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INDEX
CHAPTERS PAGE NO.
1. SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY 1
2. EFFECTS OF GLOBALISATION ON INDIAN SOCIETY 18

3. SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT 37
4. POVERTY 55
5. URBANISATION 75
6. POPULATION AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS 97
7. ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS 119
IN INDIA
8. SECULARISM 143
9. COMMUNALISM 156
10. REGIONALISM 166
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CH-1 SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY

The following are the various characteristics of a
INTRODUCTION society, which include society as a largest human
• Indian society is a pluralistic society with a group, satisfies the needs of its members, having a
complex social order characterized by a
multitude of ethnic, linguistic, religious, and 1.
caste divisions. It comprises people living in Population
rural, urban, tribal setting and all sections
which carry the ethos of Indian-ness.
5. Psyche 2. Territorial
• Amid the complexities and so much of Unity Base
diversity among the nation, widely accepted
cultural themes, the feeling of oneness,
brotherhood, and values of constitution
binds individuals and enhance social
harmony and order. 4. Shared 3 Mutual
• After independence, several demands of the Culture Awareness
reorganization of states based on cultural
similarity, linguistic identity, and others sense of belonging and cooperation where
emerged from different parts of India. everyone is dependent upon every other member.
• Though the government restructured various
states and also formed new states, cultural INDIAN SOCIETY AND ITS FEATURES
units have been intact in India to this day. • Indian culture has been modified continuously,
• Indian society is an exemplification of with times making India a composite culture.
multicultural, multi-ethnic and multi- • Culture during these four phases has been
ideological constructs, which co-exist, at once discussed below:
striving to strike harmony and also to retain its
individuality
MEANING OF SOCIETY
• Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as Post
Rig Vedic Medieval British
Colonial
"a human product, and nothing but a human Age Period Period
Period
product, that yet continuously acts upon its
producers."
• Society may be illustrated as economic, social,
industrial, or cultural infrastructure, made
up of a varied collection of individuals. R.M. • Indian society was a stratified society from
Maclver (1937) also defined as a “web of ancient times.
social relations which is always changing” • The division of society into Aryans and non-
where an individual form the basic unit of it. Aryans was mentioned in Rig Veda. The
• It consists of groups of human beings who are Aryan society was further divided into four
linked together utilizing specific systems and groups based on the pursuit of occupations.
customs, rites, and laws and have a collective
social existence.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ANY SOCIETY
1
• An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of

people who identify with each other, usually
Brahmana
based on a common language or
dialect, history, society, culture or nation.
Kshatriya
• A society with the co-existence of a wide
variety of racial groups is a Multi-ethnic
Vaisyas Culture And religion
society. India is home to almost all the racial
profiles.
Shudra
• Depending on which source of group identity is
emphasized to define membership, the
• This division of social and economic activities
following types of groups can be identified:
became a norm, and a part of the social devices.
• Later from the 12th century onwards, the Ethno- Emphasizing shares language
rulers of medieval India brought new forms linguistic: , dialect (and possibly script).
whereby Indian culture went through a example: French Canadians
transformation influencing language culture Ethno- Emphasizing a shared polity or
and religion. national: sense of national identity –
• The confrontation of Hindu and Muslim example: Austrians
culture led to a synthesis with interesting Ethno-racial Emphasizing shared physical
results and mixed culture as a result of Sufi appearance based on genetic
writings, the bhakti movement, Kabir origins – for example, African
Panth. Americans.
• The advent of the British marked the Ethno- Emphasizing a distinct local
beginning of a new phase of re-emergence of regional sense of belonging stemming
pan- Indian culture and national and social from relative geographic
awakening through the process of isolation – example: South
modernization. Islanders of New Zealand
• India today (after independence) Ethno- Emphasizing shared affiliation
amalgamated different caste groups religions, religious with a particular religion,
race tribes, linguistic groups. It glorifies the denomination or sect –
ideals of liberty, equality, fraternity as its example: Jews
goals in a secular, socialistic framework.
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY MULTI-LINGUAL SOCIETY:

• Most present-day societies are multilingual,
Balance between
having diversity in languages.
Multi-Ethnic
Society
Kinship System spiritualism and • Language is a dominant source of identity so
materialism
much so that the present form of India into
states represents the linguistic map of India.
Multi-Lingual
Balance between • Various reasons for multilingualism can be:
Family Individualism
Society
and collectivism
Migration of labor mobility

Co-existence of
Multi-Class
Tribes traditionalism
Society Cultural contact
and modernity
Annexation and colonialism

Patriarchal
Unity In Diversity
Society
Territorial conquest, etc
MULTI-ETHNIC SOCIETY:
2
• According to Karl Max - 'Man is a class

• Despite Hindi being the official language of animal,' i.e., his status, age, education, etc. are
the country, the Constitution recognizes 22 not the same in society.
languages.
• More than 1600 languages are spoken in india.
• However, the number of languages in use is PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY:
much higher, and the Census 2011 identified • Patriarchy is a social system in which men
for about 122 languages of Indo-European, hold primary power and enjoy greater status
Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto - Burmese than women.
and Semi to-Hamitic families. • In this system, men make all decisions in both
society and their family unit, hold all
MULTI-CLASS SOCIETY: positions of power and authority and are
• The class system is a stratification of society considered superior.
based on education, property, business/work, • Indian society is largely a patriarchal society
etc. where men tend to enjoy greater status than
• In general, there are three classes – women.
• However, some tribal societies are
matrilineal societies where women have the
Upper class dominant decision making power.
• Women are still paid 20% less than men for
the same job. They still experience a
Middle class shockingly high rate of domestic violence,
which highly depicts the culture of the
patriarchal society in India.
Lower class • Moreover, Male child preference is also one
such example that shows the patriarchal
mindset.
• The emerging class system, though closely Impact of Patriarchal Society in India:
resembles the caste hierarchy, has provided • However, there are a few places that are more
downtrodden section opportunities for upward rigidly patriarchal than others were women
social mobility. who have been denied opportunities for
growth in the name of religion and socio-
cultural practices.
• Women in India have few freedoms even in
their homes, hold an unequal and inferior
status in society, and are subject to the rule of
male heads of household.
• Various reports suggested that because of
women's relatively low standing in Indian
society, rape, murder, dowry, burning, wife-
beating, and discrimination are all
commonplace as the expression of male
dominance over women.
• Additionally, about three decades ago, the
adult male literacy rate in India was almost
twice that for adult females. While this gap
has narrowed substantially over the years, the
adult male literacy rate still surpasses the
3
adult female literacy rate by 17 percentage • It improves healthy human relations and
points. protects equal human rights for all.
• It gives value to the rich heritage of the
UNITY IN DIVERSITY: country as well as strengthens and enriches the
• “Unity in Diversity” is a phrase implying unity cultural heritage of India.
among people with diverse cultural, • It gives rise to the habit of national
religious, and other demographic integration among people of the country even
differences. after being diverse in various ways.
• It denotes the sense of oneness and we-ness.
• In India, people of different religions have KINSHIP, MARRIAGE, AND FAMILY:
continued to respect the ideals and values of Blood relations and kinship ties enjoy a stronghold
people of other religions, and hence, India has over other social relationships.
always stood up as an integrated nation ready
to put its arms around everybody in this world. KINSHIP
• Diversity in India exists at various levels in • Kinship refers to a set of relationships and
different forms. relatives formed thereof, based on blood
• Various factors that contribute to Unity In relationships (consanguineal), or marriage
diversity can be as follows: (affinal).
• This social institution ties individuals and
Geographical factor groups together and establishes a relationship
between them.
• It is one of the essential organizing
Cultural factor components of society.
• Kinship system represents one of the basic
Religious factor social institutions. Kinship is universal in
nature.
Political factor • It plays a significant role in the socialization
of individuals and the maintenance of group
solidarity.
Language Factor
Types of Kinship
Example of Unity In diversity
• A great sage Shankaracharya bound the
whole country together by asking the priests of Types of Kinship
south India to worship in the temples of the
north and vice versa.
• The Leaders like Swami Vivekananda, who,
himself being a Hindu, had read extensively Consanguineal
Affinal kinship
about the Bible and talked about it at the world Kinship
parliament of religions, Chicago.
• People of varying cultures, religious beliefs, • Affinal kinship: This kinship is based on
and social status, living together in peace and marriage. The relationship between husband
harmony, is a perfect example of “Unity in and wife is also considered a basic form of
Diversity.” kinship.
• Consanguineal Kinship: This kinship is
Importance of Unity in Diversity based on blood or birth → the relationship
• Unity in diversity boosts the morale of people between parents and children as well as
at the workplace, organization, and community. siblings. This is the most basic and universal
type of kinship. Also known as a primary
4
kinship, it involves people who are directly marriage, particularly in the urban areas. It is
related. mainly due to economic prosperity and
internet connectivity. The Internet has
Why is kinship important for people? exposed people to the different social trends
Kinship determines → prevalent across the world.
• Who they marry • Live-in relationships: They are on a steady
• How to raise children growth rate in India, especially among the
• Which land to cultivate youth in metropolitan cities. The institution
• Where to live also had legal recognition as a three-judge
• Which property to inherit bench of SC in 2010 observed that a man and
• Provides sense of belonging and identity a woman living together without marriage
cannot be construed as an offense and held
that living together is a Right to Life and
MARRIAGE
Liberty (Article 21).
• Marriage is an important
social institution. It is a FAMILY
relationship, which is • The family forms the basic
socially approved and unit of social organization.
sanctioned by custom
• It is the most immediate
and law.
group a child is exposed to.
• It is also a set of cultural mechanisms that It is in the family a child
ensure the continuation of the family. It is learns language, the
more or less a universal social institution in behavioral patterns, and social norms in his
India. childhood.
• In some way or the other, a family is a
Structural and functional changes in the universal group. It exists in tribal, rural, and
marriage system: urban communities and among the followers of
The marriage system had undergone radical all religions and cultures.
changes, especially after independence. The recent • It provides the most enduring relationship in
changes in the marriage system are as follows: one form or another.
• Changes in the aim and purpose of
marriage: In traditional societies, the primary Characteristics of Family
objective of marriage is ‘dharma’ or duty; • Family is a basic, definite, and enduring
especially among Hindus. But today, the group.
modern objective of marriage is more related to • Family is formed by the companionship of the
‘life-long companionship’ between husband husband, the wife who procreate children.
and wife.
• The family may be limited to the husband, wife,
• Changes in the form of marriage: Traditional or only the father and his children or only the
forms of marriages like polygamy, polygyny mother and her children.
are legally prohibited in India. Nowadays,
• Family is generally smaller in size compared
mostly monogamous marriages are practiced.
to other social groups, organizations, and
• Change in the age of marriage: According to associations.
legal standards, the marriageable age for boy
• Family can also be large in which persons
and girl stands at 21 and 18, respectively. The
belonging to several generations may live
average age of marriage has gone up, and
together.
pre-puberty marriages have given place to
post-puberty marriages.
Types of the family
• Increase in divorce and desertion rates:
Relaxed legislative provisions for divorce On the basis of size and structure:
have virtually affected the stability of the
5
Based on residence:
Family
Family
Joint or Extended
Nuclear Family Patrilocal Matrilocal Bilocal Neolocal
Family
family family family family
Nuclear Family Joint or Extended

Patrilocal The family in which after marriage
Family
family wife comes to reside in the family of
• A nuclear family is • It includes
a family that members of three her husband is known as patrilocal
consists of a to four generations. family.
husband, wife, and • It is an extension of Matrilocal The family in which after marriage
unmarried parent-child family husband comes to reside in the family
children. relationships. of her wife is known as matrilocal
• The size of the • This family is family.
nuclear family is based on close
very small. blood ties. Bilocal In this type of family, after marriage,
• family the married couple changes their
It is an autonomous • It is like the joint
unit family of Hindu residence alternatively.
• There is no control Society. Neolocal After marriage when newly married
of the elders family couple establish a new family
because independent of their parents and
newlyweds create
settled at a new place this type of
separate residences
for themselves, family is known as neolocal family.
which is
independent of Based on Authority:
elders.
Family
Based on marriage:
Family Patriarchal Family Matriarchal family
Polygamous Monogamous Patriarchal The family in which all the power

families families Family remains in the hands of the
patriarch or father is known as a
Polygamous Polygamous families may be patriarchal family. In other
families described as families in which words, in this type of family,
either spouse is allowed to have power, or authority is vested in
more than one spouse the hands of the eldest male
simultaneously member of the family who is
Monogamous Monogamous families are those supposed to be the father. He
families families in which the marriage exercises absolute power or
is limited to one spouse. authority over the other members
6
of the family. He owns the family type of family found among the
property. Nayars of Kerala and among
It is just the opposite of a tribals like Garos and Khasis.
patriarchal family. In this family,
power or authority, rests on the Functions of the family
Matriarchal
eldest female member of the
family Primary function
family, especially the wife or
• Production and rearing of the child
mother. She enjoys absolute
• Instrument of culture transmission
power or authority over other • Provision of home
members of the family. She owns • Agent of socialization
all the family property. In this • Status ascribing function
family, the descent is known • Agency of social control
through the mother.
Secondary function
Based on the descent: • Economic functions: With economic
advancements, family has become more
consuming unit than a producing one. Members
Family are engaged in earning wages for ensuring
socio-economic well-being of the family.
• Educational functions: Family provides the
Patrilineal Family Matrilineal family basis for the child’s formal learning. Inspite of
great changes, the family still gives the child his
basic training in the social attitudes and habits
The family in which descent or important to adult participation in social life.
ancestry is determined through • Religious functions: Family is a center for the
father line and continues through religious training of the children. The children
father it is known as patrilineal learn from their parent’s various religious
Patrilineal virtues.
family family. The property and family
name is also inherited through • Recreational functions: Family provides the
opportunities to parents and children for
father line. The patrilineal family
engaging in various recreational activities such
is also patrilocal and patriarchal as playing indoor games, dancing, singing,
in nature. reading etc.
Matrilineal family is just opposite
of the patrilineal family. The RECENT CHANGES IN FAMILY SYSTEM
Matrilineal family in which descent is IN INDIA
family Indian family system has undergone drastic
determined through mother line or
changes in response to the development in terms
continues through mother it is
of industrialization, education, and
known as Matrilineal family. The urbanization. The following changes have been
property and family name is also observed in the family system as follows:
inherited through mother line. • Changes in family: Family which was a
This right transferred from principal unit of production has been
mother to daughter. A woman is transformed in the consumption unit. Instead
the ancestor of family. The of all members working together in an
integrated economic enterprise, a few male
Matrilineal family is Matrilocal
members go out of the home to earn the
and Matriarchal in nature. This family’s living. These affected family relations.
7
• Factory employment: It has freed young TRIBES IN INDIA

adults from direct dependence upon their • Tribes have been
families. This functional independence of the classified as a group of
youngsters has weakened the authority of the home-grown people
head of the house hold over those earning with a little background
members. In many cities even women too who were entitled to
joined men in working outside the families on have a common name,
salary basis. language, and territory, tied by strong kinship
• Influence of urbanization: Various bonds, practicing endogamy, distinct
sociologists have revealed that the city life is customs, rituals and beliefs, simple social
more favorable to small nuclear families than rank, and political organization, common
to big joint families. Thus, urban living ownership of resources and technology.
weakens joint family pattern and strengthens • There are about 705 Scheduled tribes in the
nuclear family patterns. country and constitute 8.6 percent of the
• Legislative measures: Prohibition of early population of the country, according to the
marriage and fixing the minimum age of 2011 census.
marriage by the child marriage Restraint Act, • However, in India, many of these
1929, and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 have characteristics are shared by many other castes.
lengthened the period of education. Even other This questions the validity in distinguishing
legislations such as the Widow Remarriage them from other castes. Many conceptual
Act, 1856, Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, Hindu attempts have been made to define tribes.
succession Act, 1956, all have modified inter
personal relations within the family, the Geographically, the tribes are centered in five
composition of the family and the stability of regions as follows:
the joint family. The tribes in the state are dispersed across the
• Changes in marriage system: Changes in the state living in different physical environments,
age of marriage, freedom in mate-selection exhibiting varied lifestyles, social habits, religious
and change in the attitude towards marriage beliefs, and cultural patterns.
has diminished marriage is not very much
considered a religious affair but only a social Tribes in India
ceremony. Modern marriage does not Himalayan region Tribes like the Gaddi,
symbolize the superior authority of the the Jaunsari, the Naga,
family head over other members.
etc),
• Influence of western values: Values relating
to modern science, rationalism, individualism, Middle India Tribes like the Munda,
equality, free life, democracy, freedom of the Santal, etc
women etc. have exerted a tremendous change Western India Tribes like the Bhil,
on the joint family system in India. the Grasia, etc.
• Changes in the position of women: Main South Indian region Tribes like the Toda,
factor causing changes in the position of the Chenchu, etc.
women in our society lie in her changing
Islands region Tribes like the jarawas
economic role. New economic role provided a
new position in society and especially with in Bay of Bengal, the
respect to men. Aminidivi and the
• Over the years, various sociologists have Key. in Arabian Sea
affirmed in their studies that the rise of
nuclear families — consisting of a couple and Changes bought by changing economic
their unmarried children — is consistent with scenario in tribal regions:
rapid urbanization.
8
• Forest resources have declined, and forests northeast India) and Tibeto-
have been increasingly brought under Mongoloid (Sikkim and
reservation. They are no longer the comfort Mongoloid Bhutan).
zones of the tribal people except in certain areas They have yellow skin,
of North-East India. straight hair, prominent
• Tribal people have been compelled to give cheekbones and almond-
away a lot of land to more experienced shaped eyes with the
agriculturists, to industries, and for big epicanthic fold.
projects like hydro-electric reservoirs. Northeastern Tribal group like
• Big industries have been established in their naga Khasi, Garo belongs to
areas. So, the bane is they have been displaced this racial group.
by such industries, and the boon is they have They entered the Indian
been given employment as wage laborers. subcontinent from the
• The impact of the market economy has resulted Mediterranean region.
in the tribal’s production for the market They are characterized by
rather than for meeting their own needs. brown complexion, medium
Mediterranean nose, medium stature, long
RACES IN INDIA and narrow head
• India is a melting pot of races. Indian They are connected to
population is constituted of major races of the Dravidian languages and
world. We find people of different races in culture
India. They spread over entire
• The most authoritative and plausible racial subcontinent with a major
classification has been given by B S. Guha, concentration in south India
who has titled six major racial elements in They are classified into the
India. following:
1. Alpinoid: North and
They are confined to small Western Western India
provinces in the south, the Brachycephals 2. Dinaric: Bengal and Orissa
Kadar, Andamanesa, Angami 3. Armenoid: Parsis
Nagas, and Bagadi of They are characterized by
Negrito Rajmahal hills (Bihar). medium stature, strait hairs,
They were the first to arrive in round face, prominent nose
India. They were last to arrive in
They have short stature, black Nordic India.
skin, black woolly hair, thick They spread over the entire
lips, and a broad nose. subcontinent with major
They entered the Indian concentration seen in Punjab,
subcontinent after negritos. Haryana, Jammu and
The common physical Kashmir, and Uttrakhand.
appearance includes Brown
Proto- skin complexion, short CASTE SYSTEM
Austroloid stature, broad nose, curly hair. • Caste is a Portuguese word that emerged from
Central India tribs like Bhils, ‘casta’ meaning race.
Mundas, Santhal, ho, • Caste can be defined as a hereditary,
Chenchus manifest their racial endogamous group, having a common name,
characteristics. common traditional occupation, common
They are divided into Paleo culture, relatively rigid in matters of
Mongoloid (Present in Nagas mobility, the distinctiveness of status, and
of Himalayan regions and forming a single homogenous community.
9
• It has origins in ancient India and was • Land revenue settlements gave legal
transformed by various ruling elites in recognition to the caste-based rights of the
medieval, early-modern, and modern India, upper class that became landowners in the
especially the Mughal Empire and the British modern sense
Raj. • Government of India Act 1935 gave legal
• India's caste system is among the world's recognition to the scheduled caste and
oldest forms of surviving social scheduled tribes and scheduled caste by
stratification. marking out special treatment by the state.
• The caste system consists of two different
concepts, varna and jati, which may be During post-colonial times(after independence):
regarded as different levels of analysis of this • The dominant view in the nationalist movement
system. was to treat caste as a social evil, but on the
other hand, leaders like Mahatma Gandhi
History of the caste system were able to work for the upliftment of the
lowest caste – Harijan
• The post-independence state inherited and
HISTORY OF reflected these contradictions. While the state
CASTE
was committed to the abolition of caste, it was
both unable to push through radical reforms,
Colonial post-colonial which would have undermined the economic
Ancient age basis for caste inequality.
times times
• For Example, Appointments to the
government jobs took no account of caste,
During Ancient age: thus leaving the well-educated upper caste and
• Generally, the caste system is associated with illiterate lower caste to compete on equal terms.
the Hindu religion. As per Rig Veda, there were The only exception to this was in the form of
four categories known as ‘varnas.’ reservation.
• Varnas consist of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, • Moreover, the growth of private industries,
Vaishyas, and Shudras. endogamy, and democratic politics proved
• It is only in the post-Vedic period that caste caste to be strongest.
becomes the rigid institution that is familiar
to us from well-known definitions. Characteristics of the caste system in India
• Segmental division of society - It means that
social stratification is largely based on caste.
Membership to a caste group is acquired by
birth, based on which people are ranked relative
to other caste groups.
• Hierarchy - It indicates that various castes are
categorized according to their purity and
impurity of occupations. Just like a ladder,
castes are ranked from higher to lower
positions. Pure caste is ranked at the top, and
impure is ranked at the bottom.
• Endogamy - Members of a particular caste
have to marry within their caste only. Inter-
caste marriages are prohibited. However, in
During Colonial times
urban areas, the phenomenon of inter-caste
• 1901 census that sought to collect information
marriage is increasing.
on social hierarchy,
10
• Untouchability - It is the practice of

ostracizing a group by segregating them • Trends for inter-caste marriage - Due to
from the mainstream by social custom. economic and social necessities, inter-caste
Untouchability was a corollary of the caste marriages on western lines are being performed
system, wherein the untouchables (those at increased.
belonging to the lowest caste groups) were • Challenge to orthodoxy - Orthodox practices
deemed impure and polluted. of the caste system such as child marriage, ban
• Civil and religious disabilities - These on widow re-marriage, ban on conversion,
comprise of restrictions based on contact, dress, insensitiveness of superior class towards the
speech, rituals etc. and are placed on every low caste people are being challenged in the
caste group. It was done in order to maintain wake of urbanization.
purity of specific caste groups. Example, lower • New food habits - Due to the frequent mixing
caste groups had no access to wells, they were of the people at meetings, conferences,
restricted from entering temples etc. seminars, etc., food habits have changed.
• Manual scavenging - Manual scavenging Moreover, people have adapted to new ones.
eventually became a caste-based occupation, • Improvement in the position of lower caste –
which involves the removal of untreated human Due to steps initiated by the government, the
excreta from bucket toilets or pit latrines. It has position of lower castes has improved
been officially abolished by the Prohibition of economically as well as socially.
Employment as Manual Scavengers and • Changes in occupation - Leaving behind their
their Rehabilitation Act 2013. traditional roles, Brahmins have become
• Caste based violence in India - Increasing traders, whereas Vaishyas have joined teaching
trend of caste-based violence are related to and so on.
instances of inter-caste marriage and assertion • While the manifestation of the order has
of basic rights by Dalits including land rights, changed to a large extent in recent times, the
freedom of expression, access to justice, access system itself has not changed much.
to education etc • For instance - Even though untouchability and
• Policy of caste-based reservation - The caste-based discrimination are barred under the
system of caste-based reservation in India Constitution of India, occupations like manual
comprises of a series of affirmative action scavenging have the majority of workers from
measures, such as reserving access to seats in lower castes.
the various legislatures, to government jobs, • Even the constitution provisions for reservation
and to enrollment in higher educational of seats and jobs for the people belonging to
institutions. E.g. Scheduled Caste groups are Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have
given 15% reservation in government failed to produce the desired integrative
services and educational institutions. effect.
• Political mobilization based on caste has been
Changes in the Caste system increasing. For e.g. Lingayats demand to be
considered as a minority community.
Factors Affecting the Changes in the Caste

System
11
example, where Dalits are trying to assert their

identities and have become successful in
Sanskritisation capturing power in various states.
• Legislative measures → A variety of social
Modernisation legislations have been introduced in the post-
independence era, which aims to safeguard the
Westernisation interests of the down-trodden, to eradicate
untouchability, and to facilitate the social and
Industrialisation economic development of the depressed castes.
and urbanisation
For instance, Untouchability (Offenses) Act,
Democratic
decentralisation
1955, provided for punishment against the
practice of untouchability.
Difference between Caste and Class
Class Caste
• Sanskritisation → Sanskritisation, as a Class is not inherited Caste is acquired by
process of change, is the mobility concerned but acquired through birth
with the positional change in the caste system.
ability
By changing the customs and rituals such as
by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism, It is possible for an It is not possible to
people belonging to the low castes are claiming individual to change leave the caste
a ‘higher’ position in the caste hierarchy. his class
• Westernization → Due to changes in the Marriage outside class It is Impossible for a
spheres of education, food habits, dressing is allowed without person to marry
sense, style of eating, manners, etc., being thrown outside outside the caste
westernization has brought occupational
of society without social
changes cutting across the caste barriers.
• Modernization → It is a process that primarily annoyance
relies on scientific outlook, rational attitudes, There is class There is no class
high social mobility, mass mobilization, and consciousness among consciousness among
specialization in work. It has made the caste members of class members of class
system more flexible. For example, in urban Class system does not Caste system hinders
areas, castes are gradually becoming classes.
hinder the democracy the democracy
The emergence of the middle class with a
rational outlook and goal orientation is a
testimony to the fact. DIVERSITY: INDIAN CONTEXT
• Industrialisation and urbanization → With • India is a big country with different
the growth of industrial towns and cities, geopolitical conditions prevailing across
migration has spiraled up. Unlike the source where diversity can be seen in a variety of
regions, destination areas witness fewer things such as religions, languages, food,
adherence to caste rules. clothes, races, tribes, etc.
• Democratic decentralization → The • A grand synthesis of cultures, religions, and
reservation provided in the Panchayati Raj languages of the people belonging to different
system has allowed the lower castes. castes and communities has upheld its unity
• Caste and politics → They both are closely and cohesiveness despite multiple foreign
linked to each other. In fact, the link has led to invasions.
empowerment among the lower castes since
they ventilate their feelings through elections
and power lobby. Dalit politics is one such
12
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because of spices. The land in

Kerala is fertile and suitable for
growing various crops. With the
advent of globalization, inter-state
mobility, the interdependence of
various social groups has
increased, which furthers
strengthens unity and ones among
all.
Various forms of diversity in India
Religious diversity
Geographical diversity
Linguistic diversity
• Unity in diversity essentially means “unity
without uniformity” and “diversity without Culture diversity
fragmentation.”
• Example of diversity existing in India with the Caste and Racial diversity
help of two very distinct states, i.e., the
Ladakh and Kerala.
Religious diversity:
Ladakh is situated in the • In India, religion holds utmost importance, and
northeastern mountainous part of therefore this is the reason that India got the
title of “Land of spirituality and philosophy”
Jammu & Kashmir. A very
all over the world
little agriculture is possible • India is a multi-religious country consisting of
because the place does not receive Hindus (79.9%), Muslims (14.2%), Christians
LADAKH abundant rainfall and is usually (2.32%), Sikhs (1.7%), Buddhists (0.6%) and
covered with snow. It is famous for Jains (0.41%).
pashmina wool. In Ladakh, • Further, The Hindus themselves are divided
Buddhism came via Tibet, and into Vaishnavas, Shaivites, Shaktas, Smartas,
because of this, the city is also etc. and the Muslims are divided into Shias,
Sunnis, Ahmadiyas, etc.
known as Little Tibet. Some 400
• However, Religious diversity has posed
years ago, Islam was introduced in constant challenges in the country in the form
this region. of communalism and communal violence.
Kerala is situated in the • Religious diversity and religious
southwestern part of India. It is tolerance are both established in the country
surrounded by sea on one side and by the law and custom; the Constitution of
the hills on the other side. Kerala India has declared the right to freedom of
KERALA religion to be a fundamental right.
practices a diverse group of
religions because of historical Linguistic diversity:
influences. The place is extremely
popular amongst the traders
13
• It is the most outstanding feature of India’s Others restricted to a small number of

diversity and, in the past, has been a major speakers and therefore face
source of agitation. extinction.
• According to the 2011 census, more than
19,500 languages or dialects are spoken in Geographical diversity
India as mother tongues. • With an area of 3,287,263 square kilometers,
• There are 121 languages which are spoken by India is a vast country with a great diversity of
10,000 or more people in India. Of than 22 are physical features like dry deserts, evergreen
the official languages have been recognized forests, snowy Himalayas, along the coast,
as official languages under the 8th schedule, and fertile plains.
and about 197 are endangered. • The great variety of climate topography and
• However, 96.71 percent population in the consequently varied conditions of life
country has one of the 22 scheduled languages prepared the Indian psyche to accept
as their mother tongue. differences.
• India has the world's second highest number • The unique geographic demographics also
of languages, after Papua New Guinea. host a unique eco-system rich with vegetation,
• However, on the other hand, linguistic diversity wildlife, rare herbs, and a large variety of birds.
has also been a source of conflict. It has posed • The network of shrines and pilgrim centers
many administrative and political problems in spread across the country has been an important
India. source of unity.
• Recently, Gorkhaland agitation was one of
the recent examples of it. Cultural Diversity:
• Though there is mysterious diversity in • Indian culture is one of the oldest and unique.
languages in India, there is a fundamental In India, there is an amazing cultural diversity
unity found in the ideas and expressions in throughout the country.
them. • The South, North, and the Northeast have
their own distinct cultures, and almost every
Indian languages are broadly classified state has carved its own cultural niche.
under the following families: • The years of foreign rule, religious movements,
Indo-Aryan Languages like Hindi, and spiritual discoveries in the ancient land of
language Sanskrit, Urdu, Bengali, India has given way to a rich culture of social
family Kashmiri, Marathi, etc. are part habits, festivals, and customs.
of this family and are spoken in • Indian culture has never been rigid, and that’s
most of the part of North India why it’s surviving with pride in the modern
Dravidian Malayalam, Kannada, Tamil, era. It timely imbibes the qualities of various
language and Telugu are the prominent other cultures and comes out as a contemporary
family languages under this family and acceptable tradition. The flexibility and
spoken in the southern states movement with time have made Indian
Austroasiatic Most of the tribal languages Culture fashionable and acceptable too.
language spoken in Chattisgarh,
family Jharkhand, Odisha are part of Caste and Racial Diversity:
this family, e.g., Khasi, • Refer to salient features of Indian society.
Santhali, Meitei • India is a country of castes
Sino-Tibetan Languages of the north-eastern
language state like Assamese, Manipuri, In addition to the above described major forms of
family Bodo, etc. constitute this diversity, India also has diversity of many other
family types like that of settlement patterns - tribal,
Other languages like rural, urban; marriage and kinship patterns
Andamanese, Sentinelese are along religious and regional lines and so on.
14
• Sports and Cinema: These are followed by

FACTORS LEADING TO UNITY AMIDST millions in the country, thus, acting as a
DIVERSITY IN INDIA binding force across the length and breadth of
• Constitutional identity: - The same India.
constitution and Parliament govern the
entire territory of it. Moreover, the MODELS OF ACCOMMODATION FOR
Constitution guarantees certain fundamental DIVERSITY
rights to all citizens, which contributes to unity
among people amidst such diversity in India. Salad Bowl Model:
The unified judiciary, Bureaucratic, defense • In the salad bowl model, different cultures are
structure, Parliamentary form of government brought together - like salad ingredients - but
providing for the federal structure are other do not form together into a
factors that promote unity in India. single homogeneous culture; each culture
• Inter-State mobility: - The Constitution keeps its distinct qualities
guarantees freedom to move throughout the
territory of India under Art. 19 (1) (d), which
promotes a sense of unity and brotherhood
among the masses.
• Religious co-existence: - India is a country
where people are largely influenced by
religious principles and doctrines. Freedom of
religion and religious practice guaranteed by
the Constitution promotes religious co-
existence with peaceful means.
• Modernization and Urbanization: - A
relationship between cultural modernization,
urbanization, and industrialization is assumed
as a matter of logical necessity. They provide
more opportunities for employment and
more modern western lifestyle. These • This model of racial integration can be
interdependent relationships are supportive of described as a salad bowl, with people of
different communities with qualities of instant different cultures living in harmony, like
help. lettuce, tomatoes, and carrots in a salad.
• In this type of model, cultures do not mix at
• Fairs and festivals: - India is noted as the land
all.
of festivals, and Indians too enjoy every
festival with much zeal and fervor. Due to the • For example, This kind of model is followed
varied culture and heritage of India, there are up in the UK, where regions like Scotland,
various religious as well as social festivals that Northern Ireland are different, and
are confined to specific regions of the country. intermingling is less between people of these
Festival celebrations help in strengthening regions.
unity among the Indians. Festivals
like Diwali, Eid, and Christmas are enjoyed Melting Pot Model:
by all with the same spirit and fervor.
• Climatic integration via monsoon: - The flora
and fauna in the entire Indian subcontinent,
agricultural practices, life of people, including
their festivities revolve around the monsoon
season in India.
15
• A melting pot is for a society where many religion, etc. are evoked by politicians to garner
different types of people blend as one. votes.
• For example, America is often called • Development deficit - Inadequate economic
a melting pot because, with time, generations policies and consequent economic disparities
of immigrants have melted together: they have can lead to the backwardness of a region,
abandoned their cultures to become further threatening the unity of the nation.
assimilated into American society. • Ethnic differentiation and nativism - Ethnic
conflict is one of the major threats to peace
Mosaic Model of society: and security. Ethnic conflicts are often
• Mosaic is a form of accompanied by gross human
art where different rights violations, such as genocide and crimes
rocks of different against humanity, and by economic
colors are joined decline, state failure, environmental problems,
together and forms and refugee flows. Violent ethnic conflict leads
an image. to tremendous human suffering. Different
• This model is the mix of ethnic language factor also sometimes poses a great
groups, languages, and cultures that coexist threat to the unity of the nation. It can be used
within society. for political mobilization in India. E.g. frequent
• The idea of a clashes between Bodos and Bengali speaking
cultural mosaic is Muslims in Assam.
intended to suggest • Geographical isolation - India has diverse
a form geography from snow-covered mountains in
of multiculturalism. the north to coastal plains in the south. Later,
• This model Regional consciousness and regional identity
emphasizes integration with isolation. evolved due to geography. Geography, when
• Here new identity is created, but the original combined with the ideology of aggressive
identity is not lost. regionalism, acts as a divisive factor. E.g. The
• For example: In India, different cultures like North-East that is geographically isolated
Bengali, Kashmiri, Punjabi coexist with their from the rest of the country, i.e., the Siliguri
original identity of being Indian corridor (Chicken’s neck) acts as a source of
disintegration and conflict.
THREATS TO INDIA’S UNITY • Inter-religious conflicts - Inter-religious
• Regionalism - Regionalism highlights the conflict not only hampers relations between
interests of a particular region/regions over two communities by spreading fear and
national interests. It has posed constant mistrust but also hinders the secular fabric of
challenges to the country in the form of the country. E.g. Sikh-Hindu conflict in
communalism and communal violence. If Punjab, Religious riots over Babri masjid and
regionalism challenges the fundamental tenets ram mandir, Gujrat riots etc.
of the constitution like sovereignty, unity, and • Problem is not of diversity per se, but the
security of India, it becomes divisive and handling of diversity in India society. The
disintegrative. problems of regionalism, communalism, ethnic
• Divisive politics - Political manipulation has conflicts etc. have arisen because the fruits of
projected one religion against the other, which development haven’t been distributed equally
results in communal riots, mutual distrust, or the cultures of some groups haven’t been
and disintegration of Indian society and accorded due recognition
country. Communal antagonism has posed a
serious challenge to national integration in Conclusion
India. Ascriptive identities such as caste, • The Unity in Diversity is disturbed
in Indian society due to some communal
forces with a vested interest. But India has the
16
strength to overcome the communal violence 3. How does regionalism threaten India’s Unity?
and religious threats. Substantiate with examples.
• Every Indian must lift oneself up above the
challenges and work towards national unity
and integrity.
• The common values of democracy, equality,
and justice, as defined in the constitution that
we share and cherish as a part of the value
system of Indian Society, is India’s strength.
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1. "Caste system is assuming new identities and
associational forms. Hence, the caste system
cannot be eradicated in India." Comment.
(2018) - 10 Marks
2. In the contest of the diversity of India, can it be
said that the regions form cultural units rather
than the States? Give reasons with examples for
your viewpoint. (2017) - 10 Marks
3. What are the two major legal initiatives by the
State since Independence, addressing
discrimination against Scheduled Tribes (STs)?
(2017) - 10 Marks
4. The spirit of tolerance and love is not only an
interesting feature of Indian society from very
early times, but it is also playing an important
part in the present. Elaborate. (2017) (15
marks)
5. To what extent globalization has influenced the
course of cultural diversity in India? (2016) -
12.5 Marks
6. Describe any four cultural elements of diversity
in India and rate their relative significance in
building a national identity (2015) - 12.5
Marks
7. What makes Indian society unique in sustaining
its culture? Discuss. (2019) (10 Marks)
8. What are the continued challenges for Women
in India against time and space? (2019) (10
Marks)
9. Are we losing our local identity for the global
identity? Discuss. (2019) (15 marks)
Practice Questions
1. India is a land of “Unity in diversity.”
Elucidate.
2. “The caste system is the bane for the Indian
society.” In light of the mentioned statement,
examine the evil face of this system.
17
CH-2 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON INDIAN SOCIETY
Globalization-A process of the “reconfiguration of geography, so that social space is no longer wholly
mapped in terms of territorial places, territorial distances and territorial borders.”
‘globalization’ for the first time around the
second half of the 20th century.
GLOBALISATION ● The adaptation of export-oriented
Globalization is a process of increasing development strategies and trade
interdependence, interconnectedness and liberalization was widespread.
integration of economies and societies to such an ● The globalization of national policies, policy-
extent that an event in one part of the globe affects making techniques, implementation strategies
people in other parts of world of the national government is the result of
globalization itself.
OR ● Globalization has some externalities associated
Globalization is a process of interaction and with it and thus creates a set of Global ‘bads’
integration among the people, organizations, - climatic change, global warming, depletion
and governments of different nations, a process of the ozone layer, etc.
driven by international trade and investment and
aided by information technology. FACTORS THAT ARE AIDING
GLOBALIZATION:
Social and Technology

• Technology – Has reduced the speed of
cultural
aspects
and
communication
communication manifolds. The phenomenon of
social media in the recent world has made
distance insignificant.
• LPG Reforms: The 1991 reforms in India have
Corporate
International
trade, relations
led to greater economic liberalisation which has
world and economy in turn increased India’s interaction with the
rest of the world.
• Faster Transportation: Improved transport,
EARLY TIME PERIOD making global travel easier. For example, there
• India was not isolated from the world even has been a rapid growth in air-travel, enabling
two thousand years ago. We know about the greater movement of people and goods across
historical and famous Silk route, which the globe.
centuries ago connected India to the great • Rise of WTO and multilateral
civilizations, which existed in China, Persia, organisations: The formation of WTO in 1994
Egypt and Rome. led to reduction in tariffs and non-tariff
• We also know that throughout India’s long barriers across the world. It also led to the
past, people from different parts came here, increase in the free trade agreements among
sometimes as traders, sometimes as various countries.
conquerors, sometimes as migrants in search • Improved mobility of capital: there has been
of new lands and settled down here. a general reduction in capital barriers,
• In remote Indian villages often, people ‘recall’ making it easier for capital to flow between
a time when their ancestors lived elsewhere, different economies. This has increased the
from where they came and settled down where ability for firms to receive finance. It has also
they now live. increased the global interconnectedness of
• Though this exchange process is going on for global financial markets.
time immemorial, this process was termed as • Rise of MNCs: Multinational corporations
operating in different geographies have led to a
18
diffusion of best practices. MNCs source the divided ‘cold war’

resources from around the globe and sell their world, and now these ex-
products in global markets leading to greater communist countries are
local interaction. themselves democracies
• Above factors have helped in economic and integrated into the
liberalization and globalization and have global economy.
facilitated the world in becoming a “global ● The growth of
village”. international and
regional mechanisms of
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO government such as the
GLOBALISATION United Nations and
European Union –
Information ● The move from governments of Nation
and telephonic States are increasingly
communications communication to cable restricted by
technology and satellite digital international directives
(ICT) communication have and laws stemming from
resulted in increasing these international
information flows. bodies.
● Time-space compression
– people in faraway BENEFITS OF GLOBALIZATION
places feel closer IMPACTING INDIA
together as they can ● Globalization helps to
communicate boost the long-run
instantaneously. average growth rate of
Economic ● The global economy is the economy of the
factors Post Industrial – as a country through:
result it is increasingly ● Improvement in the
‘weightless’ – products allocative efficiency of
are much more likely to resources;
be information ● Increase in labor
based/electronic, such as productivity
computer software, films ● Globalization attracts an
and music or information entry of foreign capital along with foreign
services rather than updated technology which improves the
actual tangible, physical quality of production.
goods such as food, ● Globalization usually restructure production
clothing or cars. and trade pattern favoring labor-intensive
● The electronic economy goods and labor-intensive techniques as well as
underpins the expansion of trade in services
globalisation – Banks, ● Globalization enhances the efficiency of the
corporations, fund banking insurance and financial sectors with
managers and the opening up to those areas to foreign capital,
individuals are able to foreign banks, and insurance companies.
shift huge funds across ● Improved Standard of Living and Better
borders instantaneously Purchasing Power
at the click of a mouse. ● In a globalized scenario, domestic industries of
Political ● The collapse of the developing countries become conscious
changes Communism in the about price reduction and quality
1990s meant the end of
19
improvement to their products so as to face

