• Unlike Babur, Humayun did not command the respect
and esteem of Mughal nobility.
• He had to confront the hostility of the Afghans and
other prominent provincial rulers as they were not
fully subdued. This include Sher Khan, a powerful
Afghan of Bihar, and the provincial ruler of Gujarat,
Bahadur Shah.
86
• As per the Timurid tradition, Humayun had to share
power with his brother which created multiple centres
of power. • He invited two Persian painters, Mir Sayyid Ali and
Abdus Samad, and made them his court painters.
➢ BATTLE OF CHAUSA (NEAR BUXAR, 1539)
JALALUDDIN AKBAR (1556-1605)

• He not only expanded but

consolidated his empire,
making it the largest,
strongest and richest
kingdom of his time.
• He succeeded in extending
the frontiers of the empire to
➢ SHER SHAH SURI/SHER KHAN Hindukush Mountains and
checked the expansionist designs of Uzbeks of Turan
• Humayun was defeated and Sher Khan adopted the (Central Asia) and Safavids of Iran.
title of Sher Shah. • Akbar was 13 years old when he became emperor. His
reign can be divided into three parts
➢ BATTLE OF BILGRAMA / BATTLE OF
KANNAUJ (1540) ➢ 1556-1570

• After the defeat at Chausa, Humayun again was

defeated by Sher Shah and this battle decided the
issue between Sher Shah and the Mughals. This battle
drove him into exile and he took refuge in the court
of Safavid Rulers of Iran.
• In 1555 CE, following the break-up of the Sur empire,
Humayun defeated the Afghans and recovered the
Mughal throne.
• His half sister, Gulbadan Begum, wrote Humayun-
nama.
• He built a new city at Delhi which he named
Dinapanah, and constructed the Jamali mosque and
mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi.
• Humayun's tomb is called the prototype of the Taj
Mahal, and was built by his widow Haji Begum.

• Akbar became independent of the regent Bairam

Khan.

87
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 o The alliance on the one hand secured the services
of the warriors to the Mughals whereas on the
other hand, it ensured peace in Rajasthan.
o Many Rajput mansabdars were assigned their own
territories as Watan Jagir, which was hereditary
and non-transferable.
o The Rajputs also rose to important positions in
Mughal services.
• Akbar's religious policy was combined with the broad
religious tolerance. He abolished the pilgrim tax
(1563 CE) and later the Jizya (1564).
Raja Hemu
• He prohibited forcible conversion of prisoners of war.
o Bairam Khan was Humayun's favourite officer,
who served as Akbar's tutor as well as regent ➢ BATTLE OF HALDIGHATI (1576 CE)
(wazir) of the kingdom with the title of Khan -i-
Khanan.
o Bairam Khan represented Akbar in the Second
battle of Panipat (1556) with Hemu Vikramaditya
.
o Under the guidance of Bairam Khan, the Mughals
won a series of battles in quick succession and
warded off other Afghan contenders like Sikander
Sur.
• Military campaigns were launched against the Suris
and other Afghans, against the neighbouring
kingdoms of Malwa and Gondwana, and to suppress
the revolt of his half brother Mirza Hakim and the
Uzbegs. Maharana Pratap
• In 1568 the Sisodiya capital of Chittor was seized and
in 1569 Ranthambor. • Maharana Pratap, the ruler of Mewar, posed the
o After the fall of Chittor, Ranthambore (1569) and most serious challenge to the Mughal emperor and did
Kalinjar were captured. not submit before Akbar.
o In 1570 CE, Marwar, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer also • In 1576, Rana Pratap was defeated by the Mughal
submitted to Akbar. Thus, by 1570 CE, Akbar had army led by Man Singh, in the famous battle of
captured almost whole of the Rajasthan. Haldighati.
• One of the notable achievements of Akbar was that,
in spite of the subjugation of the whole of Rajasthan,
there was no hostility between Rajputs and Mughals.

• Following the defeat of Mewar, most of leading

Rajput rulers accepted Akbar's suzerainty.

o Rajput policy of Akbar proved to be beneficial to ➢ 1570-1585

the Mughal state as well as to the Rajputs.

88

➢ HALDI GHATI
1. Military campaigns in Gujarat were followed by
campaigns in the east in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
2. In 1572 CE, Akbar advanced on Ahmedabad via
Ajmer and defeated the Gujarat ruler Muzaffar Shah
without any serious resistance .
3. It was in order to commemorate the victory of Gujarat
that Akbar built the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur
Sikri.
➢ 1585-1605
• Campaigns were launched in north-west. Qandahar
was seized from the Safavids, Kashmir was annexed,
as also Kabul, after the death of Mirza Hakim.
• By 1595 CE, Mughal Supremacy was established
over the north-west region.
o The consolidation of the north-west and
fixing a frontier of the empire were two of the
major contribution of Akbar.
• Campaigns in the Deccan started and Berar,
Khandesh, and parts of Ahmadnagar were annexed.
➢ ART AND ARCHITECTURE
• He built the Agra Fort in red sandstone. His other
forts were at Lahore and Allahabad.
o He built the Jahangiri Mahal in Agra fort,
according to Hindu design based on Man Mandir.
• He built Fatehpur Sikri (city of victory) near Agra.
o The most magnificent building in it is the
Jama Masjid and the gateway to it called
Buland Darwaza. It was built in 1572 CE to
commemorate Akbar's victory over Gujarat.
o Other important buildings at Fatehpur Sikri
are Jodha Bai’s palace, the Panch Mahal with
five storeys built in the plan of a Buddhist
Vihara, the Diwan-i-Khas, the Diwan-i-
Aam, and Sheikh Salim Chisti's tomb.
• He built his own tomb at Sikandra (near Agra), which
was completed by Jahangir.
• He built the temple of Govindadeva at Vrindavan.
89
➢ ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM UNDER THE AKBAR

➢ CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
The Emperor
➢ ORGANISATION OF GOVERNMENT
• The Emperor was the supreme head of the
administration and controlled all military and judicial
powers.
• He had the authority to appoint, promote, and remove
officials at his pleasure.

Wazir

• The administration was highly centralised and the

territories of the empire were divided into Jagir,
Khalisa (income went directly to the royal
exchequer), and Inam (lands allowed to learned and
religious men).

90
• The position of the wazir was revived under the Mir Saman
Mughals under whom various heads of departments
functioned. 1. He was the officer in-charge of the royal household
• He was the principal link between the ruler and the and royal karkhanas.
administration. 2. He was responsible for all kinds of purchases,
• Akbar reorganized the central machinery of manufacturing of different articles for the use, and
administration on the basis of the division of power their storage for the royal household.
between various departments. In his determination to 3. The maintenance of etiquette at the court, the control
curb the powers of the wazir, he took away the of the royal bodyguard were all under his supervision.
financial powers from him, which was a big jolt the
wazir's power. Chief Qazi / Sadr-us Sudur
• The head of the revenue department continued to be
wazir, but he was no longer the principle adviser to
the ruler, but an expert in revenue affairs having the
title of Diwan or Diwan-i-ala.
• Diwan used to inspect all transactions and payments
in all departments and supervised the all provincial
diwans.

Mir Bakshi

• The judicial department was headed by the chief qazi.

• This post was sometimes combined with that of the
Sadr-us Sudur (Chief Sadar) who was the head of
the ecclesiastical department.
• His chief duty was to protect the laws of the Shariat
and he was responsible for all charitable and religious
endowments.
• Several restrictions were placed on the authority of
the Sadar for award of revenue free grants also. Two
• The head of the military administration was Mir striking features of Inam grants were
Bakshi who was also considered as head of the 1. Akbar granted Inam lands to all persons,
nobility. irrespective of their religious faith and beliefs.
• Recommendations for appointment to mansabs or for 2. Akbar made it a rule that half of the Inam land
promotions were made to the emperor after duly should consist of cultivable wasteland. Thus, the
endorsed by him only. Inam holders were encouraged to extend
o Once the emperor accepted the cultivation.
recommendation, it was sent to diwan for
confirmation and for assigning a jagir to the Muhtasibs (censors of public morals)
appointee.
• Mir Bakshi was also the head of the intelligence and
information agencies of the empire.
• Barids (intelligence officers) and Waqia-navis (news
reporters) were posted to all parts of the empire. Their
reports were presented to the emperor at the court
through Mir Bakshi.
• He kept a strict watch over proper maintenance of the
sanctioned size of armed contingents and war
equipage by the mansabdars.

91
 1. They were appointed to ensure the general
observance of the rules of morality.
2. He also used to examine weights and measures
and enforce fair prices.
• It is pertinent to note that the doors of nobility were
open to everyone, whether Turks, Afghans, Persians,
Hindustani, or Shaikhzadas (Indian Muslims), or
Hindu Rajputs, or Hindu Rajputs.
• Due to extremely high salaries of Mughal nobles,
there was a brain drain in reverse as India attracted
many talented persons from foreign lands to the
Mughal court.
➢ PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
The empire was divided into
• Suba (Province) → Subedar (Governor)
• Sarkar (District) → Faujdar (law and order) and
Amalguzar (Assessment and collection of land
revenue)
• Parganas (Sub-districts) → Shiqdar (Executive
officer )
• Village → Muqaddam (Village head man)
Suba
• Each suba was placed under a Subedar (provincial
governor) who was directly appointed by the
Emperor.
• The Subedar was the head of the province and
responsible for the maintenance of law and order.
• The head of the revenue department in the Suba was
the Diwan. He was appointed by the Emperor and was
an independent officer. He was to supervise the
revenue collection in the Suba and maintain accounts
of all expenditures.
o He was also expected to increase area under
cultivation. In many cases, taccavi (advance
loans) were given to peasants through this
office
• The Bakshi in the province performed the same
functions as were performed by Mir Bakshi at the
centre. He was appointed by the imperial court at the
recommendation of Mir Bakshi.
o He was responsible for checking and
inspecting the horses and soldiers maintained
by the mansabdars in the Ssuba. He issued the
pay bills of both the mansabdars and the
soldiers
• The representative of the central Sadar at the
provincial level was called Sadar. He was responsible
for the welfare of those who were engaged in
religious activities and learning. He also looked after
the judicial department and in that capacity
supervised the works of the Qazis.
• There were some other officers also who were
appointed at the provincial level. Darogai-i-Dak was
responsible for maintaining the communication
channel. He used to pass on letters to the court
through the Merwars (postal runners).
Sarkar
92
• At the level of Sarkar, there were two important
functionaries, the Faujdar and the Amalguzar.
• The primary duty of Faujdar was to maintain law and
order and safeguard the life and property of the
residents of the areas under his jurisdiction. He also
assisted in the timely collection of revenue whenever
force was required.
• The Amalguzar or Amil was the revenue collector.
His duty was to access and supervise the revenue
collection. He was expected to increase the land under
cultivation and induce the peasants to pay revenue
willingly
• The forts were placed under an officer called Qiladar.
He was in charge of the general administration of the
It should be noted that the Faujdari was an administrative
fort and the areas assigned in jagir to him.
division whereas Sarkar was a territorial and revenue
division.
➢ PORT ADMINISTRATION
Pargana
• The port administration was independent of the
provincial authority.
• The governor of the port was called Mutasaddi who
was directly appointed by the Emperor. The
Mutasaddi collected taxes on merchandise and
maintained a custom house. He also supervised the
mint house at the port.

➢ LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

• At the level of Pargana, the Shiqdar was the executive

officer. He assisted the Amil in the task of revenue
collection.
• The Quanungo kept all the records of land in the
Pargana.
• The Kotwals were appointed mainly in towns by the • Revenue from the land was the economic mainstay of
imperial government and were in charge of law and the Mughal Empire.
order. • The land revenue arrangements consisted of two
stages
Village 1. Assessment
2. Actual collection
• Jama was the amount assessed, as opposed to hasil,
• The Muqaddam was the village headman and the
the amount collected.
Patwari looked after the village revenue records.
• Amil-guzar: Revenue collector; Akbar decreed that
• The services of Zamindars were utilised for the
while amil-guzar should try to make cultivators pay
maintenance of law and order in their areas as well as
in cash, the option of payment in kind was also to be
in the collection of revenue.
kept open.

93
 1. Batai or Bhaoli: The crops are reaped and stacked
and divided by agreement in the presence of
parties.
2. Khet-Batai: It include divide the fields after they
are sown.
3. Lang-Batai: After cutting the grain, they form it in
heaps and divide it among themselves, each takes
his share home and turns it to profit.
• While fixing revenue, the attempt of the state was to
maximise its claims. The scope of actually realising
these claims was sometimes thwarted by local
conditions.
• Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured
in each province. The Ain compiled the aggregates of
such lands during Akbar's rule. Yet not all areas were
measured successfully because forest covered huge
areas of the subcontinent and thus remained
unmeasured.
• Akbar classified the lands and fixed a different
revenue to be paid by each.
• The land revenue system adopted by Akbar was
largely based on Sher Shah's system but with slight
modifications and was called Zabtior Bandobast
system, which was further improved by Raja Todar
Mal.
• Todar Mal introduced a uniform system of land
measurement, classification of land, and fixation of
rates.
• The revenue was one-third of the average produce and
was paid mostly in cash.
• In 1580 CE, Akbar introduced the Dahsala System
under which revenue was fixed on the average yield
of land assessed on the basis of past ten years.
• A number of assessment systems were followed
under the Akbar
o Batais or ghalla-bakshi: It was the most common
and oldest system wherein the produce was
divided between the peasants and the state in fixed
proportion.
o Nasaq or Kankut: A system under which a rough
appraisement on the basis of the inspection of the
crops and past payments made by the village as a
whole.
• The land was divided into four categories
1. Polaj: Cultivated every year.
2. Parati: Fallow land, cultivated once in two years.
When this land was cultivated, then full Polaj rate
has to be paid.
3. Chachar: Once in three or four years.
4. Banjar: Once in five or more years.
• Both Chachar and Banjar were assessed at
concessional rates.
• Officials called Karoris were appointed all over India
who were responsible for the collection and audited
the facts and figures supplied by the Qanungos.
• During the 17th century, two new crops, tobacco
and maize were added. Potato and red chillies came
later in the 18th century.
• Akbar asked the Amils (revenue officers) to act like a
father to the peasants and to advance taccavi loans to
the peasants for seeds, implements, animals, etc., in
times of need and to recover them in easy instalments.
• The peasants who owned the land they tilled were
called Khudkasht who paid land revenue at
customary rates.
➢ MANSABDARI SYSTEM
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• Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his
administration.
• Under this system, every officer was assigned a rank
(mansab).
• The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5,000 for
the nobles.
o For instance, Raja Man Singh and Mirza Aziz
Koka were honoured with the rank of 7,000
each.
• The mansab rank was not hereditary.
• All appointments and promotions as well as
dismissals were directly made by the emperor.
1. Iqta of the Sultanate period in a modified form
The ranks (mansabs) were further divided into two – Zat became jagir under the Mughals.
and Sawar 2. It was the system of assignment of revenue of a
particular territory to the nobles for their services
• Zat means personal status of a person in the to the state.
administration hierarchy, which also decided the 3. It was an integral part of Mansabdari system.
4. In case the payment was done through the
salary due to him.
• Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen assignment of a jagir, the office of the central
Diwan would identify parganas the sum total of
(sawars) a person was required to maintain.
whose Jama was equal to the salary claim of the
Mansabdars.
The mansabdar's position in the official hierarchy was
5. Along with Jagirdars, there were zamindars who
decided by the Zat rank.
were the people who had hereditary rights over
the produce of the land and claimed a direct share
• The Chehra (descriptive roll of every soldier) and in the peasant produce which varied from 10 % to
Dagh System (branding of horses) was followed. 25% in different parts of the country. Zamindars
• Ideally 10-20 rule was followed which meant that, for also assisted the state and Jagirdars in the
every 10 cavalrymen, the Mansabdar had to maintain collection of land revenue. They had their own
20 horses. A sawar with only one horse was armed forces.
considered to be only half a sawar.
• As a matter of fact, the Mughal Mansabdars formed
• One thing should be noted that the zamindar was
the highest paid service in the world.
not the "owner" of all the lands comprising his
• In addition of meeting his personal expenses, the
zamindari.
Mansabdar had to maintain a stipulated quota of
horses, elephants, camels, mules, and carts. • The peasants who actually cultivated the land
• The only drawback of Mughals was lack of a strong could not be dispossessed as long as they paid the
and effective navy. land revenue.
• Thus, the zamindars and the peasants had their
own hereditary rights in land.
Different terminologies were used for persons holding
different ranks

• Mansabdar: Person holding 500 zat

• Amirs: Person holding ranks from 500 to 2500
• Amirl-i-umda: Person holding ranks from 2500 and
above.

➢ THE JAGIRDARI SYSTEM

95
➢ RELIGIOUS POLICY
• In 1575 CE, Akbar constructed the Ibadat Khana
(Hall of prayers) at his new capital Fatehpur Sikri
where Akbar invited learned scholars from all
religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity, and
Zoroastrianism and used to conduct religious
discussions with them.
• Some of the scholars were
o Pursottam Das (Hindu)
o Dastur Maharji Rana (Parsi)
o Hira Vijaya Suri (Jain)
o Aquaviva and Monserrate (Christian)
• He disliked the interference of the Muslim ulemas in
political matters. In 1579 CE, he issued the
"Infallibility Decree" by which he asserted his
religious powers.
• In 1582 CE, he promulgated a new religion called
Din-i-Ilahi/Tauhind-i-Ilahi (Divine Monotheism),
which believes in one God and Sul-i-Kul / Peace to
all. It contained good points of all religions and the
basics were rational.
However, his new faith proved to be a failure. It fizzled
out after his death. Even during his lifetime, it had only
followers including Birbal, Abul Fazl, and Abul Faizi.
Akbar's Navratanas
1. Abul Fazl who wrote Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Nama.
2. Faizi who was a persian poet and brother of Abul
Fazl.
3. Fakir Aziao Din who was a Sufi mystic and one of
the chief advisors of Akbar.
4. Tansen, a great musician who served as a court
musician to King Ramachandra. He accepted Islam at
the hand of great Sufi mystic saint Muhammad Ghaus
of Gwalior.
5. Raja Birbal / Mahesh Das, a courtier to whom Akbar
gave the title of both Raja and Birbal. He died fighting
Yusuf Shahis on North West frontiers.
6. Raja Todar Mal, was a finance minister who
overlooked revenue system. Earlier he worked under
Sher Shah Suri . He introduced standard weights and
measurements, revenue districts and officers. In 1582
CE, Akbar bestowed on him the title of Diwan-i-
Ashraf.
7. Raja Man Singh, was a Mansabdar and grandson of
Akbar's father-in-law .
8. Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan was a great poet,
although a Muslim by birth, a devotee of Lord
Krishna. He translated Babarnama into Turki. He was
son of Bairam Khan.
9. Mirza Aziz Koka, also known as Khan-i-Azam, he
was one of the leading nobles, and also the foster
brother of Akbar. He also served as the Subedar of
Gujarat.
JAHANGIR (1605-27)
• He was the eldest son of Jodha Bai and Akbar.
• He was named Salim after blessings of Sheikh Salim
Chishti.
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• Military campaigns started • He employed a number of painters like Abdul Hasan,
by Akbar continued. The Bishan Das (regarded as master of portraits), Ustad
Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Mansur (specialist in animal painting).
Amar Singh, accepted • The use of "Halo" or "Divine lights" behind kings
Mughal service. head started under him.
• Less successful campaigns • Apart from painting the scenes of hunting, battles
against the Sikhs, the Ahoms and royal courts, progress was made in portrait
and Ahmadnagar followed. painting and paintings of animals.
• The fifth Sikh guru, Arjun
Dev, was beheaded for SHAH JAHAN (1628-58)
supporting the rebel prince Khusrau.
• Mehrunnisa married the Emperor Jahangir in 1611 1. Under his rule, Mughal
and received title Nur Jahan Padshah Begum. She campaigns continued in
remained extremely loyal and supportive to the the Deccan under him.
monarch. As a mark of honour, Jahangir struck silver Afghan noble Khan
coins bearing his own titles on one side and on the Jahan Lodi rebelled and
other side the name of the Queen Begum, Nur Jahan. was defeated.
• The British visited Machlipatnam during Jahangir’s 2. Campaigns were
reign. Captain Hawkins (1608-11) and Thomas Roe launched against
(1615 -1619) visited his court. Thomas Roe got the Ahmadnagar; the Bundelas were defeated and Orchha
farman for setting up an English factory at Surat. seized. In the north-west, the campaign to seize Balk
• He wrote the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (autobigraphy) in from the Uzbeks was unsuccessful and Qandahar was
Persian. During his reign, Abdul Hamid Lahori wrote lost to the Safavids.
Padshah Namah. 3. In 1632, Ahmadnagar was finally annexed and the
Bijapur forces sued for peace.
➢ ART AND ARCHITECTURE DURING 4. In 1632 CE, Shah Jahan defeated the Portuguese
JAHANGIR'S REIGN near Hugli due to regular abuse of trading
privilege by them.
1. The practice of putting up buildings in marble and 5. His reign is considered the "The Golden Age" of the
decorating the walls with floral designs made of semi- Mughal Empire. He built
precious stones (known as Pietra Durra) started
during his reign. ➢ TAJ MAHAL
2. Jahangir built Moti Masjid at Lahore and his own
mausoleum at Lahore. He laid a number of gardens
such as the Shalimar and Nishat gardens in Kashmir.

➢ MUGHAL PAINTINGS REACHED ITS

ZENITH UNDER JAHANGIR

• The construction of Taj Mahal was commissioned in

1631 CE and was constructed in 22 years. The
architectural design was prepared by Ustad Isa and Isa
Muhammad Effendi, while the domain was designed
by Ismail Khan.

97
• Mosque-building reached its peak during his reign. o After Akbar rebellion Aurangzeb sent armies
He built the Moti Masjid at Agra (built entirely in against the Deccan Sultanates. Bijapur was
white marble), Sheesh Mahal and Mussaman Burj at annexed in 1685 and Golconda in 1687.
Agra, while Jama Masjid at Delhi was built in red
stone.
• The climax of fort-building reached during the reign
of Shah Jahan. The famous Red fort at Delhi with its
Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am, and Diwan-i-Khas was his
creation.
• He also built the Jama Masjid in Delhi, Shalimar
Bagh in Lahore, and the city of Shahjahanabad.
• He also got Bebadal Khan to build the Peacock
throne, on which is inscribed the Amir Khusrao
couplet: "if there is a paradise on earth, it is here".
• Shah Jahan patronized many writers and historians
like Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Nama. His
son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and
Upanishads into Persian language.
• In 1657-1658, there was conflict over succession
amongst Shah Jahan's sons. Aurangzeb was
victorious and Shah Jahan was imprisoned for the rest
of his life in Agra. Aurangzeb crowned himself with
the title of "Alamgir" (Conqueror of the world).

AURANGZEB (1658-1707)

• From 1698 Aurangzeb personally managed

• In the north-east, the Ahoms were defeated in 1663,
but rebelled again in 1680s.
• Campaigns in the north-west against the Yusufzai and
the Sikhs were temporarily successful. Campaigns
against Maratha chieftain Shivaji were initially
successful.
• Aurangzeb followed the policy of outright
annexation of the Deccan states.
• Prince Akbar rebelled against Aurangzeb and
received support from the Marathas and the Deccan
Sultanate. He finally fled to Safavid Iran.
campaigns in the Deccan against Marathas who
started guerrilla warfare.
• Aurangzeb also had to face the rebellion in north
India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis, in the north-east
of the Ahoms and in the Deccan of the Marathas.
• His death was followed by a succession conflict
amongst his sons.
• Aurangzeb was a staunch and orthodox Muslim in his
personal life and his ideal was to transform India into
an Islamic state. Initially, Aurangzeb banned the
construction of new Hindu temples and the repair of
old temples, but later he gradually started destroying
Hindu temples.
• The celebrated temples of Keshava Rai at Mathura
(built in the reign of Jahangir) and the Vishwanath
temple at Banaras were reduced to ruins and mosques
erected in their place.
• In 1679 CE, he reimposed jiziya and pilgrim tax.

98
• He was not tolerant of other Muslim sects. The ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL LIFE UNDER THE
celebration of Muharram was stopped. In fact, his MUGHALS
invasions against the Deccan sultanates were partly
due to his hatred of the Shia faith.
➢ GROWTH OF TRADE
• In 1675 CE, he executed the ninth Sikh Guru, Tegh
Bahadur, which resulted in the rebellion of Sikh
community against him.

Panting displaying Jziya Tax

• Seth, bohra traders specialised in long distance
• Various rebellions took place during his reign due to trade while local traders were called banik.
his harsh religious policy. This included the • Another class of traders known as banjaras, were
rebellions of the Jat peasantry at Mathura, the specialised in carrying bulk goods and used to
Satnami peasantry in Punjab, and the Bundelas in move to long distances with their goods on the
Bundelkhand.. back of oxen. The trading community did not
• He gave excessive powers to the office of Muhtasib belong to one caste or religion.
(the officer entrusted to enforce moral codes). • For instance, the Gujarati merchants included
• Throughout his kingdom, drinking was prohibited Hindus, Jains, and Muslims, in Rajasthan Oswals,
and cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were Maheshwaris, and Agarwals came to be called the
banned. He also forbade music in the Mughal court Marwaris, while in south India, the Chettis on the
and he discontinued the practice of Jharokha darshan Coromandal coast and the Muslim merchants of
and the system of weighing the emperor in gold. Malabar formed important trading communities.
• He forbade astrologers from preparing almanacs,
forbade the use of Kalma inscribed on his coins, ➢ DIFFERENT REGIONS EMERGED AS
abolished Nauroz and also forbade Sati. PROMINENT TRADING STATIONS
• His Rajput policy alienated the Rajputs and they
gradually lost their position in the administrative
set up.
• He was learned and proficient in Arabic and Persian
languages and was a great lover of books. He
patronised the greatest digest of Muslim law in India,
Fatwa -i-Alamgiri.
• It is believed that he also issued secular decrees,
called zawabit which sometimes supplementing the
shara, often modified it in view of the conditions
prevalent in India.