foreign competition. HOMOGENISATION VERSUS
GLOCALISATION OF CULTURE
CHALLENGES DUE TO GLOBALISATION ● A central contention is
● Globalization 4.0 (which is driven by that all cultures will
technology and the movement of ideas, become similar, that
people, and goods) could, like preceding is homogeneous. Global Local
waves of globalization, have mixed results e.g. Others argue that
even though many countries are globally there is an increasing
connected but the political crisis and global tendency towards glocalization of culture.
level conflict have also increased. ● Ritzer (2004) has coined another word
● Globalization has alerted the village and small- globalization that refers to what he calls
scale industries and sounded death-knell to it as “growth imperatives(pushing) organizations
they cannot withstand the competition arising and nations to expand globally and to
from well-organized MNCs impose themselves on the local”.
● Globalization is also posing a threat to ● Glocalization It refers to the mixing of the
agriculture in developing and global with the local. It is not entirely
underdeveloped countries of the world. As spontaneous. Nor is it entirely delinked from
with the WTO trading provisions, the the commercial interests of globalisation.
agricultural commodities market of poor and ● It is a strategy often adopted by foreign firms
developing countries will be flooded with farm while dealing with local traditions in order to
goods from countries at a rate much lower than enhance their marketability.
that of indigenous farm products leading to a • In India, we find that all the foreign television
death-blow to many farmers. channels like Star, MTV, Channel V and
● Although globalization promotes the idea that Cartoon Network use Indian languages.
technological change and increase in • Even McDonald sells only vegetarian and
productivity would lead to more jobs and chicken products in India and not its beef
higher wages but during the last few years, such products, which are popular abroad.
technological changes occurring in some McDonald’s goes vegetarian during the
developing countries have resulted in more
loss of jobs than they have created leading to
a fall in employment growth rates. Food
● Globalization paves the way for a
redistribution of economic power at the French,
world level leading to domination by German
Marriage
and
economically powerful nations over the poor Spanish
nations.
● Globalization has also let loose the forces of
“uncivil society” and accelerated the
transnational flows of terrorism, human and Movies Festivals
drug trafficking, organized crime, piracy,
and pandemic diseases (For instance, Covid-
19). The growth of these transnational Navaratri festival.
networks threatens state institutions and civil • In the field of music, one can see the growth of
society in many countries. popularity of ‘Bhangra pop’, ‘Indi pop’,
● Human trafficking is among the darkest sides fusion music and even remixes.
of globalization, turning human beings into • Culture cannot be seen as an unchanging fixed
commodities bought and sold in the entity that can either collapse or remain the
international marketplace. Women and same when faced with social change. What is
children are among the most exposed to it. more likely even today is that globalisation
20
will lead to the creation of not just new local Korean movies are quite popular among the
traditions but global ones too. urban youth. Along with this, dubbing of these
foreign movies in local languages is testimony
Homogenization of Culture of increased glocalization.
It is a process of increasing global interdependence ● Festivals: celebrations of Valentines’ day,
and interconnectedness that lead toward growing Friendship day are examples of change in
cultural standardization and uniformization. cultural values related to festival. However,
● Family structure: Joint family has been along with these new days, traditional festivals
adversely affected due to globalization. There are celebrated with equal enthusiasm.
has been an increase in nuclear families. This ● Marriage: Importance of marriage is
can be clearly manifested in the increasing decreasing, there has been an increase in
number of old age homes that are present now. divorce, increase in live-in relationships, and
● Food: due to opening up of food joints like single parenting is increasing. Marriage used
McDonalds, KFC across the country, there has to be considered as bonding of the souls; but
been a homogenization of food available today marriage is becoming professional and
across the country, but there has also been contractual. However, despite change in forms
heterogenization in food. Old restaurants are of marriage, it has not declined as an institution.
now replaced by Mc. Donalds. Fast food and
Chinese dishes have replaced juice corners and Indian society is subdivided in communities which
Parathas. enjoy ‘enormous cultural autonomy’. This
● Borrowing of money has become more provides colossal cultural resilience to
acceptable now as compared to the past. Taking communities in India to filter the effect of
loans is very common due to increasing access globalization through refectory and prismatic
to financial institutions adaptation. That is why India’s core values have
● In place of old cinema halls, multiplex never changed despite giving shelter to divergent
theatres are coming up. religions of the world and accommodating them
● Use of English has increased manifold in urban within its civilization.
areas, this has led to a homogenization in
language across the country, but the rural areas REVIVAL OF CULTURE
have been less affected by it. ● Revival of Yoga in the country as well as in the
• Value system - increasing homogeneity of international level.
world values like rationalization, free market This can be seen in
competition, commodification and the popularity of
democratic or human rights and above all a the ‘Art of Living’
global culture. course by Ravi
Shankar, or the
Glocalization of Culture celebration of
● Food: India has its unique cuisine, but the International Yoga
cuisines of foreign countries have become more day across the
easily available, they are modified to suit the world
taste buds of Indians (like Paneer Tikka Burger ● There has been a
in McDonalds). This has led to a wide variety revival of
of food being available, leading to ayurvedic
heterogenization medicines in the country as well as outside it.
● French, German and Spanish are taught to ● Due to increasing uncertainty by inter-linkage
students right from school level along with with the outside world, there has been religious
indigenous languages, this is an revivalism. This can be manifested in the use
exemplification of hybridization of culture. of religion to attract voters, or mobilizing
● Movies: popularity of foreign movies has people on the basis of religion.
increased, Hollywood, Chinese, French and
21
● Increasing demand for local handicraft ● Benefits for consumers are lower prices of
products in global market: such as Chikenkari goods and a wide range of goods available to
or bandhani. choose from.
● Due to increasing global tourism, locals are
making efforts to preserve their diversity and Cons:
revive their traditions. ● Globalization has generated problems like
jobs and social insecurity. The public sector
We can see that the western culture is influencing provides jobs along with social as well as job
the Indian culture, but it is not replacing it, rather security and other benefits also.
there is a mixture of both cultures. ● The agriculture sector is the backbone of the
Indian economy. The above 50 percent of
SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF people are working in the agriculture sector.
GLOBALIZATION ON INDIA This sector has been neglected by the
In the age of rapid technical progression, many government
countries are unified and transformed due to the in the post-
process of globalization. Globalization has a huge reform
impact on the cultural, social, monetary, political, period and
and communal life of countries. the share of
agriculture
Impact on Indian Economy has
Globalization in India is generally taken as decelerated
integrating the economy of the country with the continuously.
rest of the world. ● Post reform period has witnessed a drastic
increase in child labor because due to LPG
Pros: policy the role of public sector was reduced.
● The growth rate of the GDP of India has been Therefore, the corporate is working for profit
on the increase from 5.6 percent during 1980- motive only.
90 to 7.4 percent shown by the union budget ● Process of Capital intensive from labor-
2016-17. intensive adopted global technologies and
● There is an international market for automatic machinery. But this has resulted in
companies and for consumers, there is a the high rate of unemployment in India
wider range of products to choose from. which is becoming the biggest challenge for
● Increase the inflow of investments from Indian Economy and the Government today.
developed countries to developing countries, ● We may call globalization as a double-edged
which can be used for economic reconstruction. weapon that helped Indian consumers to enjoy
● The greater and faster flow of information all high-Quality global brands. On another
between countries and greater cultural hand, it helped the Government of India to tide
interaction has helped to overcome cultural over its serious foreign exchange problem,
barriers. even though temporarily by getting a loan from
● Many new companies were formed by Indian World Bank. But, it has been at the cost of
entrepreneurs across different industrial decontrol of the Indian Government over its
segments in view of liberalized economic economy and at the cost of the local Industry.
policies announced by the Government.
● A large number of job opportunities Psychological Impact on Indian Society
increased in India. ● Stress and insecurity because of cut throat
● It helped in faster developments in competition.
telecommunication, roads, ports, airports, ● Emergence and spread of fundamentalism.
Insurance, and other major sectors. ● Self-selected culture:
● It Increased FDI and FII. o Here, people choose to form groups with
like-minded persons who wish to have an
22
identity that is untainted by the global Trade Organization (WTO) signed the
culture and its values. The values of the Uruguay Round Agreements on 1st January
global culture, which are based on 1995.
individualism, free market economics, The Agreement on Agriculture of the WTO was
and democracy and include freedom, of the first multilateral agreement, meant to curb
choice, individual rights, openness to unfair practices in agricultural trade and set off the
change, and tolerance of differences are process of reforms in the agricultural sector.
part of “western values.”
● Spread of emerging adulthood: Positives of globalization on agriculture:
o The timing of transitions to adult roles such ● Increase National Income – Receiving the
as work, marriage and parenthood are international market for the agricultural goods
occurring at later stages in most parts of the of India, there is an increase in farmer’s
world as the need for preparing for jobs in agricultural product, new technology, new
an economy that is highly technological and seeds, etc. helped to grow the agricultural
information based is slowly extending from product.
the late teens to the mid-twenties. ● Introduced new water-saving practices in
o Additionally, as the traditional hierarchies India such as drip irrigation
of authority weaken and break down ● With globalization, farmers were encouraged to
under the pressure of globalization, the shift from traditional crops to export-
youth are forced to develop control over oriented ‘cash crops’ such as cotton and
their own lives including marriage and tobacco but such crops needed far more inputs
parenthood. in terms of fertilizers, pesticides, and water.
o For young people in developing countries, ● Increase in the export of agricultural goods
emerging adulthood exists only for the – The prices of agricultural goods are higher in
wealthier segment of society, mainly in the international market than in Indian markets.
urban areas, whereas the rural poor have If the developed countries reduced grants, they
no emerging adulthood and may even have have to increase the prices. So, there will be an
no adolescence because they begin adult- increase in the export in the Indian market and
like work at an early age and begin relatively if the prices grow, there will be profit.
early. ● Appropriate use of agricultural equipment,
● Identity Confusion: suited to the crops and the region of cultivation,
o The individuals from non-western cultures lead to efficient utilization of farm inputs,
experience it as a response to globalization. making farming financially viable and
While people may adapt to changes and profitable.
develop bicultural or hybrid, ● Research collaboration with foreign
multicultural identities, some may find it countries and institutions has increased.
difficult to adapt to rapid changes. ● Globalization has encouraged the concrete of
corporate and contract farming which have
Impact on Agriculture helped farmers.
With a view to ● The proliferation of food processing
moving industries has improved farmers’ returns.
towards
liberalizing the Negatives of globalization on agriculture:
agricultural ● Small production field – In India 60% of the
sector and population depends on agriculture. The
promoting free pressure on agriculture is increasing because of
and fair trade, the increasing population. The possession of
India, a land is small and so the production cost is
member nation higher. There is also the problem of standard
of the World
23
etc. So, there are unfavorable impact occurs on ● But globalization can also lead to new
Indian agriculture. opportunities for those who work in the
● Cash crop demand increase farmer focus on informal economy in the form of new jobs for
these crops. But the demand and price of these wageworkers or new markets for the self-
crops may fluctuate. This has major employed
implications when farmers deviate from food
crops. This has issues for countries’ food Impact on family
security. ● Since ancient times, the joint family system has
● More importantly, Globalisation has shifted the been one of
public discourse from agriculture to industry. the chief
Globalization has indirectly led to industrial characteristics
growth. This needs land and resultantly of the Indian
increases in the displacement of farmers. social system
● Intellectual property rights: - Intellectual in general and
property rights cause unfavorable impacts on tribal social
Indian agriculture. Multinational companies structure in particular.
can easily enter the field of agriculture and it ● Recently the joint family pattern throughout
will be bad for the margin farmers. India has been showing a declining
● A forum like WTO pressurizing to tone down tendency.
security net for the agriculture sector ● The diversity in family forms has given way to
● Input cost for agriculture is also affected by the dominance of nuclear families in
global events. Tension in the Eurasian region globalized India.
can cause fluctuation in the price of ● Globalization has led to large scale migration
fertilizers. and urbanization since it becomes difficult to
● Prices in global markets able to impact local maintain a joint family system because of the
prices e.g. the sugar industry high cost of living.
● Some argue that in the era of economic
Impact on the Informal sector restructuring the institution of the family is
● Globalization has resulted in the casualization
of labor. Global competition tends to
encourage formal firms to shift formal wage
workers to informal employment
arrangements without minimum wages,
assured work, or benefits.
● There has been a shift in the composition of
the labour force in favor of the skilled
laborers, in general, and more significantly in
the unorganized sector. As a natural
consequence, labor productivity indicated
emerging as a much stronger institution than
faster improvement both in organized and
ever before; others argue that family is
unorganized sectors
becoming progressively weak due to
● Globalization tends to benefit large globalization and individualism is growing up.
companies which can move quickly and easily
● Family involvement in finding a groom/bride
across borders but possess disadvantage to
is reduced to nominal. Apart from regular
labor, especially lower-skilled workers that
festivals, new occasions like ‘Valentine’s Day’,
cannot migrate easily or at all.
‘Mother’s Day’, Father’s Day’ is emerging.
● As more and more men enter the informal Weekend parties, kitty parties, visiting pubs
economy, women tend to be pushed to the and discos almost became a very natural thing.
lowest income end of the informal economy.
24
● The pattern of change in family dining is also heterogenization in food. Old restaurants are
worth observing. Having dinner while now replaced by McDonalds.
watching Television or chatting on the ● Fast food and
computer became a very common thing in most Chinese dishes
of the households. have replaced juice
● The proportion of dual-earning couples corners and
(DEC) is also substantially growing. It has Parathas
enormously altered the traditional and ● Celebrations of
functional role of women, family planning Valentines’ day,
while distressing family dynamics and Friendship day
affecting children and the elderly at home. are examples of
changes in cultural values related to the
Impact on Marriage festival. However, along with these new days,
Pros: traditional festivals are celebrated with equal
● Due to enthusiasm.
Globalisation,
the concept of Globalization and Education
love marriages Education holds the key to India’s growth and
is increasing socio-economic development. This has assumed
and elders have greater importance over the last decade with India
started to accept positioning itself as a knowledge economy in a fast
and appreciate it globalizing world
in the same
way. PROS:
● Inter caste and inter-religious marriages have ● Through cultural immersion, students who
become more common participate in global education programs are
● Parents are turning to the web to search for able to gain a greater depth of knowledge
brides and grooms, they prefer NRI for their about and appreciation for new cultures.
westernized outlook, lifestyles, and higher This often includes acquiring advanced
disposable income. language skills
● It aims at enhancing the overall core values in
Cons: terms of research and technological
● The importance of marriage is decreasing, advancements.
there has been an increase in divorce, an ● By experiencing the differences and
increase in live-in relationships, and single similarities between their host country and their
parenting is increasing. home country, the student will enhance their
● Marriage used to be considered as bonding of global perspectives and obtain a greater
the souls, but today marriage is becoming awareness of global affairs, including
professional and contractual. political, educational, societal, and economic
● Other issues like serial monogamy, live-in issue.
relationships are viewed against the culture of ● School facilities have also come under the
India. scanner as there is a demand for quality in
● However, despite the change in forms of available infrastructure that can aid in
marriage, it has not declined as an institution. preparing a different class of people who are
ready for a global world.
Impact on Food and Festival ● With the advent of globalization, the Indian
● Due to the opening up of food joints like higher education system has made
McDonald’s, KFC across the country, there considerable progress in terms of capacity
has been a homogenization of food available creation and enrolment especially in the last
across the country, but there has also been
25
decade yet it lags significantly in terms of ● Due to globalization, there has been an
“global relevance and competitiveness”. expansion of economic opportunities,
● Globalization promotes new tools and education, and liberal thoughts, which has
techniques such as E-learning, Flexible resulted in the weakening of the caste system.
learning, Distance Education Programs, and ● The traditional division of labor was breaking
Overseas training. down due to industrialization; this was given a
● There are enormous effects observed in the boost by globalization.
educational sector due to globalization such as ● The rise in professionalism, improvement in
the literacy rate become high and Foreign education, etc. have provided employment
Universities are collaborating with different opportunities and thus improving the
Indian Universities. conditions of the vulnerable caste.
CONS: Cons:
● Globalization has put extra pressure on the ● However, despite changes, the caste system
education system to create ‘winners’ who are has shown immense resilience and still
ready to battle in the race for the survival of the continues to exist as one of the significant
fittest. features of Indian society.
● It has led to the preparation of a curriculum ● Due to a lack of skills, globalization has forced
that has to be internationally acceptable. vulnerable caste towards the informal sector
● In the contemporary context, students are seen doing menial jobs.
as customers as well as partners in the ● Despite globalization practice of
process of learning. untouchability is still prevalent in India.
● Commercial institutions offering specialized
education have come up everywhere. In view Globalization and Women in India
of globalization, many corporate universities, Globalization affects different groups of women in
both foreign and Indian, are encroaching different places in different ways. On the one
upon government institutions. hand, it may create new opportunities for women
● The growth of computers and other to be forerunners in economic and social progress
technologies enabled women with better on the other it may take away job opportunities
waged, flex timings, and the capacity to by providing cheaper avenues in the form of
negotiate their role and status in-home and at assembly-line production or outsourcing.
the corporate level.
● Globalization could erode our traditional Pros:
values and ethos. ● Globalization has indeed promoted ideas and
● Education has become beyond the reach of norms of equality for women that have
poor students because of globalization. Since brought about awareness and acted as a
the educational level by these agencies has catalyst in their struggle for equitable rights
been elevated, the monetary requirements to and opportunities.
become admitted and study has also spiraled. ● Different non-profit organizations have been
brought to India from around the globe. These
Globalization and Caste System organizations have given women the skills
The rise in globalization has brought changes to the they need to advance, such as literacy and
caste system both in positive as well as a negative vocational skills.
way: ● It has led to an increase in the independence
of women, especially in urban areas. This has
Pros: been manifested through inter-caste marriages,
● The rigid caste system is gradually giving its single mothers, live-in relationships
way to relaxed norms in the form of inter- ● The women in rural settings have been
caste marriages, intermingling, and influenced by globalization through media and
socializing. through numerous intervention programs like
26

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non-profit organizations, increasing the self- levels, female producers experience more
confidence of women and motivating them to constraints in accessing international markets
fight for their rights. than males.
● Changes in the attitude of women-more ● Women's weaker property rights and limited
acceptance of western clothes, dating has access to productive inputs also constrain
become common in urban areas, increased their capacity to benefit from trade
use of contraception in rural as well as urban openness.
areas. ● Gender norms for mobility and women’s role
● Trade openness and the diffusion of new in the economic sphere can disproportionately
information and communication affect Women's access to technology.
technologies have translated into more jobs
and stronger connections to markets for many Globalization and Youth
women, increasing their access to economic The majority of India’s population is young (India
opportunities. is witnessing demographic dividend). The
● Greater access to information has allowed population growth among youth is one of the most
many to learn about life and mores in other critical factors in the way India responds to
parts, possibly affecting attitude and behaviors. globalization. Indian youth are fueling both
positive and negative perceptions given to
Cons: globalization.
● Though employment opportunities for women
are increasing, they are most crowded in low PROS:
paying jobs, ● Present-day youth, with its more materialistic
have less ambitions and more globally informed
social opinions, are gradually abandoning the austere
security. ways and restricted traditional Indian markets.
● Women are ● Youth demand a more cosmopolitan society
suffering in that is a full-fledged member of the global
two-fold. As economy.
women in ● Globalization has highlighted the importance
developing countries move into the workforce, of imparting education, training, and
their domestic responsibilities are not requisite skills to young people for providing
alleviated. Women work two full-time jobs. them a platform to become successful
● The exploitation of women in the workplace participants in the labor market.
has emerged as a new issue ● The increased skillset contributes in the form
● Globalization has occurred with the of increased investment attraction from all
persistence of the patriarchal mindset of around the world.
Indians, this has led to problems for women ● It has promoted a cross-fertilization of ideas,
like the commodification of women, the use cultural values, and aspirations; thus, it has
of social media to harass women, increase in helped to connect youth not only to the rest of
violence against women. the world but also among each other.
● As consumers, women are increasingly facing ● With more awareness, youth are being more
a consumer culture which reduces them to vocal towards their rights. Consequently, the
commodities and as producers, women are government is ensuring more participation of
exposed to work exploitation and people in policymaking.
occupational hazards Cons:
● Additionally, prostitution, abuse, and dowry ● The traditional Indian dress is declining,
related suicides are increasing. especially among urban youth, in favor of new
● Gender differences in education have limited fashions from the west.
Women's access to new employment ● Youth are not as close to their grandparents as
opportunities. But because of lower education were earlier generations and spend less time
27
with the older generation resulting in loss of

wisdom handed down from generation to GLOBALISATION AND POLITICAL
generation. CHANGES
● Lack of physical activity has made youth ● Political development which is accompanying
follow a sedentary lifestyle leading to health globalization is the growth of international
disorders. and regional mechanisms for political
● Many young people especially in developing collaboration.
countries remain marginalized from the ● The European Union (EU), the Association of
global economy. They are incapable of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), South
accessing the opportunities that globalization
offer due to inadequate education, limited
skills, poverty or they cannot reach out to basic
information and communication, and the goods
and services that have become available with
globalization.
ETHICAL CHALLENGES OF
GLOBALIZATION PROCESS
● Rising inequality: While the advanced
capitalist countries enjoy the benefits of Asian Regional Conference (SARC), and more
industrialization, the rest of the countries are recently South
forced to share the negative consequences or Asian
externalities thrown up by industrial activities. Federation of
● Human rights issues: The bad work Trade
environments and low-wages involved in the Association
industry prevent workers from accessing even (SAFTA) are
basic human rights. just some of the
● Others: The Dissolution of families and examples that
communities, rise in nuclear families and indicate the
increasing isolation of old-aged parents; greater role of
privatization and consequent rise in cost of regional associations.
health care, education and other social ● There has been the rise of International
services are some of the other issues associated Governmental Organisations (IGOs) and
with the process of globalisation. International Non-Governmental
Organisations (INGOs).
Way Forward ● The concept of good governance has been
● The need of the hour is to design a blueprint strengthened due to increasing Globalization.
from the ground up that can capitalize on new ● This has led to a policy change towards a
opportunities while prioritizing sustainability rights-based approach to governance.
and inclusiveness more than ever before. ● The effects of globalization on democracy is
● Global and local institutions need to advance not limited to a special scope. Some thoughtful
both universal and targeted strategies to beliefs that, globalization affects all
improve outcomes for everyone ensuring foundations of democracy such as freedom of
vulnerable population is not left out. expression, freedom of belief and religion, civil
● We should proactively build resilient local community, citizenship rights, confinement of
and regional systems that can participate in state activity, legitimacy of governors, freedom
the next wave of globalization, making sure of the press, and etc.
regions have the right mix of education,
employment, and infrastructure to create GLOBALISATION AND CULTURE OF
and sustain jobs locally. CONSUMPTION
28
Often when we speak of culture, we refer to possible that your fortunes could turn over in a
dresses, music, dances, food. However, culture as few games.
we know refers to a whole way of life. There are
two uses of culture, one culture of consumption Corporate culture:
and second is corporate culture. • It is a branch of management theory that
seeks to increase productivity and
Culture of consumption:
• Culture of
consumption
(of art, food,
fashion,
music,
tourism)
playing a
crucial role
in the competitiveness through the creation of a
process of globalisation especially in shaping unique organizational culture involving all
the growth of members of a firm.
cities. Till the • A dynamic corporate culture – involving
1970s the company events, rituals and traditions – is
manufacturing thought to enhance employee loyalty and
industries used promote group solidarity.
to play a major • It also refers to the way of doing things, of
role in the promotion, and packaging products.
growth of cities. • The spread of multinational companies and the
• This is evident in the spurt in the growth of opportunities opened up by the IT revolution
shopping malls, multiplex cinema halls, has created in the metropolitan cities in India a
amusement parks and ‘water world’ in every class of upwardly mobile professionals
major city in India. working in software firms, multinational banks,
• Most chartered accountancy firms, stock markets,
significantly travel, fashion designing, entertainment, media
advertisements and other allied fields.
and the media in • These high-flying professionals have highly
general stressful work schedules, get exorbitant
promote a salaries and are the main clientele of the
culture where booming consumer industry.
spending is
important. To GLOBALISATION AND LABOUR
be careful with, ● Globalisation is perceived as a double-edged
money is no longer a virtue. sword, because, on one hand, it has created
• Shopping is a past time actively encouraged. huge potential for business development
Successive successes in fashion pageants like across the world and on the other; it has made
Miss Universe and Miss World have led to a both global and local markets more
tremendous growth in industries in the fields of competitive. It has given birth to a new
fashion, cosmetics and health. “Global Economic Map”.
• Young girls dream of being an Aishwarya ● Globalisation is seen as a major driver of
Rai or Sushmita Sen. economic growth via international trade in
• Popular game shows like Kaun Banega goods and services and capital flows through
Crorepati (KBC) actually made it seem FDIs and portfolio investments.
29
● From another perspective, it is feared that o It has created avenues for women who
globalisation adversely affects labour want to
interests. In a globally competitive
environment, the transnational corporations are
relentlessly engaged in squeezing every
resource for maximizing their economic
returns. In that process, though the owners of
capital seem to have gained, the laborer’s have
lost out.
● In spite of the presence of apex bodies like
participate in industry. Women have
International Labour Organization (ILO),
entered the labour force in large numbers in
WTO etc., failure to recognize trade unions,
countries that have embraced liberal
wage disparity, violation of health and safety
economic policies. Industrialization in the
norms are recurrent in various parts of the
context of globalisation is as much female-
world.
led as it is export-led. The overall economic
● Advocates of human rights and labour
activity rate of women for the age group
movements argue that labour conditions have
20-54 increased drastically.
been deteriorating continuously, mainly due to
o But the informal sector where women were
firms ‟attempt to adjust to the competitive
absorbed in large numbers along with
forces of a global economy”.
globalization offer very poor labor
● The most vulnerable groups are
conditions. Such industries where women
temporary/contract labourers and the
were mostly engaged happened to be highly
workers having low or no skills.
labour intensive, service oriented and
poorly paid.
Impact of Globalisation on Labour in India:
o Liberalization of the economy has in some
● After 1991 GoI changed its industrial policy
and accepted Liberalization, Privatization,
Globalization (LPG) policy. This policy aims
Liberalization
at opening the economy to the world, leading to
completion of industrial change.
● Globalisation has impacted the labour in
Privatization
positive and negative manner in following
way:
o The reforms propelled India’s GDP growth Globalization
rate to nearly 7-8% from the prevalent 2-

3%. They have created a robust private
sector and thus employment for millions of
Indians over the years. sectors caused loss of employment without
o However, a substantial amount of these creation of new employment.
jobs have either remained informal or o The big corporate companies like TNCs and
have been lost with time. MNCs have evolved a vendor system of
o Opening up of the market and free flow of subcontracting for their production. This
trade and low tariffs encouraged flow of results in job insecurity of the labourer
foreign goods lowering the employment and worsening of labour welfare since
opportunities of Indian labourers. there is no checking system for their
welfare.
GLOBALIZATION AND ENVIRONMENT
30
● The architects of globalization have ignored soil. This toxic

the social, biological and physical waste has caused
constraints on their created system. a lot of damage
● Critics of globalization have noted that global to plants by
free trade promotes the social and economic interfering in
conditions most likely to undermine its own their genetic
existence. The same can be said of the makeup.
biological and physical limiting factors- ● It has put
especially, in the short term, the dwindling pressure on the available land resources.
supplies of cheap energy. ● Globalization increases the vulnerability of
● The effects of Globalization on environment ecosystems and societies, and the least
include, but are not limited to, reduced genetic resilient ecosystems.
diversity in agriculture (loss of crop varieties
and livestock breeds), loss of wild species, Ways in Which Environment Affects
spread of exotic species, pollution of air, Globalization
water and soil, accelerated climatic change, ● Natural resource scarcity or/and abundance
exhaustion of resources, and social and are drivers of globalization, as they incite
spiritual disruption. supply and demand forces in global markets.
● The need for environmental amelioration can
Ways in Which Globalization Affects extract costs from economy and siphon
Environment: resources away from development goals.
● An increase in the consumption of products, ● Environmental stress can trigger alternative
which has impacted the ecological cycle. technological paths, e.g., dematerialization,
alternative energy, etc., which may not have
otherwise emerged.
● Environmental standards influence patterns
of trade and investment nationally and
internationally.
The data for energy utilization per capita and

CO2 emission after LPG reforms in India are
given
Increased consumption leads to an increase in
the production of goods, which in turn puts
stress on the environment.
● Increase in the transportation of raw
materials and food. This led to an increase in
the pollution levels in the environment. It has
also led to noise pollution and landscape
intrusion.
● Ozone layer depletion and enhanced
greenhouse effect pose additional challenges.
● The industrial waste that is generated as a
result of production has is dumped in oceans.
This has killed many underwater organisms and
has deposited many harmful chemicals in the
ocean. Oil spills from oil tankers threat pose
threat to marine environment.
● Due to globalization and industrialization,
various chemicals have been thrown into the
31
It is important to highlight that not only does company for the lonely, aged,
globalization and housewives. It gives
impact the topics for conversation to the
environment, number of the family staying at
but the home.
environment ● The criminal items and unfair
impacts the pace, bossism by anti - social
direction and elements of society exercise
quality of the most adverse impact on
globalization. Negative children in particular and the
For example: Aspect youth in general.
environmental resources provide the fuel for ● It dehumanizes the views by
economic globalization. Similarly, social and naked exposure to sensuality,
policy responses to global environmental criminality, militancy,
challenges constrain and influence the context in unfairness and several other
which globalization happens. negative aspects of it.
● The sheer amount of time
GLOBALIZATION AND MEDIA spent in watching TV by the
● Entertainment industry in India has registered children is often too large. Thus
an explosive growth in the last two decades They have a negative impact in
making it one of the fastest growing industries terms of their studies,
in India. Today, more than 400 active socialization and participation
channels in the country today. in other entertainment
● Online content, Over the Top Platforms activities.
(OTP) and Social media seems to be catching ● In our present-day society, with
up with viewers across India. an increasing wave to crime
● The most visible effect of globalization is wide and violence we are beginning
spread communication network. to look at the relationship
between television
1. Role of Television: programmes and cultural
• Television programmes are values more clearly.
Positive most informative and
Aspects educative - like UGC 2. Exchange of Talent: Globalisation has helped
programmes, quiz the film production companies to share the
programmes and also international pool of talent.
group discussion (E.g. RSTV) 3. Role of the internet: Social networks like
• It satisfies our need to know Facebook and LinkedIn bring integrity and help
what is going on in and around people stay connected. It acts as a platform to
the world. the society for better connectivity and hence
• Television reveals dresses of being aware or updating themselves regarding
different communities, food what is happening around them.
of people from South India to 4. Role of the Radio: It is one of the easiest and
North India and also the cheapest media sources. It is easily available in
rituals and religious most part of the country. The biggest advantage
practices of people from of the radio as a means of media globalization
different corners of the is that it can be understood by even an illiterate
country.’ person and can cater to a larger number of
• Television is the source of people. Moreover, it has a greater impact on the
entertainment to people of all rural as they are able to connect to the radio
categories. It provides
32
easily. Therefore, the importance of radio in the displaced from their villages, of which about
society is indispensable. 40 percent belong to the tribal populations.
IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON TRIBAL GLOBALIZATION 4.0

COMMUNITIES ● Globalization
● Tribal 4.0 is the latest
people stage of
constitute globalization
8.6% of the which involves
nation’s cutting-edge
total new
population, technologies like artificial intelligence, big
over 104 data analytics, machine learning that powers
million forward with the explosion of information
people technology. These technologies shrink
according to the 2011 census. distances, open up borders and minds and bring
● For the Tribal, globalization is associated people all across the globe closer together.
with rising prices, loss of job security, and ● The development of advanced technologies
lack of health care. like artificial intelligence (AI), big data,
● In the name of up-gradation of the lifestyle of nanotechnology, the internet of things (IoT),
poor indigenous tribal people, the market 3D printing and autonomous vehicles all
forces have created wealth for their interests have the potential to significantly impact global
at the cost of livelihood and security of these productivity.
tribes in the areas.
● Inadequate social and economic EARLIER WAVES OF GLOBALIZATION
infrastructure in areas that have insufficient Globalization ○ It refers to the rapid
resources for participation in mainstream 1.0 growth in world trade,
development also has been at the root of mainly during the
various “sub-national movements” such as nineteenth century.
the Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, and Bodoland. ○ It was driven by
● In poverty-stricken tribal areas, large scale innovations in transport
migration has revealed the increasing and communications,
movement of young women towards urban including the railways,
centers in search of work. Their living steamships and the electric
conditions are unhygienic, the salary is poor telegraph.
and tribal women are vulnerable to ○ The subsequent reduction
exploitation by unscrupulous agents. in the cost of global
● Tribals are being forcefully integrated into the transport enabled the
society leading to them losing their unique separation of production
cultural features and their habitat and consumption across
threatened. international borders,
● Land Alienation of Tribals: Land is a very making previously exotic
important component for tribal development. It products like tea, sugar and
occupies their source of livelihood. But the cotton readily available and
globalization trend has alienated Tribals from affordable in markets like
their mainstay. the UK for the first time.
● Displacement of Tribals: It is estimated that Globalization ○ It surged again after the
owing to the construction of over 1500 major 2.0 Second World War –
irrigation development projects since dubbed Globalisation 2.0.
independence, over 16 million people were ○ It is driven by greater
33
international
cooperation, the post-war Way Ahead:
period saw less 1. Innovate educational institutions and
protectionism and a rapid aggressively close the skills gap: By 2022, at
growth in world trade, at least 54% of employees globally will require
least in western economies. re- and up-skilling. Not only do we need to
Globalization ○ The third wave of support people in getting the training they need
3.0 globalisation is thought to
have started around 1990.
○ Further advances in
technology, including the
spread of the internet,
made it easier for different
stages of production to be
based in various locations
across the globe, leading to
the emergence of modern
supply chains.
○ This enabled firms to
further cut the cost of
producing products and for jobs in the next five years, but we need to
delivering services by prepare young students with the skills to adapt
moving their operations to the types of jobs we will need in the next 20
to cheaper locations, years.
known as offshoring. 2. Focus on the most vulnerable populations:
Negative effects of globalization will have a
Challenges of Globalization 4.0: disproportionate impact on some populations.
● Globalization 4.0’ could, like preceding waves Global and local institutions need to advance
of globalization, have mixed results - both universal and targeted strategies to
economic growth and poverty alleviation on improve outcomes for everyone.
the one hand, and political crises and greater 3. Stop climate change: Climate change is going
income inequality on the other. to have a disproportionate impact on vulnerable
● For millennials, our economic opportunities regions and populations. The challenges of
are uncertain and we believe we may not have Globalization 4.0 will be compounded if
the skills needed for the jobs of the future. If we resources that could be put towards
are not intentional in our preparation for strengthening local economies and education
Globalization 4.0, we risk exacerbating these have to be diverted to mitigate the costs of
problems. climate change.
● The last wave of globalization in the 1990s 4. Build a movement focused on equity:
lifted some countries out of poverty. However, Advancing the priorities above and creating
income inequality is increasing in those greater equity will require a more coordinated
countries and in large economies including the global movement than exists today. Many
US. businesses, NGOs, advocacy groups,
● Other countries with low-cost labour are academics and even individuals have
anticipating the benefits of the next wave of unprecedented global reach and ability to
globalization, but there is a risk of laying a influence equitable outcomes.
foundation that drives inequality for 5. Invest in strengthening local and regional
generations. economies: We should proactively build
● Globalization 4.0 may increase income resilient local and regional systems that can
inequality even if it can create more wealth. participate in the next wave of globalization,
34
making sure regions have the right mix of under 2 percent of G.D.P. from a peak of 16
education, employment and infrastructure to percent in 2007.
create and sustain jobs locally
Impact on Advanced Economies (AEs)
DEGLOBALISATION ● Labour Market Loss: The major hurdle faced
De-globalization is the process of reducing by the Advanced Economies is the death of
interdependence and integration between relatively low skilled sectors like textile and the
nations around the world. It is characterized by support economies that grew around it. The
decline in economic trade and investment reabsorption of this displaced labour has been
between countries, protectionism and unilateral slow and incomplete which is reflected in the
withdrawal from international organizations and share of wages to GDP that dropped by 5%
agreements. This decline reflects that economies from 2000 to 2017.
become less integrated with the rest of the world ● Technology: Advanced Economies have
economies. largely depended on technological change for
per capita income growth. There is deceleration
Factors responsible: in technological change, during the last decade,
● Tariff wars are one aspect of de-globalisation partly due to low investment in innovation and
policies. partly due to fading additional gains from the
● Right wing ideology internet computer revolution.
● Outbreak and transboundary spread of diseases ● Consumer Credit: As a bid to keep spending
and pandemics – E.g. COVID19 alive, Advanced Economies focused on the
● Sub-prime crisis of 2008 consumer credit in the early 2000s. This
● Stricter IPR regime, sanitary and phytosanitary precipitated into the Great Financial Crisis of
measures. 2008.
● Emergence of Emerging Market Economies
● Inward looking mentality and attitude. Impact on Emerging Markets (EMs)
● Political rivalry - Russia and USA, USA and ● Trade: The increase in tariff barriers by the
Iran, South Korea etc. Advanced Economies have led to the shrinking
● Brexit is another facet that can cost countries of exports in EMs which is destroying their job
too. Britain’s divorce with the EU is estimated intensive manufacturing sector.
to cost companies on both sides $80 billion a ● Migration: Advanced Economies are the hot
year without a trade deal. destination of high skilled labour from EMs.
● Trade: With global demand weak, and many The increased protective measure by Advanced
nations erecting import barriers, trade is Economies for free movement of high skilled
slumping. Measured as a share of global gross labour is threatening their productive growth
domestic product, trade doubled from 30 and job opportunities.
percent in 1973 to a high of 60 percent in 2008.
But it faltered during the crisis and has since Impact on India:
dropped to 55 percent. ● Social impact: It leads to a decrease in
● The decrease in migration is another aspect. standards of living as it will impact exports and
Despite the flood of refugees into Europe, net economic growth impacting welfare of the
migration from poor to rich countries decreased poor, vulnerable sections and their standard of
to 12 million between 2011 and 2015, down by life.
four million from the previous five years. ● Political impact: It would affect polity leading
● Refugee crisis – climate induced and political to instability in the political framework of
factors E.g. Rohingya crisis. countries due to increase in prices and cost of
● The flow of capital - mainly bank loans - is living may lead to civil Uprisings.
retreating even faster. Frozen by the financial ● Impact on technology: These tendencies limit
crisis and squeezed afterward by new technological advancement of the world as
regulations, capital flows had decreased to just whole and of developing countries in
35
particular. The limited knowledge sharing, lack 6. Critically examine the effects of globalization
of flow of technology to developing countries on the aged population in India. (2013) 10
limit advancement in science. Marks
● Impact on women employment: It would
impact women empowerment efforts as it will Practice Questions
impact women movements across the globe. 1. Discuss the impact of globalization on Indian
The lack of cooperation among nations will society.
reduce opportunities for women across the 2. Critically examine the Impact of Globalisation
world. on Tribal Communities
3. India has long preached the ideals
Way Forward of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam. Discuss the
● Promotion of new forms of international and relevance of the statement in changing the
regional integration that preserve and allow Indian social context.
the multiple dimensions of life to flourish. 4. Examine the challenges posed in Indian society
● The culture of tolerance and understanding due to the rise of globalization.
must be promoted which provides space for 5. Discuss the impact of Globalisation on the
positive dialogue. family system of India?
● More and more Cooperation is needed for 6. Examine whether globalization is a beneficial
hours to make the world economy more force or it erodes communities and widens the
predictable, to mitigate vulnerabilities and to gap between the elites and the rest of the world.
strengthen the free trade system.
● More focus should be on creating
organizations/coalition like International
Solar Alliance, Coalition for Disaster Resilient
Infrastructure that contribute to global
sustainable development along with promoting
coordination among nations.
Previous Year Questions

1. 'Globalization is generally said to promote
cultural homogenization but due to this cultural
specificity appear to be strengthened in the
Indian Society.' Elucidate. (2018) - 15 Marks
2. To what extent globalization has influenced the
core of cultural diversity in India? Explain.
(2016)
3. How globalization has led to the reduction of
employment in the formal sector of the Indian
economy? Is increased informalization
detrimental to the development of the country?
(2016)
4. Has the Indian governmental system responded
adequately to the demands of liberalization,
Privatization, and Globalization started in
1991? What can the Government do responsive
to this important change? (2016) 12.5 Marks
5. Discuss the positive and negative effects of
globalization on women in India. (2015) 12.5
Marks
36
CH-3 SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT

Empowerment is a set of measures designed to increase the degree of autonomy and self-determination in
people and in communities in order to enable them to represent their interests in a responsible and self-
determined way.
section of the society. If one is empowered

What is Social Empowerment? socially, they know the rights they enjoy and
the duties they serve.
• Social empowerment means all sections of the • Social
society having equal control over their lives empowerment
and the opportunity to take important is also
decisions. A nation can never have a good advantageous
growth trajectory without empowering all in case of
sections of society equally. corruption as
• It is understood as the process of developing a people tend to understand the exploitive class
sense of autonomy and self-confidence, and and restrain from giving any bribe which
acting individually and collectively to change ultimately reduces corruption.
social relationships and the institutions and • Social empowerment is one approach to
discourses that exclude poor people and keep reduce poverty. When people are empowered,
them in poverty. they tend to use the knowledge in the right
• Perceptions of being empowered vary across direction and somehow reduce their poverty
time, culture, and domains of a person’s life: which is so important for national growth also.
o A low-caste person feels empowered when • The main advantage of empowerment is that
he/she is given a fair hearing in a public their will be an overall and inclusive
meeting, which is comprised of men and development of the society. The money that
women from different social and economic people earn does not only help them and or their
group. family, but it also helps develop the society.
o A woman from a conservative household
feels empowered if she’s allowed to go out
alone without being escorted by a male
from her house.
o A transgender feels empowered when
she’s given employment.
The need for Social Empowerment

• Social empowerment leads one to take the
right job and hence reduce the incidence of
unemployment and under-employment.
• Social empowerment leads to a decrease in
social violence engineered against the deprived
SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED GROUPS
37
Scheduled Scheduled
WOMENS Minorities
Tribes Castes
Rural Senior Persons with

Population Citizens Disabilities
cooking fuel is much lower among the tribal

population.
SCHEDULED TRIBES
• The Scheduled Tribes are notified in 30 The essential characteristics of Tribal
States/UTs and the communities are:
number of
individual ethnic
groups etc. notified Primitive Traits
as Scheduled Tribes
is about 705.
• The tribal Geographical isolation
population of the
country, as per the Distinct culture
2011 census is constituting 8.6% of the total
population (10.43 crore). However, 89.97%
of them live in rural areas and 10.03% in Socio-Economically backward
urban areas. Of
these, 1.57
percent (about Shy of contact with the community at large
1.32 million)
belong to
Primitive Tribal • The practice of endogamy happens within the
Groups (PTGs). tribe and can serve as a form of Self-
• The Scheduled segregation, and the community uses it to resist
Tribe (ST) integrating and completely merging with
population surrounding populations.
represents a heterogeneous group scattered in ● Tribal communities live in various ecological
different regions of India. The differences are and geo-climatic conditions ranging from
noticed in language, cultural practices, socio- plains and forests to hills and inaccessible
economic status, and pattern of livelihood. areas.
• More than two-thirds of the ST population is ● Tribal groups are at different stages of social,
concentrated only in the seven states of the economic, and educational development.
country, viz. Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, While some tribal communities have adopted a
Orissa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, and mainstream way of life, at the other end of the
Chhattisgarh. There is no ST population in 3 spectrum, there are certain Scheduled
States (Delhi NCR, Punjab and Haryana) and Tribes, 75 categorized by Ministry of Home
2 UTs (Puducherry and Chandigarh), as no Affairs as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal
Scheduled Tribe is notified. Groups (PVTG)s. PVTGs reside in 18 States
• Lack of basic amenities- The 2011 census data and UT of A&N Islands.
shows that access to tap water, sanitation ● In 1973, the Dhebar Commission created
facilities, drainage facilities, and the clean Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) as a separate
38
category, who are less developed among the • According to the census, 2011 literacy rate for
tribal groups. In 2006, the
Government renamed the PTGs as PVTGs.
● Among the 75 listed PVTG’s the highest
number are found in Odisha.
● PVTG is not a Constitutional category, nor
are these constitutionally recognized
communities.
● The Saharia people of Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan are the largest among the PVTGs
with the population more than 4 lakhs.
PVTGs are characterized by:

• Pre-agriculture level of technology
• Mostly homogenous
• Stagnant or declining population
• relatively physically isolated
• Extremely low literacy
• Slower rate of change
STs is 59% compared to the national average
• Subsistence level of economy
of 73%.
• Literacy level among ST men is at 68.5% but
Notable PVTGs in India -
for women, it is still below 50%
● Kerala → Cholanaikayan (a section of
Kattunaickans), Kadar, Kattunayakan,
Kurumbas, Koraga, Irulas Constitutional provisions for Tribals:
● Bihar and Jharkhand → Asurs, Birhor, Article Protects the interests of the
Birjia, Hill Kharia, Konvas, Mal Paharia, 29 minorities by making a provision
Parhaiyas, Sauda Paharia, Savar. that any citizen/section of citizens
● Andhra Pradesh and Telangana → Bodo having a distinct language, script,
Gadaba, Bondo Poroja, Chenchu, Dongria for culture have the right to
Khond, Gutob Gadaba, Khond Poroja, Kolam, conserve the same.
Kondareddis, Konda Savaras, Kutia Khond, Article Under the DPSP provides that, the
Parengi Poroja, Thoti. 46 state shall promote, with special
● Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh → Abujh care, the educational and economic
Macias, Baigas, Bharias, Hill Korbas, Kamars interests of weaker sections of the
Saharias, Birhor. people, and in particular, of the
● Maharashtra → Katkaria (Kathodia), Kolam, scheduled caste and scheduled
Maria Gond. tribes.
● Rajasthan → Seharias. Article Provides Grants in-Aids to states
● Tamil Nadu → Kattu Nayakans, Kotas, 275 (1) (having scheduled tribes) covered
Kurumbas, Irulas, Paniyans Todas. under the fifth and six schedules of
● Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand → Buxas, the constitution.
Rajis. Article States that the state shall provide
● Andaman & Nicobar Islands → Great 350A adequate facilities for instruction in
Andamanes, Jarawas, Onges, Sentinelese, mother-tongue at the primary stage
Shorn Pens. of education.
Fifth Article 244 (1) of the Indian
Schedule Constitution defines Scheduled
Status of Tribal Education in India: Art. Areas as the areas defined so by
244(1) the President of India and are
39
mentioned in the fifth schedule of The Prime Minister’s Office constituted a High-
the Constitution. In India, there are Level Committee (HLC) in 2013,
10 states having scheduled areas. under chairmanship of Prof. Virginius Xaxa. The
Sixth The Sixth Schedule of the Committee was mandated to examine the socio-
Schedule Constitution deals with the economic, educational and health status of
Art. 244 administration of the tribal areas in tribal communities and recommend appropriate
the four north-eastern states of interventional measures to improve the same. It
Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and submitted report in May, 2014. Key
Mizoram as per Article 244. recommendations of committee were:
1. Increase and strengthened the powers of Gram
Legislative provisions for Tribals Sabha for land acquisition.
1. The Scheduled Tribes and Other 2. Mining rights to cooperatives
Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition 3. Acquired but unused land could be used for
of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA) has a tribal rehabilitation.
special section regarding the 75 PVGTs and 4. “No” to large dam
the Act recognises forest and habitat rights 5. Judicial commission on Naxal offences
of PVTGs.
2 The Provisions of the Panchayats Problem Faced by Tribes
(Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, • Problems related to the forest → The
1996 (PESA): It extends Scheduled Areas of livelihood of
India under the purview of the national the tribal
framework of Panchayat. However, this act community is
is not applicable to Jammu and Kashmir, based on forest.
Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram and They enjoyed
certain other areas including scheduled and their
tribal areas. traditional
3 The Andaman and Nicobar (Protection of rights of
Aboriginal Tribes) Regulation, 1956 - The hunting,
Sentinelese and other aboriginal tribes of the gathering, shifting cultivation but the advent of
Andaman& Nicobar Islands are protected modern government, in the name of forest
under this act. protection stopped the movement of STs which
4 Foreigners (Restricted Areas) Order, brought the question of existence. Further,
1963 - the Andaman & Nicobar Islands are their lands are taken by various government
a “Restricted Area” in which foreigners with agencies and the private sector for minuscule
a restricted area permit (RAP) can stay. compensation.
5 Andaman and Nicobar Islands • Poverty and exploitation → The tribal
(Protection of Aboriginal Tribes) population are been exploited because of their
Regulation, 1956 - The habitats of the innocence and they are pushed to a spiral of
PVTGs of Andaman and Nicobar Island has poverty. They have been living in forests from
protected Tribal Reserve. time immemorial, but after the government’s
6 In August 2018, in a bid to promote restriction, many became bonded laborers
tourism and encourage investment, the and getting exploited. In India, 52 percent of
Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) decided to the STs belong to the category of Below
exclude 30 islands from Andaman and Poverty Line (BPL) and 54 percent of them
Nicobar from the RAP or Restricted Area have no access to economic assets such as
Permit regime notified under the communication and transport (World Bank,
Foreigners (Restricted Areas) Order, 2011).
1963. North Sentinelese island was among • Literacy rate → Literacy among the tribes of
the 30 islands the north-eastern and island regions is
relatively higher but despite that high
40
dropout rate and the infant mortality rate is their tribal culture, social institution, language,
also a problem in the north-eastern region. etc.
• Health Issues → PVTGs suffer from many • Vulnerabilities of tribes in Andaman and
health problems like anaemia, malaria; gastro- Nicobar → The fragile tribal communities
intestinal disorders; micronutrient deficiency have been facing expropriation of their
and skin diseases due to poverty, lack of safe ecosystem by outsiders. The outside influences
drinking water, bad sanitation, lack of health are impacting their land-use patterns, use of the
services, superstition and deforestation.
• Agriculture →The contributing factor such as Minor Forest Produce (MFP):
dependency on agriculture, natural calamity, • The government had earlier launched a
crop-failure, reduced access to land, and lack of scheme named “Minimum Support Price
employment, etc are the reason for poverty in (MSP)” for the MFP scheme for
the states like MP and Chhattisgarh. safeguarding the remuneration of tribal
• Unemployment → The rates of unemployment population.
are high in the tribals of the island region. • The Scheduled Tribes and Other
STs are confronted with problems like forced Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition
migration, exploitation, displacement due to of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, defines a Minor
industrialization led to losing command over Forest Produce (MFP) as all non-timber
the natural resources, and are unable to cope forest produce of plant origin and includes
with the new pattern of work and resources for bamboo, brushwood, stumps, canes, Tusser,
living. cocoon, honey, waxes, Lac, tendu/kendu
• Lack of baseline surveys → The leaves, medicinal plants and herbs, roots,
Anthropological Survey of India observed 75 tuber and the like.
PVTGs, baseline surveys exists for about 40
groups, even after declaring them as PVTGs. sea, overall
Lack of baseline surveys hinder effective • biodiversity leading to material and non-
implementation of welfare schemes. material changes.
• Outdated List → The Anthropological Survey
of India observes that the list of PVTG is
overlapping and repetitive. For example, the Steps Taken by Government
list contains synonyms of the same group such • They are provided with concessions for their
as the Mankidia and the Birhor in Odisha, representation in services. Those are, age
both of which refer to the same group. limit exemption, reduction in standards of
• More Dependency on MFP → Minor Forest suitability, and inclusion at least in the lower
Produce (MFP) is a major source of livelihood category for purpose of promotion is otherwise
for tribals living in forest areas. Most of the than through qualifying examinations
trade-related to the MFPs remained
Van Dhan Scheme:
unorganized in nature, which has led to low
returns to the gatherers and high wastages due • Under the scheme, 10 Self Help Groups of 30
to limited value addition. Tribal gatherers (Van Dhan Vikas Samuh) will
be constituted. Tribal peoples will be given with
• Low level of technology → The tribes have a
working capital to add value to the products
low level of technology which is not suitable
collected from the jungle.
for modern-day. For example, they are still
practicing shifting cultivation which is • Van Dhan Vikas Kendra is multi-purpose
problematic for the environment. establishments for providing skill upgradation,
capacity building training, and setting up of
• Losing their identity → Nowadays, the tribes
primary processing and value addition facilities.
are coming out of their tribal fold and are
increasingly getting assimilated into the non-
tribal population by which they are losing
41
• More access to the forest products among the

forest dwellers should be facilitated in a
positive direction.
• Promote sustainable economic activities -
Development of cottage industries, plantations
crops (e.g. coconut), fishing, animal husbandry
etc. are some viable economic options given the
fact that there is not much scope for agriculture.
• Protect Cultural Heritage - The ANTRI
(Andaman and Nicobar Tribal Research and
Training Institute) has been set up with an
objective of formulation of policies for tribal
• The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution integration and protection of PVTGs.
provides for the setting Up a Tribal Advisory
Council in each of the States having scheduled WOMENS
areas. The duty of these Councils is to advise
the Government on such matters concerning International Monetary Fund's research has
the welfare of scheduled tribes and the showed that raising women's participation in the
development of scheduled areas. workforce to the level of men can boost Indian
• Tribal and Harijan Research Institutes were economy by 27%.
set up in MP, Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal, and
Rajasthan. They study the tribal lifestyle, art,
• Women empowerment became a subject matter
and customs for that protection and
all
documentation.
• The Stand Up India scheme - aims at
providing people belonging to the scheduled
caste or scheduled tribe or women of the
country a loan between Rs.10 lakhs to Rs.1
crore, based on their requirement. The aim is
to promote entrepreneurship among them. T
• Commissioner for the Scheduled Castes and around the world in the past few decades. Many
Tribe: The main duty of the Commissioner is - international organizations and agencies
o to investigate all matters relating to including the United Nations emphasized
the safeguards for Scheduled Castes gender equality as an important issue.
and Scheduled Tribes under the • It is held that women cannot wait for any
Constitution and further to claim their equality in social,
o to report the President on working of economic, and political space. The essence of
these safeguards. equality has very wide benefits that the whole
nation can enjoy.
Recommendations: • It is said that “empowering women is not
• A region-specific approach is required to alone morally essential, but also
bring positive change among the tribes. For economically important for the country”.
example, the unemployment problems of the • Out of the total population in India, women
island region can be resolved by developing contribute 48.37% (According to the 2011
fisheries and tourism industry at large scale. Census).
• There is a need for awareness generation is
required for tribal communities to avail of the Problem Faced by Women
existing schemes and programs targeted. • Domestic Violence And Dowry Deaths →
Dowry deaths are deaths of married women
42
who are murdered or driven to suicide by panchayat seats to be reserved for women.
continuous harassment and torture by their Prevalence of “Sarpanch Pati”.
husbands and in-laws over a dispute about
their dowry, making the women's homes the Section 498A of IPC - It is related to dowry
most dangerous place for them to be. Women related cases. It says – Whoever, being the
continue to face the most risks from their husband or the relative of the husband of a woman,
families. Among all registered cases of serious subjects such woman to cruelty shall be punished
crimes against women, the largest share 36% with imprisonment for a term which may extend
of all cases were under "cruelty by husband to three years and shall also be liable to fine.
and relatives". Making the dowry law compoundable was also
• Pink colorization of jobs → The women are among the recommendations made by the Law
mostly deemed fit for “pink-collar jobs” only, Commission and the Justice Malimath
such as teachers, nurses, receptionists, Committee. Cases under Section 498A was found
babysitter, lecturer, etc. which have been to have the lowest conviction rate — merely
stereotyped for women. This denies them 12.1 per cent — among all cases of crimes against
opportunities in other fields. women
• Early marriage → especially of girl children,
reduces their opportunities, denying them the
chance to get empowered. • Patriarchal society and gender
• Girl child denied timely interventions → in The National Family Health Survey-4 revealed
nutrition and healthcare, especially in rural that every third married woman had experienced
areas. Hence malnutrition and anaemia physical and/or sexual violence but only 1.5%
among Indian girls is one of the highest in the had sought help from the police.
world.
discrimination → A patriarchal society means
• Education → it is denied, and even if allowed
a male-dominated society, and gender
in some cases, the girl couldn’t attend classes
discrimination is when one Sex is given
due to time constraints as a result of household
preferential concern over the others. The
work.
discrimination is also seen in education as male
• Glass ceilings → Women in India face
children get good school, whereas girl children
artificial barriers like stereotypes, media-
do not get the same privilege.
related issues, informal boundaries, which
• Unemployment → The unequal treatment of
prevent them from advancing upward in their
organization into management-level positions. women has been a characteristic of provision
for unemployment throughout its existence.
• Lack of political participation of women →
Even though women are generally paid less,
The Indian Parliament currently has 11.8%
they are not preferred in many industries.
women representation, and state assemblies
have only 9%. Even though the 73rd • A gap in digital literacy → Digital gender gap
constitutional amendment act mandates 33% in India is huge, as less than a third of India's
of total interest users are female i.e. 29 %.
• Globally in developing countries, the number
of women using the internet is 12% less than
men.
As per NCRB’s ‘Crime in India’ 2018

report, The national capital, Delhi recorded
the highest number of Crime Against Women
(27.8%) in 2018 among 19 other metropolitan
cities.
43

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create a sustainable model for providing

Recent Changes in Domestic Violence (DV)
adolescent girls and women access to
Act:
affordable sanitary products in rural areas.
• The Supreme Court has struck down the
• Nari Portal → It is a Mission Mode Project
words “adult male” from the pertinent
under the National E-Governance Plan (It is
provision in the DV Act to lay down that a
designed and developed by the National
woman can also file a complaint against
Informatics Centre (NIC), Ministry of
another woman, accusing her of domestic
Electronics & Information Technology).
violence.
• e-samvaad Portal → It is an initiative of the
• The reason given behind the change by the
Ministry of Women and Child Development
Supreme Court that the perpetrators and
to provide a platform for NGOs and civil
abettors of domestic violence can also be
society to interact with the Ministry on relevant
women, insulating them would frustrate the
subjects. Through the E-Samvad portal, NGOs
objectives of the Act. Under this immunity
and civil society can provide their feedback,
females and minors can continue to commit
suggestions, put up grievances, share best
domestic violence.
practices, etc.
• Because the change amended by the court
makes DV gender neutral which according to
Cybercrimes Which Specially Target Women:
some experts (including the bench) would
help in serving the purpose of the law in a
Harassment via It is a very common type of
better way.
E-Mails harassment through
• The definition of Domestic Violence has been
sending letters, attachments
modified - it includes actual abuse or the
of files & folders i.e. via e-
threat of abuse that is physical, sexual, verbal,
mails; most common now in
emotional, and economic and further
the form of using social sites
harassment by way of unlawful dowry
i.e. Facebook, Twitter, etc.
demands to the woman or her relatives.
Cyber-Stalking It means expressed or
• The Domestic Violence Act now covers “live-
implied physical threat that
in partners”, wives, sisters, widows, mothers,
creates fear through the use
single women, divorced women who are
of computer technology such
entitled to get legal protection under this Act.
as the internet, e-mail,
• The act provides for the appointment of phones, text messages,
protection officers and NGOs to provide webcam, websites, or
assistance to the woman for me. videos.
Dissemination It includes Indecent
of Obscene exposure/ Pornography
Government Initiatives To Tackle With Gender Material (basically child
Related Issues: pornography), hosting of the
• Suvidha → Ministry of Chemicals & web site containing these
Fertilizers has launched a 100% Oxo- prohibited materials
Biodegradable sanitary napkin, under the E-Mail A spoofed email may be said
Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadhi Spoofing to be one, which
Pariyojana. It is an important step in ensuring misrepresents its origin. It
health security for the section of Indian shows its origin to be
women who still use unhygienic aids during different from which
menstrual periods due to the non-affordability actually it originates- This
of sanitary pads. method is often used by
• Project Stree Swabhiman → Ministry of cybercriminals to extract
Electronics and Information technology personal information and
(MeITY) announced a project which aims to private images from
44
unsuspecting women, these telecommuting) and places visited by

images, etc. are then used to employees for work.
blackmail those women. ○ The most important feature of the Act is
the establishment of the Internal
Women Safety in India: Complaints Committee (ICC) in
• Women’s safety involves various dimensions establishments with 10 or more
such as Sexual harassment at the workplace, employees by an order given in writing by
rape, marital rape, dowry, acid attack, etc. the employer.
• Sexual Harassment acts as a deterrent to ○ A Local Complaints Committee (LCC)
women’s freedom and perpetuates the is a committee to receive complaints of
notion that women are the weaker sex. The sexual harassment at the workplace from
NCRB data highlights that sexual harassment is establishments that do not have an ICC
a risk in all facets of life: in shelter homes, in because they have less than 10 workers,
the workplace, in the home, on public transport. or when the complaint is against the
• Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace employer himself.
(Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) • Issues in implementation of the Sexual
Act, 2013: Harassment Act:
○ It widens the definition of ‘aggrieved ○ As 70% of the women do not report sexual
woman’ to include all women, irrespective harassment by superiors due to the fear of
repercussions.
Vishakha Guidelines by Supreme Court (1997) ○ According to a 2015 research study, 36%
● The decision of the Supreme Court in Vishakha v of Indian companies and 25% of
State of Rajasthan was a landmark one as it laid multinational companies had not yet
down elaborate guidelines to deal with the menace constituted their Internal Complaints
of sexual harassment against women at workplaces. Committee (ICCs) which is mandatory
The ruling was delivered by a three-judge bench. under the Act.
● The apex Court ruled that sexual harassment leads ○ The Cases remain pending in court for a
to depravity among the victims and was a gross long time enhancing the suffering of
violation of their fundamental rights as victims.
provided under Articles 14, 19 and 21. • Suggestions for better implementation:
● It imposes three key obligations on employing ○ Ministry of WCD launched an online
institutions - prohibition, prevention, and complaint management system titled
redress. Sexual Harassment electronic–Box (SHe-
● The institutions are mandated to establish a
Box) for the effective implementation of
Complaints Committee. the SH Act, 2013 which will enable a
● These guidelines are legally binding. monitorable and transparent system of
of age and employment status, and it grievance redressal under the Act.
covers clients, customers, and domestic ○ The Ministry of WCD will set up an inter-
workers. ministerial committee headed by a senior
○ It expands ‘workplace’ beyond traditional official of the WCD Ministry.
offices to include all kinds of organizations Steps Taken by Government of India:
across sectors, even non-traditional • The National Commission of Women (NCW)
workplaces (for example those that involve was started in 1992 to review the constitutional
and legal safeguard of women, recommend
A survey by “Network of Women in Media, India remedial measures, facilitate grievance
(NWMI)” and “Gender at Work” shows that, Over redressal, and advise the government on policy
70% of respondents who had approached an matters.
Internal Complaint Committee (ICC) to report
• Programs on Cyber Crime investigation –
sexual harassment at workplace were not completely
Various Law schools are engaged in
satisfied with the outcome.
conducting several awareness and training
45
programs on Cyber Laws and Cyber Crimes for of infrastructure facilities and geographical
judicial officers. isolation, and who need special consideration
• Training is imparted to Police Officers and for safeguarding their interests and for their
Judicial officers in the Training Labs accelerated socio-economic development.
established by the Government. • These communities were notified as Scheduled
• The Scheme for Universalisation of Women Castes as per provisions contained in Clause 1
Helpline has been approved to provide 24- of Article 341 of the Constitution.
hour emergency and non-emergency
response to all women affected by violence Article 341(1) - the President of India, after
• Ministry of Women and child development’s consultation with the Governor, may specify,
National Mission for Empowerment of “the castes, races, tribes or parts of groups within
Women (NMEW) aims to achieve holistic castes or races, which shall be deemed to be
empowerment of women through the Scheduled Castes”.
convergence of schemes programs of different
Ministries Departments of Government of Problem Faced By Scheduled Caste
India (GOI) as well as State Governments. • The SCs were denied many basic amenities,
Under the scheme women helpline, a one-stop such as drinking water, entering the temple,
center was introduced. public transport, cemetery, etc. Many
• National health programs such as the National changes have been brought in, but it's a hard
Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and the reality that social disabilities still prevails.
Family Welfare Programme have been • The schedule caste’s human rights are
created to address the maternal health care violated now and then by majority and other
needs of women across India. sections of the society. They were forced to do
• Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojna is a manual scavenging, working as bonded
maternity Benefit Programme being laborers, etc., which violated their basic
implemented in all the districts of the country human rights.
in accordance with the provision of the • Traditionally, Hindus disallow education for
National Food Security Act, 2013. scheduled caste which still persists. They have
• Weekly Iron and Folic Acid been treated discriminately in the
Supplementation Programme to meet the educational institution
challenge of high prevalence and incidence of • Many a time, scheduled castes are denied into
anaemia amongst adolescent girls and boys. the temple as they are still considered as
untouchables (Gandhi ji termed them as
SCHEDULED CASTE “Harijan”). These disabilities are generally
• Scheduled castes seen in rural areas and mostly not seen in urban
are those areas.
castes/races in
the country that Initiatives taken for SC development
suffer from • Educational Empowerment:
extreme social, o Various scholarships provided at both pre-
educational, matric and post-matric levels to the
and economic students belonging to the SCs to ensure that
backwardness education is not denied due to the poor
arising out of the financial condition of their families.
age-old practice
of • Economic Empowerment:
untouchability o National Scheduled Castes Finance and
and certain Development Corporation (NSFDC): Set
others on up to finance income-generating activities of
account of lack
46
Scheduled Caste beneficiaries living below Constitution. But minority status has been
double the poverty line limits conferred on many groups.
o National Safai Karamchari Finance and
Development Corporation (NSKFDC): It Article According to Article 29 of the
is another corporation which provides 29 Constitution, any group living within
credit facilities to beneficiaries amongst the jurisdiction of India is entitled to
Safai Karamcharis, manual scavengers, and preserve and promote its own
their dependents for income-generating language, script or literature, and
activities for socio-economic development culture.
through State Channelizing Agencies Article Article 36 states that a minority group
o Venture Capital Fund for Scheduled 36 whether based on religion or language
Castes: The objective of the fund is to shall have the right to establish and
promote entrepreneurship amongst the administer educational institutions
Scheduled Castes who are oriented towards of their choice.
innovation and growth technologies and to
provide concessional finance to the
Minorities in India:
scheduled caste entrepreneurs.
o The Stand Up India scheme - aims at • The word ‘minority’ mentioned in the
providing people belonging to the scheduled Constitution of India used in various articles viz.
caste or scheduled tribe or women of the Article 29, 30, 350 A, and 350 B.
country a loan between Rs.10 lakhs to Rs.1 • The constitution recognizes minorities based on
crore, based on their requirement. The aim religion and language, but it neither defines the
is to promote entrepreneurship among them. term 'minority'.
T • As per sec 2(c) of the National Commission for
Minorities Act 1992, ‘minority’ means a
• Social Empowerment community notified as such by the Central govt.
o The Protection of Civil Rights Act, The Union Government notified Six religious’
1955: In pursuance of Article 17 of the communities, viz; Muslims, Christians, Sikhs,
Constitution of India, the Untouchability Buddhists, Zoroastrians (Parsis), and Jains as
(Offences) Act, 1955 was enacted. The Act minority communities which constitute about
extends to the whole of India and provides 19% population of the country.
punishment for the practice of • States governments are also empowered to
untouchability. It is implemented by the designate state minorities and set up State
respective State Governments and Union Minority Commissions. For e.g. Jains were
Territory Administrations. designated as a minority by 11 states before the
o Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Jains were nationally recognized in 2014.
(Prevention of Atrocities) Act,
1989: Assistance is provided to States/ UTs Supreme court judgments regarding for
for implementation of Scheduled Castes and definition of minorities:
Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Kerala It said a minority should be a
Act, 1989. Financial assistance is provided Education Bill group of people who are
to the States/ UTs for implementation of case 1958 numerically a minority in a
these Acts, by way of relief to atrocity ‘State as a whole’ as
victims, an incentive for inter-caste distinguished from any
marriages, awareness generation, setting particular area or region’.
up of exclusive Special courts, etc. Bal Patil & It held that with regard to state
others v UOI, law, the unit to determine a
MINORITIES 1999, and religious or linguistic minority
• The term "Minority" has not been properly TMA Pai should be the state.
defined anywhere in the Indian Foundation v
47
State of demand for the establishment of

Karnataka Independent Kashmir is not acceptable to
2002 others)
● Education and Employment among
Problems faced by minorities in India Muslims in India:
● The problem of communal tensions and ○ The participation of Muslims is relatively
riots: low in the education space but has
○ The minority interest is at stake whenever improved in recent years.
a communal riot and tension occurs. The ○ The participation of Muslims in higher
number of social unrest also started to education is particularly poor Household
increase post 1960s. endowments along with location play a
○ Hence, combined with the magnitude and critical role in determining the
frequency of communal riots, the minority participation of Muslims in education.
is losing confidence over the system and ○ Muslims are predominantly engaged in
it is highly tough for the government to self-employment and their participation as
restore the confidence in them. regular worker especially in the tertiary
● The problem of Identity: sector in urban areas is low as compared to
○ Because of the differences in socio- other socio-religious communities
cultural practices, history, and
backgrounds, minorities have to grapple Steps Taken by Government of India:
with the issue of identity ● Prime Minister's new 15-point program:
○ This gives rise to the problem of Prime Ministers new 15 point program for the
adjustment with the majority community. welfare of minorities, which is an overarching
● The problem of Security: program covering various initiatives of
○ Different identities and their small different ministries.
numbers relative to the rest of society ● USTAAD: The scheme aims at upgrading
develop feelings of insecurity about their skills and training in the preservation of
life, assets, and well-being. traditional ancestral arts crafts of minorities.
○ This sense of insecurity may get ● Hamari Darohar: To preserve the rich and
accentuated at times when relations diverse heritage of minority communities in
between the majority and the minority India.
communities in society are strained or not ● Strengthening of State Wakf Boards: It is to
much cordial. provide support for training and administrative
● The problem of lack of representation in cost of State Wakf Boards, strengthen the state
civil service and politics: Wakf boards, etc.
○ The equality and equal opportunities to all ● Nai Roshni: The scheme is envisaged to reach
its citizens including the religious
minorities are given in Indian Constitution,
the biggest minority community, that is,
Muslims, have not availed themselves of
these facilities of basic human cause.
There is a feeling among them that they are
neglected.
● The problem of separatism:
○ Some of the demands put forward by some
religious communities in some areas are out to women through non-governmental
not acceptable to others. This has widened organizations who will be provided with
the gap between them and others (e.g., the financial support for conducting leadership
separatist tendency present among some development training so that women are
Muslim extremists in Kashmir and their empowered and emboldened to move out of the
48
confines of home and community and assume ● Natural ● High ● Malnut

leadership roles and assert their rights catastrophes illiteracy rition a
collectively or individually. like drought, rate High
flood, etc. a ● Inadequate MMR
Pest attacks. infrastructu and
● Soil re facilities IMR
degradation ● Unskilled ● Poor
9 Small and laborers health
fragmented ● Gender gap awaren
land- ● The taboo ess
holdings on women Poor
● Lack of education sanitati
RURAL POPULATION mechanizati ● Prevalence on
on of child ● Negligi
● The majority of the population in India still
● Monsoon marriage ble
lives in rural areas and it is the best example of
“India lives in a village” lines by Gandhi ji. failure an ● Female invest
● Even though migration has happened for a lot Unscientific foeticide ments
of years, still almost 65% of the population use of ● High in
lives in the village. Nearly 70% of the fertilizers unemploy health
country’s population lives in rural areas where, leading to ment faciliti
for the first time since independence, the infertile soil es
overall growth rate of the population has
● Inadequate
sharply declined, according to the latest census.
storage
facilities
Step Taken By Government
● Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY):
Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana OGSY) is the
restructured, streamlined, and comprehensive
version of the erstwhile Jawahar Rozgar
Yojana ORY). It was started on 1 April 1999.
The aim of this program was the development
of rural areas Infrastructure like roads to
connect the village to different areas, which
made the village more accessible and also other
social, educational (schools) and infrastructure
like hospitals.
● The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
(PMGSY): It was launched by the Govt. of
India to provide connectivity to unconnected
Habitations as part of a poverty reduction
strategy. Govt. of India is endeavoring to set
Problem Faced By Rural Population high and uniform technical and management
standards and facilitating policy development
Economic Social Factors Health and planning at the State level in order to ensure
Factors Factors sustainable management of the rural roads
network.
49
● Integrated Rural Development Program respectively. The percentage of senior citizens,

(IRDP): By providing income-generated assets classified as those above 60 years of age, is
to the poor in rural India, IRDP is ambitious in expected to go up in India from 8% in 2015 to
alleviating rural poverty. The main objective of 19 % in 2050.
IRDP is to raise families of the identified target ● With an increase in populations rapidly,
groups below the poverty line by the creation governments are often unprepared to mitigate
of sustainable opportunities for self- the consequences, this has implications for the
employment in the rural sector. Assistance is socio-economic and health status of the senior
given in the form of subsidy by the government citizens.
and term credit advanced by financial
institutions (commercial banks, cooperatives, Challenges faced by senior citizens in India:
and regional rural bank. ● Digital illiteracy: The inability of older family
● National Rural Employment Guarantee Act members to understand the modern digital
(NREGA): The NREGA bill notified in 2005 language of communication, there is lack of
communication between elderly and younger
members. They also feel difficulty in getting
benefits of digital schemes.
● Ruralisation of the Elderly: According to the
2011 Census, 71 percent of the elderly live in
rural India. There are more problems such as
Income insecurity, lack of adequate access to
quality health care and isolation in rural
elderly than the urban elderly.
● Migration and its Impact: Due to the
migration of the younger people, the elderly are
and came into force in 2006 and further left living alone or only with their spouse and
modified it as the Mahatma Gandhi National they face social isolation, poverty, and distress.
Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA) on Oct 2, 2009. This scheme Implementation of existing policies:
guarantees 150 days of paid work to people in ● 12th plan include: (a) a scheme for awareness
rural areas. The scheme has proved to be a generation for the Maintenance of Parents and
major boost in the Indian rural population’s Senior Citizens Act, 2007, (b) setting up a
income. The Ministry of Rural Development helpline for senior citizens, (c) establishing a
(MRD) is the nodal Ministry for the National Commission for Senior Citizens, and
implementation of NREGA. It is responsible (d) establishing a National Trust for the Aged.
for ensuring timely and adequate resource ● Social Pensions: The National Social
support to the States and to the Central Council. Assistance Programme was launched to
provide social assistance to the poor and the
SENIOR CITIZENS: destitute.
● According to the Census 2011, India has 10.8 ● National Policy on Older Persons (NPOP),
million senior citizens (above 60 years of age). 1999: It
This number is expected to increase envisages
significantly in the upcoming years with a rise State
in the life expectancy to 65 years from 42 support to
years in 1960. ensure
● It is predicted that between the years 2000 and financial
2050, the population of India will grow by and food
55%. security,
● However, the population above 60 years and 80 health care,
years will grow by 326% and 700% shelter and
50
other needs of older persons, protection against ● India is a signatory to the Declaration on the
abuse and exploitation, and availability of Full Participation and Equality of People
services to improve the quality of their lives. with Disabilities in the Asia Pacific.
● Several schemes launched within it are Pradhan
Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana, Atal Pension Article 41 of the Indian Constitution mandates
Yojana, Health Insurance for Senior Citizens, the state to make effective provisions for
Varishtha Pension Bima Yojana 2017, Scheme securing the right to education, work, and
for providing Aids and Assisted Living Devices public assistance for people affected by
to Senior Citizens below Poverty Line, Senior disability within the constraints of its economic
Citizens Welfare Fund, etc. capacity and level of development. The
Constitution in the schedule of subjects lays
Way Ahead: direct responsibility for the empowerment of
● A comprehensive law for the social security of persons with disabilities on the State
senior citizens must be enacted. Governments.
● An integrated action plan must be evolved,
involving various stakeholders and Problem Faced by Disabled Section
departments of the government. ● Isolation:
● Expansion of old age homes and geriatric ○ The greatest challenge that disabled people
healthcare: There should be more old age have had to face has been society’s
homes constructed, to ensure an old age home misperception that they are not normal.
in every district. Historically they have been pitied, ignored,
● Norms and guidelines for old age homes: vilified, even hidden away in institutions.
Standardised norms and guidelines must be ● Discrimination:
formulated for old age homes, especially ○ Disabled
related to the design of buildings and expertise people
required to manage these homes. have some
abilities,
PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES: needs, and
● Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) experience interests as
stigma and compromised dignity in their daily the rest of
life. As per Census, 2011, there are the
2.68 crore persons with disabilities and they population.
constitute 2.21 percent of the total population
of the country, but according to the World Nevertheless, discrimination continued to
Health Organisation, 15% of the world’s exist in certain important areas. Some
population faces some form of disability. employers were reluctant to take on or
● Men with disabilities constitute 56%, and promote disables people; some landlords
women with disabilities make up the rest refused to give the land on rent to them;
44%. These include persons with visual, and courts sometimes deprived them of
hearing, speech, locomotors, and mental basic rights, including custody of their
disabilities. children. In recent decades, this situation
● The Constitution of India ensures equality, has undergone some positive changes
freedom, justice, and dignity of all individuals, through adjustments in legislation and
and implicitly mandates an inclusive society for public attitudes
all including persons with disabilities. ● Infrastructure:
Therefore, the primary responsibility to ○ The problems related to the design of the
empower persons with disabilities rests with vehicles (high and incompatible steps of
the State Governments also. vehicles from the platform level especially
in public transports), public and private
buildings being built without proper
51
provisions of being disabled-friendly. The Disability Inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction

absence of disabled-friendly toilets, stairs, (DiDRR). DiDRR strives to reduce the impact
and other basic infrastructure in public of disasters on affected communities by
buildings is still a major problem in India. mitigating and reducing risks.
● Limited monitoring capacity: ● Recently, the Rights of Persons with
○ The Department of Empowerment of Disability Rules, 2017 (Rules) were notified to
Persons with Disabilities (DEPwD) is the supplement the provisions of the Rights of
nodal department for issues concerning Persons with Disability Act, 2016. The Act is
PwDs at the national level has several in line with the principles of the United Nations
schemes. However, many of these schemes Convention on the Rights of Persons with
have a very small allocation, and the Disabilities.
resources that are allocated do not get fully ● Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme
utilized. The monitoring capacity within (DDRS)
the department is also limited which is a ● Scheme of Assistance to Disabled Persons for
major challenge because a number of purchase/fitting of Aids/appliances (ADIP
schemes are implemented through NGOs. Scheme)
● Scheme for Implementation of Persons with
Step Taken by Government Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of
● Right of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 - Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995
Provisions of the Act: (SIPDA)
○ This act defines disability based on an ● District Disability Rehabilitation Centres
evolving and dynamic concept. (DDRC)
○ Under the act, the types of disabilities
have been increased from 7 to 21. In
addition, the Government has been Accessible India Campaign:
authorized to notify any other category of ● It is the nationwide flagship campaign of the
specified disability. Department of
○ Persons with "benchmark disabilities" Empowerment
are defined as those certified to have at of Persons with
least 40 percent of the disabilities Disabilities
mentioned in the Act. (DEPwD).
○ Every child with benchmark disability ● Aim of the
between the age group of 6 and 18 years Campaign: to
shall have the right to free education. make a barrier-free and conducive environment
○ Reservation in vacancies in government for Divyangjans all over the country.
establishments has been increased from ● It is based on the principles of the Social Model
3% to 4% for certain persons or class of of Disability, that disability is caused by the
persons with benchmark disability. way society is organized, and not the person’s
○ Special Courts will be designated in each limitations and impairments.
district to handle cases concerning ● It has been divided into three verticals: Built
violation of rights of PwDs. Environment; Transport and Information &
○ The act is implemented by the Ministry Communication Technology (ICT) ecosystem
of Social Justice & Empowerment.
○ For strengthening the Prime Minister's Way Ahead:
Accessible India Campaign, stress has ● Institutional reforms:
been given to ensure accessibility in public ○ It is important to strengthen the
buildings (both Government and institutional framework at all levels to have
private) in a prescribed time-frame. a stronger and more direct role for
● Recently, the Ministry of Home Affairs issued PwDs.The number of schemes
National Disaster Management Guidelines on
52
administered by the DEPwD should be considered in the implementation of its 17

rationalized. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
○ It would be judicious to have a limited
number of schemes with an adequate
budgetary allocation that is implemented
and monitored well. Way Forward
○ There is a need to strengthen the financial ● Education: Education is one such powerful
and human resource capacity of the Central tool to break all odds faced by socially
and State Commissioners’ offices so that vulnerable people, and it is the best available
they are able to perform their functions tool to empower them. Needed measures must
more effectively. be taken to eliminate discrimination based on
● Improving Access to Aids/Assistive any factor, through the universalization of
technologies for PwDs: education. It is important to include sex
○ Distribution of aids to senior citizens who education, a secular curriculum, and the art of
live below the poverty line should be intolerance through schools and university
prioritized as a sizeable percentage suffers syllabus which not only bring awareness but
from age-related disabilities. also help to mobilize a large section of people
● Strengthening Education: to voice for the vulnerable section of the society
○ While the Right to Education Act promised ● Economic opportunities: GOI should provide
a special focus on admission and retention livelihood opportunities for those people
of children with disabilities, the situation identified as vulnerable. Because the present
has not seen a major improvement. society demands people to be economically
○ An NCERT study found that disabled empowered to be socially empowered.
children in schools across states still face Providing MGNREGS, various social security
serious infrastructure and pedagogy schemes, Universal Basic Income, National
handicaps. Therefore, the government has urban livelihood mission are such
to ensure that schools should have at least interventionist strategies.
one section of each class accessible under ● Increase social security scheme: It is indeed
the Universal Design Guidelines. important for GOI to provide for social security
such as pension schemes, insurance schemes,
etc., in order to protect them from any adverse
Recent News: situation. The pension should be concentrated
● International Day of Persons with not only on organized sector employment but
Disabilities was celebrated worldwide also to the unorganized sector.
on 3rd December 2019.
● It aims to promote the rights and well-
being of persons with disabilities in all Previous Year Questions:
spheres of society and development and to
increase awareness of the situation of CSM2016 Why are the tribals in India referred
persons with disabilities in every aspect of to as ‘the Scheduled Tribes’?
political, social, economic, and cultural Indicate the major provisions in the
life. Constitution of India for their
● This year it focuses on the empowerment upliftment. (10 marks).
of persons with disabilities for inclusive, CSM2017 What are the two major legal
equitable, and sustainable development as initiatives taken by the state since
anticipated in the 2030 Agenda for Independence addressing
Sustainable Development, which pledges discrimination against Scheduled
to ‘leave no one behind’ and recognizes Tribes? (10 marks).
disability as a cross-cutting issue, to be
Practice Questions:
53
1. “Without women’s empowerment and

gender equality, societies will not be able to
achieve the Sustainable Development Goals
and their full development potential”. With
reference to the above statement, elucidate
the necessity of women empowerment in
Indian Society.
2. Discuss various challenges faced by
minorities in Indian society. Do you think
social empowerment is the one-stop solution
to the rising problems faced by the minority
section?
3. Critically examine various Initiatives taken
for Scheduled caste development by the
Government of India.
4. Discuss the need for social empowerment
for the welfare and development of different
sections of society.
54
CH-4 POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES

INTRODUCTION: It occurs when people do not
enjoy a certain minimum level
• Poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon
in which a person or community lacks the Relative of living standards as
financial resources and essentials for a poverty determined by government
minimum standard of living. (and enjoyed by the bulk of
• According to World Bank, Poverty is population) that vary from
pronounced deprivation in well-being, and country to country, which is said
comprises many dimensions. It includes low
to be increasing and may
incomes and the inability to acquire the
basic goods and services necessary for possibly never be eradicated.
survival with dignity. Poverty also For example: For example, in
encompasses low levels of health and the UK relative poverty is
education, poor access to clean water and defined as income 50% less
sanitation, inadequate physical security, than average incomes or
lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and someone living in a rich society
opportunity to better one's life. may have a steady income and all
• Each nation may have its own threshold that the necessities for living, but
determines how many of its people are living in because they do not have as many
poverty. luxuries as others living in the
society, they are said to be in
In India, 21.9% of the population lives below the relative poverty.
national poverty line in 2011. In 2018, almost 8%
of the world’s workers and their families lived on
less than US$1.90 per person per day Measures of absolute poverty are usually
based upon the idea of subsistence. In other
(international poverty line). Words, people are in poverty if they do not
have the resources to maintain human life.
Supporters of the concept of relative poverty,

TYPES OF POVERTY: however, tend to dismiss this view. They argue
that a definition must relate to the standards of
a particular society at a particular time.
It refers to a condition where a
person does not have the
Absolute minimum amount of income
poverty needed to meet the minimum MEASUREMENT OF POVERTY:
requirements for one or more
Broadly, the poverty of a given society is
basic living needs over an
expressed in terms of malnutrition, low
extended period of time. It may consumption expenditure, low income, chronic
be calculated in monetary terms, illness or poor health, illiteracy, unemployment,
nutrition attainment or calories unsanitary housing conditions, poor resources,
terms. high disparity income distribution.
For example: Homeless people
living on the streets, families that
cannot afford to buy food to feed
themselves and their children are
also examples of absolute
poverty.
55
MEASUREMENT OF
POVERTY
Pre-independence poverty Post-independence poverty

estimates estimates
Planning Planning Commission Expert
Commission Group (1962), constituted by
Pre-independence poverty estimates: 1962 the Planning Commission
formulated the separate
poverty lines for rural and
Dada Bhai • Initially it was Dada Bhai
urban areas (Rs.20 and Rs.25
Naoroji Naoroji who estimated
per capita per year
(Book - poverty in the second-half of
respectively).
Poverty 19th century.
and Un- • He concluded the base line in Y. K. Alagh By 1979, it was decided that
British 1867-68 price which was Committee poverty should be measured
rule in based on the cost of a (1979) precisely based on starvation.
India) subsistence diet consisting of Committee was constituted
‘rice or flour, daal, mutton, which gave its recommendation
vegetables, ghee, vegetable oil as the people consuming less
and salt’. than 2,100 calories in the
urban areas or less than 2,400
1938 • Congress President Subhash
calories in the rural areas are
Chandra Bose set up the
poor.
National Planning
Lakdawala In 1993, an expert
Committee (NPC) with
Committee group constituted to review
Jawaharlal Nehru as the
(1993) methodology for poverty
Chairman. The Committee
estimation, chaired by D.T.
regarded the irreducible
Lakdawala, made the following
minimum income between
suggestions:
Rs. 15 and Rs. 25 per capita
per month at pre-war prices. • Consumption expenditure
should be calculated based
The • Bombay Plan proponents had
on calorie consumption as
Bombay suggested a poverty line of
earlier;
Plan Rs.75 per capita per year.
(1944) The Bombay Plan was a set of • State specific poverty lines
a proposal of a small group should be constructed and
of influential business these should be updated
leaders in Bombay for the using the Consumer Price
development of the post- Index of Industrial Workers
independence economy of (CPI-IW) in urban areas and
India. Consumer Price Index of
Agricultural Labour (CPI-
AL) in rural areas; and
Post-independence poverty estimates: • Discontinuation of
‘scaling’ of poverty
estimates based on
National Accounts
56
Statistics. This assumes • First, continue with the

that the basket of goods and Tendulkar poverty line.
services used to calculate • Second, switch to the
CPI-IW and CPI-AL reflect Rangarajan or other higher
the consumption patterns of rural and urban poverty
the poor. lines.
Suresh • In 2005, Suresh Tendulkar • Third, bottom 30% of the
Tendulkar Committee was constituted population tracking over
Committee by the Planning time
(2005) Commission. • Fourth, tracking the
• The current estimations of bottom 30% on specific
poverty are based upon the components, such as
recommendations of this housing, sanitation,
committee. electricity, nutritional
• This committee intake, etc.
recommended to shift NITI Aayog • NITI Aayog favoured the
away from the calorie- Task Force Tendulkar line (21.9%)
based model and made the • To remove any criticism
poverty line somewhat that many poor would be
broad based by left behind if poverty line as
considering monthly per Tendulkar committee is
spending on education, adopted, NITI Aayog has
health, electricity and underlined that it will only
transport. be used to track progress in
• It supported nutritional combating poverty rather
intake rather than caloric than identifying the poor for
intake. The committee also entitlements.
drew a line based on cost • SECC data as suggested
of living. The Tendulkar by Saxena and Hashim
panel stipulated a committee will be used for
benchmark daily per capita entitlements.
expenditure of Rs. 27 and • Dr. N.C. Saxena
Rs. 33 in rural and urban Committee was set up by
areas, respectively. the Ministry of Rural
C. The committee raised the cost Development to advise it on
Rangarajan of living per day to Rs. 32 and the suitable methodology
Committee Rs. 47 for rural and urban for BPL Census and not
(2012-14) areas, respectively. Hence, the for estimation of poverty.
poverty percentage of India • The Planning Commission
worked closely to 30% and in constituted an Expert Group
absolute terms close to 40 under the Chairmanship of
crores poor. Professor S. R. Hashim to
Arvind The task force suggested recommend the detailed
Panagariya setting up of committee to methodology for
Task Force identify people “Below identification of families
(2015) Poverty Line (BPL)" It also living Below Poverty Line
suggested participation of in urban areas.
states. The paper talks of
considering four options for
tracking the poor. Challenges in Estimating Poverty:
57
• Components of PLB → Determining approach which would measure poverty from

components of Poverty Line Basket (PLB) is the perspective of a common global standard
one of the challenges of poverty line estimation of living and relative poverty within
because of the price differentials (of countries. The poverty line in case of hybrid
constituents of basket) which vary from state to model would be equivalent to the income
state and period to period. required to achieve a certain welfare status,
• Variations across states → Some states such which includes basic nutrition and social
as Odisha and West Bengal supported the inclusion.
Tendulkar Poverty Line while others such as • Political Economic Equilibrium → Indian
Delhi, Jharkhand, Mizoram etc. supported political, policy and administrative systems
Rangarajan report. have to adjust to the new realities of the
• The current official measures of poverty are transition to a middle- income country, in
based on the Tendulkar poverty line, fixed at which poverty does not mean living at the edge
daily expenditure of ₹27.2 in rural areas and of hunger but, rather, lack of income to take
₹33.3 in urban areas is criticised by many for advantage of the opportunities thrown up by
being too low. a growing economy. The focus of government
• Demographic and Economic Dynamics → spending should be on the provision of public
Further, consumption patterns, nutritional goods rather than subsidies.
needs and prices of components keep on
changing as per dynamics of macro economy
and demography. Uniform Up until 1993-94, the poverty
Reference line was based on URP data,
• Lack of consensus among the states → over
Period (URP) which involved asking people
the acceptance of Tendulkar and Rangarajan
about their consumption
committee report. Some states such as Odisha
expenditure across a 30-day
and West Bengal supported the Tendulkar
recall period that is the
Poverty Line while others such as Delhi,
information was based on the
Jharkhand, Mizoram etc. supported
recall of consumption
Rangarajan report.
expenditure in the previous
• Most of the governments have mothballed
30 days.
the reports of committees and panels →
Mixed SSO switched to an MRP
because this issue is not only politically
Reference method which measures
sensitive but also has deeper fiscal
Period consumption of five low-
ramifications.
(MRP) frequency items (clothing,
• Problem of determining threshold → If the
footwear, durables, education
poverty threshold is high, it may leave out
and institutional health
many needed people; while if it is low, then it
expenditure) over the previous
would be bad for fiscal health of the
year, and all other items over
government.
the previous 30 days.
Way Forward:
• Redefining Poverty lines → Poverty lines Causes of Poverty:
have to be recalibrated depending on changes
in income, consumption patterns and prices. The Old One view of poverty is that it is
• Viable Poverty line → It makes sense to set Perspective providential, and it is the
the poverty line at a level that allows result of an individuals.
households to get two square meals a day The Modern According to the modern view,
and other basic necessities of life. Perspective poverty is beyond individual
• Hybrid of Absolute and Relative
control, and it is the social
Measurement of Poverty → The hybrid
58
system functioning which is • The

the major cause of poverty. growth of
Rapid
1. Climatic factors: growth of
• The hot climate of India reduces the capacity population:
of people especially the ruralites to work for population exceeds the
which production severely suffers. rate of growth in national
• Frequent flood, famine, earthquake and income. The burden of this
cyclone cause heavy damage to agriculture as a reduction in per capita
result, the price of food increases, and access income is borne heavily by
becomes more and more limited, putting many the poor people.
at higher risk of hunger. • Population growth not only
• Flooding can also contaminate water sources, creates difficulties in the
increasing the transmission of water-borne removal of poverty but also
diseases, such as Typhoid and Cholera. lowers the per capita
• Moreover, absence of timely rain, excessive income which tends to
or deficient rain affect severely country’s increase poverty.
agricultural production • Population growth at a faster
rate increases labour
supply which tends to
• Installing household and lower the wage rate.
community biogas units • Rapid population growth
Some steps can to power clean-burning increases landlessness and
be methane stoves; hence the incidence of
taken into • Replacing conventional poverty.
consideration: wood-burning stoves
• Size of
with more efficient solar
the
ones;
family
• Providing solar-powered
has
lighting; Size of
• Promoting scientifically
family:
and economically sound
climate-smart farming significant bearing on
techniques through the rural poverty.
use of information • The fundamental reason
technology (IT) platforms behind it is that poor people
like smart-phone apps. tend to believe “two hands
• Implementation of low are better than one”.
carbon farming • They see benefits in having
techniques more hands for
2. Demographic factors: subsistence agri-business
The following demographic factors are as well as to ensure that they
accountable for poverty in India: will have a stable support in
their old age.
• Other reason of poor family
being large family is that the
birth control is not free or
automatic. Moreover, they
do not even aware about
59
contraception, fertility, But these are in short supply making it difficult

sterilization and other to increase production significantly.
family planning approaches.
• The larger the size of 6. Housing and Homelessness
family, the lower is the per • The poor are, not surprisingly, more likely to
capita income, and the be homeless than the not so poor but also more
lower is the standard of likely to live in dilapidated housing and
living. unable to buy their own homes.
• Many poor families spend more than half
their income on rent, and they tend to live in
3. Political Factors poor neighbourhoods that lack job
Both rural and urban poverty remains opportunities, good
ubiquitous even after more than seven decades schools and other
of gaining independence from foreign rule. The features of modern
reasons in this regard can be as follows: life that wealthier
people take for
• Communal tensions and strife between two granted.
regional parties disrupt the process of allowing • The lack of
concessions and solving poverty. adequate housing
• In most cases, rural reforms are either stalled for the poor remains a major national
for indefinite period of time. Even if the problem. Even worse is the case for the
measures are implemented, they are mostly complete homeless people.
half-measures and confined to short-term
solutions that don’t do much good to India’s
poverty reduction goals 7. Social Factor
• Vote bank politics is also held accountable for
poverty in India where various political leaders
find it convenient to exclude huge chunk of the
population from the poverty census after
getting elected. Minority ethnic communities,
tribal groups and the Dalits are often not
included in the list of beneficiaries
• Various development plans are being guided
by political interests which is the major cause
of concern for poverty in India. Hence, the
planning has not been successful to tackle the Untouchability:
problem of poverty and unemployment. • Various social issues like untouchability that
are still prevalent in various parts of India
are a major cause of hindrance in reducing
4. Population Growth poverty.
• On average, 17 million people are added • They are not allowed to venture into the general
every year to its population which raises the employment opportunities and are forced to do
demand for consumption goods considerably. in human jobs like manual scavenging.
• When the population increases, the scarce
resource sharing is at stake which will create
huge poverty gap.
5. Capital and Able Entrepreneurship Deficit

• Capital and able entrepreneurship have
important role in accelerating the growth.
60

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Caste system:
• The subordination of the low caste people by
the high caste people caused the poverty of the
former.
• Due to rigid caste system, the low caste people
could not participate in the game of economic
progress.
• For example: a lower caste person will not be
allowed to become a businessman or a trader.
• Figure shows that Dalits are the least likely to
start their own enterprises and most likely to
work as labourers for others, with SCs having
the lowest relative share in self-employed • The literacy rate of female Dalits in Bihar is
category and the highest share in casual around 38.5%, it is far behind India’s progress
labourer category. The OBCs have a roughly trend. It is still 30 years behind India’s national
proportionate share in each employment literacy rate.
category.
• Figure shows that non-Muslim upper castes Social exclusion:
have a much higher share among white • Social exclusion is being unable to participate
collar employees, while Dalits and Adivasis in society because of a lack of resources that
(SCs/STs) have a much greater share among are normally available to the general
unskilled workers in comparison to OBCs. population.
Thus, even though SCs and OBCs might have
• It can refer to both individuals, and
a similar share among regular workers, the
communities in a broader framework, with
nature of jobs SCs (and STs) are engaged in
linked problems such as low incomes, poor
is qualitatively different.
housing, high crime environments and family
• This system makes the poor get poorer and problems.
the rich get richer. This unbalanced and unfair
• Social Exclusion leads to Poverty in the
system is another leading cause of poverty.
following ways:
• Laws of inheritance, caste system, traditions
and customs are putting hindrances in the way
of faster development and have aggravated the
Leads to the low representation of a section of
problem of poverty. society in government offices and this leads to fewer
policies in favour of that particular section which can
benefit them in a better standard of living.
Lack of Education:
• Education is an “agent of social change and
egalitarianism”.
Exclusion imposes constraints under which
human rights cannot be enjoyed in the same
• Poverty is also said to manner as by others in society. For example,
basic rights like education and justice are denied,
be closely related to the which further leads to poverty.
levels of schooling,
technical and
vocational skills. The low participation of tribal in decision-making
• Lack of education and illiteracy are the most and their alienation from land and forests were
central to the continued exclusion of Adivasis from
important reasons for the prevalence of progress and development.
widespread poverty in India.
61
8. Low Agricultural productivity • The persistent steep increase in the price of

goods and services drastically affects the
poor.
• For BPL people
always find it
difficult to cope
up with these
situations and
their spending
pattern gets
affected.
• Inflation forces
• Subdivided and fragmented holdings,
them to spend
• Under-utilization of resources is important almost their entire income for the very basic
factor necessities of survival like food, clothing and
• Disguised unemployment and shelter, in that order.
underemployment in agriculture sector. • Sometimes, poor cannot have the basic
• Lack of investible capital, and lack of credit required nutrition, hygienic living
availability. environment and cannot have basic minimum
• Use of traditional methods of cultivation health care, and so become easy victims to
• Illiteracy etc. which are the very reason for malnutrition and disease. Thus, the inflation
poverty in this country. condemns the poor to a life time of bad health
and worse living conditions.
• Finally, with passage of time, the inflation
9. Lack of employment opportunities:
results in gradual declining of human
• Unemployment is the reflection of poverty. dignity by rendering them homeless and
sometimes even forcing them to beg.
RECENT CONTEXT
• Recently, The Delhi High Court
decriminalized beggary by striking down
Delhi Prevention of Begging Rules, 1960,
formulated under the Bombay Prevention of
Begging Act, 1959 as unconstitutional.
• Because of lack of employment opportunities, • According to supreme court, Begging
people remain either unemployed or act violated Article 14 (equality before law)
underemployed. Most of these unemployed and Article 21 (right to life and personal
and underemployed workers are the small and liberty) of the Constitution.
marginal farmers and the landless
agricultural labourers.
MULTIDIMENSIONAL POVERTY:
• This inequality leads to unfair loss of
opportunities among the weaker sections of • The Global Multidimensional Poverty
the society thereby making them more Index (MPI) was developed in 2010 by
vulnerable. the Oxford Poverty & Human Development
Initiative (OPHI) and the United Nations
10. Inflation: Development Programme and uses health,
education and standard of living indicators to
62
determine the degree of poverty experienced by

a population.
• MPI is composed of ten indicators spread Education: years of
across: schooling and child
enrollment.
Health: child mortality and

nutrition.
Standard of living: Electricity,

flooring, drinking water,
sanitation, cooking fuel and
assets.
Each education and health indicator have a 1/6

weight, each standard of living indicator a 1/18 significant progress towards achieving SDG-1
weight. i.e. ending poverty in all its forms,
everywhere.
RECENT TREND • Among 10 selected countries India (and
• Global Multidimensional Poverty Index - Cambodia) reduced their MPI values
2019 (MPI), has revealed that there are the fastest and they did not leave the poorest
vast inequalities across countries, and among groups behind.
the poorer segments of societies.
• As per the index 1 → 3 billion people in the
world are still multidimensionally poor. EFFECTS OF POVERTY:
Multidimensionally poor implies that poverty
Effects of poverty on health:
is defined not simply by income, but by a
• A universal and simple
number of indicators, including poor
measure of poverty
health, poor quality of work and the threat of
consists in looking at
violence.
different populations’
health and life
India’s ranking in the report:
expectancy.
• India lifted 271 million people out of poverty
• They are always more
between 2006 and 2016, (reduced from 0.283
likely to have many
in 2005-06 to 0.123 in 2015-16) recording the
kinds of health problems, including infant
fastest reductions in the multidimensional
mortality, earlier adulthood mortality and
poverty index values during the period with
mental illness, and they are also more likely
strong improvements in areas such as assets,
to receive inadequate medical care,
cooking fuel, sanitation and nutrition.
discrimination and unfair treatments.
• Bangladesh, Cambodia, Democratic
• Differential prices under National List of
Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Haiti, India,
Essential Medicines (NLEM) and non
Nigeria, Pakistan, Peru and Vietnam (10
NLEM category creates ambiguity and widens
selected countries have a combined population
margin for private hospitals to exploit patients.
of around 2 billion people) have shown
63
• SDG 3 - Ensure healthy lives and promote malnutrition, violence at home and outside,
wellbeing for all at all ages. child labor, diseases of all kinds, transmitted
by the family or through the environment.
• These problems in turn weaken their ability to
Privatization of healthcare in India is a major do well in school and stable employment as
cause of concern. It is riddled with various issues. adults, helping to ensure that poverty will stick
According to 71st National Sample Survey (NSS) with the society across generations.
total private hospitalization share in rural and urban
areas is 58% and 68% respectively in 2014.
• National Policy on Child
Labour (1987) which
According to the Health Profile of India report, focuses upon rehabilitation
75 % of patients, who visit private hospitals, settle National of such children
medical bills from their household income or life Legislations • Juvenile Justice (Care and
savings (out of pocket expenditure) while another regarding Protection of Children) Act
18 % borrow money from private lenders to pay Child Labour 2015
medical bills causing high level of • Child Labour (Prohibition
impoverishment. and Regulation)
Amendment Act, 2016
• India has recently ratified
two of the ILO
Effects on society as a whole: (International Labour
• Poverty is a major cause of social tensions Organisation) Conventions
and threatens to divide a nation because of on
the issue of inequalities, in particular income • Minimum Age Convention
inequality. This happens when wealth in a 1993
country is poorly distributed among its
• Worst forms of Child
citizens
Labour Convention 1999
• The poor are more likely to be homeless and
unable to buy their own homes. Many poor
families spend more than half their income on
Effect of poverty on Education
rent, and they tend to live in poor
neighbourhoods that lack job opportunities,
good schools and other features of modern life • Education increases
Education earnings by roughly 10%
that wealthier people take increases per each additional year
for granted. individual of schooling
• The lack of adequate earnings
housing for the poor
remains a major national
problem. Even worse is •If workers from poor and
Education rich backgrounds received
the case for the complete reduces the same education,
homeless people. economic disparity between the two
in working poverty could
inequalities decrease by 39%.
Effects of poverty on children