• Bengal exported sugar, rice, as well as delicate

muslin and silk.

99
• The Coromandal coast became a centre of textile
production.
• Gujarat was an entry point of foreign goods. From
there, fine textiles and silk were taken to north India.
• Indigo and food grains were exported from north
India through Gujarat. It was also the distribution
centre for the luxury products of Kashmir such as
shawls and carpets.
• India witnessed further intensification of foreign
trade owing to the advent of the European trading
companies and their direct participation in the Euro-
Asian and Intra-Asian trade.
• India had trade relations with central Asia, Persia, and
Europe.
• The major exports of India included textiles,
saltpetre, sugar, opium, and spices.
• In comparison to the export, the imports were limited
to select commodities like war horses, luxury items
such as ivory, silver, silk, porcelain, good quality
wine, carpets, perfume, glass, watches, silver utensils,
tin and copper.
• The movement of goods occurred through a complex
network, linking wholesalers with merchants down to
the regional and local levels through agents
(gumashtas) and commission agents (dalals).
• The movements of the goods was facilitated by the
growth of a financial system which permitted easy
transmission of money from one part of the country
to another.
• This was done through the use of hundis (a paper
document promising payment of money after a fixed
period of time at a discount and certain place).
o The hundis often included insurance which
was charged at different rates on the basis of
value of the goods, destination, means of
transport.
o The sarrafs (shroffs) who specialised in
changing money, also specialised in dealing
with hundis.
o In the process, the shroffs acted as private
banks as they lent money to the nobles and
kept their money too. By the means of hundis,
they created credit which supplemented the
money in circulation.
• The trading community in India included some of the
richest merchants such as Virji Vohra, Abdul Ghafur
Bohra, Malay Chetti of Coromandel coast etc.
• Each community of merchants had its leader known
as nagarseth, who could intercede with the local
officials on their behalf.
➢ AGRARIAN SOCIETY AND MUGHAL
EMPIRE
• During the 16th and 17th centuries, about 85% of the
population of India lived in its villages.
• Both peasants and landed elites were involved in
agriculture production and claimed rights to a share
of the produce. This created relationships of
cooperation, competition, and conflict among them.
The sum of these agrarian relationships made up rural
society.
• From Ain-i-Akbari (Mughal chronicle), we get the
arrangements made by the state to ensure cultivation,
to enable the collection of revenue by the agencies of
the state and to regulate the relationship between the
state and rural magnates, the zamindars.
• The term which Indo-Persian sources of the Mughal
period most frequently used to denote a peasant was
raiyat or muzarian. We also get the terms kisan or
asami for peasants.
THERE WERE TWO KINDS OF PEASANTS
• Khud-kashta: Who were residents of the village in
which they held their lands.
• Pahi-kashta: Who were non-resident cultivators who
belong to some other village, but cultivated land on a
contractual basis.
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• The abundance of land, available labour, and the • There were three constituents of village community
mobility of peasants were three factors that accounted 1. the cultivators
for the constant expansion of agriculture. 2. the panchayat
• Monsoons remained the backbone of Indian 3. the village headman (maqaddam or mandal)
agriculture and irrigation projects received state • The village panchayat was an assembly of elders,
support as well. For example, in northern India, the usually important people of the village with
state undertook digging of new canals (nahr, nala) and hereditary rights over their property.
also repaired old one like the shahnahr in the Punjab • The panchayat represented various castes and
during the Shah Jahan's reign. communities in the village, though the village menial-
• Agriculture was labour intensive, peasants did use cum-agricultural workers was unlikely to be
technologies that often harnessed cattle energy. For represented there.
example, wooden plough. • The decisions made by these panchayats were binding
• Agriculture in medieval India was not only for on the members.
subsistence. We often come across the terms jins-i- • Village headmen held office as long as they enjoyed
kamil (perfect crop). Mughal state also encouraged the confidence of the village elders, failing which
peasants to cultivate such crops which brought them they could be dismissed by them.
more revenue. Crops such as cotton and sugarcane • The chief function of the headmen was to supervise
were jins-i-kamil par excellence. the preparation of village accounts, assisted by the
• During the 17th century, several new crops from accountant or patwari of the panchayat.
different parts of the world reached the Indian
subcontinent. Maize (makka) was introduced into
India via Africa and Spain. Vegetables like tomatoes,
potatoes, and chillies were introduced from the New
World at this time, as were fruits like pineapple and
the papaya.
• Tobacco plant, which arrived first in Deccan, spread
to northern India in the early years of 17th century.
Akbar and his nobles came across tobacco in 1604.
Jahangir was so concerned about its addiction that he
banned it. By the end of 17th century, tobacco had
become a major article of consumption, cultivation,
and trade all over India.

CULTIVATOR, PANCHAYAT, AND THE

VILLAGE HEADMEN

• Panchayat derived its funds from contributions made

by individuals to a common financial pool. Expenses
for community welfare activities such as tiding over
natural calamities, were also met from these funds.
• One important function of the panchayat was to
ensure that caste boundaries among various
communities inhabiting the village were upheld.