• Poor infrastructures, •No country in the world has
unemployment, lack of Education achieved rapid and
basic services and promotes consistent economic
economic growth without at least 40
income reflect on their growth percent of its adult
population being literate.
lack of education,
64
• Poor children typically go to badly maintained • Women are

schools with inadequate facilities where they segregated, have
receive poor coaching. very limited
• They are less likely than wealthier children to access to
graduate from high school or to go to college. education (for
• Their lack of education in turn restricts them political, religious
and makes their own children to suffer from or social reasons)
poverty, once again helping to ensure a vicious and are sometimes
cycle of sadly continuing poverty across forbidden to
generations work or restricted
to tedious ones.
Effects of poverty on terrorism • Being the cornerstone of the family, women
• It’s important to note that most of the time can have a great impact not only on the
terrorists do come from poorer countries household income, but also on the education
with high unemployment, and that terrorist of children (including sanitation), and
organizations often provide much higher avoiding early child deaths due to bad habits,
salaries than any other job, if any other job is sanitation or improper food or water.
available at all. • The feminization of poverty may be caused by
• In fact, a lot of different factors interact with changes in Family composition, Family
the decision to become a terrorist. Personal organization, Inequality in the access to
and cultural ideals, values, and principles are public services or in social protection.
just as important as material and social gain
(reputation & fame for fighting the
imperialists) of entering terrorism. Female face of poverty:
• Unpaid work done by women across the
globe amounts to a staggering $10 trillion a
Effect of poverty on Economy year, which is 43 times the annual turnover of
• Among the effects of the world’s biggest company Apple, according
poverty, its impact on the to an Oxfam study.
economy of the country • Inequality has ‘female face’ in India,
is a major issue of women’s unpaid work worth 3.1% of GDP.
concern. Mainly, the • Women spend 312 minutes per day in urban
number of people areas and 291 minutes per day in rural areas
existing in poverty influences employment on such unpaid care work, it added. In
rates heavily. comparison, men spend only 29 minutes in
• Without an education, people are unlikely to urban and 32 minutes in rural areas on
find a lucrative or rather a decent paying job. unpaid care work.
• A high unemployment rate will definitely • Although India has many laws that deal with
slow down a country from progressing in all violence against women, but their
aspects. implementation remains a challenge,
including due to a deeply patriarchal society.
Feminization of poverty:
Various strategies to alleviate poverty:
• Poverty affects greater number of women than
men. Feminization of poverty is the
phenomenon in which total of poor women
outnumbers the total population of poor
men.
65
• GOI is
endeavouring
Government Measures to set high
and uniform
technical
Distributive Specific
Social Security
and
Strategies Strategies
management
standards
and
Accelerating Economic Growth: facilitating
• According to this view, benefits of economic policy development and planning at State level
growth will “trickle down” to the poor in the in order to ensure sustainable management of
form of more employment opportunities, the rural roads network.
greater productivity and higher wages. • This programme covers all villages with
• The use of capital-intensive technologies population more than 1,000 and villages in
imported from the Western Countries should be hilly and tribal areas with population more
avoided. than 500.
• In fact, we should pursuer labor-intensive
path of economic growth.
Accelerating Human Resource Development:
• Such monetary and fiscal policies should be
• Human resource development requires greater
adopted that provide incentives for using
investment in educational facilities such as
labour-intensive techniques.
schools to promote literacy, technical training
institutes and vocational colleges to import
Agricultural Growth and Poverty Alleviation: skills to the people.
• Agricultural growth has been recognized as an • Further, human resource development requires
important factor that contributes to marked health care by public investment in Primary
reduction in poverty Health Centres (PHCs), dispensaries and
• The growth in agricultural output in states like hospitals.
Punjab and Haryana propelled by the adoption
of new-high yielding technology caused a
marked reduction in poverty. Access to Institutional Credit:
• To ensure marked decline in rural poverty • Availability of credit to the poor on easy
through agricultural growth, rate of terms can create the conditions for small
agricultural growth should be accelerated farmers gaining access to productive
by increasing public investment in irrigation resources such as HYV seeds fertilizers,
and other infrastructure. construction of minor irrigation such as wells
• Besides, higher agricultural growth can be and tube wells.
achieved in semi-arid and rain-fed areas by • This will enable the small farmers to adopt
increasing public investment in high- yielding technology to raise their
infrastructure and ensuring adequate access productivity.
to credit to the small farmers. • Important changes have been introduced in the
credit delivery system in India.
• Expansion of network of rural branches of
Rural road connectivity
commercial banks after nationalization and
• Transport plays a very important role in
fixation of limits for compulsory lending to
economic development of the country. The
the priority sectors (which include
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
agriculture, small-scale industries) and fixation
(PMGSY) was launched by the GOI to provide
of lower interest rates to be charged from the
connectivity to unconnected habitations as part
of a poverty-reduction strategy.
66
poor farmers and artisans some progress has o Subsidy for beneficiary-led individual
been made in this regard. house construction/enhancement
Rural electrification
Public Distribution System (PDS) • GOI has launched the scheme ‘Deendayal
• A properly functioning public distribution Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana’ for rural
system which is targeted to the poor electrification. Under DDUGJY-RE, Ministry
households is an important element of the of Power has sanctioned 921 projects to
strategy for poverty reduction. electrify 1,21,225 un-electrified villages,
• Therefore, an effective way of raising rural intensive electrification of 5,92,979 partially
incomes and ensuring food security to the poor electrified villages and provide free electricity
households is an assured supply of adequate connections to 397.45 lakh BPL rural
quantity of food-grains and other essential households.
commodities at subsidised prices, that is, at
prices which are lower than the market prices. Self-employment schemes
• Primarily through Swaran Jayanti Grameen
Sah-rozgar Yogana (SGSY) in the rural areas
Irrigation
and through Swaran Jayanti Shahri Rozgar
• In order to reduce the poverty in rural areas,
Yogana (SJSRY) in the urban areas.
agricultural inputs should be well-
organized.
• The most important of such input is irrigation. Skill Development
Hence, Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai • Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen
Yojana was introduced by GOI with the vision Kaushalya Yojna was introduced by the GOI
of extending the coverage of irrigation. to engage rural youth specially BPL and SC/ ST
• The basic theme of the PMKSY is ‘More Crop segment of population in gainful employment
Per Drop’. through skill training programmes.
Housing
• In order to build house for poor in India,
under Housing for All by 2022, two new POVERTY REMOVAL AND SDGs
schemes were introduced. SDG Goal 1 aims to end poverty in all its forms
o Pradhan Mantri everywhere. While it defines extreme poverty at
Awas Yojana $1.25 but nations are allowed to use their ‘national
(Urban) poverty line’ methods.
o Pradhan Mantri
Gramin Awas
Yojana (Rural). India’s SDG Goal 1 Baseline Target-Goal-
• The Mission will be Indicators in (brackets) 2030
implemented during
Reduce at least half of the BPL 10.95%
2015-2022 and will
provide central population. So, 21.9% population
assistance to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and population is BPL (2011) then living below
other implementing agencies through its half should be removed poverty line.
States/UTs for: uplifted.
o In situ rehabilitation of existing slum Number of homeless 0 homeless
dwellers using land as a resource through households per 10,000
private participation
households (presently ~11)
o Credit-linked subsidy
o Affordable housing in partnership
67
No. of households with min. 1 100% • And with more women participation and their
member having health households enhanced status address issues such as
insurance (presently ~29%) nutrition poverty and low literacy rate
• It is also observed that the percentage of BPL
Improve Social Protection 100%
population is less in the states where there is
Schemes’ coverage: households large number of SHG
• Number of families who
are eligible households
Problems faced by self-help groups:
receiving MNREGA jobs
• Ignorance of members.
(85%)
• Inadequate Training Facilities in the specific
• No. of eligible households areas of product selection, quality of products,
receiving Maternity production techniques, managerial ability,
benefits (36%) packing, other technical knowledge ate are not
adequate to compete with that of strong units.
• Problems of Marketing.
Role of self-Help groups in poverty alleviation: • Lack of stability and unity especially among
What are SHG? women SHGs.
• The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural • Exploitation by Strong Members.
Development (NABARD) defines Self Help • Weak Financial Management, poor record
Groups as a small homogeneous group of keeping.
poor households consisting of 20 or less
people from a homogenous class who are
MGNREGA AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION
willing to come together for addressing their
common problems. • Mahatma Gandhi Employment Guarantee
• They make regular savings and use the Act 2005, is an Indian labour law and social
pooled savings to give interest-bearing loans security measure that aims to guarantee the
to their members.
• The process helps them imbibe the essentials
of financial intermediation including
prioritization of needs, setting self-determined
terms for repayment
Self-help groups and poverty alleviation

They help in poverty reduction in following
ways:
• With financial inclusion credit facility to poor
'right to work'.
is increased. It also saves them from
• 2006: launched in 200 districts → 2008:
moneylenders.
launched in the whole country as MGNREGS
• Opportunities for self-employment through
Scheme
setting of micro-enterprise.
• Skill development program undertaken by • Ministry of Rural Development → Centrally
SHGs improves employability of members Sponsored Scheme (not 100% funded by the
involved. Union). Union bears 100% wage cost and 75%
• As a result of increased jobs there is rise in of material cost
income which enhances access to food, health • It promises to give minimum 100 days of
services and overall rise in living standards. unskilled manual labour to rural household
whose adult members volunteer for it.
68
Households are eligible for unemployment that meet their needs that are delivered in a
allowances if employment not been provided responsible and sustainable way. Financial
within 15 days of demand.
• MNREGA labourers are used for creating
durable assets as per local needs e.g. ponds,
wells, cattle sheds, granary, Vermi-compost
plants, crematorium; renovation of Anganwadi
centres, school buildings
• No contractors / machinery allowed.
• In any project, 60% of amount should go
towards wages and 40% towards material. inclusion is defined as the availability and
• Social audit by the gram sabha at least once in equality of opportunities to access financial
every 6 months. services.
One of its aims is to get
MGNREGA: Future suggestion by Economic the unbanked and underbanked to have better
Survey-19 access to financial services. The availability of
Big Data Real time monitoring of financial services that meet the specific needs of
Analytics: demand for work under users without discrimination is a key objective of
MGNREGA at district level. If financial inclusion
more work demand by villagers
= proof of farm / rural distress. • Reduced dependence on
Then correlate with weather informal sources like
data etc. then display flash alert moneylenders in times of
on policymaker’s dashboard.
Financial need. Rates charged are
So he can take corrective
actions. e.g. Timely release of inclusion and high making the poor
crop insurance claims, poverty enter into vicious cycle of
distribution of more loans, alleviation: indebtness.
additional allocation of • Empowering women who,
foodgrains in PDS Shops etc. with a credit line, could
Financial Deepening MGNREGA undertake labor activities
Inclusion workers’ financial inclusion
unthinkable without
through microinsurance, micro-
pensions, microcredit schemes. economic aid; increase
Upskilling Convergence of MGNREGA consumption and
the with Deen Dayal Upadhyaya investment, and thus grow
MGNREGA Grameen Kaushalya Yojana revenues; and increase
Workers: (DDUGKY). So, they can spending on other social
eventually find gainful aspects, such as
employment, and don’t have to
preventive health.
demand ‘unskilled’
MGNREGA work all the time. • Promotes habit of savings
which eventually helps in
capital investment.
ROLE OF FINANCIAL INCLUSION IN • Financial inclusion boosts
POVERTY REDUCTION confidence of poor as it
Meaning - Financial inclusion is where brings them the feeling of
individuals and businesses have access to useful being part of mainstream.
and affordable financial products and services The risk-taking ability also
69
increases. This overall According to the World Data Lab — which

promotes entrepreneurship. monitors global poverty using advanced statistical
Challenges in • models - less than 50 million Indians may be living
The Need to Improve
on less than $1.90 a day now.
Financial Financial Literacy
Inclusion: • Lack of Formal
Identification Documents
How poverty impacts Human development?
• Consumer Protection • Poor cannot live life or get employed as per
• The Rural Poor and Gender their choice as must work even in life
Inequality threatening conditions to sustain their family
• Poor infrastructure- Lack of e.g. death of miners in Talcher coal mine, who
banks and ATMs in remote were working because of no alternative.
areas. • Poverty reduces the time to gain knowledge
and thus impacts the awareness and decision
Ways to • Innovations backed by making like voting on rational basis.
increase financial literacy • It reduces access to education, healthcare
Financial • Sensitization of bank facilities etc.
inclusion: employees while dealing • Lack of nutrition and healthcare results in
with the poor. high mortality among poor.
• Strengthening the banking
correspondent model. Various schemes of GoI for poverty alleviation
• Infrastructure building-
Banks, ATMs in remote and DEEN DAYAL ANTYODAYA YOJANA:
NATIONAL URBAN LIVELIHOODS MISSION
rural areas.
(DAY-NULM)
• Developing products
• Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
catering to specific needs of • Give urban poor’s skill training and loan for
the poor like micro- self-employment → Government pays its
pension. interest subvention via PAISA Portal. This
portal is coordinated by Allahabad Bank
• Develop vendor markets for urban vendors.
POVERTY AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT • Shelters for homeless people.
The HDI is the composite measure of every
country’s attainment in three basic dimensions: DEEN DAYAL ANTYODAYA YOJANA:
NATIONAL RURAL LIVELIHOODS MISSION
(DAY-NRLM)
•measured by the gross
Standard of national income (GNI) per • Ministry of Rural Development
living capita • Bring minimum 1 woman from each poor
household to Self Help Group → give them
training and loans for candle/soap/handicraft
•measured by the life etc. biz.
Health expectancy at birth • Give training to rural men.
• They’ll do self-employment or skilled wage
employment = More income than working as
farm labourers.
• Calculated by mean years of
Education education among the adult
levels population and the expected NATIONAL RURAL LIVELIHOODS MISSION
years of schooling for children (DAY- NRLM) - SUBSCHEME
70
1. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Some of the reasons why the scheme is not 100%
Kaushalya Yojana (DDUGKY-2014): productive:
• Rural Youth given FREE skill training to
aged 15-35. Higher age limit for • The resources allocated to anti-poverty
SC/ST/Women/PH. programmes are inadequate and there is a
• Guaranteed Placement for at least 75% tacit
trained candidates. understanding Poor
• Covers Youth of Jammu and Kashmir that targets will health
(HIMAYAT scheme) be curtailed
according to
• Cover Youth of North Eastern States &
fund Lack of Lack of
Left- Wing Extremist (LWE) districts access choices
availability. For
(ROSHNI Scheme)
instance,
2. Startup Village Entrepreneurship
Mahatma
Programme (SVEP-2015): self-explanatory
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
training, loan, marketing assistance etc.
Act (MGNREGA) does not provide the
3. PM’s Employment Generation Scheme
guaranteed 100 days of work in many states.
where person / SHG given credit linked
subsidy to start non-farm micro- enterprise] • There is no method to ensure that
4. Aajeevika Grameen Express Yojana programmes reach everybody they are
(AGEY-2017): Interest-free loans given to meant for.
SHG / Community Based Organisations • Lack of awareness of these schemes amongst
(CBOs) to buy public transport vehicle so they the masses given their illiteracy and ignorance.
can earn by transporting passengers. • It may possibly be better to implement these
programmes through NGOs and Civil
DISHA COMMITTEES (2016) Society Organisations after a strict screening
• Ministry of Rural Development process.
• District Development Coordination and • Need to bring in an independent ‘social audit’
Monitoring Committee (DISHA) = elected of these schemes not for fixing accountability
members of (Parliament + State legislature + but for plugging leakages, improving delivery.
Local Governments: PRI,ULB) for efficient • Absence of any monitoring mechanism for
and time-bound development of districts. the efficacy of such schemes or to know the end
• They will meet once every quarter and assess result.
the schemes implementation. • There is no systematic attempt to identify
• DISHA Committee’s chairman will be the people who are in poverty, determine their
senior most MP (Lok Sabha) from the given needs, address them and enable them to move
district. DM/Collector(IAS) will act as member above the poverty line.
Secretary to implement the Committee’s
directives.
What needs to be done?
• Improving human development outcomes
MISSION ANTYODAYA (2017)
for the poor by improving their quality of life
• Ministry of Rural Development
and income earning opportunities.
• It’s similar to ‘Adarsh Gram Yojanas
• Creating more good locations as more and
• Here Government will implement the other more of India’s poor are concentrated in the
ongoing schemes with more vigilance and poorest states.
accountability with the help of Gram
• Future efforts will need to address job creation
Panchayat, NGOs, SHGs, ASHA workers etc.
in more productive sectors, which has until now
• At least 50,000 Gram Panchayats become been lukewarm and has yielded few salaried
poverty free by 2020. jobs that offer stability and security.
71
• Capitalizing on growing connectivity • As a form of social security UBI will help in

between rural and urban areas, and between the reducing inequality and eliminating poverty.
agriculture, industry and services sectors is also Thus it ensures security and dignity for all
a viable solution in this regard. individuals.
• UBI could promote greater productivity. For
example, agriculture labourers who own small
UNIVERSAL BASIC INCOME patch of land and earlier used to work in others’
What is UBI? farm for low wages, can now undertake
• UBI is a fixed income every adult - rich or farming on their own land. In long term, this
poor, working or idle - receives from will reduce the percentage of unused land and
government. helps in increasing agriculture productivity.
• It is a periodic, unconditional cash transfer • Transferring basic income directly into bank
to every citizen in the country. accounts will increase the demand for financial
• Universal Basic Income means government services. This would help banks to invest in the
depositing a specific sum of money in a expansion of their service network, which is
beneficiary’s bank account each year to very important for financial inclusion.
augment his/her purchasing power in the open
market. The term ‘universal’ is ‘de-jure’ , in UBI: Pro-Arguments By Eco Survey
reality, UBI is not meant for rich & middle • Safety Net → Protects people from
class families, they will be excluded. deprivation, destitution PDS= leakage,
• Interim-Budget-2019 → Spending about ₹ 12 diversion. Better give ₹ ₹ to needy to buy from
lakh crores in schemes. Out of that ₹3.3 lakh open market.
crores in subsidies. Yet, schemes/subsidies • MNREGA → Not good because it’s creating
suffer from two problems. shortage of farm labourers. Scheme is rife with
o Inclusion Error: Non-poor (well to do corruption & mismanagement.
families) receive benefits, “free rider” • Some people face accident of birth
problem. About 40% of Food subsidies (SC/ST/Rural/Poor). Some people face
wasted in this manner. accident of life (e.g. drought, disaster, husband
o Exclusion Error: Real Poor not receiving dead, caught in debt trap by informal money
benefit, about 40-60% of real needy lender). UBI will help them overcome these
• Families don't receive scheme benefit. accidents, boost their psychological
• Leakage : 20-36% money allotted in aspirations.
PDS/MNREGA is gone in corruption by the • PAN cards already linked with Bank accounts
middleman / bureaucrats. so possible to exclude rich / middle class easily.
So, implementation of Universal Basic Income
Universal Basic Income and Poverty should not prove difficult.
Despite making remarkable progress in poverty
reduction, nearly 22 percent of the population UBI: Anti-Arguments By Eco Survey
lives below poverty line (Tendulkar committee • Able bodied men given ‘charity’. It will turn
report, 2011-12): them lazy. Gandhi will not approve it.
• One of the major criticisms of poverty • 1st world nations can afford UBI because their
alleviation programmes is significant leakages. tax to GDP is high. If we give ₹ 12000 per year
UBI is seen as a more efficient alternative. to poor people (without shutting down existing
• UBI strengthens economic liberty at an schemes) then Fiscal deficit = about 12% of
individual level. This would help them to GDP = new variety of problems (Counter
choose the kind of work they want to do, rather arguments: if we stop all schemes/subsidies and
than forcing them to do unproductive work to give only ₹ 2500 / per year as UBI to only poor
meet their daily requirements. people, then Fiscal deficit will stay at 3%
72
while poverty will decline from 21.9% → these are meant for long-term improvement in
just 9%) human development, rural infrastructure,
• Extra money in the hands of poor without employment etc. and can’t be substituted by
proportional increase in the supply of goods → cash transfer. Thus, a complementary and
demand side inflation. So, poor person’s real aiding income can be a balanced solution.
purchasing power will not increase, they will • A transparent and safe financial
remain poor only. architecture that is accessible to all is
• Providing Universal basic income without important for the success of the UBI. In other
crossing the fiscal deficit target will require words, the success of UBI depends on the
stopping the schemes like NFSA, MDM, success of efficient mode of delivery like JAM
MNREGA → but that will not be ‘politically Trinity.
feasible’. • Study the efficiency of similar schemes in
• Many families hid their assets during SECC- other countries (Finland, Kenya, and Spain
2011 survey, so it’s not a reliable data. So if etc.) and work out the best implementation
UBI given to people based on SECC data → suitable for India.
Inclusion Error, with non-poor’s getting
benefit. Conclusion:
• Men of the house may misuse ₹ ₹ on alcohol,
• The main objective of all our development
gambling & other social ills. Better to give
policies had been aimed at promoting rapid
entitlements in the form of ‘kind’ e.g. free food
and balanced economic development with
under mid-day meal, subsidized grains at PDS
equity and social justice.
shop.
• But the benefits of all our policies and
initiatives have not reached to all the sections
Challenges in UBI: of people.
• The promise of the constitution and dreams
• Replacing existing schemes with cash transfer of our forefathers of an egalitarian society
will adversely impact the development goals remains unfulfilled.
of India. UBI can't be at the cost of • Time has come to think out of box solution to
expenditure on health, education or rural eliminate poverty as some sectors of the
infrastructure economy, some regions of the country has
• A guaranteed minimum income might make developed to an extent where it can compete
people lazy and it breeds dependency. They with developed countries in terms of social and
may opt out of labour market and can refuse to economic development, yet there are many
work others who have not been able to come out of
• It will also face the problem of ‘exclusion the vicious circle of poverty.
error’ in the identification of beneficiaries. • While India’s GDP and national income is
Efficiency will be reduced. Corruption will rising every year, not everyone has benefited
creep in. More importantly, UBI will not equally from this prosperity.
remain ‘universal’. • Poverty acts as a barrier against gender
• If the UBI is funded by higher taxes, especially development & human development.
by the indirect taxes, it will result in inflation. • Therefore, SDG Goal 1 aims to end poverty
This, in turn, will reduce the purchasing in all its forms everywhere.
power of the people and lowers the value of
the amount transferred. Economic Survey 2017 gave both the pro and anti-
arguments. Its intent was only to ‘generate a
debate’ around the topic (without suggesting UBI
Suggestions
for immediate implementation). However
• Movement in the HDI are driven by changes in eventually, Interim-Budget 2019: PM-KISAN ₹ 6k
health, education and income. The schemes for / per year to small and marginal farmers.
73
poverty is not only individual but the structure

Conclusion- UBI can play a pivotal role in of society as well?
UBI-Favour: eliminating poverty and
providing safety net against
deprivation and destitution.
However, UBI should be
designed & implemented in a
manner that minimizes
leakage & doesn't put heavy
burden on fiscal resources.
Conclusion- While UBI can play a pivotal
UBI-Anti: role in eliminating poverty
and providing safety net
against deprivation and
destitution, but in the light of
the aforementioned
challenges, the conditions
are not yet ripe for its
introduction in India.
Previous Year Questions:

CSM2018 - Despite implementation of
10 marks various programmes for
eradication of poverty by the
government in India, poverty is
still existing. Explain by giving
reasons.
CSM2016 - An essential condition to
10 marks eradicate poverty is to liberate
the poor from deprivation.
Substantiate this statement with
suitable examples.
CSM2016 - Critically examine whether
10 marks growing population is the cause
of poverty or poverty is the main
cause of population increase in
India.
Practice Questions:
1. Poverty is the root cause of all the social evils
in India. Comment
2. Explain how financial inclusion helps in
elevating poverty from India. Mention the steps
taken by the government to break the vicious
cycle.
3. Examine the reasons that aggravates poverty in
Indian Society. Do you think the reason for
74
CH-5 URBANIZATION
• Urban development as a reflection of the very high due to high FDI and establishment
overall development process cannot remain of various kinds of industries in these states.
outside the purview of the political system of
the country. Accordingly, the politicians and PROCESS OF URBANIZATION:
the civil servants in India take the most active ● Urbanization as a
part in the policy formulation process in the structural process of
urban context. change is generally
• While India changes to new India, one of the related to
profound morphological changes witnessed industrialization, but
will be increasing urbanization which is closely it is not always the
linked to modernization and result of
industrialization. industrialization.
● Urbanization results
WHAT IS URBANIZATION? due to the
● Urbanization indeed is the process of concentration of large-scale and small scale
becoming urban, moving to cities, changing industrial and commercial, financial, and
from agriculture to other pursuits common administrative set up in the cities; technological
to cities, such as trade, manufacturing, development in transport and communication,
industry and management, and cultural and recreational activities.
corresponding changes of behavior patterns. ● Urbanization is an integral part of economic
● It is the process of expansion in the entire development, As the economy develops, there
system of interrelationships by which the is an increase in the per capita income and also
population maintains itself in the habitat. the demand for non-farm goods in the
● Urbanization refers to the population shift economy.
from rural to urban residency, the gradual ● In the context of India, the process of
increase in the proportion of people living in urbanization is seen as a socio-cultural
urban areas. process, an economic process, and a
geographical process.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN
URBANIZATION:
● Indian towns are growing more on the basis
of tertiary rather than the secondary sector.
It is very ironic that cities in India have
developed as a result of the growth of the
tertiary sector. The growth in the
communication sector, transport, services and
construction were the main factors for the
growth of Indian cities.
● But in developed countries it is the
manufacturing sector which led to the
growth of cities.
● Southern India is more urbanized than that As a socio- It is a “melting pot” of
of Northern and Eastern India. This is because cultural people with diverse ethnic,
of the historical, socio-cultural and educational phenomenon linguistic, and religious
resource factors widely available. backgrounds. E.g. kolkata
● With the introduction of globalization in As an economic The city is a focal point of
India, the development of South India was process productive activities. It
75
exists and grows on the • In 1882, a resolution was passed and according
strength of the economic to which, a panchayat was to be formed at the
activities existing within village level, district boards, taluqa boards, and
itself. E.g. Mumbai municipalities also came into existence.
As a It deals with migration or • At that time Lord Ripon was Viceroy of India,
geographical change of location of and for this, Lord Ripon is known as the father
process residence of people and of local self-government in India.
involves the movement of • Lord Ripon's resolution of 1882 provided for
people from one place to the introduction of principles of local self-
another. government in the municipalities.
• The resolution is regarded as the Magna Carta
EVOLUTION OF URBANIZATION IN of Local self-government in India. Lord Ripon
INDIA- is known as Father of Local Self Government
● Urbanization in India can be traced back to in India.
the ancient Indian period. • The formation of three metropolitan port
● Harappan urbanism in Indus valley cities of Mumbai (Bombay), Kolkata
civilization is considered to be the first phase (Calcutta), and Chennai (Madras).
of urbanization in India. • Creation of a chain of hill stations such as
● Harappan cities had a long period of Darjeeling, Shimla, Mussoorie, Lansdowne
urbanization for about 600 years (between 2350 etc. in the Himalayan region and In South
BC and 1750 BC). Harappa and Mohenjo- India.
• The modification of the urban landscape of the
existing cities with the introduction of civil
lines and cantonments.
• The introduction of railways and modern
industry.
• The improvements in urban amenities and
administration.
• The Initiation of modern education by
establishing some colleges and universities in
major urban centers.
• After Independence urbanization began to
accelerate due to the country’s adoption of a
mixed economy, which gave rise to the
development of the private sector.
Daro are the two important cities in Indus
valley civilization. URBANIZATION AND GOVERNANCE
Urban governance is a complex issue and poses a
● The onset of the British East India Company formidable challenge in today’s public
changed the nature of the urbanization process management in our country. For those living in
extraordinarily. India’s metropolitan areas, daily living can be
chaotic and trying, the unfortunate result of poor
THE MAJOR CONTRIBUTION OF THE BRITISH TO urban planning, creaking infrastructure and
THE INDIAN URBAN PROSPECT CAN BE ENLISTED ineffectual governance.
AS FOLLOWS:
• In 1687- 88, the first municipal corporation A. Urban Governance:
in India was set up at Madras. ● The 74th amendment act has been
• In 1726, Municipal Corporation was set up in implemented half-heartedly by the states,
Bombay and Calcutta. which has not fully empowered the Urban local
76
bodies (ULBs). ULBs comprise of municipal • Community participation and co-

corporations, municipalities and nagar production of services should be encouraged
panchayats, which are to be supported by state by municipal bodies. This should be
governments to manage the urban supplemented by awareness generation.
development. • In all towns and cities with a population above
● For this, ULBs need clear delegation of one lakh, the possibility of taking up PPP
functions, financial resources and projects for collection and disposal of
autonomy. At present urban governance needs garbage may be explored.
improvement for urban development, which • Municipal bodies should be encouraged to take
can be done by enhancing technology, responsibility of power distribution in their
administrative and managerial capacity of area.
ULBs. • Urban Transport Authorities, to be called
Unified Metropolitan Transport Authorities
B. Urban Finances: in the Metropolitan Corporations, should be set
● Though the performance of municipalities on up in cities with population over one million
revenue mobilization and spending levels within one year, for coordinated planning and
varies across States, it can generally be said that implementation of urban transport solutions
even after the 74th Constitutional with an overriding priority to public transport.
Amendment, the financial position of the
municipal institutions has not improved As per NITI Aayog:
commensurate with their functions and • Well-run ULBs should have the power to raise
responsibilities. Further, the position of the financial resources including through
smaller municipal institutions is much worse. municipal bonds.
● The basic requirement of financial • Introduction of Standardised, time-bound,
sustainability must be intertwined with the audited balance sheets across ULBs would
need for financial powers. help improve financial management as well as
● States should ensure that the law gives spur further reforms in this area.
sufficient powers to the local bodies • Indian cities also need to overhaul their
regarding taxes that are more appropriately municipal staffing and introduce
collected at local levels. State Governments appropriate skills to achieve administrative
should ensure that all local bodies switch over efficiency.
to the ‘unit area method’ or ‘capital value
• Similarly, to speed up the process of cleaning
method’ for assessment of property tax in a
up municipal solid waste, NITI Aayog suggests
time-bound manner.
the creation of an authority at the Centre to
spread the use of Waste to Energy plants.
Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) in
• Such an authority may be called Waste to
its 6th report mentioned measures to
Energy Corporation of India (WECI) and
strengthen the urban governance:
placed under the Ministry of Urban
• Urban local bodies should be given
Development. WECI may set up world class
responsibility for water supply and
Waste to Energy plants through PPP across the
distribution in their territorial jurisdiction
country.
whether based on their own source or
• Its mandate may include key functions of
collaborative arrangements with other service
preparing standard tender documents,
providers.
prequalify vendors and allot to ULBs and
• Sanitation, as a matter of hygiene and public
cluster of ULBs, and ensure priority
health, must be given priority and emphasis in
clearance for qualified vendors, among others.
all urban areas. In all towns, advance action for
• Strict enforcement of traffic rules through
laying down adequate infrastructure should be
fines in case of violations can induce
taken to avoid insufficiency of services.
77
behavioral change and could greatly reduce

both the travel time and pollution. minimum population threshold;
• Incentives may be created to encourage

vehicle-sharing systems such as Ola and Uber. population density;
This will reduce the number of vehicles on the
road reducing both congestion and pollution. proportion employed in non-agricultural sectors;
• There is a need for a national metro rail
policy that will ensure that metro projects are presence of infrastructure such as paved roads,
not considered in isolation, but as part of a
comprehensive plan of overall public electricity, piped water or sewers;
transportation.
presence of education or health services.
URBANIZATION AND TWELFTH FIVE-
YEAR PLANS
▪ Rapid Mass Transport (RMT) for a better Towns:
transportation system. For the Census of India 2011, the definition of
▪ Reform of the urban water sector. urban area is as follows;
▪ Efficient use of urban land.
The population residing in urban areas in India,
▪ Long term strategic urban planning with the
according to the 1901 census, was
overall regional planning perspective.
11.4%. This count increased to 28.53%
▪ The environmental sustainability of urban
according to the 2001 census, and crossed
development
30% as per the 2011 census, standing at
▪ Investment in new urban infrastructure assets
31.16%. In 2017, the numbers increased to
and maintenance of assets.
34%, according to The World Bank.
▪ Need to strengthen urban governance
▪ To strengthen the ‘soft infrastructure’.
● All places with a
URBANIZATION AND ASSOCIATED
municipality, corporation,
PHENOMENON:
Statutory cantonment board or notified
towns town area committee, etc.
● These towns are notified
under law by the concerned
State/UT Government and
have local bodies like
municipal corporations,
municipalities, municipal
committees, etc., irrespective
of their demographic
characteristics as reckoned on
31st December 2009.
The criteria for classifying an area as urban may Examples: Vadodara
be based on one or a combination of features, (Municipal Corp.), Shimla
such as: (Municipal Corp.) etc.
All other places which satisfied
the following criteria:
Census 1. A minimum population
town of 5,000;
2. At least 75 percent of
the male main working
78

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population engaged in of urban activities and occupations, greater

non-agricultural pursuits; influx of secondary functions like industry, the
and increased sophistication and mechanization of
3. A density of population life and the influx of urban characters into the
of at least 400 persons surrounding rural area, over urbanization
per sq. km. gradually replaces the rural and traditionalistic
traits of a community.
Urban Agglomeration (UA):
● It is a continuous urban spread constituting Suburbanization:
a town and its adjoining outgrowths (OGs), ● Suburbanization is closely related to over-
or two or more physically contiguous towns urbanization of a city. When cities get over-
together with or without outgrowths of such crowded by population, it may result in sub-
towns. urbanization. Delhi is a typical example.
● An Urban Agglomeration must consist of at ● Sub-urbanization means urbanization of
least a statutory town and its total population rural areas around the cities characterized
(i.e. all the constituents put together) should by the following features:
not be less than 20,000 as per the 2001 ○ A sharp increase in the ‘urban (non-
Census. At the Census 2011, there were 475 agricultural) uses’ of land,
such UAs/Towns. ○ Inclusion of surrounding areas of towns
within its municipal limits, and
Urban Agglomerations/ Towns by Class/ ○ Intensive communication of all types
Category: Census of India 2011 between town and its surrounding areas.
Out Growths (OG): Counter urbanization or de-urbanization:

● It is a viable unit such as a village or a hamlet ● It is a demographic and social process
or an enumeration block made up of such a whereby people move from urban areas to
rural areas. It is, like suburbanization,
Class Population inversely related to urbanization. It first
Class - I Population of 100,000 and Above occurred as a reaction to inner - city
Class - II Population of 50,000 and 99,999 deprivation.
Class - III Population of 20,000 and 49,999 ● Counter urbanization is the process by which
Class - IV Population of 10,000 and 19,999 people migrate from urban to rural
Class - V Population of 5,000 and 9,999 communities (the opposite of urbanization) for
Class - VI Population of less than 5,000 various reasons, including job opportunities
and simpler lifestyles.
village or hamlet and clearly identifiable in
terms of its boundaries and location. Satellite towns:
● Some of the examples are railway colonies, ● A satellite town or satellite city is a concept in
university campuses, port areas, military urban planning that refers essentially to
camps, etc., which have come up near a smaller metropolitan areas which are
statutory town outside its statutory limits but located somewhat near to, but are mostly
within the revenue limits of a village or villages independent of larger metropolitan areas.
contiguous to the town. At the Census 2011, Satellite cities could be self-sufficient
there were 981 Out Growths. communities outside of their larger
Over-Urbanization: metropolitan areas.
● It refers to the increased exemplifications of
the characters of urbanization in a city or its REASONS FOR URBANIZATION
surrounding rural area.
● It results from excessive development of 1. Social factors:
urban traits. Due to the expansion of the range
79
• There are numerous social benefits attributed to commission set up by the government,
life in cities and towns. governments policy on slums and town
• People get better facilities in an urban area improvement, various schemes, the Urban
like education, sanitation, housing, health Land Policy, Housing Policy, Policy on the
care, recreation, and living standards to lead a urban environment, infrastructural
good social life in general. arrangements serve as important indicators of
• Due to these reasons, more and more people are the government of India’s perspective of urban
prompted to migrate into cities and towns to development.
obtain a wide variety of social benefits and ● Such a range of policy contents reflects the
services which are not presently available in highly complicated character of the urban
rural areas. development process.
2. Economic factors: 5. Modernization and changed lifestyle:

● There is a strong relationship between ● Modernization and drastic change in today’s
urbanization and economic growth. lifestyle of people plays a very important role
in the process of urbanization.
● Nowadays, urban areas are becoming more
technology savvy with highly sophisticated
communication, infrastructure, medical
Economic facilities, dressing code, enlightenment,
Urbanization
growth.
liberalization, and social amenities availability.
● Most of the people have a view in their minds
that they can lead a better and happy life in
cities.
● As a result, people are migrating towards the
3. Employment opportunities:
cities, and the cities are growing rapidly by
• In the rural sector, people have to depend absorbing more and more people day after
mainly on agriculture for their livelihood. day.
But Indian agriculture is depending on
monsoon; therefore, in drought situations or 6. Rural-urban transformation:
natural calamities, rural people have to
● Many localities have become more fruitful and
migrate to cities.
prosperous due to the discovery of minerals,
• The depressed economic conditions of the area, resource exploitation, or certain agricultural
availability of opportunities, availability of activities; hence cities start emerging.
land holdings are the most vital determinants ● It is a well-known fact that the increase in
for the population movement. productivity leads to economic growth and
• Urbanization creates millions of job higher value-added employment
opportunities for the growing youth opportunities.
population as well as rural sector people. ● This trend normally contributes to the
development of land for use in commercial
4. Political Factors: properties, socio-economic support
● Most schemes for improving rural conditions institutions, transportation, and residential
are justified on the grounds that they will buildings.
reduce migration to cities. Yet, economic
growth is strongly linked to urbanization. 7. Commercialization
● Various suggestions as policy guidance have ● The distribution of goods and services and
been made from time to time in the light of commercial transactions in the modern era has
rapid urbanization. developed modern marketing institutions and
● The National plan documents, exchange methods that have given rise to the
recommendations of different committees a growth of towns and cities.
80
It will not be wrong

SOCIAL EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION to say that caste
identity tends to
1. Urbanization and Status of Women: diminish with
● Status of women in urban urbanization.
areas is higher than that of Urbanites
women in rural areas. participate in
Urban women are networks which
comparatively more include persons of
educated and liberal. several castes.
● They are not only aware of ● Urban-dwellers do not strictly conform to
their economic, social and caste norms. There is a change in commensal
political rights but they relations, marital relations, social relations, as
also use these rights to save well as in occupational relations.
themselves from being humiliated and ● Likewise, caste solidarity was not as strong in
exploited. urban areas as in rural areas. Caste panchayats
● The average age of girls at marriage in cities were very weak in cities.
is also higher than the corresponding age in
villages. 3. Urbanization and Kinship:
● The status of urban women, because of being • The increasing number of
comparatively educated inhabitants in a settlement
and liberal, is higher than beyond a certain limit
that of rural women affect the relationship
However, in the labour between them and the
market, women are still character of the city.
in a disadvantaged • The greater the number of
situation. The labour individuals participating
market discriminates in a process of
against women and is interaction, the greater is
opposed to equality of the potential of
opportunity. differentiation between them whereby the
● Divorce and remarriage are new phenomena personal trails, the occupations, the cultural life
that we find among urban women. Today, and the ideas, and beliefs and values get widely
women take more initiative to break their separated.
marriages le-gally if they find adjustment after • These variations give rise to the spatial
marriage impossible. segregation of individuals. The bonds of
● Politically, urban women are more active kinship, neighborliness and sentiments of
today. The number of women contesting living together for generations are absent
elections has increased at every level. They among these people due to such diverse origin
hold im-portant political positions and also and backgrounds.
possess independent political ideologies • Thus, the increase in numbers involves
● It may, thus, be concluded that while rural changed the character of the social
women continue to be dependent on men relationship, the absence of anonymity and
both economically and socially, urban women the segmentalization of human relationship.
are comparatively independent and enjoy
greater freedom. CURRENT MODELS OF URBANIZATION:
The current model of urbanization is being
2. Urbanization and Caste: designed around concepts like smart cities and
● A person in a city derives his status not only export-oriented industrial corridors:
from caste but also from other considerations.
81
Smart Cities Mission: ● To achieve sustainable growth, the cities will

have to become more liveable and safer with
clean air, adequate infrastructure, reliable
utilities, and opportunities for learning and
employment.
● All 100 Smart Cities have established their
SPVs, constituted their City Level Advisory
Forum (CLAF), and all cities have appointed
PMCs, indicating that all these Smart Cities are
in Mission mode.
● Integrated Command and Control Centres
(ICCCs) becoming operational in 15 cities has
resulted in enhanced efficiency in
governance, management of traffic, law
enforcement, improved citizen grievance
redressal, and reduced criminal incidents on
● The Smart Cities Mission aimed at promoting city streets and public spaces.
cities that provide core infrastructure and ● Smart Cities and AMRUT programs have
give a decent quality of life to its citizens, a opened up avenues for local industry and
clean and sustainable environment, and the global players to participate in the
application of ‘Smart’ Solutions. development of cities across such sectors as
● This includes assured water and electricity utilities, housing, mobility,
supplies, efficient sanitation, solid waste telecommunications, information technology,
management, and public transport, healthcare, education, and recreational
adequate healthcare and education facilities, facilities.
and affordable housing, especially for ● Smart cities mission is also playing a vital role
economically-weak sections of society. in creating new opportunities for better
● Beyond these basic requirements, such cities management of waste: For example, Agra –
must also offer robust information which houses the Taj Mahal plans to install
technology connectivity, which will allow for 2,93,000 garbage containers tagged with radio
citizen participation in community matters and frequency identification (RFID). These waste
improved local governance. containers will be tracked throughout the city
to ensure they are used to their maximum
The Importance of Smart Cities Mission: efficiency.
● With 70% of India’s built environment for
2030 yet to take shape, its impending urban Relevance of smart cities in sustainable urban
transformation also represents significant development:
opportunities for domestic and international
investments. Engines of Of the 121 crore Indians,
● The Mission will cover 100 cities and its inclusive 83.3 crore live in rural areas
duration will be five years from 2015 to 2020. economic while 37.7 crore stay in
The Mission is implemented by the Ministry growth urban areas, i.e. approx. 32
of Urban Development (MoUD). % of the population.
● SCM will be operated as a Centrally Rapid and Mass movement of people
Sponsored Scheme (CSS) where the central haphazard from villages to cities in
Government proposes to provide financial urbanization search of a better life, drawn
support up to Rs. 100 crore per city per year. by the lure of riches and
An equal amount, on a matching basis, will money has resulted in the
have to be contributed by the State/ULB. haphazard urbanization
82
with increasing slum development with emphasis on reduction of

population. poverty and unemployment in rural areas.
Traffic With overcrowding in the ● Spreading development in the region.
cities, traffic congestion ● Attracting investment in rural areas.
becomes a problem,
increasing the time it takes 3. PM Awas Yojana:
to commute over even small ● It was launched on 25th June 2015 which
distances. intends to provide housing for all in urban areas
Share in GDP Cities contribute to 63 % of by year 2022.
Indian GDP. The ● The Mission provides Central Assistance to the
increasing population has implementing agencies through States/Union
caused extreme stress of Territories (UTs) and Central Nodal Agencies
urban amenities. (CNAs) for providing houses to all eligible
Health problems The concentration of a large families/ beneficiaries against the validated
population living in squalor demand for houses for about 1.12 cr. As per
in slums in the urban sprawl PMAY(U) guidelines, the size of a house for
makes it a haven for the the Economically Weaker Section (EWS)
spread of diseases. could be upto 30 sq. mtr. carpet area,
Environmental concern: however States/UTs have the flexibility to
Vulnerability to risk posed enhance the size of houses in consultation and
by the increasing man-made approval of the Ministry.
and natural disaster is
increasing. 4. Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban
Transformation (AMRUT) Mission: The
Scheme/Initiatives: purpose of mission is to:
1. HRIDAY Mission: Its Specific objectives are: ● Ensure that every household has access to a
● Planning, development and implementation of tap with the assured supply of water and a
heritage sensitive infrastructure. sewerage connection.
● Service delivery and infrastructure ● Increase the amenity value of cities by
provisioning in historic city core areas. developing greenery and well-maintained
● Preserve and revitalize heritage wherein open spaces (e.g. parks)
tourists can connect directly with city’s unique ● Reduce pollution by switching to public
character. Develop and document a heritage transport or constructing facilities for non-
asset inventory of cities – natural, cultural, motorized transport (e.g. walking and cycling).
living and built heritage as a basis for urban All these outcomes are valued by citizens,
planning, growth and service provision & particularly women, and indicators and
delivery. standards have been prescribed by the Ministry
● Implementation and enhancement of basic of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) in
services delivery with focus on sanitation the form of Service Level Benchmarks (SLBs).
services like public conveniences, toilets, water
taps, street lights with use of latest technologies 5. National Urban Transport Policy:
in improving tourist facilities/amenities. ● The objective of this policy is to ensure safe,
● Local capacity enhancement for inclusive affordable, quick, comfortable, reliable and
heritage-based industry. sustainable access for the growing number of
city residents to jobs, education, recreation and
2. RURBAN Mission: The larger outcomes such other needs within our cities.
envisaged under this Mission are:
● Bridging the rural-urban divide-viz: economic, 6. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: To
technological and those related to facilities and promote:
services. Stimulating local economic ● Improvements in energy efficiency in
83
buildings through extension of the Energy 5. Gurgaon (Haryana)

Conservation Building Code (ECBC) - which 6. Smart City Kochi (Kerala)
addresses the design of new and large 7. Haldia (West Bengal)
commercial buildings to optimize their energy 8. Navi Mumbai Airport influence Notified
demand; Area (Maharashtra)
● Better urban planning and modal shift to 9. Wave City (National Capital Region)
public transport - make long term transport Examples of Public driven Urban Development
plans to facilitate the growth of medium and Projects
small cities in such a way that ensures efficient 1. Dholera (SIR)
and convenient public transport; 2. Gujarat International Finance Tec-City
● Improved management of solid and liquid (GIFT)
waste, e.g. recycling of material and urban Examples of Privately driven Urban Development
waste management – with special focus on Projects
development of technology for producing 1. Lavasa
power from waste. 2. Palav
7. National Urban Housing Fund Challenges in implementation