101
• Panchayats also had the authority to levy fines and
inflict more serious forms of punishment like
expulsion from the community. Such a measure was
intended as a deterrent to violation of caste norms.
• In addition to the village panchayat, each caste or jati
in the village had its own jati panchayat. These
panchayats had considerable power in rural society.
In most cases, except in matters of criminal justice,
the state respected the decisions of jati panchayats.
• People regarded the village panchayats as the court of
appeal that would ensure that the state carried out its
moral obligations and guaranteed justice.
• In case of excessive revenue demands, panchayat
often suggested compromise. In case where
reconciliation failed, peasants took recourse to more
drastic forms of resistance, such as deserting the
village. The relatively easy availability of
uncultivated land and the competition over labour
resources made this an effective weapon in the hands
of cultivators.
CASTE, POVERTY AND SOCIAL STATUS
• There was a direct correlation between caste, poverty
and social status at the lower strata of society.
Despite the abundance of cultivable land, certain
caste groups were assigned menial tasks and thus
relegated to poverty.
a. For example, In Muslim communities menials
like the halalkhoran (scavengers) were housed
outside the boundaries of the village. Similarly
the mallahzadas (sons of boatmen) in Bihar were
comparable to slaves.
• Castes such as the Ahirs, Gujars, and Malis rose in the
hierarchy because of the profitability of cattle rearing
and horticulture.
• In the eastern regions, intermediate pastoral, and
fishing castes like the Sadgops and Kaivartas
acquired the status of peasants.
• Deep inequalities on the basis of caste and other
caste-like distinctions meant that the cultivators were
a highly heterogeneous group. Among those who
tilled the land, there was a sizeable number who
worked as menials or agricultural labourers
(majur).
➢ VILLAGE ARTISANS
• Like potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, barbers, even
goldsmiths – provided specialised services in return
for which they were compensated by villagers by a
variety of means. The most common way of doing so
was by giving them a share of the harvest, or an
allotment of land, which was likely to be decided by
the panchayat.
• Another variant of this was a system where artisans
and individual peasant households entered into a
mutually negotiated system of remuneration, most of
the time goods for services.
o For example, 18th Century records tell us of
zamindars in Bengal who remunerated
blacksmiths, carpenters, even goldsmiths for
their work by paying them "a small daily
allowance and diet money". This later came
to be described as the jajmani system.
• It indicates the intricate ways in which exchange
networks operated at the micro-level of the village.
Cash remuneration was not entirely unknown either.
In the Mughal heartland too, revenue was assessed
and collected in cash. Artisans producing for the
export market received their advances or wages in
cash.
• Shroff: They act as bankers to make remittances of
money.
➢ WOMEN IN AGRARIAN SOCIETY
• The basis of agricultural production was the labour
and resources of the entire household. So, a gendered
segregation between the home (for women) and the
world (for men) was not possible in this context. But
the biases related to women's biological functions did
continue. For example, menstruating women were not
allowed to touch the plough in western India.
• High mortality rates among women – owing to
malnutrition, frequent pregnancies, death during child
birth – often meant a shortage of wives. This led to
the emergence of social customs in peasant and
artisan communities that were distinct from those
102
 prevalent among elite groups. Marriages in many
rural communities required the payment of bride-
price rather than dowry to the bride family.
Remarriage was considered legitimate both among
divorced and widowed women.
• Women were considered an important resource in
agrarian society because they were child bearer in a
society dependent on labour.
• Artisanal tasks such as spinning yarn, shifting and
kneading clay for pottery, and embroidery were
among the many aspects of production dependent on
female labour.
• According to the established social norms, the
household was headed by a male. Women were kept
under strict control by the male members of the
family and the community.
• Amongst the landed gentry, women had the right to
inherit property. Hindu and Muslim women inherited
zamindaris which they were free to sell or mortgage.
Instances from the Punjab show that women,
including widows, actively participated in the rural
land market as sellers of property inherited by them.
➢ FORESTS AND TRIBES
• Apart from the intensively cultivated provinces in
northern and north-west India, huge swathes of
forests – dense forest (jangal) or scrubland
(kharbandi) – existed all over eastern India, central
India, northern India, in Western Ghats, and the
Deccan plateau.
• Forest dwellers were termed as Jangali which means
those whose livelihood came from the gathering of
forest produce, hunting, and shifting agriculture.
These activities were largely season specific.
• For the state, the forest was a subversive place – a
place of refuge (mawas) for troublemakers. Once
Babur said that jungles provide a good defence
"behind which the people of the pargana become
stubbornly rebellious and pay no taxes".
• The state required elephants for the army. So the
peshkash levied from forest people often included a
supply of elephants. Peshkash was a form of tribute
collected by the Mughal state.
• In the Mughal political ideology, the hunt
symbolised the overwhelming concern of the state
to ensure justice to all its subjects, rich and poor.
o Regular hunting expeditions enabled the
emperor to travel across the extensive
territories of his empire and personally attend
to the grievances of its inhabitants. So the
hunt was a subject frequently painted by
court artists.
• The spread of commercial agriculture was an
important external factor that impinged on the lives of
those who lived in the forests. Forest products – like
honey, beeswax and gum lac, became major items of
overseas export from India in the 17th century.
• Some tribes, like the Lohanis in the Punjab, were
engaged in overland trade, between India and
Afghanistan.
• Many tribal chiefs had become zamindars, some even
become kings. They recruited people from their
lineage groups or demanded that their fraternity
provide military service. For example, tribes in the
Sindh region had armies comprising 6,000 cavalry
and 7,000 infantry.
• In Assam, the Ahom kings had their paiks, people
who were obliged to render military service in
exchange for land. They declare capturing of wild
elephants a royal monopoly of Ahom kings.
• Though the transition from a tribal to a monarchical
system had started much earlier, the process seems to
have become fully developed only by the 17th
century.
• War was a common occurrence. For instance, the
Koch kings fought and subjugated a number of
neighbouring tribes in a long sequence of wars
through the 16th and 17th centuries.
ZAMINDARS AND ZABT
• Zamindars: The Mughals used this term – zamindars
– to describe all intermediaries, whether they were
local headmen of villages or powerful chieftains.
• They were landed proprietors who also enjoyed
certain social and economic privileges by the virtue
of their superior status in rural society. They held
extensive personal lands termed as milkiyat, meaning
property. Milkiyat lands were cultivated for the
private use of zamindars, often with the help of the
hired or servile labour.
• Caste was one factor that accounted for the elevated
status of zamindars; another factor was that they
performed certain services (khidmat) for the state.
• Zamindars derived their power from the fact that they
could often collect revenue on the behalf of the state,
a service for which they were compensated
financially.
• Control over military resources was another source of
power for zamindars. Most zamindars had fortresses
103
 (qilachas) as well as an armed contingent comprising
units of cavalry, artillery, and infantry.
• Zamindars spearheaded the colonisation of
agricultural land, and helped in setting cultivators by
providing them with the means of cultivation,
including cash loans.
• The buying and selling of zamindaris accelerated
the process of monetisation in the countryside.
• Zamindars often established markets (haats) to
which peasants also came to sell their produce. They
also sold the produce from their milkiyat lands.
➢ ZABT
• Akbar’s revenue minister, Todar Mal, carried out a
careful survey of crop yields, prices and areas
cultivated for a 10 year period, 1570-80. On the basis
of this data, tax was fixed on each crop in cash.
• Each province was divided into revenue circles with
its own schedule of revenue rates for individual crops.
This revenue system was known as zabt.
• It was prevalent in those areas where Mughal
administrators could survey the land. This was not
possible in provinces such as Gujarat and Bengal.
➢ ZAMINDARS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP
WITH PEASANTRY:-
• Their relationship with peasantry had an element of
reciprocity, paternalism, and patronage. Two aspects
reinforce this view.
o The bhakti saints, who condemned the caste-
based and other forms of oppression, did not
portray the zamindars as the exploiters of the
peasantry. Usually it was the revenue official of
the state who was the object of their ire.
o In a large number of agrarian uprisings which
erupted in north India in the 17th century,
zamindars often received the support of the
peasantry in their struggle against the state.
ENORMOUS INEQUALITY
• Documents from the 20th year of Shah Jahan's reign
inform us that the highest – ranking mansabdars were
only 445 in the number out of a total of 8,000. This
small number – a mere 5.6% of the total number of
mansabdars – received 61.5% of the total estimated
revenue of the empire as salaries for themselves and
their troopers.
• The Mughal emperor and their mansabdars spent a
great deal of their income on salaries and goods. This
expenditure benefited the artisans and peasantry who
supplied them with goods and produce. But the scale
of revenue collection left very little for investment in
the hands of the primary producers - the peasants and
artisans.
MUGHAL TRADITIONS OF SUCCESSION
• Mughals did not believe in the rules of
primogeniture, where the eldest son inherited his
father’s estate.
• They followed the Mughal and Timurid custom of
coparcenary inheritance, or a division of the
inheritance amongst all the sons.
THE PRODUCTION OF CHRONICLES
• Chronicles were written in order to project a vision of
an enlightened kingdom to all those who come under
its umbrella. Rulers also wanted to ensure that there
was an account of their rule for prosperity.
• They also meant to convey to those who resisted the
rule of the Mughals that all resistance was destined to
fail.
• Authors of Mughal chronicles were courtiers. They
wrote on events centred on the ruler, his family, the
court and nobles, wars and administrative
arrangements.
• Akbar Nama, Shahjahan Nama Alamgir Nama:
such titles suggest that the history of the empire and
the court was synonymous with that of empire.
➢ FROM TURKISH TO PERSIAN
• Mughal court chronicles were written in Persian.
• Under the Sultans of Delhi, it flourished as a language
of the court and of literary writings, alongside north
Indian languages, especially Hindavi and its regional
variants.
• Mughals were Chaghtai Turks by origin, Turkish was
their mother tongue. Their first ruler Babur wrote
poetry in this language.
• It was Akbar who consciously set out to make Persian
the leading language of the Mughal court.
• Persian was elevated to a language of empire, it was
spoken by the king, the royal household and the elite
at court. It became the language of administration at
104
 all levels so that accountants, clerks and other
functionaries also learnt it.
• Reason of adopting Persian
o It may be due to the cultural and intellectual
contact with Iran, as well as a regular stream
of Iranian and Central Asian migrants
seeking positions at the Mughal court, might
have motivated the emperor to adopt the
language.
• Persian too became Indianised by absorbing local
idioms. A new language Urdu, sprang from the
interaction of Persian and Hindavi.
• Mughal chronicles such as Akbar Nama were written
in Persian, Babur's memoirs were translated from
Turkish into the Persian.
• Translations of Sanskrit texts such as the Mahabhrata
and Ramayana into Persian were commissioned by
the Mughal emperors.
• Mahabharata was translated as Razmnama, Book
of Wars.
➢ THE MAKING OF MANUSCRIPTS
• All books in Mughal India were manuscripts, that is,
they were handwritten.
• Centre of manuscript production was the imperial
kitabkhana.
• Calligraphers and painters held a high social standing
while others, such as paper makers or book binders,
have remained anonymous artisans.
• Calligraphy, the art of handwriting was considered a
skill of great importance.
• Akbar's favourite style was nastaliq, a fluid style with
long horizontal strokes, written with qalam.
• Muhammad Husayin of Kashmir (1575-1605), one of
the finest calligraphers at Akbar's court, who was
honoured with the title "Zarrin qalam" (golden pen).
➢ THE PAINTED IMAGE
• The production of paintings portraying the emperor,
his court, and the people who were part of it, was a
source of constant tension between rulers and
representatives of Muslim orthodoxy, the ulama.
• It was against the spirit of Quran. According to them,
the depiction of living beings in a naturalistic manner
is forbidden because it would suggest that the artist
was seeking to appropriate the power of creation. This
was a function that was believed to belong to God.
• The Safavid kings of Iran patronised the finest artists
who were trained in the finest artists. A painter named
Bihzad – contributed to spreading the cultural fame of
the Safavid court far and wide.
• Artists from Iran also made their way to Mughal
India. For example, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus
Samad, who were made to accompany Emperor
Humayun to Delhi
➢ THE AKBAR NAMA AND THE BADSHAH
NAMA
• Mughal chronicles the Akbar Nama and Badshah
Nama are the most well known.
• Each manuscript contained an average of 150 full or
double-page paintings of battle, sieges, hunts,
building construction, court scenes, etc.
• The author of the Akbar Nama, Abu'l Fazl l grew up
in the Mughal capital of Agra. He was widely read in
Arabic, Persian, Greek philosophy and Sufism. He
was a forceful debater and independent thinker who
consistently opposed the views of the conservative
ulama. These qualities impressed Akbar, who found
Abu'l Fazl ideally suited as an adviser and a spoke
person for his policies.
• One of the objective of the emperor was to free the
state from the control of religious orthodoxy. In his
role as court historian, Abu'l Fazl both shaped and
articulated the ideas associated with the reign of
Akbar.
• Begining in 1589, Abu’l Fazl worked on the Akbar
Nama for 13 years.
o Akbar Nama is divided into three books of
which the first two are chronicles. The third
book is the Ain-i-Akbari.
105
• First volume contains the history of mankind from
Adam to one celestial cycle of Akbar's life (30 years).
• Akbar Nama was written to provide a detailed
description of all aspects of Akbar's empire –
geographic, social, administrative and cultural –
without reference to chronology (diachronic
account: trace developments over time).
• In the Ain-i-Akbari, the Mughal Empire is presented
as having diverse population consisting of Hindus,
Jainas, Buddhists, and Muslims and a composite
culture.
• Gifting manuscripts was an established diplomatic
custom under the Mughals. For example, the Nawab
of Awadh gifted Badshah Nama to King George III in
1799.
• Badshah Nama: it was written by a pupil of Abu'l
Fazl, Abdul Hamid Lahori.
a. Shah Jahan commissioned him to write a
history of his reign modelled on the Akbar
Nama.
b. Badshah Nama is the official history in 3 volumes
of ten lunar years of each.
c. Lahori wrote the first and second volume
(daftars) comprising the first two decades of the
emperor’s rule (1627-47).
d. Infirmities of old age prevented Lahori from
proceeding with the third decade which was then
chronicled by the historian Waris.
➢ THE AIN-I-AKBARI OF ABU’L FAZL
It was the culmination of a large historical, administrative
project of classification undertaken by Abu'l Fazl at the
order of Emperor Akbar. It was completed in 1598.
• The Ain-i-Akbari, the third book, was organized as a
compendium of imperial regulations and a gazetteer
of the empire.
• It gives detailed accounts of the organization of the
court, administration and army, the sources of
revenue and the physical layout of the provinces of
Akbar’s empire and the literary, cultural and religious
traditions of the people.
• It provided a rich statistical details about things as
diverse as crops, yield, wages and revenues.
• It is made up of five books (daftars), of which the first
three books describe the administration.
o Manzil-abadi: It is the first book which concerns
the imperial household and its maintenance.
o Sipahi-abadi: The second book which covers the
military and civil administration and the
establishment of servants. It includes notices and
short biographical sketches of imperial officials
(mansabdars), learned men, poets and artists.
o Mulk-abadi: The third book is the one which
deals with the fiscal side of the empire and
provides rich quantitative information on revenue
rates. It has detailed statistical information, which
includes geographic, topographic and economic
profile of all the subas and their administrative
and fiscal divisions (sarkars, parganas and
mahals), total measured area, and assessed
revenue (Jama).
o Fourth and fifth books deal with the religious,
literary and cultural traditions of the people of
India and also contain a collection of Akbar's
"auspicious sayings".
Limitation: The limitation of Ain-i-Akbari is the
somewhat skewed nature of the quantitative data. Data
were not collected uniformly from all provinces.
➢ MUGHAL CHRONICLES AND THE
COLONIAL PERIOD
• During the colonial period, British administrators
began to study Indian history and to create an archive
of knowledge about the subcontinent to help them to
better understand the people and the cultures of the
empire they sought to rule.
• The Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded by Sir
William Jones in 1784, undertook the editing,
printing and translation of many Indian manuscripts.
• Akbar Nama and Badshah Nama were first published
by the Asiatic Society in the 19th century.
• In the early 20th century, the Akbarnama was
translated into English by Henry Beveridge.
106
A DIVINE LIGHT
• Court chroniclers show that the power of the
Mughal Kings came directly from God.
• Abu'l Fazl placed Mughal kingship as the highest
station in the hierarchy of objects receiving light
emanating from God (farr-i-izadi). Here he was
inspired by a famous Iranian sufi, Shihabuddin
Suhrawardi who first developed this idea.
o According to this idea, there was a
hierarchy in which the Divine Light was
transmitted to the king who then became
the source of spiritual guidance for his
subjects.
• Mughal artists, from the 17th century onwards, began
to portray emperors wearing the halo, which they saw
on European paintings of Christ and the Virgin Mary
to symbolise the light of God.
A UNIFYING FORCE
Ibadat Khana
• Ibadat Khana: While Akbar was at Fatehpur Sikri
during the 1570s, he started discussions on religion
with the ulama, Brahmans, Jesuit priests and
Zoroastrians. All these discussions took place in
ibadat khana.
• Akbar's interaction with people of different faiths
made him realise that religious scholars who
emphasized ritual and dogma were often bigots. Their
teachings created divisions and disharmony amongst
his subjects. This led eventually Akbar to the idea of
sulh-i-kul or "universal peace".
o Sulh-i-kul: This idea of tolerance did not
discriminate between people of different
religions in his realm. It focused on a system
of ethics – honesty, justice, peace – that was
universally applicable.
o Abu'l Fazl describes the ideal of Sulh-i-kul
(absolute peace) as the cornerstone of
enlightened rule.
• Mughal chronicles present the empire as
compromising many different ethnic and religious
communities – Hindu, Jainas, Zoroastrians and
Muslims.
• All religions and schools of thought had freedom of
expression but on condition that they did not
undermine the authority of the state or fight among
themselves.
• The ideal of Sulh-i-kul was implemented through
state policies - the nobility under the mughal was a
composite one comprising Iranis, Turanis, Afghans,
Rajputs, Deccanis- all of whom were given positions
and awards purely on the basis of their service and
loyalty to the king.
• Akbar abolished the tax on pilgrimage in 1563 and
jizya in 1564 as the two were based on religious
discrimination.
• Instructions were sent to officers of the empire to
follow the precept of sulh-i-kul in administration.
• All Mughal emperors gave grants to support the
building and maintenance of places of worship. Even
when temples were destroyed during war, grants were
later issued for their repair— as we know from the
reigns of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. During the reign
of the latter, the jizya was re-imposed on non-Muslim
subjects.
JUST SOVEREIGNTY AS SOCIAL
CONTRACT
• Abu'l Fazl defined sovereignty as a social contract:
the emperor protects the four essences of his
subjects and in return demands obedience and share
of resources. The four essences are
1. Life (jan)
2. Property (mal)
3. Honour (namus)
4. Fith (din)
• One of the favourite symbols used by artists was the
motif of the lion and the lamb peacefully nestling next
to each other. This was meant to signigfy a realm
where both the strong and the weak could exist in
harmony.
o Court scenes from the illustrated Badshah Nama
place such motifs in a niche directly below the
emperor's throne.
107
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CAPITALS AND COURTS

Buland Darwaza
• In court, status was determined by spatial proximity
• Capital cities: The heart of the Mughal Empire was
to the king. The place accorded to a courtier by the
its capital city, where court assembled.
ruler was a sign of importance in the eyes of the
• Babur took over the Lodi capital of Agra. During
emperor.
1560s, Akbar had the fort of Agra constructed with
• Chahar taslim and Kornish: Form of salutation.
red sandstone quarried from the adjoining regions.
1. The forms of salutation to the ruler indicated the
o In 1570s, he decided to build a new capital,
person's status in the hierarchy. The highest form
Fatehpur Sikri. This may be because the Sikri
of submission was sijda or complete prostration.
was located on the direct road to Ajmer,
2. Under Shah Jahan, these rituals were replaced
where the dargah of Shaikh Muinuddin
with chahar taslim and zaminbos (kissing the
Chishti had become an important pilgrimage
ground).
centre.
• Jharokha Darshan (Jharokha: small
o The Mughal emperors entered into a close
balcony) was introduced by Akbar with the objective
relationship with Sufis of the Chishti Silsila.
of broadening the acceptance of the imperial authority
• Akbar commissioned the construction of a white
as part of popular faith. After spending an hour in
marble tomb for Saikh Salim Chishti next to the
morning at the Jharokha, the emperor walked to the
majestic Friday mosque at Sikri.
public hall of audience (diwan-i-am) to conduct the
• The enormous arched gateway (Buland Darwaza)
primary business of his government.
was meant to remind visitors of the Mughal victory in
• Diwan-i-Khas: where the emperor hold private
Gujarat.
audiences and discuss their confidential matters.
• In 1585, the capital was shifted to Lahore to bring the
• Shab-i-barat: It is the full moon night on the 14
north-west under greater control and Akbar closely
Shaban, the 8th month of hijri calendar and is
watched the frontiers for 13 years.
celebrated with prayers and fireworks in the
• Shah Jahan pursued sound fiscal policies and
subcontinent.
accumulated enough money to indulge his passion for
• Jashn-i-wazn: Being weighted in precious metals.
building.
(Tula dan).
• In 1648 the court, army and household moved from
• Mughal kings celebrated three major festivals a year:
Agra to the newly completed imperial capital,
1. Solar and lunar birthdays of the monarch
Shahjanabad.
2. Nauroz
• Shahjanabad was a new addition to the old residential
3. Iranian New Year on the vernal equinox
city of Delhi, with Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, bazaars
(Chandni Chowk), and spacious homes for the
nobility. ➢ TITLES AND GIFTS

• Grand titles were adopted by the Mughal emperors at

➢ THE MUGHAL COURTS
the time of coronation or after an victory over an
enemy.