● The Union Cabinet has approved the creation ● Financing → The total investment approved
of Rs 60,000-crore National Urban Housing under the smart city plans of 90 cities has gone
Fund to finance the government’s Housing for upto Rs 1, 91,155 crores. Banks financing
All programme, which aims to build 12 these projects as of now is the major reason of
million affordable housing units in urban a considerable increase in the number of non-
areas by 2022. This is a step in the right performing assets. The government is recently
direction taking steps to finance these projects by making
changes in the budget and certainly the problem
8. Deen Dayal Antyodaya Yojana (DAY) – will be addressed soon.
National Urban Livelihood Mission (DAY- ● Lack of Center-State Coordination →
NULM): Fruitful implementation of a project can be
● This scheme is aimed at addressing the done only if there is a coordination between
livelihood concerns of the urban poor. various government bodies. There is a need
for proper regulation when it comes to
9. Industrial Corridors: planning for the development of smart cities.
● The Government of India is developing 5 major Both horizontal and vertical co-ordination is
industrial corridors in various states. the requisite right now.
● Availability of Master Plan → Most cities in
10. India’s first monorail India do not have their master plans and
● It will be thrown open to the public, eight years development plans in place. This is a tragic
after it was first proposed, with the Maharashtra situation about developing them into smart
government. With this, India will join countries cities. The presence of both the requisites is the
like the U.S., Germany, China, Japan, Australia key to the implementation and encapsulation of
and Malaysia that run monorails. the smart city project as that is where the
changes would be monitored and there is no
11. City Projects - Several new cities have been other way to make it simple, better and
developed in recent year, some of the efficient. Unfortunately, most cities in India
prominent examples are: lack the presence of it.
1. Dholera SIR (Gujarat) ● No time figure attached to the plan → The
2. Gujarat International Finance Tec-City entire smart city plan is a one big plan which
(Gujarat) should get all the clearances on time.
3. Palava (Maharashtra) Everything should be online and timely which
4. Lavasa (Maharashtra) unfortunately is not happening in this case. The
84
most important step to be taken in this context

would be setting up a single regulatory body
which monitors all the requisite approvals for
the project. Doing this will address two major
issues one of coordination and one would be
the timely execution. Also, the body should be
solely responsible to cater to the financial
requirements.
● Availability of facilities → India as of now is
not that equipped when it comes to skilled
manpower and advanced technology
requirements for developing 100 smart cities.
That is a huge number and requires a lot of ● It is naturally expected that cities having a
skilled efforts. For creating skilled labor and large size of population squeezed in a small
capacity building, not much funds have been space must suffer from overcrowding.
allocated by the center and state in such ● This is well exhibited by almost all the big
initiatives. Such projects involve training, cities of India.
research and a hefty database for execution. ● For example, Delhi has a population density
This is a huge problem in India as it is an area of 11,320 persons per sq km (Census 2011)
which has not been focused upon as of now. which is the highest in India. This is the overall
These programs help in many ways like time population density for the Union Territory of
bound completion. Delhi.
● Corruption → This point probably was meant ● This leads to tremendous pressure on
to be from the first as this is the root cause for infrastructural facilities like housing,
all above challenges. Both at center and state electricity, water, transport, employment,
level corruption is responsible for all the co- etc. Efforts to decongest Delhi by developing
ordination mismatch and time lag ring towns have not met with the required
happening. The financial constraint also success.
somehow creeps in because of this issue.
Corruption in India is a challenge which has Sanitation:
always been a reason for non-execution or ● The poor sanitation condition is another
ineffective execution of most big projects in gloomy feature in urban areas and particularly
the country. in slums and unauthorized colonies of urban
● Others: areas. The drainage system in many
1. Digital security. unorganized colonies and slums is either not
2. Legislation and policies. existing and if existing are in a bad shape and
3. Lack of confidence or reluctance shown by in bits resulting in blockage of wastewater.
citizens (lack of clarity around benefits). ● These unsanitary conditions lead to many
4. Interoperability. sanitation-related diseases such as diarrhea
5. Existing infrastructure for energy, water, and malaria.
and transportation systems. ● Unsafe garbage disposal is one of the critical
problems in urban areas and garbage
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH management always remains a major
URBANIZATION challenge.
● The 2015-16 National Family Health Survey
Overcrowding → (NFHS-4) states that more than 50% of
● Overcrowding is a situation in which too many households have access to improved
people live in too little space. Overcrowding is sanitation facilities in all states/UTs except
a logical consequence of overpopulation in Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.
urban areas.
85
Housing and Slums → ● Each city is assigned a score

● There is an acute shortage of housing in for over 30 qualitative and
urban areas and much of the available quantitative factors across
accommodation is of sub-standard quality. five broad categories of
● With large scale migration to urban areas, many Stability, Healthcare,
find that the only option they have is Culture and environment,
substandard conditions of slums. Education and
● Slums are characterized by substandard Infrastructure.
housing, overcrowding, lack of ● Making cities sustainable
electrification, ventilation, sanitation, roads, means creating career and
and drinking water facilities. business opportunities, safe
● They have been the breeding ground of SDG-11 and affordable housing, and
diseases, environmental pollution, building resilient societies
demoralization, and many social tensions. and economies. It involves
● The United Nations Centre for Human investment in public
Settlements (UNCHS) introduced the concept transport, creating green
of “Housing Poverty” which includes public spaces, and improving
“Individuals and households who lack safe, urban planning and
secure and healthy shelter, with basic management in participatory
infrastructures such as piped water and and inclusive ways.
adequate provision for sanitation, drainage and ● Targets - By 2030, ensure
the removal of household waste.” access for all to adequate,
safe and affordable housing
● It is developed by the and basic services and
Ministry of Housing and upgrade slums
Urban Affairs seeks to: ● Strengthen efforts to protect
● Drive an evidence-based and safeguard the world’s
Ease of approach for future cultural and natural heritage.
Living interventions and investments ● By 2030, reduce the adverse
Index to deliver Ease of Living per capita environmental
outcomes impact of cities, including by
● Catalyze actions to improve paying special attention to air
the quality of life in Indian quality and municipal and
cities other waste management.
● Track broader development
outcomes including the Transportation and Traffic Problem →
Sustainable Development ● With traffic bottlenecks and traffic congestion,
Goals (SDG 11- Sustainable almost all cities and towns of India are
cities and communities) suffering from an acute form of transport
● Serve as a basis for dialogue problem.
with citizens and urban
decision-makers on key
strengths and areas
demanding improvement.
● The Economist Intelligence
Global Unit's livability rating
Livability quantifies the challenges that
Index 2019 might be presented to an
individual's lifestyle in 140
cities worldwide.
86
● Transport problems increase and become ● The migration from rural areas to cities is at
more complex as the town grows in size. least partially driven by the increasing
● With its growth, the town performs varied and prevalence of extreme weather; however, cities
complex functions, and more people travel to tend to be located near the sea or natural
work or shop. waterways, where they are at more risk of
● Due to less penetration of public transport, flooding.
high-income individuals are buying more
private vehicles causing more traffic jams and For example:
air pollution, which in turn decreases the Recent floods in Mumbai due to extreme
efficiency of public transport.
● Also, the penetration of public transport is
less, which makes people use a private vehicle
instead of Public transport.
Energy crisis →
● With the demand for power consumption
increasing day by day because of
industrialization and the increasing use of
electronic gadgets of various types, almost all
the cities in India face this problem.
Unemployment →
● Urbanization can lead to rainfall
unemployment. People are
drawn to urban areas in the false
hope of a better standard of • Proper sewage drainage-
living, better healthcare and job water supply
opportunities. This leads to one The solution • Integrated coordinated
of the most obvious bad effects of urbanization- to the governance framework for
the growth of crimes. problem: cities.
• People should be taught not
Prostitution → to put garbage in rivers, and
● Urbanization leads to trafficking of women plastics shouldn’t be thrown
and children from both urban as well as rural in rivers.
areas. Some women and children are even • Model of linking flooding
trafficked across the borders for prostitution, with rainfall.
cheap- labour and adoption. • If communities are involved,
given the task,
Gambling → responsibilities, and
● Gambling is an organized and planned activity resources, including finance
in many urban centers. People living In cities beforehand, then there will
have a craze to make money. So, they are ready be prompt action.
to espouse many means to make money.
Gambling gives them an opportunity to make Social Instability →
instant or quick money. ● Rapid and unplanned urbanization can also
quickly lead to urban violence and social
Climate Change → unrest. Widening inequalities also tend to be
● The rapid, inadequate, and poorly planned more starkly visible in urban than in rural areas.
expansion of cities can also leave urban ● The combination of inequality, competition for
populations highly exposed to the effects of scarce resources such as land, impunity from
climate change. the law, and weak city governance increase the
87
risk of violence and potential breakdowns in Causes of ● Landfills used for waste
law and order. Air management also release
● Urbanization can also create connected and Pollution pollutants in the air.
cascading effects. ● The rapid urbanization,
For example, high population density fuels growth of industries and
property bubbles while a shortage of affordable transport system of the recent
housing contributes to social exclusion, with years if left unmanaged will
this combination threatening to destabilize the further exacerbate the
wider economy and increase social instability. problem
● Burning of urban waste, diesel
Health Conditions → soot, vehicular exhaust, road
● The condition of health in and construction dust, and
some poor urban areas is power generation.
worst compared to rural ● Poor governance: the issue of
areas. There is a huge environment and pollution is
loss of life due to basic still to get the policy priority
amenities like drinking it deserves. While agencies
water, clean air, etc. liked CPCB and SPCBs
● Providing health care services to the growing continue to be under-
urban population is a major challenge before resourced and under-staffed,
the government health care delivery system. the multiplicity of the state
● With the rapid pace of urbanization, industries authorities at the ground
and transport systems grow rather out of level leads to poor
proportion. These developments are primarily coordination, lax
responsible for the pollution of the enforcement of rules, and
environment, particularly the urban lack of accountability as seen
environment. in Delhi.
● The absence of environmental
For example: governance continues to be a
Gurugram and Ghaziabad are the most major challenge.
polluted, while Delhi is the worst off among ● An innovative approach could
capital cities. ICMR estimates reveal that one in be to use climate change funds
every eight deaths in India is attributable to air to turn farm residues into a
pollution, which now contributes to more disease resource, using technological
burden than smoking. options such as converting
them into biofuels and
The 2015-16 National Family Health Survey Steps to biofertilizers.
(NFHS-4) states that though anaemia has declined, Combat ● Odd-even schemes and,
it still remains widespread. More than half of Air recently, the allowance by the
children and women are anaemic. The prevalence Pollution Supreme Court (SC) for only
of tuberculosis was higher among women (389 green or zero-emission
per 100,000) than among men (220 per 100,000). firecrackers, are the episodic
● Unplanned measures that have been used,
urbanization: haphazard and still continue to be, to
growth of urban areas has led combat this methodical
to the proliferation of slums pollution.
and poor public transport ● Drafting of the National Clean
has increased the burden of Air Programme (NCAP),
personal vehicles on the road. which was intended to build
and strengthen the institutional
88
capacity to monitor air quality cities and towns do not get the recommended
across India quantity of water.
● Governments should make the ● The gap in demand and supply of water in
use of personal vehicles in four metro cities, viz., Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi,
cities less attractive through and Chennai varies from 10 to 20 percent.
strict road pricing mechanisms ● To meet the growing demand for water, many
like Congestion tax, Green- cities are trying to tap external sources of
house Gas tax. water supply.
● Need to speed up the journey ● The safe drinking water sources are also found
towards LPG and solar- to be contaminated because the water in the
powered stoves. cities is inadequate and, in the future, the
● Addressing vehicular expected population cannot be accommodated
emissions is within India’s without a drastic improvement in the
grasp but requires a multi- availability of water.
pronged approach. It needs to
combine the already-proposed The 2015-16 National Family Health Survey
tighter emission norms (in the (NFHS-4) states that over two-thirds of
form of BS-VI), with a push households in every State/UT have access to an
for shared mobility and improved source of drinking water.
public transport and
adoption of alternate o Mumbai draws water from
mobility technologies. neighboring areas and from
sources located as far as 125
Beggary → For km in the Western Ghats.
● Out of many, few example: Chennai uses water express
people, who migrate trains to meets its growing
to the urban centers in demand for water. Bangalore
search of better is located on the plateau and
opportunities, end up draws water from the
as beggars. Cauvery river at a distance
● This problem also has of 100 km. Water for
social and moral aspects apart from the Bangalore has to be lifted
economic aspects. about 700 meters with help of
● Most beggars usually stay in such an lifting pumps.
unhealthy and unhygienic environment that o Hyderabad depends on
they develop some of the other diseases. Thus, Nagarjuna Sagar located 137
they become lithe, which means to spread km away.
infectious diseases in the city and nearby o Delhi meets a large part of its
localities. water requirements from
Tajiwala in Haryana.
Water →
● The supply of The Water Crisis in India:
water started ● According to a forecast by the Asian
falling short of Development Bank, India will have a water
demand as the deficit of 50% by 2030. Recent studies also
cities grew in ranked Chennai and Delhi at the top of the 27
size and number. most vulnerable Asian cities in terms of low
Sadly the per day water availability Mumbai and Kolkata
majority of the follow close.
89
● Taps in Shimla went dry in summer of 2018, and rural and urban aquifers is properly
posing an unprecedented water crisis in the hill recognized.
town. ● Conservation techniques like zero-tillage,
Why the water crisis? Composite Water Management Index

● India's water crisis is often attributed to the ● NITI Aayog first launched and conceptualized
lack of government planning, increased the Composite Water Management Index in
corporate privatization, industrial and 2018.
human waste, and government corruption. ● The CWMI is an important tool to assess and
● In addition, water scarcity in India is expected improve the performance of States/ Union
to worsen as the overall population is Territories in efficient management of water
expected to increase to 1.6 billion by the year resources.
2050. ● The index would provide useful information
● Increasing demand: Due to population for the States and also for the concerned
growth, industrialization, rapid urbanization, Central Ministries/Departments enabling
increasing needs of irrigation, increase in them to formulate and implement suitable
domestic use, etc. have pushed the demand for strategies for better management of water
water. resources.
● Over-exploitation of groundwater and surface raised-bed planting, and precision have
water. shown good results in soil and water
● Water pollution: The release of industrial and conservation but need further improvement in
domestic waste into rivers, lakes, and estuaries technology for wider acceptance.
has polluted freshwater sources at an alarming
rate in India. Those freshwater sources are not REMEDIES TO URBAN PROBLEMS:
fit for drinking or other activities.
1. Green cover:
Need of The Hour Increasing green
● Local communities should cooperate in an cover especially in
environmental management program that urban areas must be
secures their right and gains. an indispensable
● Prohibit the dumping of chemical pollutants, part of urban
domestic garbage, industrial waste, toxic planning. Other
substances, and the use of electric current and initiatives such as
explosives in the wetland sites afforestation, the
● Crop Diversification as a solution to reduce greening of
water usage in agriculture. highways, etc.
● Aquifer recharge and rainwater must also pick up.
conservation through community ponds and
recharge wells should be promoted with the ● They assure regulation of
involvement of gram sabhas. the carbon cycle and
● For example, Lessons can also be drawn from attenuating climate change.
the work of Sankalpa Rural Development ● They constitute infiltration
Society (SRDS), which has been training Importance zones for water (and thus
farmers of Karnataka on the revival of defunct of Green help prevent flooding and
borewells. Cover: soil erosion) and
● Participatory governance is needed to govern alimentation of groundwater
water resources. India’s rivers and groundwater and contribute to better
can be protected only if the integral water quality.
interconnectedness of catchment areas, rivers,
90
● They are essential to support ● For example, instead of providing houses to

biodiversity. slum-dwellers in cities through city
● Urban green spaces can be development authorities, if through regional
one of the factors that attract planning migrants could be diverted to other
significant foreign areas that may provide attractive employment,
investments that assist in the pace of growth of existing cities could be
rapid economic growth. checked.
INCLUSIVE CITIES 3. Urban governance:

“An inclusive city is one that values ● Better urban planning based on models like
all people and their needs equally. It transit-oriented development (TOD),
is one in which all residents— integrated and accountable transport
including the most marginalized of authority, empowered local bodies, scientific
poor workers—have a representative waste management, etc. can help bring down
voice in governance, planning, and budgeting footprints of urban area challenges.
processes, and have access to sustainable livelihoods, ● To make sure that tomorrow’s cities provide
legal housing and affordable basic services such as opportunities for all, it is essential to
water/sanitation and an electricity supply." understand that the concept of inclusive cities
involves multiple spatial, social and economic
factors.
2. Efficient and Integral City Planning
● Lack of proper planning is one of the major 4. Better Transportation Facility
causes of urban problems. ● Most of the cosmopolitan cities of India are
overcrowded and are not able to provide the
necessary transportation facility to the people.
● Hence, it is necessary to make proper
arrangements to face this problem.
● The private transport system can be
encouraged, along with the existing public
transportation system.
● Healthy competition between the two
systems can help solve the problem to a great
extent.
● For urban public transport, a special purpose
vehicle (SPV) with participation of public
agencies should be set up. The SPV or public
● Hence, the city administration has to take procurement authority should make
sufficient care in doing comprehensive investment in common infrastructure like
planning for the improvement of the city. bus stops, office space, etc. and private bus
● The city planners must have far-sightedness operators should make investments in rolling
and must take into account the probable stocks (buses).
growth of the city in at least another 50 ● Apart from the engineering and planning, strict
years. enforcement during and after construction
● It is equally important to make use of the latest is also necessary for the success of Bus rapid
technological know-how in preparing the plan transit (BRT) projects. It should be mandatory
for the future. for each city to prepare a Comprehensive
● Political interference invariably is the Mobility Plan and link it with the master plans
hindrance to the implementation of any of the city rather than taking ad-hoc decisions
successful plan. for decongesting one road or the other.
91
● To bring about better

integration of land use and 6. Limited Environment Pollution
transport planning so as to ● Environmental pollution is becoming a major
Objectives of improve access to jobs, problem in megacities.
National education, etc; ● New industries should not be given
Urban ● To encourage public permission to start their establishments near
Transport transport and non- residential areas.
Policy motorised transport so that ● On the other hand, industries should be
the dependence on personal established far away from the cities.
motor vehicles is reduced; ● The scientific arrangement is to be made to
● To have a more dispose of solid waste, including the garbage.
coordinated approach to ● People should be appropriately educated in
urban transport order to maintain Cleanliness in the City.
management through Voluntary organizations and the media can
Unified Metropolitan play a vital role in this regard.
Transport Authorities
(UMTA); 7. Public Health Delivery system:
● To offer support for Poor health seeking behaviour leads to poor
capacity building at the health and nutritional outcomes. Urban
State level; populations, largely the poor and the marginalized,
● To provide concessions for are “ghettoized” and “spaced out” because of the
the adoption of cleaner inadequacy in urban public health delivery systems
fuel and vehicle to reach them on account of location, their place of
technologies so that the work such as construction sites etc.
pollution caused by motor ● Linkages between ICDS and Health services
vehicles gets reduced. need to be explored. There are NGOs which
have successfully implemented these unified
5. Amendment of Rent Control Acts: approaches in Urban areas. E.g. SNEHA
● Laws that inhibit the (Mumbai) runs Maternal and Child Nutrition
construction of new National model successfully
houses or giving of by involving
houses on rent must be volunteers who
amended. dedicate two hours
● Adopting Pragmatic State per week for
Housing Policy like community
Affordable Housing for outreach.
All Mission the Mission ● Mohalla clinics (Primary Health Centre) -
covers the entire canvas District an initiative of Delhi State Government is an
of affordable housing – aspirational model that provides a basic
from the slum dweller package of essential health services including
living in the most medicines, diagnostics, and consultation free of
inhumane conditions; to Block level cost. Several ULBs of Mumbai, Surat,
those belonging to the Ahmedabad, etc have made concerted efforts
economically weaker to focus on both Health and Nutrition
sections and middle- Community centres. Similar models/ ideas can be
income groups who level systemized with policy focus to encourage
need affordable banking them and build on their efforts.
finance; and to those who own a piece of land, ● The focus should be on → Extending and
but require additional funding to build their Strengthening the Primary care delivery
house. mechanism which will be one-point centre for
92
preventive, promotive and curative services.

Community awareness for the same in urban
communities can be generated through Jan
Andolan, for improved service delivery and
Outreach.
● A unified approach for covering all
vulnerable population suffering from ‘urban
penalties’ viz- pavement dwellers, rag-pickers,
street children, rickshaw pullers, construction/
and co-production of services should be
brick/ lime kiln workers, sex workers, and other
encouraged by municipal bodies. This should
temporary migrants, etc. Public health thrust
be supplemented by awareness generation.
should be on food & nutrition, NCDs, mental
● A separate user charge should be introduced
health, sanitation, clean drinking water, vector
in all municipalities, even as a minimum levy,
control, etc.
for sanitation and sewerage, as distinct from
● Moreover, since one size doesn’t fit all.
water charges.
According to demographic and cultural
variations of all States should be explored so
10. Power Utilities:
that all citizens enjoy health, nutrition and
• Municipal bodies should be encouraged to
wellbeing.
take responsibility for power distribution in
their areas. This, however, should be done after
8. Manual scavenging:
adequate capacity building in these
● Extensive surveys should be carried out by
organisations.
the State Governments to identify manual
• Municipal building bye-laws should
scavengers and estimate the number of dry
incorporate power conservation measures.
latrines in existence within six months.
Following the survey, adequate funds should be • Municipal bodies should coordinate the
allocated for the purpose of eradication of layout plans for the distribution networks of
manual scavenging within one year. power and other utilities.
11. Increase job opportunities:

9. Sewerage Management:
● We have been concentrating on the rural areas
● Sanitation, as a matter of hygiene and public
to provide more job opportunities for rural
health, must be given due priority and
people through IRDP, NREP, JRY, and such
emphasis in all urban areas. In all towns,
other programs to hold back people in rural
advance action for laying down adequate
areas.
● infrastructure should be taken to avoid
insufficiency of services. National Commission on Urbanization (NCU)
● Each municipal body should prepare a time (1988) emphasized the necessity for:
bound programme for providing sewerage ● The evolution of a proper spatial pattern of
facilities in slum areas. This should be brought economic development and suitable
into action through appropriate allocation in hierarchies of human settlements.
the annual budget. ● An optimum distribution of population
● Local bodies may impose a cess on the between rural and urban settlements, and among
property tax or development charges in order towns and cities of various sizes.
to raise resources for expansion and capacity ● Distribution of economic activities in small and
enhancement of the existing sewerage systems. medium-sized growth centres.
● In order to motivate the local governments to ● Dispersal of economic activities through the
generate additional resources for sewerage establishment of counter magnets in the
management, matching grants may be region.
provided by the Union and State
Governments. Community participation
93
● It is time now to do something to create better aims to convert one-

job opportunities for the urban people. third of the Delhi
● This will not only help jobless urbanites but garbage into the much-
also add to the urban income. needed electricity,
enough to serve 6 lakh
homes.
SUCCESSFUL EXAMPLES OF URBAN ● It has become the first
DEVELOPMENT MODEL: to get carbon credits
from the United
● It is a social Nations Framework
empowerment scheme, Convention on
launched by the Climate Change
Government of Kerala (UNFCCC) in the
Kudumbshree’s in 1998 for wiping out country in 2013.
model absolute poverty from ● It is one of the world-
(State of Kerala the State through Delhi metro class metros. To ensure
) concerted community reliability and safety in
action under the train operations, it is
leadership of Local Self equipped with the most
Governments. Today modern communication
Kudumbashree is today and train control system.
one of the largest It has earned carbon
women-empowering credit points from the
projects in the UN due to its energy-
country. efficient practices.
● The program has 41
lakh members and RECENT DEVELOPMENTS:
covers more than 50%
of the households in Urban observatories:
Kerala. ● Urban Observatory is a platform that uses data
● Built around three from different sources to enable analysis and
critical components - visualization over a geospatial platform.
microcredit, ● Such platforms churn out interesting analyses
entrepreneurship, and and visualizations by collating massive
empowerment - the datasets. The concept of Urban Observatories
Kudumbashree was formally initiated at the UN Habitat-II
initiative has today Conference in 1997 in Istanbul.
succeeded in
addressing the basic Significance ● It will leverage data
needs of the less of Urban analytics to optimize city
privileged women, thus observatories: operations, improve
providing them a more governance, and enhance
dignified life and a the economic
better future. performance of cities
● Timarpur Okhla across the country.
Municipal Solid Waste ● To achieve sustainable
Solid waste Management project is urbanization, cities need to
management in the first commercial become smarter and more
Okhala waste-to-energy efficient. Cities can be
facility in India that
94

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‘truly smart’ if they can management ● The unwillingness of

leverage data for are: ULBs to introduce the
intelligent decision- proper collection,
making and the segregation,
establishment of India transportation, and
Urban Observatory will treatment/ disposal
go a long way in realizing systems.
this vision. ● Lack of technical
● It would enable evidence- expertise and appropriate
based policy formulation, institutional arrangement
capacity building of ● Lack of infrastructure and
ecosystem partners on technology
data-driven governance, ● Lack of involvement
foster innovation through from the private sector
the development of newer and non-governmental
and better use cases organizations
thereby enabling solutions ● The indifference of
at scale and speed. citizens towards waste
management due to lack
Solid waste management (SWM): of awareness
• Solid Waste Management is one of the critical • Masses should be
parts of sustainable development which is a educated for behavioral
core issue of Environmental Concern the world change in storage and
over. A solution to disposal of waste
• Most of the dump sites of megacities have solid waste • NGOs and community
reached way beyond their capacity and management: participation should be
permissible height limit of 20 meters. It is encouraged
estimated that more than 10,000 hectares of • State governments should
urban land are locked in these dumpsites in provide financial support
India. to ULBs to improve their
• In the case of waste management issue, nuclear, waste management
cyber and plastic waste will create a big system under various
challenge for clean and pollution-free urban schemes and programs.
areas. • Initiatives like Smart
• In all towns and cities with a population above Cities Mission, AMRUT
one lakh, the possibility of taking up public should provide
private partnership (PPP) projects for significant funding to
collection and disposal of garbage may be improve civic services
explored. This should, however, be preceded infrastructure.
by development of capacity of the municipal • Construction and
bodies to manage such contracts. demolition waste should
• Special solid waste management charges be stored, separately
should be levied on units generating high disposed of, as per the
amounts of solid waste. Construction and
Demolition Waste
● Absence of segregation Management Rules,
Major issues of waste at source 2016
concerning ● Lack of funds for waste ● To conclude, it may be
solid waste management at ULBs. Conclusion: said that urbanization
wherever it takes place, is
95
bound to create socio 3. Discuss various factors that are responsible for
economic problems. increased urbanization in India.
These problems are to be 4. Critically examine the success of JNNURM in
countered in a planned improving the conditions of urban poor.
and scientific manner Substantiate it with the example.
though they cannot be 5. What is a ‘city system’? Explain how and why
completely solved. reforming municipal bodies is crucial to
reforming city systems.
CSM – The growth of cities as I.T. hubs

2017 - 10 has opened up new avenues of
Marks employment, but has also created
new problems." Substantiate this
statement with examples.
CSM - Major Cities of India are
2016 - 12.5 becoming more vulnerable to
Marks flood conditions discuss.
CSM - With a brief background of the
2016 - 12.5 quality of urban life in India,
Marks introduce the objectives and
strategy of the smart city
program.
CSM - Smart cities in India cannot
2015 - 12.5 sustain without smart villages
Marks discuss this statement in the
backdrop in rural-urban
integration.
CSM - Mumbai, Delhi, and Kolkata are
2015 - 12.5 the three Mega Cities of the
Marks country but air pollution is a
much more serious problem in
Delhi as compared to the other
two why is this so?
CSM – Discuss the various social
2013 - 12.5 problem which originated out of
Marks the speedy process of
urbanization in India.
Practice Questions
1. Critically examine the issues directed towards
sustainable urbanization. Discuss various
government schemes to address the challenges
arising in the way of urbanization.
2. “Floods have been a recurrent phenomenon in
India and cause huge losses to lives, properties,
livelihood systems, infrastructure, and public
utilities.” In light of the above statement,
critically analyze how unplanned urbanization
induce problems in India.
96
CH-6 POPULATION AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES

INTRODUCTION per 2011 census is 199,812,341 of which male
and female are 104,480,510 and 95,331,831
Without people, there would be respectively. While on the other hand, states
no society, economy, or culture. The current like Sikkim and Lakshadweep have the
population of India is at 132.42 crores (as of lowest population of 0.5 million in Sikkim
2016) and is the second-highest in the world. and only 60000 people in the island state of
Also, our population is what contributes to our Lakshadweep.
socio-economic structure and the diverse cultural ● This uneven distribution of the population is
scenario. due to the varying population density of the
country.
According to ‘The World Population Prospects
2019’ published by the Population Division of
the UN Department of Economic and Social WHAT IS POPULATION DENSITY?
Affairs, India is projected to surpass China as the
world’s most populous country by 2027. The ● Population density refers to the total number
global population is projected to increase by of people per unit of area.
another 2 billion people by 2050. ● It is largely dependent on the geographical
location and geological factors.
● Therefore, states like Assam, Himachal
POPULATION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION Pradesh, and other hilly terrains have a lower
density of population.
● While the northern plains and coastal areas like

● The current population of India contributes to Kerala, West Bengal, and Maharashtra have
17% of the global population. very high population density.
● A recently released United Nations report
said that India is expected to add 273 million Registrar General of India
people by the year 2050. According to the ● Registrar General of India was founded in 1961
recent report released in 2019, India has an by the Government of India under
estimated population of 1.37 billion and China, the Ministry of Home Affairs.
1.43 billion and by the year 2027, India’s ● It arranges, conducts and analyses the results
population is projected to surpass China’s, of the demographic surveys of India
making India the most populous nation in the including Census of India and Linguistic
world. Survey of India.
● As per details from Census 2011, Uttar ● The position of Registrar is usually held by a
Pradesh has a population of 19.98 Crores, an civil servant holding the rank of Joint
increase from the figure of 16.62 Crore in 2001 Secretary
census. Total population of Uttar Pradesh as
97
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE population. Generally, staying within the city

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION limits increases living costs. The city’s
periphery or nearby towns provide affordable
housing facilities. Cheap and reliable
transportation provide convenient means of
commuting.
Factors Influencing the
● Natural disasters → Natural disasters
Distribution of
Population
discourage population concentration. Frequent
storms, earthquakes, floods, wild fires
discourage formation of settlements as people
Geographical
Factors
Economic
Factors
Social and
Cultural Factor
Demographic
factors
Political
factors
migrate to safer places. There are many
examples of destruction of settlements due to
the natural disasters.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS
GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS ● Minerals → Areas with mineral deposits
● Availability of water → resides in those area attract industries and therefore generate
where fresh water can be easily available, used employment. Skilled and semi- skilled workers
for drinking, bathing and cooking, for cattle, move to these areas and make them densely
crops, industries and navigation. These river populated. Example Katanga Zambia copper
valleys are densely populated. he Nile, belt in Africa. The higher population densities
Amazon, and Ganges river systems supported in the Chota Nagpur Plateau of Jharkhand and
rich civilizations on their banks. in the adjoining areas of Orissa are largely due
● Land forms → prefer living on flat plains and to the availability of minerals.
gentle slopes. Because areas are favourable for ● Urbanization → Cities offer better
the crops production and to build roads and employment opportunities, educational and
industries, for example, Ganga plains. Whereas medical facilities, better means of transport and
mountainous and hilly regions are less communication and good civic amenities
populated due to lack of transport, agricultural which attract more population.
and industrial development, for example ● Transport → The growth of the population is
Himalayan region directly proportional to the development of
● Climate → Areas with very heavy rainfall or transport facilities. The northern plain of India
extreme and harsh climates have low has a dense network of transport routes and is a
population, for example Mediterranean densely populated region. The peninsular
regions. Areas with a comfortable climate, plateau has a moderate network of transport
where there is not much seasonal variation routes and is a moderately populated area. The
attract more people. Himalayan region badly lacks transport
facilities and is scarcely populated.
● Soils → Fertile soils are important for
agricultural and allied activities. Therefore, ● Industrialization → Industrial belts provide
areas which have fertile loamy soils have dense job opportunities and attract large numbers of
population. E.g. Northern plains of India. The people. Example the Kobe-Osaka region of
alluvial regions, deltas and the coastal regions Japan.
of India support high population densities. On ● Economic activity → It is an indicator of
the other hand, mountainous regions, where employment opportunities. People in the rural
soil erosion is a problem, such as the Terai areas are largely dependent on agriculture for
region of Uttarakhand, or the sandy soils of the their livelihood. If the land fails to support the
desert of Rajasthan, cannot support dense rural population, or with more opportunities
populations. available in urban areas, they may choose to
● Location of a place → proximity to major migrate to cities. Concentration of population
towns and cities - favours concentration of in urban areas is an outcome of diverse
98
economic activities and livelihood options

offered by cities. To Sum up → No single factor can be considered
• Social Organization of communities in new as solely responsible for concentrated or scanty
areas encourages the movement of people and populations, or their distribution and growth. Most
settling in newer lands. Man is a social animal of the factors described above are interrelated and
and it becomes essential for him to form a often act collectively. Advances in technology
community, creating a familiar environment have helped humans settle in places where it was
where he stays. not possible a few decades ago. The tremendous
• Attract more people due to religious and population growth in the world population has
cultural significance. forced many to settle in uninhabitable regions
where there is a shortage of adequate natural
DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS resources. Earlier, physical factors determined
● Migration → has deep influence on population population distribution; however, the industrial
distribution. The push factors, or negative revolution and accompanying urbanization
circumstances, at the place of origin tend to increased transport and communication
motivate people to leave their native places to networks. These developments influenced
newer areas. Better opportunities in distant population distribution. In this light present density
lands also encourage migration. People may map of population is a cumulative outcome of the
choose to move due to land scarcity, shortage past.
of work in current place of residence,
insufficient wages or salaries, inadequate
medical facilities and education, etc. MALTHUS’ THEORY OF POPULATION
● Natural increase → is the net outcome of GROWTH
fertility and mortality in a region. If in a region, • Malthus contended that the world’s
the fertility level is high, the population of that population was growing more rapidly than
place tends to increase. In such situations, the available food supply.
mortality brings stability because of deaths.
• He argued that the food supply increases in an
Epidemics and disease have always
arithmetic progression (1, 2, 3, 4, and so on),
significantly influenced mortality levels.
whereas the population expands by a
geometric progression (1, 2, 4, 8, and so on).
POLITICAL FACTORS
• According to him, the population could
• War and political conflicts take a great toll on
increase by multiples, doubling every twenty-
human lives. Death rates are high, and people
five years. The gap between the food supply
are forced to move out in search of safety.
and the population will continue to grow over
Mortality rates peak and the out-migration
time. Even though the food supply will
dominates. Safer locations experience a
increase, it would be insufficient to meet the
sizeable population growth because of the in-
needs of an expanding population. Moreover,
flow of migrants.
famine and other natural calamities cause
• Political unrest and discrimination are widespread sufferings and increase the
detrimental to population growth. Clashes death rate, which is nature’s check against
between different political parties or people the population.
with different religious beliefs have often
• Unfortunately, humanity has only a limited
resulted in a reduction of population in the
ability to voluntarily reduce the growth of its
affected area.
population (through ‘preventive checks’ such
• Policies encouraging migration have often led as postponing marriage or practicing sexual
to population growth in the destination region. abstinence or celibacy). Malthus believed
International labour movements take place ‘positive checks’ to population growth in the
where rules governing cross-border migration form of famines and diseases.
are lenient. Migration helps in the
redistribution of population.
99
• Nature has its own ways of keeping a check on Age Composition:

the increasing population. It brings the
population level to the level of the available
food supply. The positive checks include
famines, earthquakes, floods, epidemics,
wars, etc. When humans fail to control
excessive population growth, nature plays its
role.
Children They are economically

(below 15 unproductive and need to be
years): provided with food, clothing,
education, and medical care.
Working Age They are economically
(15-59 productive and biologically
years): reproductive. They comprise
the working population.
MARX’S RESPONSE TO MALTHUS’ Aged They can be economically
THESIS (Above 59 productive though they and may
years): have retired. They may be
• Karl Marx went one step further and argued working voluntarily but they are
that starvation was caused by the unequal not available for employment
distribution of wealth and its accumulation through recruitment.
by capitalists. It has nothing to do with the
population. Sex composition:
• The population is dependent on economic and • The Sex Ratio refers to the number of females
social organization. The problems of per 1000 males in a given area at a specified
overpopulation and limits to resources, as time period.
enunciated by Malthus, are inherent and • The Child Sex Ratio is the sex ratio in the age
inevitable features associated with the group 0-6 years (child) in a given area at a
capitalist system of production. specified time period
• He does not believe in natural laws controlling
the population. According to him, capitalism Transgender composition
created population growth in order to create • During the Enumeration of Census 2011, for
a vast pool of cheap labor. the first time, three codes were provided i.e.
Male-1, Female –2, and others -3. In case the
respondent wished to record neither '1' nor '2',
POPULATION COMPOSITION
then enumerator was instructed to record sex as
'other' and give code '3’
• The population of 'other' as per Census 2011 is
4,87,803.
Divyang composition
100
• The 2011 census shows 207.8 lakh households ● The age-sex structure of a population refers to
having disabled persons in the country the number of females and males in different
constituting 8.3 percent of the total age groups.
households. ● A population pyramid is used to show the age-
• Total households having disabled persons show sex structure of the population. The shape of the
an increase of 20.5 lakhs from the last census. population pyramid reflects the characteristics
of the population.
Literacy composition ● The male and female populations are broken
• Literacy as a prerequisite to education is an down into 5-year age groups represented as
instrument of empowerment. horizontal bars along the vertical axis, with the
• Literacy levels have improved considerably youngest age groups at the bottom and the
after independence and almost two-thirds of oldest at the top.
our population is now literate. ● The shape of the population pyramid gradually
evolves over time based on fertility, mortality,
Working Population Composition and international migration trends.
● The population of India according to their Expanding Population
economic status is divided into three groups,
namely; main workers, marginal workers,
and non-workers
● Main Worker is a person who works for at
least 183 days in a year.
● A marginal Worker is a person who works for
less than 183 days in a year
● The work participation rate is defined as the
percentage of total workers (main and
marginal) to the total population.
● According to National Sample Survey Office
(NSSO) conducted in 2011-12, the total
workforce is estimated at 47.41 crore, out of
which 33.69 crore were rural workers and
13.72 crore were urban workers.
● This indicates an economic status in which ● The age-sex pyramid in such a case is a
there is a larger proportion of the dependent triangular-shaped pyramid with a wide base
population, further indicating the possible and is typical of less developed countries.
existence of a large number of unemployed ● These have larger populations in lower age
or underemployed people. groups due to high birth rates.
Adolescents
● At present, the share of adolescents i.e. up to
the age group of 10-19 years is about 21
percent (2011).
● The adolescent population, though, regarded as
the youthful population having high potentials,
but at the same time they are quite vulnerable
if not guided and channelized properly.
THE POPULATION PYRAMID (THE AGE-

SEX PYRAMID)
101
Constant Population ● It is significant that the percentage decadal

● Here, the age-sex pyramid is bell-shaped and growth during 2001-11 has registered the
sharpest decline. since Independence.
● It declined from 23.87% for 1981-1991 to

21.54% for the period 1991-2001, a decrease
tapered towards the top. of 2.33 percentage points. For 2001-2011, this
● This shows birth and death rates are almost decadal growth has become 17.64%, a further
equal leading to a near-constant population. decrease of 3.90 percentage points.
● Similarly, the average exponential growth
rate for 2001-2011 has declined to 1.64% per
annum from 1.97% per annum during 1991-
Declining Population 2001. The average annual exponential growth
● This pyramid has a narrow base and a rate during 1981-1991 was 2.16.
tapered top showing low birth and death rates.
● The population growth in developed countries
is usually zero or negative.
Stable During the period from 1891

Population to 1921, the growth of the
Period (1891- Indian population was very
1921): slow and it was almost
stable. The decades of 1891-
1901 and 1911-1921
witnessed the negative
growth of the population
because of famines.
TRENDS IN GROWTH OF POPULATION
102
Fast Growth of From 1921 onwards, India’s Radha Kamal Mukherjee

Population population started rising to suggest ways and means to
(1921-1951): steadily. The average annual arrest the galloping
growth rate of the population population.
during this 30-year period ● In 1956, a Central Family
increased to 1.22 percent. In Planning Board (CFPB)
absolute number, the was created which
population of India increased emphasized sterilization. Up till the 1960s, a
by 10.96 crores during this rigid policy was not adopted to arrest the fast
period. growth of the population. The policy framed
Population Population Explosion is a in 1951-52 was ad hoc in nature, flexible, and
Explosion: situation in which the size of based on a trial and error approach.
1951 - 1981 the population tends to ● Until the Fifth Plan, the family planning
Population become enormous owing to a program concerned itself primarily with birth
explosion in widening gulf between birth control but in this plan ‘maternal and child
india rate and death rate. During health and nutrition services’ were also
the phase of 1951-1981, India included as an integral part of the family
witnessed the population planning program. Despite all the Five-Year
explosion. The growth rate of Plans (from First to Tenth) and policies, the
the population reached 2.2% population of India is growing at a faster pace
by 1981. The average annual and taking the shape of ‘population explosion’.
growth rate of the population ● In 1961-71, the population growth rate was
during this period reached 2.25 percent which was highest in any decade
2.15%. after independence. At present (2001-2011),
The post-1981 From 1981 onwards, India’s the population growth rate has declined to 1.50
population population has been growing percent.
started slowing consistently but the growth ● In April 1976, the First National Population
down rate of the population has Policy was framed which suggested a wide
gradually been falling. spectrum of programs including raising the
Since Independence, India’s statutory age of marriage, introducing
population has registered the monetary incentives, paying special
sharpest decline from 2001 attention to improving female literacy, etc.
to 2011. ● To check the alarming population growth, an
attempt has been made to rejuvenate the
National Family Welfare Programme
POPULATION POLICY FOLLOWED IN ● It was emphasized that the population control
INDIA SINCE INDEPENDENCE (POST 1950) program would continue purely on a
voluntary basis as an integral part of a
The population policy of the Government of India
comprehensive policy package covering
has passed through the following phases from time
education, health, maternity and childcare,
to time:
and women’s rights and nutrition, including
Since the middle of the 20th century:
an anti-poverty program. It was made by
● After independence, Indian decision-makers
people's programs based on the welfare
also realized the importance and need of
approach.
population control as early as in 1951- 52,
● This revised strategy particularly focused on
though before independence a sub-committee
the provision of family planning strives at the
on population was also appointed by Indian
doorsteps of the people. It is with this objective
National Congress in 1940 under the
that the age of marriage is proposed to be
chairmanship of renowned social scientist
raised for women from 18 to 20 years as
103
envisaged in the National Population Policy this policy, the minimum age for
document, 2000, marriage determined by the
● As a part of family welfare and population Sharda Act, 1929 was increased.
control, the government has revised the PNDT It increased the age for boys
Act in 2003, which was enacted in 1994. The from 18 to 21 years and for girls
main aim of the Act is to check female from 14 to 18 years. Under this
(embryo) infanticide. Plan, forced sterilization was
permitted which was later on
given up.
In the Sixth, Efforts were made to control the
Seventh, population by determining long-
and Eighth term demographic aims.
Plans:
Ninth Five- In 1993, the government had
Year Plan: established an expert group
under the chairmanship of M.S.
Swaminathan for formulating
national population policy.
DETERMINANTS OF POPULATION
CHANGE
PLANS BY GOVERNMENT OF INDIA FOR

DETERMINANTS OF
POPULATION CONTROL POPULATION CHANGE
First Five India is the first country in the
Year Plan: world to begin a population
control program in 1952. It FERTILITY MORTALITY MIGRATION
emphasized the use of natural
devices for family planning.
Second Five Work was done in the direction
Year Plan: of education and research and FERTILITY:
the clinical approach was The actual number of births the woman
encouraged. undergoes is broadly termed as the fertility of
Third Five In 1965, the sterilization that woman. Commonly used measures of the
Year Plan: technique for both men and fertility of the population are given below:
women was adopted under this
plan. The technique of copper- T General It is the number of live births
was also adopted. An Fertility Rate per 1000 women, aged 15-49
independent department called years (child-bearing age group),
the Family Planning Department in a given period
was set up. Age-Specific The number of live births
Fourth Five- All kinds of birth control Fertility Rate occurring during a given year
Year Plan: methods (conventional and or reference period per 1000
modern) were encouraged. women of reproductive age
Fifth Five Under this plan, the National classified in that age group.
Year Plan: Population Policy was Total The total fertility rate refers to
announced on 16 April 1976. In Fertility Rate the total number of live births
104
that a woman would have if ● The girl child is the worst sufferer in these
she lived through the circumstances. She is often not sent to school
reproductive age group and at all or is withdrawn from school at an early
had the average number of age to help her mother in carrying out domestic
babies in each segment of this chores and to look after her younger siblings
age group as determined by the when the mother is at work
age-specific fertility rates for
that area. The recent trend in Total fertility rate:
India’s total fertility rate (TFR) is declining. It is
Determinants of High Fertility: now 2.2 per woman, nearing the replacement rate
of 2.1, according to the Sample Registration
System (SRS) compiled by the Registrar General
of India (RGI) for 2017. The replacement level is
the number of children needed to replace the
parents, after accounting for fatalities, skewed sex
ratio, infant mortality, etc.
Reason for the decrease in TFR:

● Higher education, increased mobility, late
marriage, financially independent women and
● Religious Ideologies overall prosperity are all contributing to a
● Early marriage and early child-bearing. falling TFR.
● Preference for sons ingrained in Indian culture. ● It goes below 2 in both urban and rural areas,
● Lack of the right of self-determination with where girls complete schooling and reduce
reference to reproduction further as they pass college.
● Economic, social, cultural as well as the
religious value of children in the Indian society
● Absence of adoption of methods of conception
control.
Implications of High Fertility

● Women are tied down to child-bearing and
child-rearing for the best years of their
productive lives. They are, therefore, denied
the opportunity to explore other avenues for
self-expression and self-development.
● The burden of providing for a large family
sits heavily on the bread-winner of the ● Bihar, with the highest TFR of 3.2, had the
family. The constant struggle to maintain a maximum percentage of illiterate women at
subsistence level is exhausting. To escape from 26.8%, while Kerala, where the literacy rate
the problems of everyday life, he may take to among women is 99.3%, had among the lowest
drinking. fertility rates.
● The children, often unwanted, unloved, and ● As more cities come up, people move for jobs
neglected, are left to their own to make life and employment tenure gets shorter, TFR may
bearable. The children in large families often reduce further.
have to start working at a very early age to ● Working people in urban areas want better pay,
supplement the slender financial resources of implying that they have to reduce the number
the family
105
of children so as to increase the time they spend

at their workplace.
What needs to be done?
● Health and education parameters need to be
improved substantially to make the Indian
workforce efficient and skilled.
● Enhance, support and coordinate private
sector initiatives for skill development
through appropriate Public-Private Partnership
(PPP) models; strive for significant operational
and financial involvement from the private
sector mortality rates prevailing in the country at the
● Focus on underprivileged sections of society time to which the measure refers.
and backward regions of the country thereby ● An Indian born in 1950 could expect to live for
enabling a move out of poverty 37 years, whereas today India’s life expectancy
● New technology could be exploited to at birth nearly doubled to 68 years, by 2050,
accelerate the pace of building human capital, it is projected to increase to 76 years. As a
including massive open online courses and result, India’s population will rise from 1.3
virtual classrooms billion today to an estimated 1.7 billion by
● Policymakers should have a greater 2050, with a much larger elderly share of
incentive to redouble their efforts to promote around 340 million.
human capital so that it can contribute to
economic growth and job creation
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
MORTALITY
● If the rate at which people die is more than
the rate at which birth occurs, the number of
people (population) will decrease and the
reverse will occur if the death rate is lower than
the birth rate.
● Out of many measures, it is sufficient to
describe three basic measures of mortality:
the crude death rate, the expectation of life
at birth, and the infant mortality rate.
Crude Death Rate

● It is the ratio of the total registered deaths
occurring in a specified calendar year to the
total mid-year population of that year, ● Infants are defined in demography as all those
multiplied by 1000. children in the first year of life who have not
yet reached age one.
● It is the number of deaths of children under one
The expectation of Life at Birth year of age per 1000 live births.
● The average number of years of life which a
cohort of new-born babies (that is, those
born in the same year) may be expected to Recent trends in IMR
live if they are subjected to the risks of death ● As per the latest government data released in
at each year, according to the age-specific 2019, India has reduced its infant mortality
rate (IMR) by 42% over 11 years--from 57
per 1,000 live births in 2006 to 33 in 2017.
106
● Despite the reduction, India’s IMR in 2017 ● People may move within a country between
remained higher than the global 29.4, a rate different states or between different districts
equivalent to that of the West African nation of of the same state or they may move between
Senegal and higher than most South Asian different countries.
neighbors’ except that of Pakistan and ● Therefore, different terms are used for internal
Myanmar. and external migration.
● In 2017, India’s rural areas had an IMR of 37 o Internal migration refers to migration
and urban areas 23, revealing the difference in from one place to another within a country.
healthcare quality o External migration or international
● India has the highest burden of under-five migration refers to migration from one
deaths in the world. country to another.
● United Nations has recently set Sustainable ● When people move from one place to another,
Development Goals (SDG) and Targets. The the place they move from Place of Origin to
target for India is to attain Under 5 Place of Destination. The place of origin shows
Mortality Rate of 25/1000 live births by a decrease in population while the population
2030. increases in the place of destination.
● Immigration: Migrants who move into a new
place are called Immigrants
Maternal Mortality Rate: ● Emigration: Migrants who move out of a place
• Maternal death is the death of a woman while are called Emigrants.
pregnant or within 42 days of termination of ● These terms are used only in connection with
pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site international migration.
of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or ● For example, migrants leaving India to settle
aggravated by the pregnancy or its management down in the United States or Canada are
but not from accidental or incidental causes immigrants to the United States or Canada and
• As per Sample Registration System (SRS), emigrants from India.
2011-13 reports Maternal Mortality Ratio ● In Migration and Outmigration are used only
(MMR) is 167 per 1,00,000 live births in the in connection with internal migration.
Country. ● ‘In migration’ refer to migration into a
particular area or area of destination
● ‘Out migration’ refers to movements out of a
MIGRATION particular area or area of origin or place of
● Meaning → In a layman’s departure of the migrant. For example,
language, the word migrants who come from Bihar or Uttar
‘migration’ refers to the Pradesh to Punjab are considered to be
movements of the people immigrants for Punjab and out-migrants for
from one place to another. Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
● “migration is a form of ● A typology based on time classified migration
geographical mobility or into long-range migration and short-
spatial mobility between one geographical range/seasonal migration. When a move is
unit and another, generally involving a change made for a longer period, it is called long-
in residence from the place of origin or place of range migration. However, when there is a
departure to the place of destination or place of permanent shift of population from one region
arrival, for a considerable period of time.” to another, it is known as permanent
● Migration, in the social sense, refers to the migration.
physical transition of an individual or a ● But when people shift to the sites of temporary
group from one society to another. This work and residence for some or several months,
transition usually involves abandoning one it is known as periodic or seasonal migration.
social-setting and entering another and ● Apart from these two important types,
different one. migration could be voluntary or involuntary
107
or forced brain drain (migration of young o Place of birth, if the place of birth is
skilled persons) and migration of refugees different from the place of enumeration
and displaced persons. (known as lifetime migrant);
o Place of residence, if the place of the last
residence is different from the place of
What is the Need to Study Migration? enumeration (known as migrant by place
● Migration is the third component of of last residence).
population change, the other two being
mortality and fertility. However, it is not a
biological factor like the other two, which Observing Migration Trends in the Census
operate in a biological framework, though ● A few facts pertaining to the internal
influenced by social, cultural, and economic migration (within the country) and
factors. international migration (out of the country
● Migration is influenced by the wishes of the and into the country from other countries) are
persons involved. Usually, each migratory presented in this section.
movement is deliberately made, though in ● Under the internal migration, four streams are
exceptional cases this may not hold true. identified:
● Thus, migration is a response of human
organisms to economic, social, and
demographic forces in the environment. The Four streams of the
study of migration occupies an important internal migration
place in population studies, because, along
Rural to rural Rural to urban Urban to Urban to rural
with fertility and mortality, it determines the (R-R); (R-U); urban (U-U); (U-R)
size and rate of population growth as well as its
structure and characteristics.
● Migration also plays an important role in the
distribution of the population of any country
and determines the growth of the labor force
in any area. India has witnessed the waves of
migrants coming to the country from Central
and West Asia and also from Southeast Asia.
● Similarly, large numbers of people from India
have been migrating to places in search of
better opportunities, especially to the countries
of the Middle-East, Western Europe, America,
Australia and East, and Southeast Asia.
● Migration is thus an important symptom of
social change in society.
● In India, during 2001, out of 315 million