108
• Granting of titles to men of merit was an important
aspect of Mughal polity.
• The title Mirza Raja was accorded by Aurangzeb to
his two highest ranking nobles, Jai Singh and Jaswant
Singh.
• Titles could be earned or paid. For example, Mir
Khan offered Rs 1 lakh to Aurangzeb for the letter alif
,that is A, to be added to his name to make it Amir
Khan.
• Ambassadors performed the important function of
negotiating treaties and relationship between
competing political powers. In such context gifts had
an important symbolic role.
BEYOND THE FRONTIERS
• The Safavids and Qandahar
o All conquerors who sought to make their way into
the Indian subcontinent had to cross the
Hindukush to have access to north India.
o A constant aim of the Mughal policy was to ward
off this potential danger by controlling strategic
outposts – notably Kabul and Qandahar.
o The Qandahar was a bone of contention between
the Safavids and the Mughals.
o The fortress-town had initially been in the
possession of Humayun, reconquered in 1595 by
Akbar. In the winter of 1622 a Persian army
besieged Qandahar. The ill-prepared Mughal
garrison was defeated and had to surrender the
fortress and the city to the Safavids.
• The Ottomans: Pilgrimage and Trade
o The relationship between the Mughals and the
Ottomans was marked by the concern to ensure
free movement for merchants and pilgrims
(Mecca and Medina) in the territories under
Ottoman control.
o The Mughal emperor usually combined religion
and commerce by exporting valuable
merchandise to Aden and Mokha, both Red Sea
SOME MAJOR MUGHAL CHRONICLES AND
➢ MEMOIRS
ports, and distributing the proceeds of the sale in
the charity to the keepers of shrines and religious
men there.
• Jesuits at the Mughal court
o Following the discovery of a direct sea route to
India at the end of the 15th century, Portuguese
merchants established a network of trading
stations in coastal cities.
o The Portuguese king was also interested in the
propagation of Christianity with the help of the
missionaries of the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits).
o Akbar was curious about Christianity and
dispatched an embassy to Goa to invite Jesuits
priests. The first mission reached the Mughal
court at Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 and stayed for
about two years.
o Padre Rudolf Acquaviva was the leader of the
first Jesuit mission.
o Two more missions were sent to the Mughal court
at Lahore, in 1591 and 1595.
o The Jesuits spoke to Akbar about Christianity and
debated its virtues with the ulama.
o The Jesuit accounts are based on personal
observation and shed light on the character and
mind of the emperor.
Questioning Formal Religion
• Akbar's quest for religious knowledge led to inter-
faith debates in the ibadat khana at Fatehpur Sikri
between learned Muslims, Hindus, Jainas, Parsis and
Christians.
• Akbar’s religious views matured as he queried
scholars of different religions and sects and gathered
knowledge about their doctrines.
• Increasingly, he moved away from the orthodox
Islamic ways of understanding religions towards a
self-conceived eclectic form of divine worship
focused on light and the sun.
109

• 1530: Manuscripts of Babur’s memoirs in Turkish
• 1587: Gulbadan Begum begins to write the
Humayun Nama.
• 1589: Babur’s memoirs translated into Persian as
Babur Nama.
• 1589-1602: Abu’l Fazl works on the Akbar Nama.
• 1605-22: Jahangir writes his memoirs, the Jahangir
Nama.
• 1639-47: Lahori composes the first two daftars of
Badshah Nama.
• 1650: Muhammad Waris begins to chronicle the
third decade of Shah Jahan’s reign.
• 1668: Alamgir Nama, a history of the first ten years
of Aurangzeb’s reign compiled by Muhammad
Kazim.
Landmarks in the history of the Mughal Empire
• 1526: Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi, the Delhi Sultan,
at Panipat, becomes first Mughal emperor.
• 1530 -40: First phase of Humayun’s reign
• 1540-55: Humayun defeated by Sher Shah, in exile
at the Safavid court.
• 1555-56: Humayun regains lost territories.
• 1556-1605: Reign of Akbar.
• 1605-27: Reign of Jahangir.
• 1628-1658: Reign of Shah Jahan
• 1658-1707: Reign of Aurangzeb.
• 1739: Nadir Shah invades India and sacks Delhi
• 1761: Ahmad Shah Abdali defeats the Marathas in
the third battle of Panipat.
• 1765: The diwani of Bengal transferred to the East
India Company.
• 1857: Last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah II, deposed
by the British and exiled to Rangoon (Myanmar)
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 CHAPTER-6

THE MARATHAS

WE ARE GOING TO STUDY-

➢ RISE OF MARATHAS
➢ RISE OF MARATHAS UNDER SHIVAJI
➢ ADMINISTRTAION, ARMY AND LAND
REVENUE UNDER SHIVAJI
➢ ROYAL HOUSE OF KOLHAPUR
➢ OFFICE OF PESHWAS

111
RISE OF MARATHAS-

➢ INTRODUCTION- o Role of Geography-

✓ The typical geographical condition of Marathas
o The single most important power that emerged in
land played an important role in the rise of Marathas
the fading shadow of the Mughal dynasty was the
as a political power.
Marathas.
✓ The Marartha land was cut off from other areas and
o The Rise of Marathas as a political power during the
this geographical isolation gave rise to typical
later half of 17th century was an important
Maratha Culture.
phenomenon of Indian History.
✓ The physical environment of the Maratha country,
o The rise of Marathas gave a new direction to Indian
such as mountainous regions and dense forests,
Political History in a number of ways.
probably resulted in shaping certain peculiar
o Due to the disintegration of the Mughal empire, the
qualities among the Marathas. For instance, this
Marathas began their northward expansion and
difficult terrain made the Maratha Soldiers expert in
overran Malwa, Gujarat, and Bundelkhand, and
guerrilla tactics.
in due course of time posed a formidable challenge
o Administrative Experience-
to the authority of the Mughals.
✓ The Marathas held important positions in the
➢ FACTORS AND FORCES RESPONSIBLE administrative and military systems of Deccan
FOR THE RISE OF MARATHAS- Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmednagar, which

112
 offered them a first-hand experience of
administration.
✓ This further facilitated in the emergence and
organisation of the Maratha state.
o Spread of Bhakti Movement-
✓ The spread of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra
under the influence of spiritual leaders like
Tukaram, Ramdas, Vaman Pandit, and Eknath
fostered social unity among the Marathas.
✓ The Social unity is a prerequisite for the political
unity among any group.
o Role of Shivaji-
✓ Shivaji played an important role in conferring
political unity amongst the Marathas.
✓ He a raised a strong Maratha military. The wars and
conquests of Shivaji strengthened the military
power of Marathas.
✓ Shivaji was the founder of Maratha kingdom. He
developed an efficient administration and
introduced economic reforms which provided a
strong base to Maratha Kingdom.
o Role of Aurangzeb-
✓ The short sighted and impractical Deccan Policy of
Aurangzeb played a vital role in the rise of
Marathas. He failed to integrate Marathas with
Mughal Empire.
✓ Aurangzeb’s Deccan Policy was guided by his
personal fancies rather than the practical political
conditions.
✓ An execution of Sambhaji Maharaj by Aurangzeb
in 1690 gave a birth to popular revolt. This act of
Aurangzeb instigated the popular Maratha Revolt
and when Mughal Army tried to surpress it,
Aurangzeb got trapped into Deccan Ulcer.
✓ The failure of Mughal Army against Marathas
shattered the myth of Mughal invincibility on
one hand and emboldened the Maratahs on other
hand.

RISE OF MARATHAS UNDER SHIVAJI-

➢ SHIVAJI MAHARAJ BHONSLE (1674-1680)-

➢ INTRODUCTION-

Born
Born in the fortress of Shivmer in Poona Year- 19th Feb, 1630

Family
Father- Shahji Bhonsle
(military commander of
Belonged to Bhonsle clan Mother - Jijabai
Nizam Shah of
Ahmednagar)

Shivaji greatly influenced from

Dadaji Ramayana &
Jijabai Pir Shaikh Guru Hazrat Baba
Tukaram Konkdave Mahabharat
(Mother) Yakub Ramdas of Ratnagiri
(Teacher) a

113
➢ INITIAL YEARS-
Fought between Afzal Khan (represented Adil
Shah of Bijapur) and Shivaji.
In this battle, Shivaji killed Afzal Khan with his
tiger claws and became a local hero.
• Battle of Kolhapur (1659)-

RAIGARH FORT
• He started his career as an independent young
prince at Poona after inheriting the jagir of Poona
from his father in 1637
• After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadev
in 1647, Shivaji assumed full charge of his jagir.
Fought between General Rustemjaman
• In 1646, he captured Torna from the ruler of (represented Adil Shah of Bijapur) and Shivaji.
Bijapur and with the war booty he built the fort of The victory of Shivaji alarmed Aurangzeb.
Raigarh.
• Battle of Pavankhind (1660)-
• He also captured Javli from a Maratha chief
named Chanda Rao More. This made him the
master of the Mavala region.

Dadaji Kokdev
Fought between Siddi Johar (represented Adil
• By 1654, Shivaji had captured forts in the Western Shah of Bijapur) and Shivaji.
Ghats and along the Konkan coast.
A truce was made between Shivaji and Adil Shah
• Shivaji and his elder brother defeated invading through Shahji, thus acknowledging and formally
armies of Adil Shah and secured the release of their recognising the independence of Shivaji’s
father. kingdom.
• He also raided Portuguese settlement at Daman • War with Shaista khan –
and received tribute from them.
➢ IMPORTANT BATTLES-
• Battle of Pratapgarh (1659)

In 1660, Aurangzeb sent the Mughal governor of

the Deccan, Shaista Khan, against Shivaji. Shivaji

114
 suffered a defeat at the hands of the Mughal forces
and lost Poona, but war continued till 1663.
In 1663, Shivaji carried out a daring night attack
on the camp of Shaista Khan, injuring Khan and
killing his son. This daring attack affected the
prestige of Khan and he was recalled by
Aurangzeb and sent to Bengal as punishment.
• Treaty of Purander (1665)-
This plundering of Surat, an important Mughal
trading city, enraged Aurangzeb and he sent Raja
Jai Singh of Amber and Diler Khan to destroy the
Maratha power.
They succeeded in besieging the Purander fort,
where Shivaji had lodged his family and treasure.
Shivaji opened negotiations with Jai Singh and the
Treaty of Purander was signed in 1665.
According to this treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23
forts to the Mughals out of the 35 forts held by him,
and the remaining 12 forts were to be left to Shivaji
on the condition of service and loyalty to the
Mughal empire.
On the other hand, the Mughals recognised the
right of Shivaji to hold certain parts of the
Bijapur kingdom. As Shivaji declined from
personal service of the Mughals, his minor son
Sambhaji was granted a mansab of 5000.
✓ Shivaji’s visit to Agra-
• In 1665, Shivaji visited Agra with his son but were
humiliated by Aurangzeb who put them under
house arrest.
• It is believed that his plan was to send Shivaji to
Qandahara, but Shivaji escaped along with his
son.
✓ Rise of Shivaji again-
• Between 1667 and 69, Shivaji adopted a low profile
and built his army.
• In 1670, he recovered most of his lost forts and
sacked Surat for the second time.
• He defeated Mughals in the Battle of Salher (1672)
and crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the
title Maharaja Chattrapati.
• Towards end of 1676, Shivaji launched a wave of
conquests in southern India’s Carnatic region
and captured the forts of Vellore and Ginjee, which
served as the Maratha’s capital for nine years.
✓ Death and Afterwards-
• He died due to fever in 1680, at the age of 53, after
ruling for only six years.
• In this short time, he founded the Maratha
kingdom, which dominated western India for a
century and a half.
• Shivaji promoted Sanskrit, but respected all
religions and opposed forced conversion.
o Sambhaji (1681–1689)
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✓ Many Maratha chiefs did not support Sambhaji and
instead to Rajaram, the other son of Shivaji. This
internal conflict weakened Maratha power.
✓ He was nicknamed as ‘Kalusha’, meaning
✓ Younger brother of Sambhaji, who never sat on the
Instigator of strife. Prince Akbar, the rebellious
throne as he claimed that he was ruling on behalf of
son of Aurangzeb, took shelter with him.
Shahu.
✓ Battle at Sangmeshwar (1689) –
✓ He shifted his headquarters to Ginjee.
✓ After the Mughals conquered Ginjee, he fled to
Vishalgarh and then to Satara, giving Hukumat
Panha (King status) to Peshwa Ramchandra
Pant.
✓ He died in 1700 and his widow Tarabai assumed
control in the name of her infant son Shivaji II.

✓ Ganoji Shirke, one of Sambhaji's brothers-in-law,

turned traitor and helped Aurangzeb's
commander Muqarrab Khan to locate, reach and
attack Sangameshwar while Sambhaji was still
there.
✓ He along with relatively small Maratha force
fought back although they were surrounded from all
sides.
✓ Sambhaji was defeated by Mughal commander
Muqqarrab Khan and captured on 1 February 1689 Tarabai
and When Sambhaji refused to bow down to ✓ Around same time, Shahu was released by Zulfiqar
Aurangzeb, he was beheaded. Khan hoping for a civil war among Marathas.
✓ As expected, the Mughals succeeded in dividing the
Marathas into two rival camps—one under Tara
Bai and the other under Sambhaji’s son, Shahu.
✓ Tarabai sent Dhanaji Jhadav to oust Shahu from
Maharashtra, but Dhanaji was won over by Shahu.
✓ In 1707, with the help of a Chitpavan Brahman
named Balaji Vishwanath, Shahu was successful
in defeating Tarabai at the Battle of Khed and she
went away to Kolhapur, establishing the Royal
House of Kolhapur.
✓ The Widow of Sambhaji, Yesubai could not protect o Shahu (1707–1749)
the fort of Raigarh, and she along with her son,
Shahu were made prisoners.
o Rajaram (1689–1707)

116

✓ During his reign, the states of Satara and
Kolhapur came into existence.
✓ By 1710, two separate principalities had become an
established fact, eventually confirmed by the
Treaty of Warna in 1731.
✓ The period was also marked by the ascendancy of a
lineage of Chitpavan Brahmin ministers, who
held the title of Peshwa (chief minister) and
virtually came to control central authority in the
Maratha state, reducing the Bhonsles to mere
figureheads.
✓ In fact, the first truly prominent figure of this line
was Balaji Vishwanath, who had helped Shahu in
his rise to power.
ADMINISTRTAION, ARMY AND LAND REVENUE UNDER SHIVAJI
✓ In 1719, Shahu, under the advice of Peshwa Balaji
Vishwanath, assisted the Saiyyad brothers in the
execution of Farukkh Siyar and got his mother
released.
✓ Soon after, he declared Swaraja/the Independence
of Maratha land.
o Rajaram II/Ramraja (1749–1777)
✓ He was an adopted son of Shahu, who was
presented by Tarabai as the grandson of Rajaram
and herself to grab power after Shahu’s death.
✓ After being sidelined, she stated that he was only an
imposter. However, Peshwa Baji Rao retained him
as the titular Chattrapati.
✓ The power of the Chhatrapati was almost totally
overshadowed by that of the Peshwa.
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➢ ADMINISTRATION-

➢ INTRODUCTION-
✓ Shivaji was a great administrator who laid the foundations of a sound
system of administration.
✓ The administrative system of the Marathas was very much influenced by
the administrative system of the Mughals and the Deccani states
(adopted by Malik Amber of Ahmednagar and Mahmud Gawan of
Bahmani Kingdom).
✓ The Maratha Kingdom was known as Swarajya or Mulk-e-Kadim.
o Central Government-

✓ The king was the pivot of the government, who was assisted
by a council of ministers called the Ashtapradhan.
✓ Each one was directly responsible to Shivaji and headed a
department.
✓ Under Shivaji, these offices were neither hereditary nor
permanent and were also frequently transferred.

Peshwa – Pant Pradhan finance and general

administration (Head of Council)
Sar-i-Naubat or Senapati – Military commander
Amatya/Majumdar – Accountant General.
Waqenavis – Intelligence and police, posts, historical
archives, and household affairs.
Surnavis or Chitnis or Sachiv – General Secretary who also
overlooked official correspondence.
Sumant/Dabir – Master of Royal ceremonies and Foreign
Affairs.
Nyayadish – Justice.
Pandit Rao – Charities and Religious affairs

✓ Hierarchy of officers from top to bottom was:

Peshwa → Majumdar → Sachiv → Mantri

✓ It is pertinent to note that all the ministers except Pandita Rao and Nyayadhish participated in war.
✓ The Ashtapradhan was not a creation of Shivaji and many of these officers such as Peshwa, Majumdar, Waqai
navis, Dabir, and Surnavis had existed earlier under the Deccani rulers too.
✓ Each of the Ashtapradhan was assisted by eight assistants namely
A) General

Diwan, Majumdar, Fadnis - used to respond to the letters of commanders of the forts
Sabnis, Karkhanis, Chitnis- dealt with all diplomatic correspondences and wrote all royal letters
Jamadar, and Potnis- looked after the income and expenditure of the royal treasury

B) Specific-

118
 Diwan – secretary
Mujumdar – auditor and accountant
Fadnis – deputy auditor
Sabnis or Daftardar – office incharge
Karkhanis – commissary
Chitins – correspondence clerk
Jamdar – treasurer
Potnis – cashier

➢ PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

PRANTS (Province) Subedar (Governor) supervised by Sarsubedar

Tarfs (District) Havaldar (Law & Order)

Parganas (Sub-Districts) Deshpande (Account and Record Keeper) &

Deshmukh (Law & Order)

Mauzas (Villages) Kulkarni (Account & Record Keeper)

Patil (Law & Order)
Police Officer (Rural areas) – Faujdar
Police Officer (Urban) – Kotwal

• Kamvishdar –
Kamvishdar manned the central bureaucracy and the local administration
They used to enjoy wide powers of tax assessment and collection.
They kept records, adjudicated cases, and provided information about local conditions to the superior officials.
Interestingly, the office of British District Collector was modelled on the Kamvishdar.

➢ ARMY-
o Shivaji was a military genius and his army was
very well organised. The Marathas were pioneers
of commando actions.
o The army consists of Infantry i.e. Mavali foot
soldiers, Cavalry i.e. Horse riders and equipment
holders and Navy.
o The ordinary soldiers were paid in cash, but big
chief and military commander were paid through
jagir grants (Saranjam or Mokasa).

119
o The regular standing army known as Paga consisted
of about 30,000 to 40,000 cavalry supervised by
the Havaldar, who were given fixed salaries.
o The lowest head of the cavalry was called Naik.
o All the war horses belonged to the state
o There were two divisions in the Maratha cavalry:
✓ Bargirs: Equipped and paid by the state
✓ Silahdars: Maintained by the nobles.
o The Marathas were famous for guerrilla warfare.
o The infantry was highly mobile and light, and the
Mavli foot soldiers played an important role in the
infantry.
o At the time of exigencies, peasants also functioned
as part time soldiers
o The Marathas soldiers also developed an innovative
weapon named - the Bagh naka, meaning tiger
claw.
o Shivaji also built a powerful navy.
o Each fort was put under the charge of three officers
of equal rank (Sabnis, Kardadar, Sar-i-Naubat)
for mutual check and as a precaution against
treachery.
o Pindaries (Non-regular army of Marathas) were
allowed to accompany the army who were allowed
to collect “Pal-Patti” which was 25% of war booty.
o Military Personnel
Sar-i-Naubat/ Sarnobat (Senapati)- Incharge of
army
Qiladars- Officers of Forts
Nayak- Head of the member unit of infantry
Havaldar- Head of five Nayaks (500 hons per
year)
Jumladar- Head of five Nayaks (125 hons per
year)
Ghuraw- Boats laden with guns
Gallivat- Rowing boats 40-50 rowers
Paik- Foot Soldiers

o The infantry consisted of the below:

Hetkari-
musketeers: Konkani musketeers recruited
typically from the Konkan region, who
possessed matchlocks and noted for their
marksmanship.
Mavales: Foot soldier recruited typically
from western Maharashtra

o By the end of his reign, Shivaji had about 240 forts

and the forts played an important role in the
military operations of the Marathas.

➢ REVENUE-
o The revenue system of Shivaji was also largely
based on that of the Mughals and Deccani states.
o Shivaji abolished the Jagirdari System and replaced
with Ryotwari System.
o Shivaji strictly supervised the Mirasdars who had
hereditary rights in land.
o The revenue system was patterned on the Kathi
system of Malik Amber.
o According to this system, every piece of land was
measured by Rod/Kathi and were classified into
three categories – paddy fields, garden lands, and
hilly tracts.
o Shivaji drastically reduced the powers of the
existing Deshmukhs and Kulkarnis and appointed o The Marathas employed a special script known as
his own revenue officials called karkuns. the ‘Modi script’ in the documents of the revenue
o Shivaji strongly discouraged revenue farming. and administrative records.

120
o Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were two major
sources of revenue and it is interesting to note that
these taxes were collected not in the Maratha
kingdom but in the neighbouring territories of the
Mughal empire or Deccan sultanates.
o Chauth: One fourth (1/4 th of the land revenue)
paid to the Marathas in order to avoid the Maratha
raids.
o Sardeshmukhi- It was an additional levy of ten
percent, that is, 1/10 of standard land revenue on
those lands on which the Marathas claimed
hereditary rights.

(c.1689–1708 Hukumat Panha (King

ROYAL HOUSE OF KOLHAPUR CE) status) to Pant before leaving.
o Shivaji II (1710–1714)- Son of Queen Tarabai o He was an able administrator
and Rajaram, and was under the regency of Queen as he managed the state under
Tarabai. many challenges like the influx
of Mughals, betrayal from
o Sambhaji II (1714–1760) - Son of Rajaram from
Vatandars (local satraps
his second wife Rajabai, who deposed Shivaji II
under Marathas), and socio-
and Tarabai. economic challenges like the
o Sambhaji II signed the Treaty of Warna in 1731 scarcity of food.
with his cousin Shahu to formalise the two separate o He was acted as
seats of the Bhonsle family. “shadow/proxy king”, and got
o The British sent expeditions against Kolhapur in military help from great
1765 and 1792 and the state entered into treaty with Maratha warriors Santaji
the British after the collapse of the Maratha Ghorpade and Dhanaji
confederacy in 1812. Jadhav.
o In c. 1698 CE, Rajaram offered
OFFICE OF PESHWAS (1940-1818) the post of Peshwa to his wife
Tarabai, and he happily
o The word ‘Peshwa’ probably originated in Persian,
stepped down.
meaning ‘foremost’, and was introduced in Deccan o Tarabai gave him an important
by the Muslim rulers. Duties of a Peshwa were position in the senior
equal to that of a Prime Minister. administration of the Maratha
o List of Peshwas – state.
Ruler o He Wrote Adnyapatra, in
Info which he explained different
Sonopant o First unofficial Peshwa techniques of war,
Dabir maintenance of forts, and
(c.1640–1652 administration.
CE) o Since he owed loyalty to
Shyampant o He was Peshwa under Shahji Tarabai against Shahuji, he
Kulkarni Bhonsle was sidelined after arrival of
Ranzekar Shahuji in c.1707 CE
(c.1652–1657
CE) Note-The following topics have covered in the
Moropant o Was Peshwa under Shahji modern History notes-
Trimbak Bhonsle 1) Peshwa domination (1707-1818)
Pingle 2) Confederacy of Marathas
(c.1657–1683 3) Decline of Marathas
CE)
Moreshwar o He was appointed Peshwa by
Pingale Chhatrapati Shivaji.
(c.1683–1689
CE)
Ramchandra o Peshwa under Rajaram, and
Pant Amatya when Rajaram had to escape to
Ginjee in c.1689 CE, he gave

121
 CHAPTER-7

SOCIETY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA

WE ARE GOING TO STUDY-

➢ SOCIETY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA
➢ ECONOMY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA
➢ MARITIME TRADE IN THE MEDIEVAL
AGE
➢ TOWN AND COUNTRY IN MEDIEVAL
AGE: TOWNS AND CITIES
➢ LITERATURE IN THE MEDIEVAL AGE
➢ ARCHITECTURE IN THE MEDIEVAL AGE
➢ SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