How is the Phenomenon of Migration
migrants, enumerated on the basis of the last
Recorded?
residence, 98 million had changed their place
● There are three important sources of
of residence in the last ten years. Out of these,
information on migration in a country. These
81 million were intra-state migrants. The
are national census, population registers,
stream was dominated by female migrants of
and sample surveys. In India, the most
short distance rural to rural migration in
important sources of data on internal migration
both types of migration. Most of these were
are the national census and sample surveys.
migrants related to marriage. While men
● In the Census of India migration is
dominate the rural to the urban stream of inter-
enumerated on two bases:
state migration due to economic reasons.
108
● The socio-economic development of the widens up the mental horizon of

states is considerably higher and that attracts the people at large.
people. Another factor is that because of better ● The migration of skilled workers
education levels and awareness, local residents leads to greater economic growth
of these areas get drawn towards better in the region.
economic opportunities. This vacuum that gets ● Children get better opportunities
created gets filled up by people from outside. for higher education.
These developed areas face a crisis of ● The population density is
manpower, especially for low-skilled jobs, reduced and the birth rate
which leads to migration. decreases.
● Many migrants are completely
illiterate and uneducated,
According to the International Migration Stock CONS: therefore, they are not only unfit
report (released by the Population Division of the for most jobs, but also lack basic
United Nations Department of Economic and knowledge and life skills.
Social Affairs), India with 17.5 ● Poverty makes them unable to
million international migrants has emerged as the live a normal and healthy life.
top source of international migrants, ● Due to the over-exploitation of
constituting 6.4% of the world’s total migrant natural resources, cities are
population. facing the acute problem of
depletion of groundwater, air
pollution, disposal of sewage,
Factors responsible for migration
and management of solid wastes.
Migration is a global phenomenon caused not
● Poor implementation of
only by economic factors but many other factors
Issues protections under the Inter-
like social, political, cultural, environmental,
faced by State Migrant Workmen Act,
health, education are included under the broader
migrant 1979 (ISMW Act)
classification of Push and Pull factors of
labour ● Lack of portability of benefits
migration:
● Lack of affordable housing
● Push factors are those associated with the area
and basic amenities in urban
of origin.
areas
● Poor economic activity and lack of job
opportunities are also strong push factors for
migration. Other strong push factors include
race and discriminating cultures, political National Population Policy, 2000
intolerance, and persecution of people who
question the status quo. ● GoI launched the National Population Policy in
● Pull factors are those that are associated with 2000 to improve quality of lives of people of
the area of destination. India and to provide them with equal
● Better economic opportunities, more jobs, and opportunities to be productive individual of
the promise of a better life often pull society.
people into new locations. ● The basic aim of this policy is to cover various
issues of maternal health, child survival, and
Impact of migration on modern societies contraception and to make reproductive health
care accessible and affordable for all.
● It has positive contribution such
PROS: as the evolution of composite
culture and breaking through the SDG 3 (3.7) → By 2030, ensure universal access
narrow considerations and to sexual and reproductive health-care services,
including for family planning, information and
109

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education, and the integration of reproductive Homeopathy (AYUSH) medicine system to

health into national strategies and programmes. serve the goals of public health.
● The NPP 2000 strived to change the mindsets
and behaviour of people from base level. Its
● Choices → It reiterated the government’s intense focus on women empowerment has
resolve to push for voluntary and informed led to improvement in many national statistics.
choice and agreeability of citizens to get
maximum benefit from reproductive health Critical Assessment of India’s Population Policy
services. India’s national population policies have failed to
● Framework → It embarks on a policy outline achieve their objectives as we remain world’s
for the government for next ten years to second largest populated country. The population
improve the reproductive and child health of India in 1951 was 35 crore, but by 2011, it had
needs of people of India which include issues increased to 121 crore. There have been few
like child survival, maternal health, shortcomings.
contraception, etc. 1. The NPP have a
● Education → School education upto age of narrow
14, to be made free and mandatory. This will perspective, give
also include plan to check drop-out rate of boys much importance Empowerment
and girls. to contraception
● IMR → The policy also aims at curbing the and sterilisation.
IMR to less than 30/1000 live births. The basic
● MMR → The Maternal Mortality Rate will prerequisite of Education Awareness
also be brought down to less than 100/1, meaningfully
00,000 live births. A high MMR is a symbol of controlling
economic and social disparity of the fairer sex. population include
It also points to heightened inequities in terms poverty alleviation, improving the standards
of healthcare and nutrition. of living and the spread of education.
● Immunisation → Another important feature of 2. On national scale the policy was not
the policy is to attain universal immunisation publicised and failed to generate mass
of all children against preventable diseases. support in favour of population control.
● Marriages → The policy will also act against 3. We have insufficient infrastructure owing to
child marriage and promote 20 years as the the lack of trained staff, lack of adequate
right marriageable age for girls. The legal age aptitude among the staff and limited use or
for same is 18 years. misuse of the equipment for population control
● Deliveries → The policy will actively support resulted in failure of the policy.
a target of 80% institutional deliveries and 4. The use of
100 % deliveries by trained persons. coercion during
● It also seeks to achieve 100 % registration of the Emergency Affordable
births, deaths, marriages and pregnancies. (1976-77)
● Preventing and controlling all communicable caused a serious
diseases. resentment
● It will also strive to Integrate Indian Systems among the Accessible Available
of Medicine to provide reproductive and child masses. This
health services by reaching out to households. made the very
● It thus will seek to integrate and converge all NPP itself very
related social sector programmes so that unpopular.
complete family welfare and health can be
taken care of and properly maintained. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)
● NPP 2000 also emphasizes the role of
Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddh and
110
● It is a subsidiary organ of the United Nations

General Assembly (UNGA) and works as
a sexual and reproductive health agency.
● It was established as a trust fund in 1967 and
began operations in 1969.
● In 1987, it was officially renamed the United
Nations Population Fund but the original
abbreviation, ‘UNFPA’ for the United Nations
Fund for Population Activities was retained.
● The UN Economic and Social
Council (ECOSOC) establishes its mandate.
● UNFPA is not supported by the UN
budget, instead, it is entirely supported rate remains constant at a high
by voluntary contributions of donor level.
governments, intergovernmental organizations, ● Agricultural and industrial
the private sector, foundations and individuals. productivity increases, means of
● UNFPA works directly to transport and communication
tackle on health (SDG3), education (SDG4) develops.
and gender equality (SDG5). ● There is great mobility of labor.
● India can achieve a number of SDGs if it Education expands. Income also
links them with family planning. increases. People get more and
better quality of food products.
● Medical and health facilities are
THEORY OF DEMOGRAPHIC expanded.
TRANSITION Third ● In this stage, the birth rate as
Stage: compared to the death rate declines
● The term was first coined by the American more rapidly. As a result, the
demographer Frank W. Notesteinin the mid- population grows at a diminishing
twentieth century, but it has since been rate.
elaborated and expanded upon by many others. ● This stage witnesses a fall in the
● Theory of Demographic Transition is a theory birth rate while the death rate
that throws light on changes in birth rate and stays constant because it has
death rate and consequently on the growth already declined to the lowest
rate of the population. minimum.
● It is a generalized description of the changing ● Birth rate declines due to the
pattern of mortality, fertility, and growth impact of economic development,
rates as societies move from one demographic changed social attitudes and
regime to another. increased facilities for family
● There are four stages to the classical planning.
demographic transition model: ● The population continues to grow
fast because the death rate stops
falling whereas the birth rate
First ● This stage has been called the high
though declining but remains
Stage: population growth potential
higher than the death rate.
stage. It is characterized by high
and fluctuating birth and death Fourth ● It is called the stage of the
rates which will almost neutralize Stage: stationary population.
each other. ● Birth rate and death rate are both at
a low level and they are again
Second ● It is called the stage of Population
near balance.
Stage: Explosion. In this stage, the death
rate is decreasing while the birth
111
● More than 63% of the population in India is in

the age group of 15-59 years, broadly termed as
India’s demographic
● But this potential can be converted into actual
growth only if the rise in the working-age group
is accompanied by increasing levels of
education and employment.
● Since 2018, India’s working-age population
(people between 15 and 64 years of age) has
grown larger than the dependant population —
children aged 14 or below as well as people
above 65 years of age. This bulge in the
working-age population is going to last till
2055, or 37 years from its beginning.
India is on the right side of demographic
transition that provides a golden opportunity
for its rapid socio-economic development if
policymakers align the developmental policies
with this demographic shift.
● To reap the demographic dividend, proper
investment in human capital is needed by
focussing on education, skill development and
healthcare facilities.
According to United Nations Population Fund

(UNFPA), demographic dividend means, "the
economic growth potential that can result from
shifts in a population’s age structure, mainly when
the share of the working-age population (15 to
64) is larger than the non-working-age share of the
population (14 and younger, and 65 and older)".
Sample Registration System

• The SRS is a demographic survey for
providing reliable annual estimates of infant
mortality rate, birth rate, death rate and other
● The birth rate is approximately fertility and mortality indicators at the national
equal to the death rate and there is and sub-national levels.
little growth in population. • It was initiated on a pilot basis by the Registrar
● It becomes more or less General of India in a few states in 1964-65, it
stationary at a low level became fully operational during 1969-70.
DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND: POPULATION ISSUES

● Demographic dividend occurs when the
proportion of working people in the total Problems of Over-population:
population is high because this indicates that ● Rapid population growth leads to a large
more people have the potential to be productive population of young people who are
and contribute to the growth of the economy.
112
dependent on a relatively small section of the reduction; there has been a shift away from
working population coarse grains to rice and wheat consumption
● Unemployment: In many underdeveloped even among poorer segment of population.
countries industry is not well established and
there are few employment opportunities for
unskilled workers. Problems of underpopulation:
● A reduction over time in a region's population
can be caused by several factors including sub-
Environmental degradation: replacement fertility (along with
● Unbridled use of natural resources, as well limited immigration),
as growth in energy production from coal, oil, heavy emigration, disease, famine etc.
and natural gas (fossil fuels), is having a
negative impact on the planet. Population Problems of Advanced Countries
● Diversion of water for domestic, industrial ● Ageing Population: Due to the low birth rate
and agricultural uses leading to increased the proportion of young people in the
river pollution and decrease in self-cleaning population is relatively small.
properties of rivers. ● Small Workforce: As educational standards
 Increasing water requirement leading to improve children remain longer at school and
tapping deeper aquifers which have high join the workforce later
content of arsenic or fluoride resulting health ● Rural Depopulation: Steady movement of the
problems. population occurs from the countryside to
 Disturbance from increased recreational towns due to the pull factors of city life.
activity and tourism causing pollution of ● Urbanization: As towns expand, the pressure
natural ecosystems with wastes left behind by on transport, water supplies, sewage and refuse
people. disposal grows and creates problems
Rising living costs:

● All the above will lead, at the end of the day, to Declining sex ratio:
increasing living costs in most countries. ● India’s sex ratio, or the number of females per
● Fewer resources, less water, the packing of
many people into confined spaces, and a lack
of money are provoking an increase in the cost
of living whereby only a percentage of the
population will be able to cover all their needs.
Food security:
● It is estimated that the global population will
grow to 9 billion by 2050 and the food
production will double; improvement in
purchasing power and changing dietary habits 1,000 males, declined to 896 in 2015-17 from
(shift to animal products) may further add to the 898 in 2014-16, according to a government
requirement of food grains. survey
● In the next five decades, the food and nutrition ● Women now represent 40 percent of the
security could become critical in many parts global labor force, 43 percent of the world’s
of the world especially in the developing agricultural labor force, and more than half the
countries and pockets of poverty in the world’s university students.
developed countries. ● Productivity will be raised if their skills and
● Over years the coarse grain production has talents are used more fully.
remained stagnant and per capita availability
of coarse grain has under gone substantial
113
Implications of lowering sex ratio

● Low Sex ratio at birth has led to large numbers
of “surplus men” in countries like India
andChina.
● Skewed sex ratio leads to more violence against
men and women, as well as human trafficking
● Skewed sex ratio reduces the ability of
women to influence policymaking and act as
a pressure group. Skewed sex ratio is leading
to the practice of bride purchase.
● This is leading to the objectification of
women.
What needs to be done? ● A key factor affecting the growth of the

● The welfare schemes must be aimed at not population is the death, or mortality rate.
only bringing the structural reforms rather ● Just as the birth of new people increases the
attitudinal changes. For example, the Beti population size, deaths decrease it.
Bachao, Beti Padhao program launched as a ● The factors that affect the mortality rate
movement. include the availability and affordability of
● Promoting the women’s participation at the quality health care and lifestyle habits
higher levels so that empowerment can
penetrate through their efforts. For example, Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
the 108th CAA be implemented to provide a ● Infant mortality is the number of deaths of
33% reservation to the women in the children under one year of age per 1000 live
parliament. This empowers the few and births
inspires the millions. ● IMR has decreased to 32 about one-fourth as
● Capacity building program for empowering compared to 1971 (129).
the women through an inward out process. ● The IMR at an all-India level has declined
For example, SHGs for micro-lending from 50 to 32 in the last decade.
linkage. ● Madhya Pradesh has the highest IMR of 48
● Educating the Adolescent Girl Children about and Nagaland has the lowest IMR of 4.
Reproductive Rights and Reproductive
Health.
● Improvement in the food quality of the Mid- Early marriage
Day Meal Scheme. ● Nationwide almost 43% of married women
● Bio-fortification of food grains distributed aged 20-24 were married before the age of 18.
through PDS which address Hidden Hunger. This figure is as high as 68% in Bihar.
● Early marriage increases the likelihood of
more children, it also puts the woman’s health
VARIOUS FACTORS THAT AFFECT at risk.
POPULATION GROWTH:
Fertility Rate
● The factor which affects the growth of the
Infant mortality: population in the biggest way is the fertility
● In 1961, the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), rate.
deaths of infants per 1000 live births, was 115. ● For more information refer determinants of
The current all India average is much lower at population change.
57. However, in most developed countries this
figure is less than 5.
114
Immigration and Emigration (from 5.3 billion people in 1990 to 7.7 billion
● Cross-border migration is the act of people people in 2019) owing to the global efforts to
moving from one country to another. reduce levels of fertility. This population is
● It affects the population size of both the host projected to be increased to 8.5 billion in 2030, 9.7
and destination countries. billion in 2050, and reach up to 10.9 billion by
● Emigration is caused by a number of factors, 2100.
such as fleeing war, finding education, seeking
new jobs, or joining family members. When a
person emigrates from a country, its population MEASURES TO CONTROL THE
shrinks. POPULATION OF INDIA
● When someone moves to a country from
another place, it is known as immigration.
MEASURES TO
Whether or not a person is allowed to CONTROL THE
POPULATION
immigrate is controlled by the country that will
host this person.
POLICY
SOCIAL MEASURES ECONOMIC MEASURES
MEASURES
Availability of family planning.

● Increased availability of contraception can Minimum age ● As fertility depends on
enable women to limit family size closer to of Marriage: the age of marriage,
the desired level. therefore, the minimum
● According to NFHS III (2005-06), only 56% age of marriage should be
of currently married women use some method raised. In India the
of family planning in India. A majority of minimum age for
them (37%) have adopted permanent marriage is 21 years for
methods like sterilization. men and 18 years for
● Other socio-economic factors - The desire for women has been fixed
larger families particularly preference for a by law.
male child also leads to higher birth rates. It is ● This law should be firmly
estimated that preference for a male child and implemented and people
high infant mortality together account for 20% should also be made
of the total births in the country. aware of this through
publicity.
Raising the ● There is still
Status of discrimination to the
Women: women. They are
confined to four walls of
the house. They are still
confined to the rearing
and bearing of children.
● Women should be given
opportunities to develop
socially and
economically.
● Free education should be
given to them.
The United Nation’s World Population The spread of ● The spread of education
Prospect, 2019 highlights that the world Education: changes the outlook of
population continues to grow but at a slower pace people.
115
● Educated men prefer to ● According to A.K. Das

delay marriage and Gupta those who earn
adopt small family norms. less than Rs. 100 per
● Educated women are month have on average a
health conscious and reproduction rate of 3.4
avoid frequent children and those who
pregnancies and thus earn more than Rs. 300
help in lowering the birth per month have a
rate reproduction rate of 2.8
Social ● More and more people children.
Security: should be covered under Family ● This method implies
social security schemes. Planning: “family by choice and
So that they do not not by chance”.
depend upon others in the ● By applying preventive
event of old age, sickness, measures, people can
unemployment, etc. with regulate birth rates.
these facilities they will This method is being used
have no desire for more extensively; the success
children. of this method depends on
More ● The first and foremost the availability of cheap
employment measure is to raise contraceptive devices for
opportunities: employment avenues in birth control. According
rural as well as urban to Chander Shekher,
areas. Generally, in rural “Hurry for the first child,
areas, there is disguised Delay the second child,
unemployment. and avoid the third.”
● So efforts should be made
to migrate unemployed
persons from the rural NEW INTERVENTIONS UNDER FAMILY
side to the urban side. PLANNING
This step can check
● Scheme for Home delivery of contraceptives
population growth.
by ASHAs at the doorstep of beneficiaries:
Development ● If agriculture and
○ The govt. has launched a scheme to utilize
of Agriculture industry are properly
the services of ASHA to deliver
and Industry: developed, a large
contraceptives at the doorstep of
number of people will get
beneficiaries.
employment.
● Scheme for ASHAs to ensure spacing in
● When their income is
births:
increased they would
○ Under this scheme, services of ASHAs to
improve their standard of
be utilized for counselling newly married
living and adopt small
couples to ensure a delay of 2 years in birth
family norms.
after marriage and couples with 1 child to
Standard of ● Improved standard of have a spacing of 3 years after the birth of
Living: living acts as a deterrent 1stchild
to the large family ● Boost to spacing methods
norms. In order to ○ By the introduction of new method
maintain their higher PPIUCD (Post-Partum Intra Uterine
standard of living people Contraceptive Device
prefer to have a small
family.
116
○ Introduction of the new device Cu IUCD the highest total fertility rates in the
375, which is effective for 5 years. country. These 145 districts are in the
○ Emphasis on Postpartum Family seven-high focus, high TFR states of
Planning (PPFP) services with the Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya
introduction of PPIUCD and promotion of Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and
minilab as the main mode of providing Assam that constitute 44% of the
sterilization in the form of postpartum country’s population.
sterilization to capitalize on the huge cases ○ The main objective of ‘Mission Parivar
coming in for institutional delivery under Vikas’ will be to accelerate access to
JSY high quality family planning choices
○ Compensation for sterilization acceptors based on information, reliable services and
has been enhanced for 11 High Focus supplies within a rights-based framework.
States with high TFR. ● Saas Bahu Sammelan
● PRERNA Strategy: ○ The main objective of this initiative is to
○ In order to help push up the age of hold regular meetings between expecting
marriage of girls and space the birth of and new mothers and their mothers-in-law
children in the interest of the health of to address any concerns prevalent and
young mothers and infants, Jansankhya advise each party about tackling these
Sthirata Kosh (National Population matters
Stabilization Fund) - an autonomous ● Contraceptives Antara and Chhaya
body of the MoHFW, Govt. of India has ○ The Union Ministry of Health and Family
launched PRERNA, a Responsible Welfare on 5 September 2017 launched
Parenthood Strategy in all districts of two new contraceptives- an injectable
seven focus states namely Bihar, Uttar contraceptive MPA under the ‘Antara’
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, programme and a contraceptive pill
Jharkhand, Odisha, and Rajasthan. ‘Chhaya’ in the public health system to
● Santushti Strategy: expand the basket of contraceptive choices
○ Under this strategy, Jansankhya Sthirata for couples.
Kosh invites private sector gynecologists ○ These contraceptives have been launched
and vasectomy surgeons to conduct in 10 states including Delhi, Maharashtra,
sterilization operations in the Public- Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Private Partnership model. Rajasthan, Karnataka, Haryana, West
● National Helpline: Bengal, Odisha and Goa.
○ JSK also runs call centers for providing ○ The ‘Antara’ injectable is effective for
free advice on reproductive health, family three months and the ‘Chayya’ pill is
planning, maternal health and child health, effective for one week.
etc.
● Advocacy & IEC activities:
○ JSK as a part of its awareness and RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
advocacy efforts on population India’s Two-Child Policy
stabilization has established networks and India’s Two-Child
partnerships with other ministries, Policy refers to the
development partners, private sectors, family planning laws
corporate and professional bodies for which restrict the
spreading its activities through electronic number of children
media, print media, workshop, walkathon. to two for a given
● Mission Parivar Vikas couple. Recently, the Assam government
○ The Ministry of Health and Family announced that people with more than two children
Welfare has launched “Mission Parivar will not be eligible for government jobs from
Vikas” in 145 high focus districts having January 2021.
117
Impact Of Two Child Policy:

● By restricting the number of children that can
be born, there will not be enough educated
young people in the next generation to carry on
India’s technological revolution
● The population growth of India will slow down
naturally as the country grows richer and
becomes more educated
● The law related may also be anti-women. The
law discriminates against women right from
birth (through abortion or infanticide of female
fetuses and babies), but divorce and familial
abandonment are at risk of increasing if a man
with a large family wants to run for political
office.
● A legal restriction to two children could force
couples to go for sex-selective abortion.

1. How do you explain the statistics that show that
the sex ratio in Tribes in India is more favorable
to women than the sex ratio among Scheduled
Caste? (10 Marks) 2015
2. Discuss the changes in the trends of labor
migration within and outside India in the last
four decades. (15 Marks) 2015
3. Why do some of the most prosperous regions
of India have an adverse sex ratio for women?
Give your arguments. (10 Marks) 2014
Practice Questions
1. Briefly discuss the impact of migration on
population growth in India.
2. Discuss the factors that are responsible for the
distribution of population across India.
3. 'Population explosion is the result of falling
mortality rates and continuing high birth rates.’
With reference to this statement, explain
various other determinants of population
change in the Indian context.
118
CH-7 ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORGANIZATIONS

POSITION OF WOMEN IN HISTORY:
“It is impossible to think about the welfare of the
world unless the condition of women is improved. “A woman, emotionally holds the family
It is impossible for a bird to fly on only one together. She is pillar support for her husband,
wing.” — Swami Vivekananda. guiding light for her children and harbor for
the family's elderly” – observed Bombay HC in
its judgement.
INTRODUCTION:
▪ India, a nation
which had POSITION OF WOMEN IN
Mahatma HISTORY:
Gandhi as its role
model of rectitude Early Later
Vedic Medieval During Post-
became so Vedic Indepede
Age period Period British
unbelievably Raj nce
violent and corrupt
that the women can no longer be safe within
their bodies. Gandhi who defeated the whites
to save the browns by relying on non-violence Early Vedic Age:
is considered as the father of the nation, but his ▪ During this period (1500 BC – 1000 BC)
values are being betrayed so easily that a women were accorded high level of respect
woman is raped every twenty minutes in the and dignity
world’s largest democracy and even children ▪ They enjoyed complete freedom in every
of five years are subjected to rape. sphere and were placed as central to creation of
▪ The status of women in India has been subject all lives in the cosmos.
to many changes over the span of recorded
Indian history. Later Vedic period:
▪ With women participating in nationalist ▪ During this period (1000 - 500 BC) a need for
movements, to being pushed into the domestic large army in turn gave more role and prestige
household space, to their resurgence as to men
super-women today, women in our country ▪ Women were considered as inferior and
have seen it all. subordinate to men with denied political
▪ The status of women might have raised under rights.
the law, in practice they continue to suffer
from discrimination, harassment and Medieval Period:
humiliation. ▪ During the era of Muslim kings, the existing
Quote: “The fight is not for woman status but for social evils became more prominent like
female infanticide, no education to girls,
human worth. The claim as not to end inequality
child marriage etc.
of woman but to restore universal justice. The bid ▪ However, with the rise of bhakti movement
is not for leaves and fishes for the forsaken gender and Sufism, the status of women improved
but for cosmic harmony, which never comes till significantly across India.
woman comes.” ▪ Various popular figures like Shankaracharya,
Ramanuja, Guru Nanak vociferously voiced
▪ Though mother nature has made women with
against ill treatment and suppression of women
an equally important role as men in the society,
irrespective of caste and religion.
the latter have made them subordinate in many
During British Raj:
ways.
119
▪ During the British East India Company decision-making process which can be seen in
rule (1757–1857), and the British Raj (1858– political arena as well. As per the Election
1947), various measures aiming at amelioration Commission of India, 49% of the Indian
were enacted, including Bengal Sati electorate consists of women. Yet, only 14%
Regulation, 1829, Hindu Widows' of the 17th Lok Sabha members are women
Remarriage Act, 1856, Female Infanticide MPs, the highest since Independence.
Prevention Act, 1870, and Age of Consent ▪ Although, representation of women has
Act, 1891. increased only marginally since Independence
PRESENT SITUATION OF WOMEN IN

INDIA:
POLITICALLY:
▪ Status of
women in
politics can be
defined as the
degree of
equality and – from 4.4 percent in 1951 to 11 percent in
freedom 2014 – way below the global average of 23.4
enjoyed by the percent. At this rate, it would take another 180
women in shaping and sharing of power. years to reach the desired gender balance.
▪ As of 2018- 2019, some women have served in
various senior official positions in the Indian At Panchayat level:
government, including that of the President of ▪ 73rd & 74th amendments to the constitution
India, the Prime Minister of India, the Speaker have ensured the participation of women in
of the Lok Sabha. PRIs with a reservation of 1/3rd for women.
▪ With only around 9 per cent women in the
upper house and around 11 per cent in the CONCEPT OF ‘SARPANCH-PATI’
lower house of parliament, India ranks 99th in Due to poor socio-economic status of women,
the world in terms of female representation prevailing patriarchal set-up, the intended
among MPs. benefit of emergence of women leadership at
▪ It includes exercising the right to vote, power Panchayat level was not fully realized. The
sharing, membership of political parties, effective political power and decision making
electoral campaigning, attending party is wielded by husbands of elected women
meetings, holding party positions, contesting representatives. This phenomenon is referred
elections, co-decision making, co-policy to as ‘sarpanch-pati’.
making at all levels of governance of the state. This was aimed at empowering women and
▪ The social and cultural prejudices against the ensuring their participation in the political
women restrict their participation in the process and decision making at grass root level.
Recent Development:
▪ In this regard the Government of India
introduced various acts and policies so as to
empower the women in India politically.
▪ Through 1/3rd reservation of seats for
women in Panchayats and Nagar palikas,
they have been able to make meaningful
contributions and that the actual representation
of women in Panchayati Raj institutions has
gone upto 42.3% i.e., beyond the reservation
120
percentage. This has led the Government to

make 50 percent reservation for women in
local bodies.
WOMEN RESERVATION BILL (108th

AMENDMENT) BILL, 2008
▪ The bill seeks to reserve one-third of seats in
the Lok Sabha and state assemblies for
women.
▪ It is a necessary strategy to enhance women's
participation in the decision/policy making
process.
▪ Female participation in the labour market is
▪ It would ensure considerable political
27.2 percent compared to 78.8 for men.
empowerment of women and pave the way to
▪ Rural women are leaving India’s workforce
the achievement of political justice to women
at a faster rate than urban women.
as promised in Preamble and Article 38 of the
▪ A McKinsey Global study in 2015 found that
Constitution of India.
International Monetary Fund's research has
showed that raising women's participation in
ECONOMICALLY: the workforce to the level of men can boost
▪ India has made significant economic progress
Indian economy by 27%.
in recent decades, however such economic
growth, has not been matched by progress
towards women’s equal economic
participation. Female Work and Labour Force
▪ Financial empowerment is central to the overall Participation (FLFP)
empowerment of women, and financial ▪ It is measured as the share of women who
inclusion can play a major role in empowering are employed or are seeking work as a share
of women. of the working-age female population.
▪ According to the World Bank, India ranks ▪ According to statistics of the World Bank,
120 among 131 countries in Female Labor India’s Female Labour Force Participation
Force Participation Rates (FLFPR) and rates Rate (FLFPR), has fallen to a historic low
of gender-based violence remain unacceptably of 23.3% in 2017-18.
high. ▪ The highest decline in employment was
▪ At 17% of GDP, the economic contribution of experienced in the primary sector.
Indian women is less than half the global
average, and compares unfavorably to the 40% India could increase its GDP by 16-60% by
in China. 2025 by simply enabling women to participate
in the economy at par with men.
Current Situation in India:
Female Participation in the Labour Market →
▪ Recently UNDP, in association with IKEA
Foundation has brought out a report titled
“Female work and labour force
participation in India” which aim to
understand the continuing problem of low
female labour force participation in India
despite massive investments in employment
and skill-building initiatives.
121
Reasons for low labour force participation→

▪ Increased income of men - As men in the
family start earning more income, women tend
to cut back their work in the formal economy to
concentrate more on household activities.
▪ Caste factor - In some communities, notably
some upper castes, there may be a stigma
attached to women working outside the home.
It increases family and societal pressures to
drop out if the men in the household are earning
enough to foot the bills.
▪ Safety issues & Harassment at the
workplace - Women are more vulnerable to Maternity ▪ Many women who join the
exploitation and harassment at work in Aspect: workforce are unable to
developing countries like India. They are also rejoin after having a child.
unable to effectively fight against harassment. ▪ Maternity benefits Act 2016
▪ The nature of economic growth in the country increased cost for companies
has meant that jobs were not created in large and may have discouraged
numbers in sectors that could readily absorb them from hiring women. The
women, especially for those in rural areas. estimated loss of female jobs
▪ Sexual Harassment at the Workplace: was between 1.1 to 1.8
Around 31% of the firms are not compliant million for 2017-18, over and
with the Prevention of Sexual Harassment at above the usual job loss due to
Workplace Act, which mandates “Internal attrition related to maternity.
Compliance Committees” (ICCs) and Local ▪ The non - availability of
Complaint Committee (LCC) being quality day-care is one factor
constituted. which inhibits women from
▪ Deep-rooted social norms, lack of agency and returning to work after their
gendering of occupations often leads to women maternity leave.
having little choice in their employment and Education- ▪ For salaried work, the
work decisions. Employment probability of being
▪ Policy failure and the policy-implementation Trade-off: employed steadily increases
gap is also a major reason for low labour force as a woman’s education
participation. increases, whereas for casual
▪ The rising incomes of Indian households wage labor and for work in
have enabled Indian women to withdraw from family farms and businesses,
the labor market and focus on their role in women’s LFPR decreases
“status production” with an increase in education.
▪ Double burden or dual responsibility (family Once they attain moderate
levels of education, women do
As per NCRB’s ‘Crime in India’ 2018 not work in manual labor.
report, the national capital, Delhi recorded ▪ The decline in women’s
the highest number of Crime Against LFPR with more education is
Women (27.8%) in 2018 among 19 other greatest for agricultural and
metropolitan cities. non-agricultural wage work,
even more than for work in
and work place) family enterprises. It is
especially manual work
outside the household that is
122
perceived to be below one’s ▪ Gender equality is when women and men

educational attainment. enjoy the same rights and
opportunities across all
Suggestions to improve FLFP: sectors of society, including
▪ By Modifying outcome metrics for labour economic participation and
market programmes by including enabling decision-making.
factors such as safety, aspiration alignment and ▪ However due to unequal
so on. treatment, society’s gender
▪ Education ecosystem needs to go through a set norms, the economic status, and financial
of system strengthening initiatives, including literacy among women shows a downward
the introduction of digital and STEM trend.
(science, technology, engineering and ▪ Gender inequality is a major factor curbing
mathematics) education in schools. potential candidates from performing where
▪ Using tax policies to incentivize women into they ought to.
the labour market on both the demand and
supply side.By introducing tax incentives for Global Gender Gap Report 2020
enterprises that have internal complaint ▪ Global Gender Gap Report is published by the
mechanisms, gender friendly transport services
and so on.
▪ By promoting large-scale social campaigns
for changing social norms which break gender
stereotypes, which includes women as well as
redefining the role of men in households
Support Services.
▪ By providing support to women who migrate
in search of work and jobs.
▪ By providing arrangements for childcare at
training centers, better stipends for travel,
lodging, boarding and other expenses incurred
during programme participation.
▪ By developing forums for informal and
formal mentorship and connections to
female role models and women in leadership
which is to be achieved not by tokenism but by
increasing the ease of economic and political World Economic Forum (WEF). India has
participation. been ranked 112th out of 153 countries in the
Global Gender Gap Index 2020
From Welfare → Development → ▪ Gender gap was measured across four key
Empowerment pillars → economic participation and
Over the year the planning strategies (line of opportunity (42%), educational attainment
action) for women have shifted from Welfare to (4.4%), health and survival (4.6%), and
Development and to Empowerment. It is this political empowerment (77%).
shift which needs to be critically examined if we
wish to understand the role of the state in According to the Global Wage Report 2018-19,
women's empowerment. India has one of the highest Gender Pay Gap of
34%. This pay gap is due to occupational
Gender Wage gap and Gender Inequality segregation; cultural barriers (including less
education opportunities available to women); and
unpaid household work done by women.
123
5. The act will help the 18-lakh (1.8 million)

Reasons ▪ Preference for male women workforce in the organized sector.
Behind employees over female 6. They also help women devote time to take
Gender Pay employees care of their babies and enable an increase
in the women’s labour force participation
Gap ▪ Career breaks of women due
(WLFPR) rate in India.
to parenthood duties and
other socio-cultural factors. SOCIALLY:
▪ Lack of flexible work ▪ The social and cultural Empowerment is the
policies or extended leave fundamental and the foundation block for
▪ Lack of involvement of the development of women empowerment. It
women in male dominated includes a range of constituents such as
discriminatory patriarchal norms against
sectors for example armed
women, access to health and education
forces. services, caste and class and religious divides
▪ “Glass ceiling effect” faced etc.
by women ▪ Social status of women can be further classified
▪ The women are mostly based on following factors like health,
deemed fit for “pink collar education, violence against women which are
jobs' ' only, such as teachers, discussed as below:
nurses, receptionist, Status on Health:
babysitter, lecturer etc. which
have been stereotyped for The National Family Health Survey-4 revealed
women. This denies them that every third married woman had experienced
physical and/or sexual violence but only 1.5%
opportunities in other fields.
had sought help from the police.
RECENT DEVELOPMENT
▪ Health and nutritional status of Indian women
is becoming worse due to the prevailing
Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017
culture and traditional practices in India.
▪ The 2017 landmark amendment to the
▪ Indian women are generally vulnerable to
Maternity Benefit Act of 1961 (MBA),
poor nutrition, especially during pregnancy
effective as of the 1st of April, 2017, has been
and lactation.
welcomed by employees and employers.
1. It provides a maternity leave of 26 weeks
which exceeds ILO’s minimum standard
of 14 weeks.
2. Recognition of the rights of an adopting
mother and of a commissioning mother
(using a surrogate to bear a child) for the
first time, who may claim paid maternity
leave for 12 weeks;
3. A “work from home” option that may be
of benefit after the maternity leave expires;
4. Effective as of the 1st of July, 2017,
mandatory crèche (day care) facilities
for every establishment employing 50 or
more employees, including the right of
mothers to visit the crèche four times per
day.
124
CURRENT SITUATION:
Maternal Health:
▪ Poor maternal health often affects a child's health in adverse ways and also decreases a woman's ability
to participate in economic activities.
▪ Therefore, national health programmes such as the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and the
Family Welfare Programme have been created to address the maternal health care needs of women
across India.
To reduce infant mortality (IMR) ▪ The promotion of Institutional deliveries through cash incentive
and stillbirth, various programmes under Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) and Janani Shishu
and schemes under National Health Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK) entitles all pregnant women
Mission are implemented by (PW) delivering in public health institutions to free ante-natal
States/ UTs as follows: check-ups, delivery including Caesarean section, postnatal care
and treatment of sick infants till one year of age. Both JSY and
JSSK were launched with the objective of increasing
institutional deliveries.
▪ Early initiation and exclusive breastfeeding for first six months
▪ Universal Immunization Programme (UIP)
▪ Mission Indradhanush and Intensified Mission Indradhanush
▪ LaQshya (Labour Room quality improvement programme)
▪ Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA)
125
LaQshya (Labour Room quality improvement programme)

▪ Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India launched an ambitious program LaQshya
on 11th December 2017 with following objectives:
○ Reduce maternal and newborn morbidity and mortality
○ Improve quality of care during delivery and immediate postpartum period
○ Enhance satisfaction of beneficiaries, positive birthing experience and provide Respectful Maternity
Care (RMC) to all pregnant women attending public health facilities.
▪ LaQshya program will benefit every pregnant woman and newborn delivering in public health
institutions. Program will improve the quality of care for pregnant women in the labour room, maternity
Operation Theatre and Obstetrics Intensive Care Units (ICUs) & High Dependency Units (HDUs).
Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA)

▪ It has been launched by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MoHFW), Government of India.
▪ The program aims to provide assured, comprehensive and quality antenatal care, free of cost, universally to
all pregnant women on the 9th of every month.
▪ PMSMA guarantees a minimum package of antenatal care services to women in their 2nd / 3rd
trimesters of pregnancy at designated government health facilities.
▪ The programme follows a systematic approach for engagement with the private sector which includes
motivating private practitioners to volunteer for the campaign developing strategies for generating
awareness and appealing to the private sector to participate in the Abhiyan at government health facilities.
National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM)

▪ The National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM), implemented by the ministry of rural development with
financial support from the World Bank, promotes SHGs amongst poor rural women.
▪ These groups require women to save small amounts ranging from Rs 10-20 every week supporting
internal loans to group members.
Reproductive rights and women health: the right to legal and safe abortion;
▪ Women’s reproductive rights may include
some or all of the following:
▪ India’s maternal mortality ratio in 2015 the right to birth control;
was 174 deaths per lakh live births (down
from 448 in 1994) while the global MMR freedom from coerced sterilization and
in 2015 was 216. contraception;
▪ There is a need for the proper legal
framework to address and recognize the the right to education and access in order to
promotion and protection of reproductive make free and informed reproductive choices.
rights of women in India.
the right to access good-quality reproductive
healthcare;
126

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Malnutrition and morbidity

▪ Nutrition plays a major role in an individual's
overall health; psychological and physical
health status is often dramatically impacted by
the presence of malnutrition.
▪ India currently has one of the highest rates of
malnourished women, adolescent girls and
pregnant and lactating women in India, with
repercussions for children's health.
2% of the female population is absolute
anaemic, 12% of the female population of the
country suffers from repeated pregnancy strengthening in rural
(80% of their productive life is spent in and urban areas for -
pregnancy) & lack of nutrition. Reproductive-
Maternal- Neonatal-
Child and Adolescent
Various Government schemes and Health (RMNCH+A),
Programmes are being implemented in this and Communicable
regard such as: and Non-
Pradhan Mantri PMMVY is a maternity Communicable
Matru Vandana Benefit Programme being Diseases.
Yojna implemented in all the Integrated Child - It provides specific
districts of the country in Development interventions targeted
accordance with the Services (ICDS) towards the vulnerable
provision of the National Scheme groups including
Food Security Act, 2013. children below 6 years
Weekly Iron and Weekly Iron and Folic and women.
Folic Acid Acid Supplementation - It is being implemented
Supplementation Programme to meet the by the Ministry of
Programme challenge of high Women and Child
prevalence and incidence of Development.
anaemia amongst - It provides a package
adolescent girls and boys. of six services namely
National Health - It was launched in 2013 supplementary
Mission (NHM) to tackle Malnutrition. nutrition, pre-school
It subsumed the non-formal education,
National Rural Health nutrition & health
Mission (NRHM) and education,
the National Urban immunization, health
Health Mission. check-up and referral
- It is being implemented services.
by the Ministry of Mid-Day Meal - It was launched in 1995
Health & Family Scheme as a centrally
Welfare. It was further sponsored scheme
extended in March (CSS)
2018, to continue till - It provides that every
March 2020. child in every
- Components: It Government and
include health system Government aided
127
primary school within ▪ Today the female literacy rate is 65.46%

the age group of six to where the male literacy rate is over 80%.
fourteen years ▪ The differences in literacy rates among the
studying in classes I to states are also extreme.
VIII who enrols and ▪ Kerala has the highest female literacy rate.
attends the school shall On the other hand, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
be provided with a hot have low female literacy rates.
cooked meal, free of ▪ literacy in India is characterized by wide gaps
charge every day with a between the urban and rural populations.
minimum content of ▪ The rural population depends mainly on
300 calories of energy agriculture and the rate of illiteracy is high
and 8-12 gram protein while the urban population is more of the
per day for a employee class and also more educated.
minimum of 200 days
except on school
holidays.
- The Scheme was further
revised in April 2008 to
extend the scheme to
recognized as well as
unrecognized
Madrasa / Maqtabs
supported under SSA.
Status of women in Literacy:

▪ Literacy in India is a key for socio-economic
progress. There is a wide gender disparity in
the literacy rate in India:
▪ Poor school
environment for girls
Reasons for the ▪ Early marriage
low literacy rate ▪ Dowry system
of women: ▪ Priority to son’s
education compared to
daughter’s education
▪ Poverty and hunger
▪ The lower enrolment
and retention
Programmes ▪ Operation Blackboard,
undertaken by Sarva Shiksha
the Ministry of Abhiyan, Non-Formal
Human Resource Education, District
Development Primary Education
Programme, National
Literacy Mission,
Navodaya Vidyalaya,
and Vocational
Education.
CULTURALLY:
128
related to home-based
Status of women in Patriarchal society: craft activities, family
▪ Patriarchy is a social system in which men enterprise or business and
hold primary power, predominate in the roles paid work outside home.
of political leadership, moral authority, special ▪ You must have observed
privilege and control of the property. They also differential work
hold power in the domain of the family, as participation of men,
fatherly figures. women and children within
▪ Women are a victim of male domination in the family both in
the respective sphere of life; especially in quantitative and qualitative
economic life, over decision making on terms.
resources, on the utilization of her earnings ▪ The kind of work women do
and her body. is determined by women’s
▪ Hence, a woman’s life lies between pleasures at position in the society and
one end and danger at another end. family’s location in the
▪ Patriarchy leads to exploitation of women in social hierarchy.
the form of violence, economic exploitation, Unpaid ▪ In rural areas the women
educational deprivation etc. Work from the poorer households
engage in various activities
Marriage: such as cooking, processing
▪ Though the status of women in their of food for household
husbands' home is improved a lot, women still consumption, storing
face domestic violence for dowry or love grains, childcare, fetching
marriage or inter caste marriage. fuelwood, fodder and
▪ It creates a lot of emotional tensions in the water, collection of forest
family and society at large. produce, preparation of
▪ They are regarded as dependent beings which cow dung cakes, care of
underline the preference for child marriage, livestock and cattle and
especially among rural and backward house repair and
communities. maintenance.
▪ In order to curb child marriages, dowry, Female ▪ Girls continue to provide
domestic violence against women government Child free labour in home-based
has implemented various acts like Domestic Labour production systems.
Violence Act, 2005 so as to eliminate the ▪ Studies on rural girl child
loopholes in the current system. labour show that she works
nine hours a day providing
Nature, Range and Patterns of Women’s Work goods and services, which
keep her out of school. She
What is ▪ Defining the exact nature, works on an average 318
Women’s scope and magnitude of days a year in the fields and
Work? women’s work remains a at home providing free
problem area because a labour.
good deal of women’s work Paid Work ▪ Women also work for wages
is either invisible or is only in fields, forests, mines,
partially accounted for in factories, offices, small-
the data on workforce scale and household
participation. industries. The nature and
▪ Components of women’s extent of such work differs
work include housework, according to the location of
paid and unpaid work
129
family in the social multidimensional role of women at every

hierarchy. stage in agriculture.
▪ In the rural sector the
subsistence work burden Current trends in feminization of Agriculture
falls heavily on women, ▪ According to the Food and Agriculture
while in higher castes and Organization (FAO), women's contribution
higher income groups ‘non- to Indian agriculture is approximately 32%,
work’ of women is given while in some states (such as Hill states,
more value. Northeastern states, and Kerala) contribution of
women in agriculture and rural economy are
Education, Paid Employment and Household more than men.
Responsibilities ▪ According to the data of Economic Survey
▪ On one hand, illiteracy among the majority of (2017-18), with growing rural to urban
women in the lower socio-economic group migration by men, there is ‘feminization’ of
constitutes a major barrier to increasing and agriculture sector, with increasing number of
diversifying work and training opportunities. women in multiple roles as cultivators,
▪ On the other hand, pre-defined roles, ideology entrepreneurs, and labourers.
and labour market forces in a labour surplus ▪ Out of total female main workers, 55% were
economy effectively restrict women’s work agricultural labourers and 24% were cultivators
opportunity among educated women of certain (Census 2011).
sectors. ▪ As per the 10th Agriculture Census (2015-
16), the percentage of female operational
Agricultural and Industrial Sectors holdings in the country have increased from
▪ The proportion of female agricultural workers about 13% percent during 2010-11 to around
which was less than one-third of the total 14% during 2015-16.
workforce in 1951 rose to more than fifty per ▪ Others: Agrarian distress, male migration and
cent, which means greater dependence on the poverty are prominent reasons for increasing
agriculture sector. feminization of agriculture.
Women in Services and Professions Impact of feminization of agriculture:

▪ Despite the impressive increase in the number ▪ According to the FAO, if women had the same
of educated women in urban areas the gap access to productive resources as men, they
between men and women in the services and could increase yields on their farms by 20-
professions is large. It can be attributed to the 30%. This could raise total agricultural output
following factors: in developing countries by up to 4% which
o Girls are generally specialized for their would mean a dramatic reduction in hunger.
domestic roles ▪ Research worldwide shows that women with
o Less investment in the vocational and access to secure land, formal credit and
technical training of women access to markets have greater propensity to
o Higher concentration of girls is found in invest in improving harvest, increasing
humanities and social sciences rather than productivity, and improving household food
vocational and technical courses. security and households.
o There is less physical mobility among
women after marriage Family Structure in India:
▪ India's family structure is unique as it
WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE accommodates both nuclear and joint
▪ National Women’s Farmer’s Day (Rashtriya families. In past time, joint households were
Mahila Kisan Diwas) is celebrated on the norm; however, migration and
October 15 for recognizing the urbanization are rapidly changing family
structures.
130
▪ According to the 2011 census, out of 24.88 The problem of women keeps changing from time
crore households, 12.97 crore or 52.1% were to time with changing circumstances. Women faces
nuclear households. the following problems:
▪ The nuclear families are increasingly common,
changing women’s relative position in a family Sexual Harassment:
and with respect to social security and care for ▪ It acts as a deterrent to women’s freedom and
the elderly. perpetuates the notion that women are the
weaker sex. The NCRB data highlights that
Family structure and position of women sexual harassment is a risk in all facets of life:
▪ In nuclear households, Women enjoy greater in shelter homes, in the workplace, in the home,
decision-making power, greater freedom of on public transport.
movement outside the house premises and ▪ According to statistics recently released by the
greater participation in jobs. NCRB, of states, Uttar Pradesh recorded the
▪ Women’s autonomy is differentiated by most sexual harassment cases that year.
economic status, caste and household
location. E.g. women in richer joint households Marital Rape:
have more autonomy in intra-household ▪ Marital rape is the act of sexual intercourse
decision-making but less freedom of movement with one’s spouse without the consent of the
outside the home. For women in poorer joint other spouse.
households, women’s have greater freedom ▪ Currently marital rape is not a ground for a
of movement outside the home but less divorce in Hindu Marriage Act, 1955,
autonomy in intra-household decision- Muslim Personal Law [Shariat] Application
making. Act, 1937 and Special Marriage Act, 1954, it
▪ Geographic location of the household: cannot be used as a ground for divorce and
Women in joint households in Northern India cruelty against husband.
have less autonomy compared to their ▪ Section 375 of the IPC holds that “sexual
counterparts in southern India. In the south, the intercourse by a man with his own wife, the
effects of family structure on women’s wife not being under 15 years of age, is not
autonomy are weaker. rape”
▪ Division of labour on the basis of sex is a
characteristic of traditional family life in Why Criminalization of Marital Rape is
India. A woman was supposed to do all sorts necessary?
of domestic work such as cooking, cleaning ▪ The report ‘Status of Women in India’, by the
utensils, washing clothes etc. besides she has to high-level Pam Rajput committee of the
do motherly duties of looking after the children Ministry of Woman and Child Development,
and the interests of all the members of the criticised the legislature for its failure to
family. criminalize marital rape.
▪ In recent times with the increasing education ▪ Exception under Section 375, violates Articles
levels and the economic opportunities in 14, 15, 19 and 21 of a woman.
wake of Globalisation the socio-economic ▪ The patriarchal nature of Indian society,
mobility of Indian women has increased. ingrains it in the minds of men that women are
▪ In 1993-94, as many as 86.2 percent female expected to comply when their husbands
workers were engaged in the primary sector, demand sex.
which includes agriculture and allied sectors ▪ The victim suffers physical abuse, and she also
such as forestry, livestock etc., in the rural has to undergo mental trauma of her dignity
areas. being violated.
Child Rape:
MISCELLANEOUS ISSUES RELATED TO
▪ National Crimes Record Bureau statistics
WOMEN AND RESPONSE:
state that a total of 48,338 child rape cases were
recorded from 2001 to 2011.
131
▪ India saw an increase of 336% of child rape ▪ Sexual Harassment of women at workplace
cases from 2,113 cases in 2001 to 7,112 cases (Prevention, prohibition and Redressal) Act,
in 2011. 2013 demands that any workplace with more
than 10 employees need to create a mechanism
Why are Child rapes increasing? for redressal of complaints against sexual
A rise in - Reporting of child abuse and harassment.
reporting: rape cases have increased due ▪ VISHAKA guidelines by the Supreme Court
to the lowering of the which provide measures to be taken by
stigma attached. employers, SHE Box by Ministry of Women
- The rise of social media has and Child Development for online complaints.
created awareness about
child abuse. DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AND DOWRY
- Many instances of DEATHS
celebrities opening up about ▪ Dowry deaths are deaths of married women
being abused in their who are murdered or driven to suicide by
childhood (for instance, the continuous harassment and torture by their
allegations of rape against husbands and in-laws over a dispute about
Director Anurag Kashyap) their dowry, making the women's homes the
have also motivated many most dangerous place for them to be.
parents to report. ▪ According to the National Crime Records
New - The introduction of Bureau (NCRB) data released recently, the
criminal POCSO in 2012 and the highest number of dowry deaths during the
laws: Criminal Law last three years have been reported from the
(Amendment) Act in 2013 state of Uttar Pradesh followed by Bihar.
was instrumental in higher ▪ There are three laws in place in India that deal
reporting of rape against directly with domestic violence:
children. o The Protection of Women from
- The definition of rape now Domestic Violence Act, 2005.
includes many more sexual o The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, and
actions than were earlier o Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code.
classified as sexual assault.
- Age of consent for girls has Domestic Violence Act, 2005:
been raised from 16 to 18 ▪ Recently, the Supreme Court has ruled that
years. This means boys who under the domestic violence law, even a
have consensual sex can be brother-in-law can be ordered to pay
charged with rape. maintenance to a woman under the
Domestic Violence Act if they had lived
Sexual Harassment of women at workplace: together under the same roof in a shared
▪ In order to household as part of a joint family at any point
effectively Indian companies reported
address the more cases of sexual ▪ Every third woman, since the age of 15, has
harassment in 2019 compared
heinous crimes to a year earlier. Data from faced domestic violence of various forms in
of sexual abuse BSE 100 companies, which the country, reported the National Family
various acts and are required to furnish this Health Survey (NFHS-4).
policies are information, showed a 14% ▪ Domestic violence can negatively affect a
being increase in reports of sexual woman’s physical, mental, sexual, and
harassment complaints in
implemented 2019.
reproductive health.
across the nation
like: of time.
132
Issues Involved: woman for medical examination, legal aid and

▪ The changing socio-economic relations safe Shelter.
particularly in urban areas such as more income ▪ PWDVA enshrines principles of the
of a working woman than her partner, abusing Convention on the Elimination of All forms
and neglecting in-laws, dowry demands etc. of Discrimination Against Women
▪ Most often womens are cursed for their (CEDAW), which India ratified in 1993.
husband’s death and are deprived of proper
food and clothing without often being given the Issues with Domestic violence Act
opportunity for remarriage in most of the ▪ Gender biased and not gender neutral: There
homes. have been an increasing number of false
▪ Patriarchal mindset- male domination and cases. Also, the domestic violence against
control over women, male privilege and men in India is not recognised by the law.
women’s subordinate status, infertility or desire ▪ The Lack of awareness especially in rural
for male child. areas where there is more need for such Acts.
▪ Women are also more likely to experience ▪ Judicial system resorting to mediation and
intimate partner violence if they have low counselling even in cases of extreme abuse.
education, exposure to mothers being abused Also, Insensitivity by male police officers,
by a partner, abuse during childhood, and judicial magistrates during hearings, etc.
attitudes accepting violence, male privilege ▪ Absence of economic, psychological and
and women’s subordinate status. support systems for victim women.
▪ Insufficient budgetary allocation to States-
Government Steps to prevent Domestic the States could not assign ‘Protection Officers’
Violence: because of the already overburdened
▪ The Act expanded the definition of domestic department.
violence to include not just physical, but also ▪ Though most of these cases are reported from
verbal, emotional, sexual and economic urban areas, innumerable cases of violence
violence. against women go unreported in India's
▪ Domestic Violence is broad in its definition - distant villages.
“domestic relationship" includes married
women, mothers, daughters and sisters. Dowry ▪ This is a criminal law
▪ This law not only protects women who are Prohibition that punishes the taking
married but also protects women in live-in Act 1961 and giving of dowry.
relationships, as well as family members Under this law, if
including mothers, grandmothers, etc. someone takes, gives or
▪ Under this law, women can seek protection even demands dowry,
against domestic violence, financial they can be imprisoned
compensation and they can get maintenance for six months or they
from their abuser in case they are living apart. can be fined up to Rs
▪ It provides the Right to Secure Housing i.e. 5,000.
right to reside in the matrimonial or shared Section 498A ▪ This is a criminal law,
household, whether or not she has any title or of the Indian which applies to
rights in the household. This right is secured by Penal Code husbands or relatives of
a residence order, which is passed by a court. husbands who are cruel
▪ It provides for breach of protection order or to women. Recently, the
interim protection order by the respondent as Supreme Court restored an
a cognizable and non-bailable offence immediate arrest provision
punishable with imprisonment. in the dreaded Section
▪ It provides for appointment of protection 498A, IPC.
officers and NGOs to provide assistance to the Anti-dowry ▪ Dowry murders have
Movements witnessed a sustained
133
campaign by several Assam, Mizoram etc. for training of Law

women’s organisations Enforcement and Judiciary in these States.
and civil rights groups. ▪ Programmes on Cyber Crime investigation
▪ In the 1980s several – Various Law schools are engaged in
women’s and other conducting several awareness and training
progressive organisations programmes on Cyber Laws and Cyber Crimes
formed a joint front in for judicial officers.
Delhi called “Dahej ▪ Training is imparted to Police Officers and
Virodhi Chetna Manch”. Judicial officers in the Training Labs
▪ After much deliberation, established by the Government.
the Dowry Prohibition ▪ The Scheme for Universalization of Women
(Amendment) Act, 1984 Helpline has been approved to provide a 24-
was passed. hour emergency and non-emergency response
to all women affected by violence.
CYBERCRIMES WHICH SPECIALLY PROSTITUTION

TARGET WOMEN: ▪ A large number of women destitute or victims
▪ Harassment via e-Mails: It is very common of rape who are disowned by family fall prey to
type of harassment through sending letters, prostitution forcibly.
attachments of files & folders i.e. via e-mails; ▪ Laws related to prostitution in India:
most common now in the form of using of o Suppression of Immoral Traffic in woman
social sites i.e. Facebook, Twitter etc. and girl act – 1956
o Prevention of immoral traffic act – 1956
▪ Cyber-Stalking: It means expressed or
o Immoral traffic prevention act – 1956
implied physical threat that creates fear
through the use of computer technology such as
Steps that should be taken in order to fight with
the internet, e-mail, phones, text messages,
prostitution:
webcam, websites or videos.
▪ Normal education should be made available to
▪ Dissemination of Obscene Material: It
those victims who are still within the school
includes Indecent exposure/ Pornography
going age, while non-formal education should
(basically child pornography), hosting of web
be made accessible to adults
site containing these prohibited materials.
▪ The Central and State Governments in
▪ E-Mail Spoofing: A spoofed email may be
partnership with non-governmental
said to be one, which misrepresents its origin.
organizations should provide gender
It shows its origin to be different from which
sensitive market driven vocational training
actually it originates. This method is often used
to all those rescued victims who are not
by cyber criminals to extract personal
interested in education.
information and private images from
▪ Rehabilitation and reintegration of rescued
unsuspecting women, these images etc. are then
victims should be done.
used to blackmail those women.
▪ Awareness generation and legal literacy on
▪ Others: Cyber Pornography, Defamation, and
economic rights, particularly for women and
image morphing.
adolescent girls should be taken up.
Steps taken by the Government in Preventing
FEMALE FOETICIDE
Cyber Crimes Against Women
▪ Female foeticide refers to ‘aborting the
▪ Cyber Crime Cells have been set up in States
female in the mother’s womb’;
and Union Territories for reporting and
whereas female infanticide is ‘killing the girl
investigation of Cyber Crime cases.
child after her birth’.
▪ Government has set up cyber forensic training
and investigation labs in the States of Kerala, Findings:
134
1. Nearly 10 million female fetuses have been Techniques Act (PCPNDT) in 1994 to ban
aborted in the country over the past two and punish prenatal sex screening and female
decades foeticide.
2. The United Nations has reported that India’s
female ratio between 0-6 years age group has Missing Women: The stock of missing women
fallen to 896 females per 1,000 males, the as of 2014 was nearly 63 million and more than
lowest ever in a decade for the world’s second 2 million women go missing across age groups
most populous nation every year (either due to sex selective abortion,
3. About three-fourths of the women in the disease, neglect, or inadequate nutrition).
suburban area know about the sex
determination test, and female foeticide is
favored both in rural and urban areas
4. 1 out of every 6 girls does not live to see her Son Meta-Preference: It is the phenomena
15th birthday. Of the 12 million girls born in where parents continue to produce children
India, one million do not see their first birthday. until the desired number of sons are born.
5. Seven thousand fewer girls are born in India ▪ The Phenomenon of son meta- preference
each day than the global average would gives rise to “unwanted” girls– girls whose
suggest. parents wanted a boy, but instead had a girl.
▪ According to Economic Survey 2017-18,
Why Female Feticide? the number of unwanted girls (for the age
▪ Preference for son: The bias against females group of 0-25 years) at 21 million.
in India is grounded in cultural, economic and
religious roots. Sons are expected to work in
the fields; they provide greater income and look The Pre-conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic
after parents in old age. Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act,
▪ Dowry system: which is going on from past 50 1994:
years but today it has become worse, people ▪ It was enacted to stop female foeticides and
demand so much money that girl families can’t arrest the declining sex ratio in India which was
fulfill it, and even there are some cases where amended in 2003, to improve the regulation of
brides are tortured to get money from their the technology used in sex selection.
families. This system is more rigid in northern ▪ The basic requirements of the act include the
India. registration of clinics, written consent of the
▪ Education: why one should spend so much pregnant women, prohibition of
money on the schools and colleges because she communicating the sex of fetus, maintenance
has to go to another family and what is the of records and creating awareness among the
benefit of her knowledge to us, even if she public at large by placing the board of
starts earning then we don’t get any money prohibition on sex determination.
from her.
▪ Availability of latest technology: Various Rigid provisions in the Act:
aspect like focus on family planning, ▪ Key to prevent female foeticide → The
availability of latest technology facilitating Supreme Court highlighted that non-
sex identification and abortion, failure in maintenance of record by sonography and
stringent application of PCPNDT act all have diagnostic centre is a springboard for the
resulted into increased cases of female commission of the offence of female foeticide,
foeticide. which is what is intended by the Act and, it
▪ Others: Decline in the moral and ethical cannot be termed as a clerical error.
standards as individuals and families lead to ▪ Sex selective abortions relegate the right to
more cases of female foeticide. life of the girl child under Article 21 of the
▪ The Indian government has passed Pre- Constitution, to a mere formality. As per a
Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic United Nations Report, more than 4.6 lakh
135
girls went missing at birth on an average determine the sex of a child. e.g. Better result
annually during the period 2001-12. was observed by implementing Government
▪ Leads to a cycle of violence against women schemes such as Beti Bachao Beti Padhao in
→ A skewed sex- ratio is likely to lead to Haryana state.
greater incidences of violence against women
and increase in practices of trafficking,
‘bridebuying’ etc. The rigorous Women Movements
implementation of the Act is an edifice on
which rests the task of saving the girl child. “A woman with a voice is, by definition, a
▪ Responsibilities of a doctor: to know all such strong woman.” - Melinda Gates
minute details like the form he is required to fill
and the impact of medical findings and its ▪ Women’s movements are among the most
consequences, which is virtually the important crusades of modern social
prerequisite for undertaking a test. It is critical movements. It started off with the efforts of
for a member of a noble medical profession to Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra
be educated about such details. Vidyasagar to fight for women’s rights due to
inhumane practices like Sati.
Pros of the act: ▪ The upper strata women faced these mostly,
▪ Due to stringent provisions in this Act lead to however, today Women of lower social strata
Increase in registrations of PCPNDT Clinics, belonging to lower castes, minority religion or
Increase in sex ratio in some states, Check on economically backward regions continue to
advertisements for sex selection, Overall drop face hardships.
in child sex ratio etc.
What instances led to Women Movements?
Reason of failures: ▪ The position of women in India has varied in
▪ Poor reporting under the law - Only 3,000 different periods and in different classes,
cases have been filed against violators of the religion and ethnic groups. By nineteenth
act, since the passing of act, though half a century there were several evil social practices
billion medical crimes have been committed like Sati, child marriage, ban on widow
▪ Poor conviction rate - There are only 586 remarriage, polygamy etc.
convictions out of 4202 cases registered even ▪ During the British rule the spread of English
after 24 years of existence. education and Western liberal ideology
among Indians and spread of Christianity and
Way Forward missionary activities, resulted in a number of
▪ The Implementation of this Act requires a movements for social change and religious
more systemic involvement of the State and reform in the nineteenth century.
enactment of legislation in this direction and
the health departments of the states along with Broad Objectives of Women Movements
local bodies have to play a more crucial role. ▪ Caste reform,
▪ Help of Anganwadi and ASHA workers can ▪ Improvement in the status of women,
be sought to report any suspicious activity to ▪ Promoting women’s education and
▪ An attack on social practices whose roots lay in
It is currently illegal in India to determine or social and legal inequalities and religious
disclose sex of the foetus to anyone. According to traditions of different communities
a survey by British medical journal, Lancet,
nearly 10 million female abortions have taken
Women Movements
place in India in the last 20 years, which is
rampant amongst the educated Indian middle
class as well. Pre-independence Post-independence
Women’s Movements: Women’s Movements
136
▪ The Women's Indian Association (WIA) was

PRE-INDEPENDENCE WOMEN’S founded at Adyar, Madras, in 1917 by Annie
MOVEMENTS: Besant, Margaret Cousins, Jeena Raja Dasa,
and others to liberate women from the
Brahmo Samaj deplorable condition women suffered in
▪ It was founded by Raja socio-economic and political matters during the
Ram Mohan Roy in 1825 19th and the early 20th century.
& attempted to abolish ▪ The Association later developed into a potent
restrictions and prejudices force to fight against illiteracy, child marriage,
against women, which the Devadasi system and other, social ills
included child marriage,
polygamy, limited rights All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) (1926),
to inherit property. ▪ The All India Women's Conference (AIWC) is
▪ Education was seen as the major factor to a non-governmental organization (NGO)
improve the position of women. based in Delhi. It was founded in 1927
by Margaret Cousins in order to improve
Prarthana Samaj educational efforts for women and children
▪ It was founded by MG Ranade & RG and has expanded its scope to also tackle other
Bhandarkar in 1867. Its objectives were more women's rights issues.
or less similar to that of Brahmo Samaj but ▪ The organization is one of the oldest women's
remained confined to western India. groups in India and has branches throughout
▪ Justice Ranade criticized child marriage, the country.
polygamy, restriction on remarriage of widows
and non-access to education. National Council for Women in India (NCWI)
(1925)
Arya Samaj: ▪ Chaired by Durgabai Deshmukh the National
● It was founded by Dayanand Saraswati in Council of Women was established in 1958.
1875. Unlike the above two it was a religious The organisation is set up to ensure the equal
revivalist movement, revitalizing the ancient rights of women in society.
Hindu traditions. ▪ This organisation primarily works to improve
● It advocated reform in the caste system, the condition of women all over the country.
compulsory education for men and women, Their major emphasis so far has been on
prohibition of child marriage by law, promoting women's education in the country.
remarriage of child widows. It was opposed to
divorce & widow remarriage in general. POST-INDEPENDENCE WOMEN’S
● Social reformers mentioned above eulogized MOVEMENTS:
the position of women in ancient India. ▪ In the post-Independence period a series of
● However, radicals like Ishwar Chandra institutional initiatives has been introduced
Vidyasagar, Jyotiba Phule and Gopal Hari for the emancipation of women in the society.
Deshmukh (Lokhitwadi) accused the caste ▪ The most important of these pertain to the
system responsible for the subjugation of constitutional provisions and social legislation
women in society. for women and planned economic
● Similar movements began in Islamic development.
community as well. Begum of Bhopal, Syed ▪ Women’s movement has been widely
Ahmad Khan & Sheikh Abdullah in Aligarh influenced by these broad socio-economic and
and Karamat Hussain in Lucknow political processes of this period.
spearheaded a movement to improve women’s ▪ Economic hardships faced by women in the
education. Himalayan region due to cutting down of
forests resulted in spontaneous mobilization of
The Women’s India Association (WIA) (1917) women. They hugged the trees to prevent the
137
contractors from felling them. This is popularly ▪ Gandhi had immense faith in the capability of
known as the Chipko movement. This is why women to carry on a non-violent crusade.
we find that women are even now in the Under his guidance and leadership, women
forefront of these ecological agitations. shouldered critical responsibilities in India's
struggle for freedom.
Some of the names of women who were ▪ Women held public meetings, organized
involved in satyagrahas against colonial were picketing of shops selling foreign alcohol and
Sarojini Naidu, Lado Rani Zutshi, Rani Gudiallo, articles, sold Khadi and actively participated
Kamala Nehru, Hansa Mehta, Anantikabai in National Movements.
Gokhale, Satyavati, Parvathibai, Rukmini ▪ Women criticized their exclusion in the salt
Lakshmipaty, Lilavati Munshi, Durgabai satyagraha led by Gandhi which subsequently
Deshmukh and Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya. led to Gandhi’s reconsideration of his view
against women’s participation in 1930.
▪ The earliest campaigns – the 2003 Blank Noise ▪ Women’s organisations such as Desh Sevika
Project against eve-teasing, the 2009 Pink Sangh, Nari Satyagraha Samiti, Mahila
Chaddi (underwear) movement against Rashtriya Sangh, Ladies Picketing Board,
moral policing and the 2011 Slut-Walk Stri Swarajya Sangh and Swayam Sevika
protest against victim-blaming – were limited Sangh began mushrooming at this time to
in their scope but set the tone for this new mode organise the mass boycott of foreign cloth and
of protest. liquor
▪ The Campaigns such the 2011 Why Loiter ▪ But the protest that women participated in was
project on women’s right to public spaces, the not always non-violent, although the ideas of
2015 Pinjra Tod (Break the Cage) movement individual freedom propagated by the reform
against sexist curfew rules in student halls and and nationalist movements was accepted by
the 2017 Bekhauf Azadi (Freedom without women in their personal and organisational
Fear) March resonated with a much larger lives, they did meet with resistance from
number of women, turning this social media- society and even their own families
led phenomenon into a true feminist ▪ However, in the social realm, Gandhi
movement. envisaged a critical role for women in doing
▪ In the post-Independence period, two away with the forces of communalism, caste
important Organisations for rural women system and untouchability.
were set up:
o Kasturba Memorial Trust and CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS AND
Bharatiya Grameen Mahila Sangh SOCIAL LEGISLATION
(Indian Rural Women’s Organisation). ▪ The Indian Constitution has embodied within
Their main objective was to assist the rural itself grounds for gender equality. The
women in developing leadership potential. Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and
o The Department of women and Child Directive Principles together work towards
development (1985) was opened under shaping policies and putting safeguards not just
the Ministry of Human Resource for women empowerment in India but also
Development with the sole purpose of protection.
assisting women and child development to
develop into their full potential. Women's Rights Under Indian Constitution
Article 21 States as follows: "No person except
WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN THE according to the procedure
STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE: established by law shall be deprived
▪ According to Gandhi, the role of women in the of his life or personal liberty.
political, economic and social emancipation Fundamental right under Article 21
of the country was of overriding importance. of the object of personal liberty
except according to the procedure
138
established by law is to prevent The provision of zero FIR: The ruling by the
encroachment on and loss of life." - Supreme Court mentioned that a woman who
Anyone, including women, can seek is a victim can register her complaint at any
protection under this. police station under the Zero FIR ruling. The
Article This Article guarantees Right to Zero FIR is an FIR that can be filed at any
15(1) Equality, "The State shall not deny police station irrespective of the location
to any person equality before the law where the incident occurred or a specific
or the equal protection of the laws jurisdiction it comes under.
within the territory of India
Prohibition of discrimination on
grounds of religion, race, caste, sex Article One-third of the total number of
or place of birth." 243D (4) offices of chairpersons in the
Article According to Article 15(3) - State Panchayats at each level shall be
15(3) can make any special provision for reserved for women.
women and children without any Article One-third of the total number of
hurdles or obligations. 243T (3) seats to be filled by direct
Article According to Article 16(2), No election in every Municipality
16(2) citizen on grounds only of religion, shall be reserved for women.
race, caste, sex, descent, place of Article Offices of chairpersons in the
birth, residence or any of them, be 243T (4) Municipalities shall be reserved
ineligible for, or discriminated in for women in such manner as the
respect of employment or office State Legislature may provide.
under the State.
Article 19 States as follows: This gives the
citizens (which include both women, Legal safeguards to secure women’s rights
men and third gender) the Right to 1. Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 (Women
Freedom, which among other things have a right to equal pay)
guarantees freedom of speech and 2. Sexual Harassment Of Women At
expression, freedom of movement, Workplace Act, 2013 (Women have a
freedom of practising trade and right against harassment at work)
profession etc. 3. Protection of Women from Domestic
Article Prohibits the practice of human Violence Act (2005) (Women have a
23(1) trafficking in India. right against domestic violence)
4. Women have a right to anonymity for
Article 32 This Article gives the right to us to sexual assault victims
seek constitutional remedies through 5. Legal Services Authorities Act (1987)
the Supreme Court of India for (Women have a right to free legal aid)
violation of Fundamental Rights 6. Code of Criminal Procedure
mainly. (1973) (Women have right not to be
Article As per Article 39(a), men & women arrested at night)
39(a) have the right to an adequate means 7. Women have a right to register their
to livelihood. complaint virtually here she can lodge a
complaint via email or write her
Constitutional Laws for women related to complaint and send to a police station
Panchayats & Municipality from a registered postal address
Article Not less than one third of the 8. Indecent Representation of Women
243D (3) total number of seats to be filled (Prohibition) Act (1986)
by direct election in every
Panchayat shall be reserved for RECENT DEVELOPMENTS:
women.
139
Abolition of Triple Talaq: ▪ The Supreme Court in Indian Young

▪ Triple Talaq goes against the constitutional Lawyers’ Association v/s State of Kerala
principles of gender equality, secularism, Case declared Rule 3(b) of the Kerala Hindu
right to life of dignity, etc. Places of Public Worship (Authorization of
▪ It gave men the right to arbitrarily divorce Entry) Act of 1965, which authorizes
their wives without any valid reason. restriction on women “of menstruating age”,
▪ It has led to the subjugation of Muslim as ultra vires the Constitution.
women even after 72 years of independence ▪ Supreme Court set aside a Kerala High Court
but its solution must come through judgment of 1991 that upheld the prohibition,
coexistence rather than coercion. pointing that the celibate nature of the deity was
▪ It goes against Article 14 (Right to Equality) “a vital reason for imposing this restriction on
and Article 15(1) which states that there shall young women”.
be no discrimination against any citizen on the
basis of gender, race, etc. and this kind of talaq Arguments in favor of women’s entry into the
is biased against the interests of women temple:
▪ Terming Triple Talaq as unconstitutional as a ▪ Banning entry was derogatory for women -
step towards establishing uniform civil code Morality must not be viewed narrowly from the
(Enshrined in Article 44 of directive perspective of an individual, a section or
principle of state policy), but criminalising it religious sect. Individual dignity of women
goes against the ethos of Fundamental rights could not be at the mercy of a mob.
i.e. article 25 and 26 the freedom of religion. ▪ Right to worship is equally available to men
and women - Woman’s right to pray was not
Womens entry to Religious places: dependent on any law but it is a constitutional
right. Religion
Shani Bombay HC said that “No law cannot become
Shingnapur prevents women from entering a a cover to
place of worship and if men are exclude and
allowed, then women too should deny this basic
be permitted” right to
Sabarimala SC criticised the Travancore worship to
Devaswom Board (board, which women.
manages the popular Sabarimala ▪ Patriarchy in
Ayyappa Hindu temple in Kerala) religion
for being unfair and for their cannot trump
stand on banning entry of women the freedom to practice religion.
of menstruating age inside the ▪ Prohibition was not an essential practice of
temple. It was of the view that religion under Article 25 of the Constitution
places of worship that deny or thus it was not covered under the right to
restrict women’s entry freedom of religion.
undermine the fight for gender ▪ The Fundamental Rights guaranteed under
equality and have no Part III of the Constitution recognizes the
constitutional right to do so. individuals as a basic unit. The argument that
the right to preserve the celibacy of the deity is
SABARIMALA ISSUE a protected constitutional right does not apply.
The Supreme Court, in a recent judgement, allowed
women, irrespective of their age, to enter Kerala’s Arguments against women’s entry into the
Sabarimala temple. temple:
▪ Religious denominations should decide what
Background constitutes an essential religious practice and
140
it should not be decided by judges on the basis Conclusion:

of their personal viewpoints. ▪ The path towards gender empowerment is
▪ By determining whether a particular practice or full of potholes. Over the year’s women have
custom is essential or integral to a religion, the made great strides in many areas with notable
court leaves the rational world of laws and progress in reducing gender gaps.
constitutional rights and enters into the realm ▪ Today Indian women have excelled in each
of theology, thus leading to judicial overreach. and every field being self – sufficient.
▪ It ignores the ground social realities of India ▪ Amidst of all this the status of Indian women is
and immense diversities. Also, judges must still not satisfactory.
take special care while dealing with a sensitive ▪ A need for transformation in the Thoughts of
issue like religion. man and society as a whole has to be brought
▪ India being a pluralistic society with diverse towards women and accept them as equal
faiths, constitutional morality gave freedom participants in the country’s progress.
to practice even irrational or illogical customs
and usages. Constitutional morality required "Human rights are women's rights and women's
harmonization of rights of all persons, rights are human rights, once and for all." -
religious denominations or sects, to ensure Hillary Clinton
that the religious beliefs of none were
undermined. PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS:
▪ Ayappa devotees had attributes of a religious 1. "Women's movement in India has not
denomination such as distinct names, addressed the issues of women of lower social
properties, etc. Also, Sabarimala temple was strata. 'Substantiate your view. (2018) - 15
not funded out of the Consolidated Fund. Marks
Temple Management thus contends that they 2. Discuss the role of women in the freedom
were allowed to frame rules for the shrine struggle especially during the Gandhian phase.
without State’s interference. (2016) 12.5 Marks
▪ The pilgrimages require tough processes of 3. Women empowerment in India needs gender
penance to be carried out for 41 days which budgeting. What are the requirements and
would be difficult for women. status of gender budgeting in the Indian context
▪ In a pluralistic society composed of people with (2016) 12.5 Marks / GS – III
diverse faith, belief and traditions, to entertain 4. Discuss the positive and negative effects of
PILs challenging religious practices followed globalization on women in India. (2015) 12.5
by any group, sect or denominations, could Marks
cause serious damage to the constitutional and 5. How do you explain the statistics that show that
secular fabric of the country. the sex ratio in Tribes in India is more
favourable to women than the sex ratio among
Way Forward Scheduled Castes? (2015) 12.5 Marks
▪ The ruling will have wider impacts on other 6. How does patriarchy impact the position of a
similar customs and practices at other places of middle class working woman in India? (2014)
worship too. The Temple management must 10 Marks
provide adequate amenities for women 7. Discuss the various economic and socio-
devotees to smoothly implement the SC order cultural forces that are driving increasing
▪ Haji Ali: The Bombay High Court lifted the feminization of
ban saying it contravenes the Constitution agriculture in India. (2014) 10 Marks
and women should be allowed entry “at par 8. Why do some of the most prosperous regions
with men”. HC held that the Trust cannot of India have an adverse sex ratio for women?
enforce a ban “contrary to the fundamental Give your arguments. (2014) 10 Marks
rights” (i.e. Art 14, 15 and 25) enshrined in 9. Male membership needs to be encouraged in
the Constitution. order to make women's organization free from
gender bias. Comment. (2013) 10 Marks
141
PRACTICE QUESTIONS:
1. Discuss the role of women in India’s Freedom
Struggle.
2. Examine various initiatives taken by the
Government of India in empowering women in
the society. Discuss with recent happenings to
justify your stand.
3. “The participation of women in the workforce
in India is one of the lowest globally”.
Comment and also suggest some measures to
address this issue.
4. Give an account of present situation of women
in the Indian Society
142

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CH-8 SECULARISM
“Secularism was equated with godlessness, an absence or denial of religious values, rather than a
separation of church and state in order to guarantee religious freedom in pluralistic societies.”
- John Esposito, Islam
WHAT IS SECULARISM? • In India, secularism means equal status to all

religions. The Secular State is a state which
guarantees individual and corporate
freedom of religion, deals with the individual
as a citizen irrespective of his religion, is not
constitutionally connected to a particular
religion nor does it seek either to promote or
interfere with religion.
Some Fact about Minority

• The term "Minority" is not defined in the
Indian Constitution. However, the
Constitution recognises only religious and
linguistic minorities.
• Section 2 (c) of the National Commission for
Minorities Act, 1992 would be taken as
• Secularism means separation of religion Minority Communities.
from political, economic, social and cultural • six communities namely:
aspects of life, religion being treated as a 1. Muslims → 14.2%
purely personal matter. 2. Christians → 2.3%
• The term “Secular” means being "separate" 3. Sikh → 1.7%
from religion or having no religious basis. 4. Buddhists → 0.7%
• It is the principle of separation of 5. Jain → 0.4%
government institutions and persons 6. Zoroastrians (Parsis) → 0.006%
mandated to represent the state from • This order is according to Census 2011
religious institutions and religious • As per the Census 2011, the percentage of
dignitaries. Thus, religion should be separate minorities in the country is about 19.3% of the
from aspects of state and governance. total population of the country.
• With the 42nd Amendment of
the Constitution of India (1976), the
Preamble to the Constitution asserted that HISTORICAL VIEWPOINT
India is a “secular” nation. Institutions started
to recognize and accept all religions, enforce Secular traditions are very deep-rooted in the
parliamentary laws instead of religious laws, history of India. Indian culture is based on the
and respect pluralism blending of various spiritual traditions and social
movements.
• A secular person is one who does not owe his
moral values to any religion. His values are
the product of his rational and scientific
thinking.
143
In Medieval India:
• In medieval India, the
Secular Sufi and Bhakti
traditions movements restored
the secular character
In Ancient In Medieval In Modern of Indian society. The
India India India torchbearers of these
movements were
Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti, Baba Farid,
Saint Kabir Das, Guru Nanak Dev, Saint
In Ancient India: Tukaram, and Mira Bai. They spread the
• Indian religions are known to have co- different facets of secularism like tolerance, a
existed and evolved together for many sense of brotherhood, universalism, harmony,
centuries before the arrival of Islam in the 12th and peace in society.
century, followed by Mughal and colonial era. • In medieval India,
• Secularism in India is as religious toleration and
old as the Indus Valley freedom of worship
civilization. The cities marked the State
of lower Mesopotamia under Akbar. He had
and Harappa were not several Hindus as his
ruled by priests. Dance ministers, forbade
and music were forcible conversions, and abolished Jizya.
secular in these urban civilizations • The most prominent evidence of his tolerance
• Consequently, religion was very policy was his promulgation of ‘Din-i-
accommodative and without a rigid Ilahi’ or the Divine Faith, which had elements
structure; it was polytheistic as well as of both Hindu and Muslim faith.
agnostic, atheistic, henotheistic as well as • The construction of
panentheistic at the same time. This tolerance Ibadat Khana
towards and acceptance of other religious (house of worship)
beliefs persisted in the Dharmic religions that in Fatehpur Sikri
followed. was done to nurture
• The people in ancient India had freedom of religious harmony
religion, and the state granted citizenship to by allowing
each individual regardless of whether different religious
someone's religion was Hinduism, Buddhism, leaders to express
Jainism, or any other. their opinions in the same place.
• Ellora cave temples - built next to each other
between the 5th and 10th centuries, for In Modern India:
example, shows coexistence of religions and a
spirit of acceptance of different faiths
• Emperor Ashoka - was the first great emperor
to announce, as early as the third century B.C.
that, the state would not prosecute any religious
sect.
• Ashoka in his 12th Rock Edict, appealed not
only for the toleration of all religious sects but
also to develop a spirit of great respect toward
them.
144
• After Aurangzeb, India came into control traditional cap worn by Muslims was banned
of East India Company and the British Raj by the Hat law. Western clothing was
• Although the British administration provided encouraged for men and women. The western
India with common law, it's “divide and rule” (Gregorian) calendar replaced the traditional
policy contributed to promoting communal Turkish calendar.
discord between various communities.
• During British time, separate electorates were
provided for Muslims through the Indian GANDHIAN PERSPECTIVE
Councils Act of 1909. “I do not accept any dreams to develop one
• Separate electorates further extended the religion i.e. to be wholly Hindu or wholly
principle of communal representation by Christian or wholly Mussalman, but I want it to
providing separate electorates for depressed be wholly tolerant, with its religions working side
classes (scheduled castes), women and labor by side with one another” – Mahatma Gandhi
(workers) through the Government of India
Act 1935. • Gandhiji said that
• However, the Indian freedom movement was religion is both a
marked by secular tradition and ethos right private and a
from the start. personnel affair. He
• The formation of INC in 1885 with secular added that religion has
values united the people from all sects and took a set of moral
the freedom movement on a constructive and principles that lead the
successful Path. men on the right path
• Nehru gave a detailed report (1928) which of living
called for the abolition of the separate • He regarded all religions equally, and so
electorate to found a secular state. popularised the concept of “Sarva Dharma
Sambhava”
(equality of all
KEMAL ATATURK’S SECULARISM religions).
• It is not about the Ramakrishna and
principled distance Vivekananda
from organized originally observed
religion, instead, it this concept.
involved active • Gandhiji did not
intervention in and accept all the practices of Hinduism
suppression of blindfolded rather he looked at it in the prism
religion. of liberal thoughts and modernism so that the
• This version of secular value of Indian culture would be
secularism was sustained.
propounded and practiced by Mustafa Kamal • He strongly opposed any religious practices
Ataturk., who came to power after the First that let down the lower caste in the society (an
World War in Turkey, after the defeat of the outcome of Hinduism sanctioned Varna
Ottoman Empire. system) and those that demeaned women.
• He was determined to put an end to the • Gandhi’s vision of the secular state is a place
institution of Khalifa in the public life of where religious values and discourse are
Turkey. cherished and respected in all spheres of life,
• He set out aggressively to modernize and the public as well as the private, but in which
secularise Turkey. He changed his name from no single religion is allowed to dominate the
Mustafa Kemal Pasha to Kemal Ataturk others.
(Ataturk means Father of Turks). The Fez, a
145
NEHRUVIAN PERSPECTIVE • Rationalization and Reasonableness play an

important role in accelerating the secularization
• Nehru’s secularism is based on a commitment
to scientific humanism.
• Jawaharlal Nehru proposed
the concept of a secular
state. Indeed, the formation
of India as a secular state
may be accepted as one of
his greatest achievements.
• His emphasis on the
development of scientific
temperament is a great contribution to India
because it initiated the fight against religious
obscurantism and superstition which the whole
country was steeped in
• “Equal protection by the State to all process. Rationalism implies the influence of
religions” is the view of Jawaharlal Nehru ‘reason’ of conscience’ overall blind faith.
towards secularism.
• Indian secularism is embedded in the rich
ancient culture of our country. It respects the
DR. B.R AMBEDKAR PERSPECTIVE traditional customs, beliefs, and practices and
• His main concern was to bring heterogeneous also protects them in the interest of citizens.
communities under one roof, in a nation • Indian philosophy of secularism is related to
which is divided into caste lines. “Sarva Dharma Sambhava” (literally it
means that the destination of the paths followed
by all religions is the same, though the paths
Indian Constitution and Secularism: themselves may be different) which means
equal respect to all religions.
• Though the term ‘secular’ • No official religion → India does not recognize
was not initially mentioned any religion as official. Nor does it owe
in the original constitution, allegiance to any particular religion.
the Indian constitution has
always been secular.
• Preamble - India is called a Humanism
secular state. It insists
secularism in the governance of the country Fundamental
Cultural
but the term secularism was not precisely used heritage right
in the constitution until it was inserted after

the 42nd amendment (1976) during Indira
Gandhi’s regime. But the clear definition of Means of
Neutrality
the term “Secularism” is yet to be added in modernization
the Constitution though attempt was made

during the 45th amendment bill because it was Universal faith
rejected by council of states.
• Religious neutrality → India does not

intercept the affairs of any specific religion. It
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN respects all religions on par with one another
SECULARISM
146
• Freedom to all → It assures religious freedom of modern values, progressive thoughts and
to the members of all religions. Citizens are free scientific outlook.
to choose and abide by their religions • Secularism as cultural heritage → Indian
• Indian governance → Religious institutions secularism is embedded to rich ancient culture
have a diminutive role in Indian governance. of our country. It respects the traditional
India is not ruled by religious heads. Political customs, beliefs and practices and also protects
parties in India do not advocate or subscribe to them at the interest of citizens.
any particular religion
• Strategy of principle distance → A state does
not interfere with changing the crux of religious THE WESTERN MODEL OF SECULARISM
entities with a View to respecting their • In the
traditions customs and belief it might intervene West, the
productively to remove obsolete, superstitious, word
backward looking, and gender biased practices secular State Religion
• Supremacy of law → The functions of Indian implies
administration are based on Legislation and three
Constitution. But these are not the beliefs and things:
principles given by the dogmas and customs of o freedom of religion,
any particular religion o equal citizenship to each citizen regardless
• State is sovereign → None of the religious of his or her religion,
institutions, be they temple, church or Madrasa, o the separation of religion and state.
is above the State • No policy of the state can have an exclusively
• Not anti-religion → Indian secularism is not religious rationale. No religious
atheistic that it questions the existence of any classification can be the basis of any public
religion. It allows any kind of religious policy.
worship. • As per the western model of secularism, the
• Secularism as fundamental right → “State” and the “religion” have their
Secularism is constitutionally protected. separate spheres and neither the state nor the
Religions freedom is more protected and is religion shall intervene in each other’s affairs.
subject to be enforced by judiciary, in case of • Similarly, the state cannot aid any religious
breach. institution. It cannot give financial support
• Secularism as scientific education → Indian to educational institutions run by religious
education is scientific and predicated on the communities.
Western system. Education here is not a • Nor can it hinder the activities of religious
reinforcement of religious maxims communities, as long as they are within the
• Secularism as humanism → Indian broad limits set by the law of the land. For
secularism is humane and is not affected by example, if a religious institution forbids a
spiritual beliefs or values of any particular woman from becoming a priest, then the state
religions. It considers the people “Citizens” but can do little about it. If a religious community
not‘ “sympathizers of a religion”. excommunicates its dissenters, the state can
• Secularism as universal faith → Rig Veda only be a silent witness. If a particular religion
(Truth is one; sages call it by various names). forbids the entry of some of its members in the
The secular ideals of India were not inherited sanctum of its temple, then the state has no
only from those of a very few countries. But option but to let the matter rest exactly where it
they are the collections of East and West. is. In this view, religion is a private matter,
• Secularism as means of modernization → not a matter of state policy or law.
Our secularism is not shaped by orthodox, • Thus, the western concept of secularism
obsolete and narrow beliefs, but it is the replica requires complete separation of religion and
state.
147
• Finally, this form of mainstream secularism has to achieve peaceful coexistence of different
no place for the idea of state-supported religions.
religious reform. This feature follows directly
from its understanding that the separation of
state from church/ religion entails a relationship INDIAN SECULARISM Vs. SECULARISM IN
of mutual exclusion. WEST
THE INDIAN MODEL OF SECULARISM