122
SOCIETY OF MEDEIVAL INDIA-
➢ INTRODUCTION
o India of those days as even of today lived in villages
and the society was broadly divided into Hindus
and Muslims.
o Hindu Population-
o The Hindus formed the great majority of the
population. They included the Jains, the
Buddhists, and the Sikhs among them.
o The upper classes of the Hindu society mostly
belonged to the Brahman, Kayastha, Rajput and
Vaishya castes and Intercaste marriage was
prohibited.
o There were many other mixed classes in the
society. The Baidyas were a mixed class next to the
Brahmanas.
o These apart there were various other castes and
sub-castes which grew up as a result of social
mixture i.e. intermarriage between castes. There
was much conservatism among the Hindus of
upper classes.
o Muslim Population- The Muslims were divided
into two major sections, viz:
✓ Those who came with the conquerors or for trade
and commerce or employment from countries
like Arabia, Persia, Afghanistan, Abyssinia etc.
and
✓ The converts from the indigenous Hindu
population and their descendants
o As the country was open to foreign traders and
travellers, there were also people of various
nationalities from Europe, such as the
Portuguese, English, Parsis, Chinese etc.
o The history of the medieval period of India like that
of the Middle Ages of the European history is
largely occupied by the story of warfare of the
kings and emperors.
o The common people and their condition were by
and large beyond the attention of the historians
except in so far as they hurt themselves, into history
by their activities in relation to the kings or
emperors.
o Abul Fazl and some European travellers of the
Mughal period have referred to the contemporary
people of India and their condition. Among the
European travellers Ralph Fitch, William
Hawking’s, Sir Thomas Roe, Francisco Paelsart,
Bernier, Tavernier, Thevenot etc. deserve special
mention.
123
CHARACTERISTICS
o Feudal in Nature-
✓ The society during this period was feudal in
nature.
✓ Nobility and the officials of the state were entitled
to high esteem in the society.
✓ Their standard of living was very high.
✓ Apart from the kings and emperors, the nobles also
had their harem.
✓ From Abul Fazl it is known that the imperial
harem had five thousand women.
✓ The nobility was characterised by mutual jealousy
and conspiracy
o Existence of the middle class-
✓ Below the nobility, we find the existence of the
middle class whose number was comparatively
small.
✓ Their standard of living was moderate and far
below that of the nobles and state officials.
✓ But the merchants of the west-coast of India were
fabulously rich and their standard of living was
also very high.
o Condition of common people-
✓ The condition of the common people compared to
the nobility and the middle class was miserable.
✓ They lacked item like warm clothes, shoes etc.
which were luxury items to them.
✓ Francisco Paelsart remarked that in normal years
although they would have no difficulty in
maintaining themselves but in times of natural
calamities like flood, drought and famine their
condition would be like beggar.
✓ Paelsart who lived in India for long seven years
during the Mughal rule remarked that the
labourers, the grocers, the bearers or servant
classes were three sections of the society who were
nominally free men but in reality, their condition
was no better than that of the slaves.
✓ The common people lived in huddles of mud and
reeds.
✓ They were poor yet they were subjected to pay
taxes.
✓ From the time of Shah Jahan, there was much
repression on the common people, particularly
the peasants.
✓ Gradually their condition became desperate. The
provincial governors and officials realised as much
money as they could from the peasants by
repressing them.
o Social habits and practices –
✓ In the diet and food habits the Indians were
temperate, and they were polite to the strangers.
✓ The prominent social practices of the time among
the Hindus were Sati, Kulinism etc. and
Polygamy, Harem etc amongst the Muslims.
✓ The upper classes dressed themselves in long coat
and light trousers and turbans. Many wore a silk
or cotton scarf round the waist and slung down the
ends of the scarf down the leg.
✓ Poor Hindus wore dhotis one end of which was tied
round the waist.
✓ Poor Muslims put on pyjama and long shirt.
124
✓ Perfumes and oils were used by men and women,
both Hindu and Muslim. Pan served as a sort of lip
stick.
✓ Hindu women wore saris while the Muslims
women wore pyjamas or ghagras. Soap made of
pulses or soap berry was used.
✓ Muslim men and women used collyrium in their
eyes and women coloured their palms and feet
with Mehdi.
✓ Among the indoor games chess, cards, games of
guites, satranj and among outdoor games
hunting, polo (Chaugan) etc. were popular with
the high-ranking people.
✓ Wrestling, juggler’s feats, magic shows etc. were
enjoyed by all. Games like tiger hunting, elephant
snaring were the privileges of the Emperor.
✓ Music both in the court and in private residences
fairs and festivals, especially those sponsored by
the state, for example Nauroj were occasions for
enjoyment by all people.
✓ Hindu festivals like Dasserah, Vasant, Dipavali
(prohibited during Aurangzeb’s reign) and
Muslim festivals of two Ids, Shab-i-barat etc.
were festivals of great enjoyment by the respective
communities.
ECONOMY OF MEDEIVAL INDIA-
✓ Occasional fairs were held at Hardwar, Prayag,
Mathura, Kurukshetra and many other places of
Hindu pilgrimages and also in places of Muslim
Pilgrimages like Ajmer, Panipat, Sirhind etc.
o Slavery- One of the demoralizing institutions of the
society was slavery and there was a regular slave
trade.
o Position of Women-
✓ The position of women under the Mughals marked
a definite deterioration.
✓ Purdah system of the Muslim women and the
growing conservatism in the Hindu family life
precluding Hindu women except of the low castes
from coming out of their houses made the life of the
women rather un-enjoyable.
✓ Polygamy was permitted by the Quranic law and
a Muslim could take four wives at a time.
✓ A Shiah Muslim has no restriction as to the number
of wives. While the Hindu ruling class indulged in
polygamy the Muslims almost as a rule would have
more them one wife.
✓ The Emperors and nobles-maintained harem i.e. a
number of women not formally married.
125
➢ ECONOMY: AGRICULTURE IN THE marginal profits whereas the middlemen and
MEDIEVAL PERIOD traders got the lion’s share of the profit. This is
largely true even today.
o The luxuries living style by the nobles and the
officials, their costly jewels, dresses, lavish
expenses during the marriage of their children,
maintenance of horses, elephants and retainers
needed enough money which compelled them to
extort the same from the peasants.

o The producers were agriculturists, workers in the

cottage industries, artisans, producers of
consumer’s goods like oil, cloth, sugar etc. workers
in the Karkhanas.
o The consumers were the rulers, nobles, officers
both civil and military, professional and religious o Agriculture depended on rainfall and naturally
classes, slaves, servants, and other sundry people. failure of seasonal rain falls or heavy down pour
o The result was, particularly in view of lack of every resulting in flood would result in failure in
transport, that the producers received only
o agricultural crops which meant famine.
o There were frequent outbreaks of famine in Mughal India during which the sufferings of the peasants and common
people would know no bounds.
o Lack of any systematic effort to provide relief to the famine-stricken people or to allow remission of revenue
collection from the peasants made the condition of the people, the peasants in particular facing miserable condition.
o During 1556-57 a terrible famine broke out in the north-western India followed by pestilence which took a heavy
toll of life.
o Also, Agriculture constituted a major share for land revenue in medieval time.
o Important Agricultural Produce-

Food Crops Region-

Rice • UP
• Bihar
• Bengal
• Orissa
• Southern Coast of Gujarat
• South India
• Regions of Bengal and Bihar produced the finest quality of rice

Wheat • Punjab
• Sindh
• Western UP
• Some parts of Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat and Deccan area

Barley • Allahabad
• Ajmer
• Awadh

126
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 • Agra
• Delhi
• Lahore
• Multan

Millet • Reported mostly from wheat producing areas

• Jowar and Bajra were two main millet

Pulses • Bihar
• MP
• Rajputana (Rajasthan)

Maize • Maharashtra and Rajasthan

Cash Crops-

Sugarcane • Agra
• Awadh
• Lahore
• Multan
• Bengal (Best in Quality)
• Allahabad
• Multan & Malwa
• Sind & Khandesh
• Berar and South India

Cotton • Maharashtra
• Gujarat
• Bengal

Indigo • Eastern, North India & western India- Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Malwa, UP
• Southern India-Coromandel and Deccan

➢ Industries and Trade in Medieval Age:
o The industrial products could not only meet the
internal needs of the country but also supply the
demands of the European merchants as well as
merchants from different parts of Asia.
o Manufacture of cotton cloth was the most
important industry during the period.
o The principal centres of cotton manufacture were
distributed all over the country, for instance, the
coromandel coast, Patan in Gujarat, Khandesh,
Burhampur, Jaunpur, Benares, Patna, some other
places in United Provinces, Bihar, many centres in
Orissa and Bengal.

o During the Mughal period the most important

economic activity besides, agriculture was the
varied industrial production by the people of
India.

127

Cotton
o Silk industry, however, was limited in scope
compared to the cotton industry.
o Abul Fazl tells us that silk industry was patronised
by Akbar.
o Bengal was the most important centre of silk
production and silk manufacture.
o Other centres of silk manufacture were Lahore,
Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, Gujarat, Benares,
Bhagalpur, Kashmir etc.
Silk
o From Tavernier we know that Bengal produced silk
and silk goods worth two and half million pounds.
Three-fourth million pounds worth raw silk used to
be exported to foreign countries by the Dutch.
o Wooden goods such as blankets, shawl, carpets etc.
were woven at Kashmir, Lahore, Alwar, Jaunpur
and Agra. The shawl industry flourished due to
the patronage of Akbar.
Shawls
o The state encouraged manufacture of various
articles particularly for the use of the Emperors,
nobles, and the state officials in Karkhanas to
which many skilled workers were engaged.
o Saltpetre was manufactured in Bihar and was
exported by the European traders to their
countries. It was used for the manufacture of
gunpowder.
Saltpetre
o Copper mines existed in Central India and
Rajasthan.
o Iron was found in many parts of India. Red stone
quarries were there in Rajasthan and Fatehpur.
o Marble came from Rajasthan.
Marble
o Opium, an agricultural produce, was exported after
meeting internal consumption.
Opium
o Gold mines were found in Kumayun and in the
hills and rivers of the Punjab.
o From Abul Fazl and other contemporary writers, we
learn that prices of articles such as rice, oil, ghee,
spices, vegetables, milk, meat, livestock were very
low.
128
o Terry remarks that there was “plenty of provisions” grovel in misery since the prices were low, although
and people “eat bread without scarceness.” in times of natural calamities they had to suffer
o From the foreign travellers and the contemporary
writers, we may observe that the people did not

MARTIME TRADE IN THE MEDIEVAL AGE-

➢ INDIAN MERCHANTS VS FOREIGN/EUROPEAN TRADERS –

o These ports were main outlets of the maritime

o The route through which India maintained maritime
activities of the traders of Gujarat, Cambay, and
contact with the Red Sea area was rendered unsafe
Diu.
due to the Turkish control over the area from the
Persian Gulf to the Near East.
o The same ports were frequented by pilgrims and
o Aden and Moch—two leading seaports— were
merchants from Lahari Bandar port in Sind,
important commercial centres due to influx of
Mughal port of Surat, Bijapur port of Dabhol and
pilgrims and traders from Egypt who purchased
the Vijayanagar ports of Cannanore and Cochin.
eastern products, in return for gold and silver.

129
o Indian ships of States commanding the seacoast
from the Cape of Good Hope and Madagascar to
the East Indies and the Far East brought vast
wealth and resources to the Turks.
o When the Turkish officers came down heavily on
the English merchants, the masters of the Indian
ships often played the role of mediators of
intermediaries.
o The Turks evidently derived considerable profit
from the trade carried on by the Indian ships.
o Although there were constant frictions between
the English merchants and the ‘Turkish authorities,
the relation between the English and the India ships
were good.
o From the Indian merchants, the English traders
obtained information of the progress which their
predecessors like William Hawkins, Jourdain and
Sharpeigh had been making with regard to the
development of trade in Surat and Cambay.
o The English employed a thorough method of
plunder of the Indian ships.
o The Indian merchants were forced to exchange
their goods for the English merchandise.
o No transit charges of the Indian goods were added
to the value of the Indian commodities whereas all
rates and taxes etc. were added to the value of the
English goods while exchanges were made.
o The unusual delay in settling the exchange
accounts or sale of Indian goods was so sickening
to the Indian merchants that many of them left the
goods at the prices dictated by the English, even at
a great loss in order to return home.
➢ Industry: European Traders
o From 15th Century onwards, India witnessed an
arrival of many European Traders and
countries.
o Although, Portuguese were early to come but
English Company dominated the Indian Market
which finally lead to their political supremacy.
o The most important illustration is the farman of
Farruk Shiyar of 1717 by which the English
traders were granted an unqualified right of trading
in Bengal and Gujarat, denied to other foreign
and even to indigenous merchants, to carry on
duty-free trade on an annual payment of a meagre
sum of Rs. 3,000/- only.
o This while meant a huge loss of revenue to the
government, virtually conceded a sort of an extra-
territorial right to the English which affected the
sovereignty of the Mughal emperor and paved the
way for the commercial and eventually the
political supremacy of the English in India.
130
 LITERATURE IN THE MEDIEVAL AGE
(will cover only basic and rest has been covered in Chapter specific notes and Art and Culture notes)

➢ INTRODUCTION
o The Timurid rulers were great patrons of
literature and under them literature in its different
branches received considerable impetus.
o Babur was himself a gifted poet in Turki and
Persian as also the writer of his own memoirs.
o Humayun, if not a scholar himself, was a patron of
learning and had a great interest in literature. He
bided his time in his library.
o By far the greatest patron of scholars, learning and
literature was Akbar. under whom many scholars
of repute flourished and by their works brought
about a cultural renaissance in medieval Indian
history.
o Akbar’s tolerant and benevolent policy, his liberal o Vaishnava literature divides itself into biography
patronage of learning and the learned, the peace and and padavali.
prosperity of his reign naturally led to development o Biography-
in the works of literature and art. ✓ Among the biographical literature, we have the
o During the Mughal rule, Bengali literature was earliest biography of Chaitanya by Murari Gupta
deeply influenced by the Neo-Vaishnava one of the oldest followers of Chaitanya. The work
movement the result of which could be seen in the was in Sanskrit.
emergence of one of the richest treasures of the ✓ The oldest biography of Chitanya in Bengali is
Bengali literature which may be broadly termed as Brindavandasa’s Chaitanya-bhagavata or
Vaishnava literature. Chaitanya-mangala.
✓ Brindavanadas was Chaitanya’s classmate. The
➢ VAISHNAVA LITERATURE. work stresses on the human qualities of Chaitanya

131
 and gives an interesting picture of the social life of
Bengal at the time of Chaitanya.
✓ Krishnadas Kaviraj’s Chaitanya-Charitamrita
was the next important biography of Chaitanya.
Krishnadas looked upon Chaitanya as the
incarnation of both Krishna and Radha.
✓ Jayanandas Chaitanya-mangal was another
important biography of Chaitanya.
✓ Another Chaitanya-mangal was written by
Lochandas.
✓ Churamanidas wrote Gauranga-Vijaya another
biography of Chaitanya. But Chaitanya-
Charitamrita of Krishnadas Kaviraj is regarded
by many scholars as the most important of
Vaishnava literature.
✓ Lochandas was one of the best lyricists and
introduced the folk song called Dhamali or
Dhamail. There were many other minor
biographical works on Chaitanya.
o Padavali - Lyrical poems, known as Padavali
occupies the next important place in Vaishnava
literature-. \
Krishnadas Kaviraj
✓ These poems dealt with love outside web-lock i.e.
Parakiya prem. of Radha and Krishna.
✓ Besides Lochandas, Basudev Ghosh, Narahari
Sarkar, Yasoraj Khan, Kavisekhara, Narottamdas,
Balaramdas and Jnanadas were lyrical poets of the
sixteenth century.
✓ Govindadas Kaviraj wrote his lyrics in Brajabuli
which was a mixture of Bengali and Maithili.
✓ Among ‘the later poets the name of Gopaldas
deserves mention.
✓ There were also professional Kathakas i.e. story-
letters who wrote narative poems dwelling on love
of Radha and Krishna. The Vaishnava lyrics
flourished mainly due to the patronage of both
Hindu and Muslim rulers.
✓ An Important works of Vaishnava doctrine and
philosophy, Vaishnava history, biography of
Vaishnava leaders was written by Gosains of
Brindavan. Nityanandadas, Narahari
Chakravarti, Ramgopal Das, Pitambar Das were
some of them.
✓ There emerged a literature of the Vaishnava sect
which later came to be known as Sahajiya. This
sect was somewhat akin to the Tantrics.
✓ They carried to excess the practice of their theory
that, love of woman, not one’s own wife was the
easiest way to salvation. The philosophy behind
this theory was ably and skillfully expressed in a
number of treatises which belong to Sahajiya
literature.
✓ The Next in importance to the Vaishnava literature
were the Mangala-Kavyas which were poetical
compositions describing the glories of many
popular gods such as Manasa (snake goddess),
Chandi (a form of goddess Durga), Siva, Kalika,
etc.
✓ The Manasa-mangal Kavyas of Bijayagupta,
Bipradas Piplai, Narayanadeva deserve mention.
✓ The best work of this class is the Kalika-mangala
commonly known as Vidya-sundara Kavya, a
Annadamangal composed by poet Bharat
Chandra. The theme is the secret love of princes
Vidya and Sundara.
✓ Lakshmi, Shashthi, etc. Raya-mangala is a poem
which glorifies Dakshin-raya the Tiger-god.
132
 Sankaradeva
✓ Reference to the translation literature during the
medieval period, under the Sultanate has been made
earlier. In the 16th and the 17th centuries the great
Sankaradeva of Assam and two other poets
translated parts of the Bhagavata

poet Malik Muhammad Jayasi in 1540) a friend

of the foster son of the sister of Arakanese king.
➢ INFLUENCE OF THE BENGALI o Rajamala, a chronicle of the Tripura kings was the
LITERATURE ON ARAKANESE only historical work in Bengali during this period.
LITERATURE: o Champakavijaya was the other historical work.
o IMP Foreign Writers-
o Daulat Qazi was the earliest Bengali poet in the o A Voyage of East Indies- Sir Thomas Roe
Arakanese court. He translated into Bengali some o Journal of the Mission to the Mughal Empire- Sir
romantic stories current in various languages such Thomas Roe
as Hindi, Gujarati, Rajasthani etc. o Travels in the Mughal Empire’ and ‘History of the
o His poem Sati Mayana was completed by the great Great Rebellions in the States of the Great
Sufi poet Alaol in the Arakanese court. Mughals- Francois Bernier
o Padmavati, the best work of Alaol was written in o Travels in the Mughal Empire- Francois Bernier
Bengali on the request of Magan o Travel in India - Jean Baptist Tranvier
Thakur(Originally written by by Sufi o Storio De Mogor- Manucci

TOWN AND COUNTRY IN MEDIEVAL AGE: TOWNS AND CITIES-

o When Mughals arrived, India had as many as 120 o Most of the cities and towns grew on rural bases,
cities and 3,200 towns. These cities and towns that is, rural areas gradually developed into towns
differed in origin and history of their growth as well or cities.
as in character from those of the Western world.

133
o Some towns, as has been mentioned above grew in
port areas because of the growth of warehouses
and influx of indigenous and foreign merchants.
o Some towns also originated as business marts.
o There were a few Karkhanas in the capital cities
in which articles specially needed by the kings and
Emperors, nobles and high officials, such as
dresses, used to be manufactured.
o With the change of time, however, and in particular
with the advent of the European merchants’ Indian
towns and cities also gradually began to assume
industrial and commercial character.
o The ancient capitals like Kanauj, Vijayanagar,
etc. where in a state of decay and the modern cities
like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras had not come
up. The more flourishing towns and cities besides
the ones already referred to above were Delhi,
Allahabad, Benares, Multan, Ajmer, Patna,
Ujjain, Rajmahal, Dacca, Burdwan, Hughli,
Chittagong, etc.
o Different parts of the country and important towns
and cities were connected by roads which were
Kacha, i.e. not metalled. Roads were shaded by
trees on both sides and dotted with Sarais for the
merchants and the travellers.
o The Ganga, Jamuna, Ghagra, Indus, the rivers
of the south and of Bengal were navigable and
frequently used for the transport of commercial
goods and troops.

ARCHITECTURE
(will cover only basic and rest has been covered in Chapter specific notes and Art and Culture notes)

o With the advent of Arabs, Turks and Mughals, a new

type of Architectural style developed came to be
known as Indo-Muslim architecture/Indo-Islamic
Architecture.
o Indo-Muslim architecture reached its fullness and
unity specially under the patronage of Mughals.
o Indo-Islamic architecture is the architecture of
the Indian subcontinent produced by and
for Islamic patrons and purposes.
o Despite an initial Arab presence in Sindh, the
development of Indo-Islamic architecture began in
earnest with the establishment of Delhi as the
capital of the Ghurid dynasty in 1193.

134
o Some of the Important pre-Mughal Indo-Islamic
Architecture were-
✓ Qutub Minar -Delhi
✓ Adhai Din Ka Jhopra- Ajmer
✓ Tomb of Sikander Lodi – Delhi etc.
o Some of the Important Indo-Islamic Architecture
during Mughal times-
✓ Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri
✓ Taj Mahal, Agra
✓ Bibi Ka Maqbara, Aurangabad etc.
✓ In the history of Indo-Muslim architecture, Sher
Shah’s buildings are important link between earlier
Indo-Muslim style under the Delhi Sultanate and
the later Indo-Muslim style under the Mughals.
✓ At Sasaram and in its neighbourhood there are
five monuments, majority of which in all
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY DURING MEDEIVAL AGE –
probability were built during Sher Shah’s reign. Of
these the Mausoleum of Sher Shah stands out
prominently as the best, supreme in conception and
extra-ordinary in architectural interest.
✓ Under Sher Shah a forceful architectural movement
expressive of his versatile nature was initiated at the
capital Purana Quila on the site of Indraprastha
exhibited exceptionally elegant treatment at once of
massive vigour and refined grace.
✓ Quila-i-Kuhna Masjid, Sher Shah’s chapel royal,
is the only surviving monument of his time and
serves as a specimen of the qualities of the various
buildings Sher Shah had erected.
✓ After the decline of Mughal Empire of Mughal
Empire, a new style named Indo-Saracenic style of
Architecture started developing in India.
135
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➢ ASTRONOMY AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES-
✓ Astronomy was used not only for working out the
calendar, the dates of the eclipses and for the
determination of time but also for casting
horoscopes for astrological purposes.
✓ Firozeshah Tughlaq (1351-88) established an
observatory where a special type of astrolabe and
waterclock were set up.
✓ He succeeded in compiling fairly accurate
astronomical tables, rectifying the calendar and in
making more accurate predictions of eclipses.
✓ Jai Singh's astronomical tables entitled Zif-i-
Muhammad Shahi borrowed heavily from the Zif-
i-Ulugh Beg (1394- 1449) in the text, but his actual
calculations and figures are different.
➢ Geography-
✓ Geography was another science where
development took place. The astrolabes helped
determine more accurate latitudes. A big advance

Firoz Shah Tughlaq

✓ The interest of the rulers in astronomy continued
during the Mughal period. Humayun is reputed to
have employed a number of astronomers and with
their help, he attempted to make astronomical was made in the field of cartography when in 1647
observations. Sadiq Isfahani prepared an encyclopaedic work
✓ The astrolabes made in India during the that contained a World Atlas.
seventeenth century, were no doubt an ✓ The maps prepared by him, particularly of India,
achievement of metal and wood-workers and of were fairly accurate in representing India as a
mathematical arts. Also, a high degree of accuracy peninsula and adding Sri Lanka at its southern tip.
was achieved in circular gradation, which affected ✓ Rivers were sparingly shown. In India, only the
all measurements. rivers Ganga and Jamuna were drawn. However,
✓ The most important work in the field was made at
the beginning of the eighteenth century. Raja Jai
Singh, under the patronage of Emperor
Muhammad Shah, established observatories at a
number of places, such as Delhi Jaipur, Ujjain,
Benaras and Mathura.

their courses were shown quite Science in Ule

Medieval Times accurately, unlike in the
contemporary European maps of India.

✓ He had also indicated the physical features, for

Jai Singh II example, mountain ranges by wavy lines and used
✓ He paid special attention to the instruments of various colours to mark rivers and oceans
observation.
✓ A noticeable feature was the construction of large
sized observational instruments for fixing time
and determining latitudes.

136
➢ CHEMISTRY-
Zinc
✓ In the field of metallurgy too we notice some
remarkable development. Before the close of the
sixteenth century, zinc was isolated by a process
known neither to the Arab civilisation nor to the
Europeans who learnt the art in the early
nineteenth century.
✓ It has now been suggested by archaeological
excavations at Zawar in Rajasthan that Indians
knew how to isolate zinc by about the first century
after Christ. In China, zinc was isolated only during
the ninth century.
✓ The isolation of zinc was accompanied by another
achievement namely the manufacture of brass, an
alloy of copper and zinc.
✓ Abu'l Fazl gave three proportions of zinc and
copper for obtaining brass of different varieties.
✓ Tin-coating of copper and brass learnt from the
Arab world became prevalent in medieval India,
thereby enabling copper vessels to be more widely
used.
Abul Fazal
✓ Soldering, particularly of gold on agates, crystals
and other brittle materials, was done so
efficiently, as to earn commendation from
European travellers.
✓ India seems to have discovered the freezing
mixture before Europe. Saltpetre (potassium
nitrate) was used for cooling water before 1580.
This discovery has been attributed to Emperor
Akbar.
➢ MEDICINE-
✓ Aristocratic patronage for physicians and surgeons
was not wanting, though, perhaps, surgeons did
not enjoy a very high status in comparison to
physicians.
Ayurveda
✓ The Greek (Unani) system of medicine still widely
practised in India arrived with the Muslims. One
would have expected improvement by the mutual
exchange between it and the already existing
Indian system of Ayurveda.
✓ But the two systems remained separate. Miyan
Behwa (about 1500 A.D.) wrote an important work
on medicine Tibbi-i Sikandar Shahi, based on a
number of Ayurvedic sources that are explicitly
mentioned.
Unani System
✓ Jahangir's favourite surgeon Muqarrab Khan
made use of selections from this book in his two
tracts on medicine.
✓ The two systems continued to coexist but probably
without any great interaction. Both hakims Science
and vaids were employed by the Emperor and the
nobles. In the list of physicians at Akbar's court one
finds four vaids, i.e. practitioners of Ayurveda. In
surgery, blood letting, and in orthopaedic, setting
right dislocated bones were the known practices.
However, unlike in contemporary Renaissance
Europe, no important systematic researches in the
field of anatomy or physiology were made.
Observations, such as plague spreading through
rats, were chance observations.
Hakim
137
✓ An interesting technique, which was pursued by
popular practitioners, was smallpox inoculation,
since the disease seems to have spread silently all-
over West Asia and India in the seventeenth
eighteenth centuries.
✓ Europeans were also employed as physicians by
Mughal nobility but the attempt to make use of
their knowledge remained confined to individuals.
✓ For example, Danishmand Khan (a Mughal noble
about 1660 A.D.) tried to understand Harvey's
discovery of blood circulation from the French
traveller Bernier who dissected a sheep for
demonstration.
✓ But such display of interest in European medicine
on the part of Indian scholars was exceptional, and
even the translations of European scientific works
prepared on the orders of Danishmand have not
survived. On the whole, we find that the
development of science in medieval India was at a
rather slow pace.

138
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