• The term ‘secularism’ is akin to the Vedic State Religion
concept of ‘Dharma nirapekshata’ i.e. the
indifference of state to religion.
• However, in India, neither in law nor in practice
any 'wall of separation' between religion and Indian secularism Western
the State exists. secularism
• Indian philosophy of secularism is related to 1.
“Sarva Dharma Sambhava” (literally it
means that destination of the paths followed by
all religions is the same, though the paths State is separate
themselves may be different) which means Equal protection by
the state to all from the functioning
equal respect to all religions. of all religious
religions. State is
• In India, both state and religion can, and institution and
neutral to all
often do, interact and intervene in each groups.
religious groups but
other's affairs within the legally prescribed
not necessarily
and judicially settled parameters.
separate.
• In other words, Indian secularism does not
2. Here’s no clear In western society,
require a total banishment of religion from
demarcation secularism refers to
the State affairs. It resulted in an equal focus on
between state and the complete
intra-religious and inter-religious domination.
religion in India, separation between
• Indian secularism equally opposed the
positive intervention the state and religion
oppression of Dalits and women within
of the state in
Hinduism, the discrimination against
religious affairs is
women within Indian Islam or Christianity,
not prohibited
and the possible threats that a majority
3. Indian secularism, In the western
community might pose to the rights of the
the state shall model, the State
minority religious communities. This is its
interfere in religion does not intervene
first important difference from mainstream
so as to remove evils in the affairs of
western secularism.
in it religion until the
• Indian secularism deals not only with the
time religion is
religious freedom of individuals but also with working within the
the religious freedom of minority
limits of the law.
communities. Within it, an individual has the
4. The Indian As per the western
right to profess the religion of his or her choice.
Constitution permits model, the state
Likewise, religious minorities also have a right
partial financial cannot give any
to exist and to maintain their own culture and
support for religious financial support to
educational institutions.
schools, as well as educational
the financing of institutions run by
Indian secularism is not an end in itself but a
religious buildings religious
means to address religious plurality and sought
communities.
148
and infrastructure by • Communal politics →

the state Politicians play with the
5. Rights of both Individual and religious sentiments of
individual and his/her rights are at the masses. It leads to
religious the centre religious polarization of
community are society by forming
protected political parties, trade
unions, and student unions on religious lines.
All these would result in hatred and create
ADVANTAGES OF BEING A SECULAR rivalry towards the people of other religions.
STATE • Forced conversion → Allegations are
continuously being made against the Christian
• Cultural Enrichment → The pursuance of
Missionaries for
secularism during the freedom struggle and
exploiting the lower
post-independence journey made the
status accorded to the
communal strain on Indian society
Dalits in the four fold
disappear, which was created by medieval
Varna System in order to
theocratic regimes and British’s decisive divide
persuade them for
and rule policy.
conversion to Christianity
• Excelling Democracy → Secularism has for which they use the baits of good social
marked the seven decades of the successful status and a dignified life. As a reaction,
journey of Indian democracy. It has led the Hindutva right wing groups have started
democracy on the path of progress and Ghar Wapsi (Home coming) movement which
thereby created an inclusive and matured aims to bring back the converted people into
democracy Hindu fold.
• Peace and Stability → Secularism inculcated • Non-separation of religion from politics →
extreme tolerance among the Indians and the few events in the past
aim taught them to revere the belief and like the demolition of the
practices of other religions Babri Masjid, anti-
• Minority protection → Secularism Sikh riots in 1984,
undoubtedly prevents the major religious group Mumbai riots in
from dominating minor religious groups. This December 1992 and
principle of secularism deters communal riots January 1993, Godhra
as they happened just before Independence. riots in 2002, etc. have shown the well-
It also resists the religious persecution of established problem of communalism raising
minorities its head now and then.
• Economic Growth → Adherence to • Practice of pseudo-secularism →
secularism would accelerate India to Indifferently implementing secularism or
transform itself into the world's fastest pretending themselves as a champion of
economy This would remove the blemish secularism may explain the pseudo-secularism.
created by the famines that happened in 1940s. For example, the lack of political will to
It has drastically improved the overall standard implement UCC and abolish regressive
of living of Indian masses by Changing their Triple Talaq fearing the loss of Muslim
outlook. votes.
• Growing fundamentalism → Religious
CHALLENGES AND THREATS TO fundamentalism refers to the blind and
unquestioning adherence to particular
SECULARISM
religious beliefs. It is manifest in orthodoxy,
conservatism, and singularity as against
democratic norms of modernism and plurality.
149
• Anti-religious → It has been argued by some governments show bias in regulating the
that secularism threatens religious identity. religious customs and practices. For instance,
However, as we noted earlier, secularism polygamy is prohibited in Hindu law, but it
promotes religious freedom and equality. is allowed in Islam. But the state is not ready
Hence, it protects religious identity rather to deal with such ambiguities and double
than threatens it. It does undermine some stranded nature of law.
forms of religious identity, which are • Communal riots → In recent past also,
dogmatic, violent, fanatical, exclusivist, and communalism has proved to be a great threat to
those, which foster hatred of other religions. the secular fabric of Indian polity e.g Delhi riot
The politicization of any one religious group 2020, UP riot 2015 among others.
leads to the competitive politicization of other • International influence → e,g IRAN issue,
groups, thereby resulting in inter-religious refuge crisis
conflict. • Growing radicalisation
• Rise of Hindu Nationalism in recent years → → In recent years there
has resulted in mob lynching on mere have been stray
suspicion of slaughtering cows and incidences of Muslim
consuming beef. youth being inspired and
• Constitutional contradiction → radicalized by groups
Constitutional provision meant for secularism like ISIS which is very
has loopholes and is discriminative in nature. unfortunate for both
There are certain secular principles that are India and world
mutually exclusive. For instance, Article 48
bans cow slaughter for respecting the
religious sentiment of Hindu but such STEPS TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT OF
actions are approved of as a part of Muslim INDIA TO PROMOTE SECULARISM
tradition.
• 42nd amendment act 1976 → Establishing
• Exclusion of minorities → The overall
India as a secular state with many
participation of religious minorities in the
constitutional securities
political sphere continues to occupy a tiny
• Ministry of Minority Affairs → Created in
space and they are not given their due shares.
2006 as an offspring of the Ministry of Social
Sachar Committee reported “while Muslims
Justice & Empowerment.
constitute 14 percent of the Indian population,
they comprise only 2.5 percent of the Indian • National Integration Council (NIC) → It was
bureaucracy” formed in 1962 under the chairmanship of
Prime minister as a means of combating the
• Defective educational system → which has
menace of communalism and to ensure unity
encouraged the people to think in terms of
and integrity of nation.
groups and communities has also failed to
inculcate secular ideas in the minds of young • Open all religious places
students and promote the feeling of mutual give and institutions to all
and take. classes and sections of the
people. For example,
Sabarimala Temple entry
case.
• The Sachar Committee
→ was designated to find
out the socio-economic conditions of Muslims
(2005-2006).
• Ranganath Misra Commission → was set to
• Discriminative state ascertain the status of Religious and Linguistic
intervention → To retain vote banks, Minorities (2004- 2007).
150
• Multi-Sectoral Development Programme → SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE SECULAR

which aims to enhance the socio-economic CREDENTIALS
conditions of minorities, provide basic
amenities for improving their quality of life, • In a pluralistic society, the best approach to
and reduce imbalances in the identified nurture secularism is
minority concentration. to expand religious
• Introduction of value and moral education freedom rather than
along with the regular curriculum. strictly practicing state
• Abolition of separate electorate and neutrality.
introduction of universal adult franchise • Harboring on religious
(Article 326) immediately after the harmony and universal
Independence. brotherhood by spreading the thoughts of
• National Minorities Development & Finance great leaders.
Corporation (NMDFC) → was formed in • Perhaps one way of preventing religious bias is
1994 to promote economic activities among the to work together for mutual understanding.
backward sections of notified minorities by Education is a means to effect change in the
providing them financial aid with discounts for mindset of people. Individual examples of
self-employment activities. sharing and mutual help could reduce prejudice
• Welfare schemes → like Nai Udhan, Nai and suspicion between communities.
Roshni (leadership development of minority • Movements for social reform will have to be
women), Seekho aur Kamao (Learn and Earn). organized and public opinion mobilized-
• Skill development cum employment Minorities should be encouraged to
programmes → like Udaan and Himayat to participate in the mainstream of national life.
accommodate j&K youth into mainstream • Social reform is a spirit of social justice and
development of India were started. equality that must pervade all sections of the
• Wakf Board → Regularization and population.
computerization • The prerequisites to implement the social
• Prime Minister’s 15-point programme for reform initiative like Uniform Civil Code are
minorities. to create a conducive environment and forging
socio-political consensus.
Objectives of PM’s 15-point Programme – • Learning more about other religions is the
• Improving access to School Education first step towards learning to respect and
accept other people and their beliefs.
• Greater resources for teaching Urdu
• Put an end to communal politics and
• Modernizing Madarsa Education
popularise principle-based secular politics.
• Scholarships for meritorious students from
• The need of the hour is to ensure intra-
minority communitie
religious and inter-religious equality and
• Equitable Share in Economic Activities and
freedom (Sarva Dharma Sama Bhava) and
Employment
accept the universality and plurality in
• Self-Employment and Wage Employment for
religions (Ekam sat vipra bahudha vadanti -
the poor
Rig Veda).
• Upgradation of skills through technical training
• If we succeeded as a harmonious state, India
• Enhanced credit support for economic will acquire a lot more phrases of adulations
activities like “Unity in Diversity” and “melting pot”
• Recruitment to State and Central Services of multiculturalism, etc.
• Improving the conditions of living of minorities • Periodical convention of the National
• Prevention & Control of Communal Riots Integration Council with the true spirit of
secularism.
• Recalibrate the contradictions in the
constitutions and ensure conformity between
151
various statutes and laws in the light of secular St. Stephen’s The court held that autonomy
ethos. College vs of a minority institution
• Consider the suggestions of 2nd ARC (4th University of cannot be taken away as it will
report-Ethics in Governance, 5th report-Public Delhi (1992) defeat the purpose of right to
Order) to offer secular governance and handle establish and administer
communal clashes effectively and promptly. educational institutions by
minorities.
Ismail Farooqui Supreme Court held that “the
Judicial Pronouncements Regarding vs Union of concept of secularism is one
Secularism in India India, 1994 facet of the right to equality
(famously woven as the central golden
Kesavananda Secularism has been deemed
called Ayodhya thread in the fabric depicting
Bharati case as one of the pillars of “Basic
Case) the pattern of the scheme in
(1973) Structure of the Indian
our constitution”.
Constitution”. The Supreme
Court held that the basic
structure of the Constitution CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
cannot be altered by the
Parliament Uniform Civil Code (UCC)
S. R Bommai The Supreme Court observed • Article 44 (DPSP) of the Constitution states
vs Union of the following, that "the State shall
India case “Notwithstanding the fact that endeavor to secure for
(1994) the words 'Socialist' and citizens a uniform civil
'Secular' were added in the code throughout the
Preamble of the Constitution territory of India." It
in 1976 by the 42nd essentially means a
Amendment, the concept of common set of laws
Secularism was very much governing personal
embedded in our matters for all citizens
constitutional philosophy” of the country, irrespective of religion.
Thus, secularism which was
implicit in the Constitution Positive aspects of Uniform Civil Code:
was made explicit. • It will divest religion from social relations
Stanislaus vs The Supreme Court held that and personal laws and will ensure equality in
State of the right to propagate religion terms of justice to both men and women
Madhya (Article 25) does not include regardless of the faith they practice.
Pradesh case right to forcible conversion • There will be uniform laws for all Indians
(1977) as it may disturb public order. with regard to marriage, inheritance, divorce,
Ratilal vs State It was held that regulations by etc.
of Bombay the state should not interfere • It will help in improving the condition of
(1954) with essentials of religion. women in India as Indian society is mostly
Church of God It was held that as the right to patriarchal whereby old religious rules
(Full Gospel) in religion is subject to public continue to govern the family life and subjugate
India vs K. K. order, no prayers (through women.
R. Majestic voice amplifiers or beating of • Various personal laws have several loopholes,
Colony Welfare drums) should be performed which are exploited by those who have the
Association by disturbing the peace of power to do so. Due to uniformity, such
(2000) others. loopholes will cease to exist or will be
minimized
152
• Informal bodies like caste panchayats give practice of triple talaq as unconstitutional by
judgments based on traditional laws. UCC will a 3:2 majority.
ensure that legal laws are followed rather than
traditional laws. Positive Outcomes of the Judgement:
• It can help in reducing instances of vote bank • It ensures equality by upholding fundamental
politics. If all religions are covered under the rights guaranteed by Articles 14 and 21 of the
same laws, politicians will have less to offer to Constitution.
communities in exchange for their votes. • It ensures gender equality especially for
• It will help in the integration of India as a lot Muslim women as the provision of triple talaq
of animosities are caused by preferential resulted in feelings of insecurity among them.
treatment by the law in favor of certain Arbitrary talaq also impacted their social status
religious communities. and dignity.
• It upholds core constitutional provisions, as
Challenges in Implementing Uniform Civil fundamental rights guaranteed by the
Code: Constitution override the provisions of
• Implementation of UCC might interfere with personal laws
the principle of secularism, particularly with
the provisions of Articles 25 and 26, which Negative outcomes of the judgment:
guarantee freedom relating to religious • It goes against Article 26 of the Indian
practices. Constitution, which guarantees freedom in
• Conservatism by religious groups, which matters of religion to every religious
resist such changes as it interferes with their denomination and sect (including Hanafi
religious practices. school, which is followed by Shayara Bano).
• It is difficult for the government to come up • Opponents contend that it is not the court’s role
with a uniform law that is accepted by all to “determine the true intricacies of faith”.
religious communities. All religious groups- Also, there is the contention that Muslim
whether the majority or minority have to Personal Law (Shariat) Act 1937, has not
support the change in personal laws. codified talaq-e-bidat (triple talaq) into
• Drafting of UCC is another obstacle. There is statutory law, thus, it does not fall under Article
no consensus regarding whether it should be a 13.
blend of personal laws or should be a new law • The challenge is to inform the Muslim masses
adhering to the constitutional mandate. that the abolition of the practice does not go
against the Shariah but it is closer to the original
tenets of Islam.
Issue of Instant Triple Talaq
• Instant triple talaq is a
form of Islamic divorce Entry Movements to Places of Religious
practiced in India, Worship Led by Women’s Organizations
whereby a Muslim man
can legally divorce his 1. Shani-Shignapur Temple:
wife by stating the word • A group of women called the Bhumata
talaq three times in Rangaragini Brigade led a movement to break
oral, written, or more the 400-year-old tradition of the Temple
recently electronic barring women from entering its inner sanctum.
form. • Eventually, the Bombay High Court stated that
• The practice has raised several controversies “No law prevents women from entering a
and discussions regarding issues of justice, place of worship and if men are allowed,
gender equality, human rights, and secularism. then women too should be permitted.”
• In the Shayara Bano vs Union of India case
(2017), the Supreme Court declared the
153
2. Sabarimala Temple:
• In Sabarimala temple, Kerala, women between
the ages of 10 and 50 are not allowed to enter
the temple, since they are in the menstrual age
group. A 1991 Kerala High Court judgment
supported the ban on women.
• However, the case has been referred to a
three-judge bench of the Supreme Court to
deem whether excluding menstruating women
constitutes “essential religious practice.”
• Secularism is crucial to restrain the
3. Haji Ali Dargah:
authority of the majority religion and
• In 2012, the Dargah Trust barred women
restrict the use of political clout on religious
base. It is also to safeguard the freedom of
individuals (i.e., to exit from their religion,
embrace another religion or have the freedom
to interpret religious teachings).
• Need of the hour is to ensure intra-religious
and inter-religious equality and freedom and
accept the universality and plurality in
religions. If we succeeded as an absolute
harmonious state, India will acquire a lot more
phrases of adulations like “Unity in Diversity”
and “melting pot” of multi-cultualism etc.
from entering the sanctum sanctorum of the
Haji Ali dargah. The trust cited verses from the
Quran and Prophet Mohammed to claim that
Islam does not permit women to enter
dargahs/mosques. The trust also claimed the
fundamental right “to manage its own
affairs” under Article 26 of the Indian
Constitution.
• This was opposed by several women’s
organizations. Eventually, the Bombay High
Court lifted the ban saying it contravenes
the Constitution and women should be
allowed entry “at par with men”. It also held
that the Trust could not enforce a ban Other schemes for the minority communities:
“contrary to the fundamental rights” (i.e.
Art 14, 15, and 25) enshrined in the Seekho Aur It is a placement linked skill
Kamao development programme
Constitution.
Nai Manzil A scheme for formal school
education & skilling of school
CONCLUSION dropouts
Gharib Nawaz For providing short-term job-
• The history of civilizations and the painful Employment oriented skill development
experiences felt because of the communal Training
courses to youths belonging to
problems have made us realize that the
minority communities
secularism is indispensable to overcome the
religious anomalies.
154
Pradhan Mantri It is an area development 2. Discuss various threats to secularism in India

Jan Vikas scheme. context.
Karyakram
(PMJVK)
3. “Equal protection by the State to all religions”
Upgrading Skills To conserve traditional is the view of Jawaharlal Nehru towards
and Training in arts/crafts of our Country and secularism. Examine.
Traditional
for building capacity of 4. Discuss the concept, constraints, and prospect
Arts/Crafts for of secularism in India.
Development traditional artisans and
craftsmen belonging to 5. Do the Fundamental rights provided under
(USTTAD)
minority communities, Article 25-28 truly make India a secular state.
Examine
Nai Manzil To engage constructively with
the poor Minority youth and
help them to obtain
sustainable and gainful
employment opportunities
Hamari Proposed to preserve rich
Dharohar scheme heritage of minority
communities of India under
the overall concept of Indian
culture.
Nai Roshni For Leadership Development
of Minority Women with an
aim to empower and instil
confidence in women.
“Hunar Haat” An exhibition of handicrafts,
(Skill Haat) embroidery etc made by the
artisans from the Minority
Communities
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1. How do the Indian debates on secularism differ
from the debates in the West? (200 words)-
2014.
2. How is the Indian concept of secularism
different from the western model of
secularism? Discuss. (10 Marks)- 2018
3. What are the challenges to our cultural
practices in the name of secularism? (150
words)- 2019
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. 'Indian secularism is a positive concept, taking
along and encouraging all the cultural practices
while instilling a scientific temper against
superstitions and harmful practices'. Explain
155
CH-9 COMMUNALISM
“The antagonism practiced by the members of one community against the people of other community and
religion can be termed as communalism” – Ram Ahuja
• In this way,
it promotes The report of the National
INTRODUCTION belief in Commission for Religious
• India is a land of multiple faiths and religions orthodox tenets and Linguistic Minorities,
leading often to violence and hatred among the and principles, headed by former Chief
people. Those who fan this religious violence intolerance, and Justice of India Rangnath
do not consider religion as a moral order but use hatred of other Mishra, says that 10%
it as a means and weapons to pursue their religions and thus, should be reserved for
political ambitions. divides the Muslims and 5% for other
minorities in central and
• Communalism, in a broad sense, means a society.
strong attachment to one’s own community. • In western state government jobs in
In a popular discourse in India, it is understood countries, it refers all cadre and grades.
as an unhealthy attachment to one’s own to a feeling of
religion. 'community'.
• Communalism, in the Indian context, is most Whereas in India,
commonly perceived-form as the it is understood in
phenomenon of religious differences between a negative sense
groups that often leads to tension and even i.e. a community is
rioting between them. put against one or
• In its not so violent manifestation, more
communalism amounts to discrimination communities.
against a religious group in matters such as • There are both positive as well as negative
employment or education. aspects of communalism. It disintegrates
• In India, communalism arises when religion is social fabric and disturbs peace and
used as a marker to highlight socio-economic integrity. To speak in its positive sense, a
disequilibrium between communities and as community for the other community, have a
a force multiplier to demand concessions. feeling of unity, to achieve the objective. In
• Communalism as “political trade in other words, it may be called "the group
religion”. It is an ideology on which solidarity"
communal politics is based. And communal • A communalised atmosphere is the one where
violence are conjectural consequences of there exists a deep-seated animosity and
communal ideology. suspicion among communities
• Communalism essentially leads to violence as ELEMENTS OF COMMUNALISM
it is based on mutual religious hatred. This Communalism or communal ideology consists of
phenomenon leads to a distinction between a three basic elements or
communal organization and a religious stages in following the Mild stage
organization. other:
• Communalism is an ideology that, in order to 1. Mild Stage: It is the Moderate stage
unify the community, suppresses belief that people who
distinctions within the community and follow the same
emphasizes the essential unity of the religion have common Extreme stage
community against other communities.
156
secular interests i.e. common political, social, Historical factors –

and cultural interests. • British historians projected ancient India as
2. Moderate Stage: In a multi-religious society being ruled by Hindus and the Medieval
like India, the secular interests of followers of period as the period of Muslim rule when
one religion are dissimilar and divergent from Hindus were exploited and threaten. Some
the interests of the followers of another influential Indians too supported this
religion. projection.
3. Extreme Stage: Interests of different religious
communities are seen to be mutually Political Factors -
incompatible, antagonistic, and hostile. • Communalism has flourished in India because
FEATURES OF COMMUNALISM
• It is a multifaceted process based on
orthodoxy and intolerance.
• It also propagates intense dislike of other
religions.
• It provides fertile ground for the emergence
of mutual distrust and disharmony amongst
the communities
• It stands for the elimination of other religions
and their values.
• It adopts extremist tactics including the use of
violence against other people.
• Communalism leads to abuse of power. It
seeks to emphasize the social and religious
norms of the community on the other
communities by including force, fraud,
economic and other allurements, and even
assistance from foreign powers.
• It is exclusive in outlook; a communalist the communalist leaders of both Hindu and
considers his own religion to be superior to Muslim communities desire to flourish in the
other religions. interest of their communities.
• Communalism treats some citizens not as • The demand for a separate electorate and
citizens but as a member of some specific the organization of the Muslim League was
religious community. the practical manifestations of this line of
thought.
CAUSE OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA
• The British policy of divide and rule used
religion to divide India by giving separate
electorates for Muslims and later it was
given to Sikhs and Anglo Indians. Other
political factors include religion-based politics,
the partiality of political leaders towards their
CAUSE OF COMMUNALISM communities, etc.
• Ultimately, the partition of the country
provided further antagonistic feelings
Historical Political Economic Social Role of towards each other.
factors Factors Factor Factors Media
• In India, the politics of opportunism is the
biggest cause of communalism driven by the
middle/ upper class for secular gains and
157
trusted by the lower sections that identify with harassment, fear, and danger in one community
the cause. against the members of the other community,
which in turn leads to fighting, hatred, and
Economic Factor - anger-phobia.
• Due to educational backwardness, people
have not been represented sufficiently in the Role of Media –
public service, industry, and trade, etc. This
causes the feeling of relative deprivation and
such feelings contain the seeds of
communalism.
• Non-expansion of the economy, competitive
market, non-absorption of workers is
contributing factors.
• A prominent reason why ‘divide and rule’ • It is often accused of sensationalism and
policy became prominent was that the Muslim disseminates rumours as "news" which
middle class had lagged behind the Hindus sometimes resulted in further tension and riots
in terms of education, which contributed to between two rival religious groups.
their low representation in government jobs. • Lots of movies have been pictured on the
Due to the lack of enough economic above-mentioned communal violence, which
opportunities at that time, a government job can give us understanding about the damages
was highly coveted by the middle classes. and harm, done by these violence- “Bombay”
• The demand for a separate nation of & “Black Friday” based on 1992 attacks.
Pakistan got the favor due to marked “Train to Pakistan” based on the novel of
inequalities in socio-economic indicators Khuswant singh about partition of India, 1947.
including representation in the seats of power. • “Gandhi” is portrayal of Direct Action Day
• The Mappila Rebellion, the first so-called and partition of India.
communal clash, was also more of a • “Hawayein” based of Sikh riots (1984) and
proletarian strike against the landed gentry “Machis” about Punjab terrorism.
than a communal riot. It so happened that the
• It has also emerged as a powerful medium to
landed gentry were Hindus and the peasants
spread messages relating to communal tension
were Muslims.
or riot in any part of the country.
• Ghettoization and the refugee problem are
the other dimension of communalism induced
violence.
Social Factors -
• Issues like beef consumption, Hindi/Urdu
imposition, conversion efforts by religious
groups, etc., further created a wedge between
the Hindus and Muslims.
• Social institutions, customs, and practices of
Hindus and Muslims are so divergent that they
think themselves to be two distinct
communities that further aids communism in
India.
Psychological Factors – CONSEQUENCES OF COMMUNALISM
• The lack of interpersonal trust and mutual • Voters generally vote on communal lines.
understanding between two communities After getting elected, the representatives try to
often result in the perception of threat,
158

other questions
format covered

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safeguard the interests of their community and

ignore national interests. These conditions HISTORICAL
hinder the progress of democracy in the VIEWPOINT
country.
• It is also a threat to Indian constitutional
values, which promotes secularism and Ancient Medieval Modern
religious tolerance. In that case, citizens don’t
fulfill their fundamental duties towards the
nation.
PRE- POST-
• It becomes a threat to the unity and integrity INDEPEDENCE INDEPEDENCE
of the nation as a whole. It promotes only the
feeling of hatred in all directions, dividing
society into communal lines.
ANCIENT INDIA:
• Communal activities occurring frequently do
• Ancient India was united and no such
harm the human resource and economy of the
communal feelings were there. People lived
country and act as a barrier in the
peacefully together; there was acceptance for
development of the nation.
each other’s culture and tradition.
• The investment attitude towards the country
• For example, Ashoka followed religious
from foreign investors would be cautious;
tolerance and focused mainly on Dhamma.
they tend to avoid the countries with a highly
communal country, for not take the risk of end
up losing their investment. MEDIEVAL PERIOD:
• The flow of labor from productive activities • In the Medieval period, there are examples such
is diverted to unproductive activities; there is as- Akbar, who was the epitome of secular
massive destruction of public properties to practices and believed in propagating such
spread the ideology. values by abolishing the Jizya tax and
starting of Din-I- ilahi and Ibadat Khana.
• It causes hatred among different religious
sections in society and disrupts the peaceful • However, barring few sectarian rulers like
social fabric of our society. Aurangzeb, who was least tolerant for other
religious practices and performed practices
• A sudden increase in violence against any
like- imposing taxes on religious practices of
particular community causes mass exodus
other community, destructing temples, forced
and stampede which in turn kills any number
conversions, killing of Sikh guru, etc. were
of people. For example, this was seen in the
instrumental in deepening and establishing the
case of Bangalore in 2012, with respect to
feeling of communal differences in India.
people from North-eastern states, which was
stimulated by a rumour. • But these incidents were not common, as a huge
majority of Indians were rural and were aloof
• With mass killings, the real sufferers are the
from such
poor, who lose their house, their near and dear
influences and so
ones, their lives, their livelihood, etc. It violates
people coexisted
human rights from all directions. Sometimes
peacefully.
children lose their parents and will become
Overall, the
orphans for a lifetime.
Hindus and
Muslims in those
HISTORICAL VIEWPOINT: days had
common economic and political interests.
MODERN PERIOD:
• Communal ideology in a person, party, or
movement went through the mentioned three
159
stages and two phases (Liberal and Extremist) • Simultaneously, Hindu communalism was also
during the Indian National Movement and being born. They declared Urdu to be the
ultimately resulted in the bifurcation of India language of the Muslims and Hindi of
and creation of Pakistan. Hindus. Further, anti-cow slaughter
propagation was undertaken in the 1890s and
PRE-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD: it was primarily directed against Muslims.
• Along with the rise of nationalism, • Eventually, organizations like the Punjab
communalism too made its appearance Hindu Sabha (1909), All India Hindu
around the end of the nineteenth century and Mahasabha (1st session in 1915), etc. were
posed the biggest threat to the unity of the founded.
Indian people and the national movement. • Revivalist movements like Arya Samaj,
• Roots of this were led in the latter part of the Shuddhi Movement (among Hindus),
19th century with Hindu revivalist Wahabi Movement, Tanzeem and Tabligh
movements like the Shuddhi movement of movements (among Muslims), etc. gave
Arya Samaj and Cow protection riots of further impetus to communalist tendencies.
1892. • This phase saw eventual communalization of
• On the other hand, movements like the Faraizi leaders like Syed Ahmed Khan, Lala Lajpat
movement started Haji Shariatullah in Bengal Rai, M.A. Jinnah, Madan Mohan Malviya, etc.
to bring the Bengali Muslims back on the true • The British gave momentum to the
path of Islam, was one of the religious reform communalist divide through their
movement which had bearing on communalism administrative decisions and policies such as
in the 19th century. the division of Bengal, Morley- Minto reforms
• Later people like Syed Ahmed Khan, who (1909), Communal Award (1932), etc.
despite having a scientific and rational
approach, projected Indian Muslims as a EXTREMIST PHASE
separate community (qaum) having interest • It demanded a separate nation, based on fear
different from others. and hatred. There was a tendency to use
violence of language, deed, and behaviour. For
LIBERAL PHASE: instance, Muslim League and Hindu
• Post-1857 revolt, the British preferred Hindus Mahasabha after 1937.
over Muslims in the matters of employment, • Communalism acquired a popular base
education, etc. among urban lower-middle-class groups and
• Muslim intellectuals too realized that Muslims mass movements around aggressive, extremist
lagged behind their Hindu counterparts in communal politics emerged.
terms of education, government jobs, etc. • Communalism also became the only political
• Eventually, Syed Ahmed Khan opposed the recourse of colonial authorities and their
functioning of the Indian National Congress policy of divide and rule.
and deemed it a pro- Hindu party, which was • During the period, M.A. Jinnah declared that
against Muslim interests. ‘Muslims should organize themselves, stand
• The prominent Muslims like Aga Khan, united and should press every reasonable
Nawab Moshin-ul-Mulk, etc. founded the All point for the protection of their community.’
India Muslim League, to consolidate Muslim • He eventually stated that Muslims would be
interests. One of its major objectives was to suppressed under the Hindu dominated
keep emerging intelligentsia among Muslims Congress after the British left India and thus,
from joining the Congress. the only recourse would be a separate state
• Communalism in India got its initial start in for Muslims i.e. creation of Pakistan.
the 1880s when Syed Ahmed Khan opposed • Hindu communalism too did not lag behind.
the national movement, initiated by the Indian The Hindu Mahasabha and the Rashtriya
National Congress. Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), began
160
propagating extreme communalism. They • The manifestations of communal killings and

demanded that the non-Hindu groups of India disturbances resulted in the Calcutta killings
adopt the Hindu culture and language and hold (1946) in which
the Hindu religion in reverence. They too thousands lost
espoused that Hindus and Muslims are two their lives
separate social and political entities with within a span of
opposing interests. five days, the
butchery of
POST-INDEPENDENCE Hindus at
• Colonialism is perceived as the prominent Noakhali in
factor for the emergence of communalism in Bengal and
India. However, overthrowing colonial rule Muslims in
proved to be only a necessary condition for Bihar, the carnage of partition riots in
fighting communalism, not sufficient. various parts of India and the assassination of
• Even post-independence, communalism Gandhiji by a Hindu fanatic.
persisted and has been the biggest threat to • Communalism also resulted in the division of
the secular fabric of our nation. India and the creation of Pakistan.
• Most communal riots prior to 1947 were rooted • After partition, millions of the population were
in the policy of British forced to move from both sides of the border.
colonial rulers. But Hindus in Pakistan and Muslims in India were
after the partition, a killed in masses, women were raped, and many
section of the Indian elite children lost their parents. There was hatred
of both sections are also everywhere, violence didn’t see anything
blamed for the problem. except bloodshed.
• Communal problems • Later, it turned into the problem of refugees
post-independence has and their rehabilitation became one of the
been caused many biggest challenges for independent India.
factors, some of which
are: Anti-Sikh riots, 1984:
• The class division of society and the • This is one of the bloodsheds in India, where
backwardness of our economy resulted in an Sikhs in large numbers were massacred by the
unequal and unbalanced economy. anti- Sikh mob.
• It is the upper classes of the less developed • This massacre took place in response to the
communities that have enjoyed the fruits of assassination of Prime Minister Indira
limited growth and have hence enjoyed the Gandhi by his own Sikh body Guard in
political power. response to her actions authorizing the military
• In order to draw support from their own operation.
communities, these leaders have always Operation Blue Star:
encouraged communal feelings to strengthen
• It is a code name given to an Indian Military
their political support.
Operation to remove the separatists who were
• Improper cultural synthesis hidden inside the Golden Temple at Amritsar
• Perceived or relative deprivation on 5th June 1984.
• Regional or social imbalance in development • The operation was ordered by the then Prime
• Political mobilization in the age of democracy Minister Indira Gandhi, primarily to take
has led to the consolidation of communal control of the Harmandir Sahib Complex in
sentiments. Amritsar (popularly known as the Golden
Temple).
COMMUNAL VIOLENCE IN INDIA
• The Indian military entered into the premises of
Partition of India,1947 the temple to drive out the Sikh extremist
161
religious leader, Jarnail Singh 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus. There were
Bhindranwale and his armed followers. instances of rape, children being burned alive,
and widespread looting and destruction of
Issue of Kashmiri Hindu pundits (1989): property.
• Kashmir is known
as the heaven of Assam violence (2012):
India and was • There were frequent clashes between the
known for its Bodos and Bengali speaking Muslims due to
Kashmiryat, i.e. increased competition for livelihood, land, and
the reflection of political power.
love, peace and • In 2012, one
harmony through such outbreak
brotherhood and escalated into a
unity of Hindu, riot in
Muslims and other communities living Kokrajhar,
together. when
• Spread of Islamic fundamentalism and unidentified
terrorism in Kashmir valley led to mass killing miscreants
and a large-scale exodus of Kashmiri pundits killed four Bodo
during 1989- 90. The region continues to be youths at Joypur.
threatened by communal violence. • This was followed by retaliatory attacks on
local Muslims killing two and injuring several
Babri masjid demolition in Ayodhya, 1992: of them. Almost 80 people were killed, most
• In December of whom were Bengali Muslims and some
1992, a large Bodos. Approximately, 400,000 people were
crowd of Hindu displaced to makeshift camps.
Kar Sevaks
demolished the Muzaffarnagar Riots (2013):
16th-century • The clashes between the Hindu Jats and
Babri masjid Muslim communities in Muzaffarnagar, UP
(mosque) in resulted in at least 62 deaths, injured 93 people,
Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh claiming the site to be and left more than 50,000 displaced.
Ram Janma-bhoomi (birthplace of Ram). • The riot has been described as "the worst
• This led to months of inter-communal rioting violence in Uttar Pradesh in recent history",
between the Hindus and Muslims resulting in with the army being deployed in the state for
the deaths of hundreds of people. the first time in the last 20 years.
• International Religious Freedom Report
2013 (USA) has slammed the Uttar Pradesh
Godhra Riots 2002: government for not taking effective steps to
• The Gujarat riot was caused by a fire incident control communal violence and intolerance.
in a train in • Uttar Pradesh has seen the frequent occurrences
which 58 Hindus of communal riots. For Example, The
were killed while Muzaffarnagar riots of 2013
they were
returning from CURRENT ISSUES REGARDING
Ayodhya. COMMUNALISM
• According to Currently, a manifestation of communalism in
official figures, India can be witnessed in several forms. These
the riots resulted include:
in the deaths of
162
Hadiya case 2017: • While the organizing groups claimed that

• A 24-year-old Hindu woman, Akhila, who people voluntarily came forward to convert to
converted to Islam and took a new name, Hinduism, some participants claimed that they
Hadiya was at the center of the ‘love jihad’ were forced to do so.
controversy.
• While she alleged that she converted to Islam Religious fundamentalism among youth:
and chose to marry her husband out of choice, • It has been deemed as a major challenge
her father filed a Habeas Corpus petition and among the youth. There is an on-going threat
claimed that she was forced to convert to Islam of radicalization among Kashmiri youth,
and was targeted as a recruit of ISIS. which can give an impetus to already existing
• The Kerala High Court annulled her separatist tendencies.
marriage, sent her to her parents’ home, and • Further, the youth have fallen prey to
observed that “she was a weak and fundamentalist tendencies of terrorist
vulnerable girl capable of being exploited.” groups like ISIS as much Indian radicalized
• However, the Supreme Court protected her youth have joined the group.
freedom to choose her religion and freedom • The Minister of Home Affairs (MHA)
of movement and asked her to return to college estimates that 75 Indians have joined ISIS.
to continue her studies. • However, the reach of the terrorist organization
is spreading in India, especially through the
Beef consumption and ensuing deaths medium of social media.
• The issue of beef consumption and
Delhi riot 2020 or North East Delhi riots
• New Delhi witnessed one of the worst
communal violence in the history of the
national capital.
• The premise of the New Delhi 2020 riots is
based on growing animosity and
destabilisation of communal harmony in the
background of the Citizenship
(Amendment) Act and the National Register
of Citizens (NRC).
STEPS TO CHECK THE GROWTH OF

transportation has been a contentious issue in COMMUNALISM
India and has triggered communal outbreaks in
various parts of the country. Political:
• Muslims were the target of 51% of violence • Political communism should be avoided as
cantered on bovine issues over nearly eight directed by the Supreme Court's directives.
years (2010 to 2017) and comprised 86% of 28 • Identification and mapping of riot prone
Indians killed in 63 incidents, according to areas. For Example, the Delhi police used
India-Spend content analysis. drones to monitor to maintain vigil during
communal festivals.
Ghar Wapsi programs: • Media, movies, and other cultural platforms
• It is a series of religious conversion activities, can be influential in promoting peace and
facilitated by Indian Hindu organizations such harmony.
as the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) and • Social Media should be monitored for violent
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), to and repulsive content and taken off
facilitate the conversion of non-Hindus to immediately.
Hinduism.
Social:
163
• Religious leaders and preachers should • There is a need to reform in the present
promote rational and practical things criminal justice system (Mall math
through religion promoting peace and security. Committee recommended), speedy trials
• Children in schools must be taught through and adequate compensation to the victims
textbooks and pamphlets to maintain may act as a deterrent.
brotherhood and respect for all religions. • Ensuring that political parties refrain from
• Creating awareness in the society about the ill using religion, religious ideologies in order to
effects of communism through mass media. garner votes through strict vigilance by
institutional mechanisms such as the Election
Economic: Commission, media, civil society, etc.
• Poverty is one of the major factors for • Instances of an inter-religious marriage of
communal violence. Poverty alleviation two consenting adults should not be
measures are thus important for promoting construed as “love jihad issue” and
communal harmony. highlighted in the media. Thus, media persons
• Eradicating the problem of unemployment should be sensitized regarding the issue.
among the youths, illiteracy, and poverty and • The pluralistic settlement where members of
that too with honesty and without any different communities live together should be
discrimination. There is a great need to work encouraged by removing existing barriers as
towards eradicating the problem of religious segregation strengthens communal
unemployment among the youths, illiteracy and identities and reinforces negative stereotypes
poverty and that too with honesty and without of other religious groups.
any discrimination • Sachar Committee report on the status of
• Reducing the educational and economic Indian Muslims recommended the creation of
backwardness of minorities like Muslims. an Equal Opportunities Commission to deal
This can uplift their socio-economic status and with complaints of intolerance and exclusion.
reduce their deprivation compared to Hindus • The government should criminalize the act
of mob violence. Manipur became the first
REMEDIAL MEASURES to pass a remarkable law against lynching,
• The problem of communalism in India is grave late last year. The precedent should be
and can have far-reaching consequences. followed in other
Thus, persuasive as well as punitive measures states too. Mobs
are required to curb its spread. leading communal
• Building solidarity and assimilation of riots should be
various religious groups at different levels in controlled and
society- workplace, neighbourhood etc. by strict action should
fostering a secular culture eg. celebrating each be taken against
other’s religious festivals. them as a
• Emphasis on value-oriented education with a combative
focus on the values of peace, non-violence, measure.
compassion, secularism, and humanism as well • Stern law should
as developing scientific temper (enshrined as a be framed by the Parliament against
fundamental duty) and rationalism as core communal violence. The weaknesses of laws
values in children both in schools and resulted in the escape of politicians and other
colleges/universities, can prove vital in influential persons openly indulged in inciting
preventing communal feelings. communal violence.
• Swift and prompt response to radicalization • The CBI or a special investigative body should
by a militant group on social media through investigate communal riots within a stipulated
police action, counselling sessions for those time frame.
radicalized especially adolescents etc. • Further, special courts should hear such
cases for quick delivery of justice to victims.
164
• There is a need for minority welfare Mahatma Gandhi was also very much against
schemes to be launched and implemented religious conversions. Long back he had written,
efficiently by the administration to address the ‘Every nation considers its own faith to be as good
challenges and various forms of discrimination as that of any other. Certainly, the great faiths held
faced by them in jobs, housing, and daily life. by the people of India are adequate for her people.
• Increase in the representation of minority India stands in no need of conversion from one
communities and weaker sections in all wings faith to another’. As early as in 19th Jan, 1928,
of law-enforcement, training of forces in Gandhiji wrote in Young India that we should not
human rights, especially in the use of firearms even secretly pray that anyone should be converted,
in accordance with the UN code of conduct. ‘but our utmost prayer should be that a Hindu
• Uniform Civil Code should be formulated should be a better Hindu a Musalman a better
and implemented with the consensus of all Musalman and a Christian a better Christian
religious communities so that there is
uniformity in personal laws.
WAY FORWARD
• Secular education should be taught in all
Thus, in order to get rid of the problem of
educational institutions, which will lead to the
communalism in India, there is a need of
development of harmony and co-operation
collective efforts. All will have to discharge their
among members of different communities.
duties. If we do so, definitely harmony will prevail.
• History education should be de- Everybody will prosper. This must be done; this
communalized as the present categorization of was the dream of Mahatma Gandhi for a free
Indian history into ancient, medieval, and India’.
modern has contributed to communal thinking
as it has effectively divided history into the PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
Hindu period, Muslim period, and Christian 1. 'Communalism arises either due to power
period respectively. This has given rise to struggle or relative deprivation.' Argue by
notions that India was a Hindu country which giving suitable illustrations. (2018) - 15 Marks
was ‘invaded’ by Muslims and Christians. 2. Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity
• Increased employment opportunities for and communalism giving one example of how
minorities can lead to a decrease in communal the former has got transformed into the latter in
discord. independent India. (2017) - 15 Marks
• Religious heads can play an important role
in the dissemination of ideas of the diversity of
religion, ideas, etc. which can help in spreading PRACTICE QUESTIONS
peace among different communities. • Along with the rise of nationalism,
• The government should not ban minority communalism too made its appearance around
practices to appease the majority group. E.g. the end of the nineteenth century. Discuss
the state should not show a preference for • Critically examine various factors that aid
vegetarianism. communalism in India with recent relevant
• Media, movies, and other influences should examples from Indian Society.
be used in promoting religious harmony and • Communal attacks, the cancer of communalism
peace. affect the body of the Indian Nation. Comment.
• The solution of such problems cannot be one or
two steps by government. Apart from
legislative support, administrative efficiency
and alertness with the help of modern tools
and technology, the major onus lies on the
citizens themselves by avoiding communal
violence.
165
CH-10 REGIONALISM
Regionalism is defined as a feeling of loyalty to a particular part of a country and a wish for it to be more
politically independent. It is not just a territorial unit but a culmination of socio-economic and political
factors
. ● Regionalism is a psychic phenomenon.
● It is built around as an expression of group
identity, as well as loyalty to the region.
INTRODUCTION: ● It
● For understanding regionalism, one must have
to clear about various dimensions of the
region. As a geographical unit, the area is
delimited from each other. The part which is a
social system that reflects the relationship
between different human beings and groups.
Regions are organized in cooperation in
cultural, economic, political, or military
fields. The region acts as a subject with a
distinct identity, language, culture, and
tradition.
Regionalism in It inspires peoples to develop

a positive sense an understanding of
brotherhood and unity,
which seeks to protect the
interests of a particular
region and promote the
welfare and development of
the state and its people. presupposes the concept of development of
Regionalism in It indicates excessive one’s region without taking into consideration
the negative attachment to one’s region, the interest of other regions.
sense which is a significant threat ● It prohibits people from other regions to be
to the unity and integrity of benefitted by a particular region.
the country. e.g. khalistan
demand, Bodoland HISTORICAL VIEWPOINT:
demand; greater nagalim
● Regionalism in India is rooted in India’s HISTORICAL VIEWPOINT

diversity of languages, cultures, tribes, and
religions.
● Regionalism is an ideology and political POST-
PRE-INDEPENDENT
movement that seeks to advance the causes of INDIA INDEPENDENT
regions. It is driven by the conscientiousness INDIA
of loyalty to a distinct region with a
homogenous population in terms of cultural,
social, political, economic aspiration, or
ethnicity. ● The origin of regionalism is in India’s
manifold diversity of languages, cultures,
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES: ethnic groups, communities, religions, and
166
so on, and encouraged by the regional and love started appearing, and thus
concentration of those identity markers, and regionalism became inevitable.
fuelled by a sense of local deprivation.
● For many centuries, India remained the land During the Intense (ethnic) mass
of many lands, regions, cultures, and 1950s and mobilization occurred in south
traditions. The basic point that highlights this 1960s → India. For separate statehood for
respect is that internal self-determination of the Telugu-speakers out of the
community, whether linguistic, tribal, composite Madras Presidency.
religious, regional or their combinations, has Pottu Sriramulu was the leader
remained the principal form in which he went on unto death in 1952 for
regionalism in India has sought to express his demand led to the formation
itself, historically as well as of the State Reorganization Act,
contemporaneously. 1956.
During the The main aim of reorganization
1970s and was North-east India. The basis of
1980s → reorganization was tribal uprising
IN PRE-INDEPENDENT INDIA: for separation and statehood. It
● The British empire-building started around drives to the formation of the
the three nuclei of Calcutta, Bombay, and North-eastern States
madras. The acquired territories of east, west, Reorganisation Act, 1971,
and south India were gradually added to the which upgraded the Union
presidencies of Bengal, Bombay, and madras. Territories of Manipur and
This resulted in the formation of 3 original Tripura, and the Sub-State of
British Indian provinces. Meghalaya to full statehood, and
● The British formed bigger states during the first Mizoram and Arunachal
phase of empire-building. The bifurcation of Pradesh (then Tribal Districts) to
bigger states initiated the second phase of the Union Territories. The latter
formation of the British Indian provinces into became states in 1986. Goa
smaller ones. Assam was the first state of its (based on Konkani language
kind. (8th Schedule)), which became a
● The sole purpose of the Britishers in the state in 1987, was the sole
territorial reorganization and the formation exception.
of new States was the advancement of imperial During the Demand for Chhattisgarh out of
interest and efficient administration. 1990s → Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand
● Development and welfare did not form the out of Bihar, and Uttaranchal
agenda of the British State. out of Uttar Pradesh. Regional
● Due weightage was always given to the backwardness was the reason. In
furtherance of the policy ‘Divide and Rule’. 2000 all three states were carved
out of their parent state.
POST-INDEPENDENT INDIA: Most The division of Andhra Pradesh,
● After Independence, the leaders tried to recently giving a separate state of
encourage a feeling among the people that Telangana in 2014.
they belonged to one single nation.
● The framers of the constitution wanted to
achieve this by introducing single citizenship REGIONALISM AS A SUB-STATE
for all. MOVEMENT:
● But India is a complex country, and keeping ● In its positive sense, regionalism implies an
in view of its vastness and diversity in culture idea of searching the self-identity of the people
and language, a strong sense of regional loyalty of that particular area.
167
● In other sense, it is instead a separate demand ● It is coterminous with provincial territories

for protecting and preserving the racial, and involves juxtaposing the identities of one
linguistic, and economic interest of a group of or more states against another. It is also an
people belonging to a nation. issue specifically.
● Regionalism is, in fact, is a movement of a Sub- ● The issue is highlighted because it sabotages
nationality against a prevailing nationality. their interest.
● It is important to note that regionalism in India, ● For example, Disputes between Karnataka
in its present form, has various connotations and Tamilnadu over the distribution of Kaveri
like ‘provincialism, ‘localism’, ‘son of the water may be construed as inter-state
soil theory’, ‘disintegration of Indian regionalism.
States,’ struggle for separate statehood or
provincial autonomy, struggle for more Intra-state regionalism:
power, especially economic power, etc. ● The third type of regionalism refers to intra-
whatever may be the connotations, the concept state regionalism, wherein a part of the state
of regionalism has now become a separatist strives for self-identity and self-
movement in different parts of India in various development. Therefore, it is taken in a
forms. positive sense.
● India is now infected with the regional ● In negative terms, it militates against the
upsurge of different kinds like geographical collective interest of the state as well as the
regionalism, linguistic regionalism, cultural nation.
regionalism, ethnic regionalism, and so on. ● For Example, there is always a feeling of the
coastal region and western region in Orissa.
TYPES OF REGIONALISM: E.g. Vidarbha in Maharashtra, a Saurashtra in
The three main types of regionalism are: Gujarat, a Telangana in Andhra Pradesh, an
East U.P. in Uttar Pradesh
TYPES OF REGIONALISM MANIFESTATIONS OF REGIONALISM-

1. Separate flag for state E.g. Karnataka.
2. Son of soil doctrine
Supra-state Intra-state 3. Local reservations in employment E.g.
regionalism Inter-state regionalism Karnataka, Goa, Andhra Pradesh.
regionalism
4. Inter-state river water conflicts & non-
cooperation E.g. Karnataka and Tamilnadu
5. Rejection of new education policy over 3
language formula E.g. Tamilnadu protest
Supra-state regionalism:
● In this type of regionalism, the group of states 6. Para-diplomacy. E.g. Andhra Pradesh (S.E
joins hands to take a common stand on the Asia) and Tamil nadu (USA)
issue of mutual interest vis-a-vis another 7. Violence against migrant workers. E.g. MNS
group of states or at times against the union. began their violent agitation against North
● It is not an instance of a permanent merger Indians. Bhojpuri films were not allowed to run
of state identities in the collective identity. on theatres in Maharashtra.
Even at times, inter-group rivalries, tensions,
8. Khalistan movement with its aim to create a
and conflicts may tend to persist,
simultaneously along with their cooperation. Sikh homeland from state of Punjab.
● For Example, North Eastern states in India 9. Linguistic Reorganization of States E.g. AP
may be said to have possessed the supra-state in 1953 and others.
regionalism. 10. The Demand for Autonomy. E.g. Delhi
Inter-state regionalism:
168
11. Demand for special category status. E.g. part of MP and part of UP) for
Andhra Pradesh. promoting the development of
the region
REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE OF
REGIONALISM – Demand for The union territories have
• Karnataka and Tamilnadu → Cauvery water Full Statehood been forwarding such
dispute demands like the NCT of
Delhi. E.g. Most of such
• Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh belt → Lack of
demands have already been
tribal development and naxalist hotspot
accepted. In 1971, Himachal
• North East India → Governance and autonomy
Pradesh got the status of a full
issues, identity crisis, outsiders’ issues,
state and thereafter Manipur,
development deficit.
Tripura, Mizoram,
• North Vs South → Issue of Hindi language Arunachal Pradesh (former
FORMS OF REGIONALISM NEFA) and Sikkim got full
statehoods.
Secessionism Secessionism is a form of The Demand Since 1960’s, with the
regionalism that involves for Autonomy emergence of regional
militant and fundamentalist parties, the demand for state
groups advocating a autonomy has been gaining
separation from India on the more and more strength due to
basis of ethnicity or any other the central political
factor. E.g. NSCN (IM), interferences. E.g. the DMK
Islamic fundamentalist groups in Tamil Nadu, Akali Dal in
in J&K, ULFA in Assam, Punjab, Telgu Desham party
Khalistan movement. in Andhra Pradesh, Assam
Separatism Separatism is a demand for Gana Parishad in Assam,
separate statehood within the National conference in J&K
and Forward Bloc in West
Indian Union. This kind of
Bengal the have been
sub-regionalism was validated continuously demanding a
by the State Reorganization larger share of powers for the
Act 1956. The most recent states.
examples include the Demand for In some of the states, people
formation of Uttarakhand, Regional belonging to various regions
Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh Autonomy have been demanding
within a State recognition of their regional
in 2000 and Telangana in
identities. E.g. in J & K, the
2014. E.g. Demands for the Ladakhis are demanding a
creation of Bodoland in regional status
Assam; Gorkhaland for
ethnic Gorkha (Nepali)
people in West Bengal; a
Bundelkhand state (covering
169
REASONS FOR REGIONALISM:
Factors responsible for regionalism in India
Cultural & Political-

Geographical Historical Scarcity of Economic
Religious Administrative Ethnic factors
Factor Factors resources Factors
Factors Factors.
had their own autonomy and

Geographical Factor: culture. E.g. Rajput, Marathas.
● The territorial orientation based on British rule Policy of divide and rule,
geographical boundaries relates to the in India encouraged the regional
inhabitants of a particular region, which are differences. Autonomy and
symbolic, at least in the Indian context, because
concessions to numerous
of the linguistic distribution along
geographic boundaries. princely states. They fought
● The topographic and climatic variations, wars by using one king against
along with differences in the settlement another. E.g. Carnatic wars.
pattern, induce in people the concept of
regionalism. Tribal people living in forests • The historical and cultural components
depend on it for food, shelter, and other needs, interpret regionalism by way of cultural
and they have a different lifestyle from the rest heritage, folklore, myths, symbolism, and
of the population. ancient traditions. The most striking example
is that of Dravida Kazhagam (DK) and the
(ii) Historical Factors: Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in
● In the Indian scenario, the historical or cultural Tamil Nadu and Shiv Sena in Maharashtra and
factors may be considered the prime Telugu Desham (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh.
components of the phenomenon of regionalism. • People of a particular cultural group also
derive inspirations from the noble deeds and
Ancient India was largely ruled by glorious achievements of the local heroes.
phase of regional kingdoms. E.g. Nevertheless, there are sudden political and
history Cholas and Pandyas of South economic realities that can be covered under
India and Satavahanas of the gamut of historical and cultural factors.
Andhra.
Cultural and Religious Factors:
Medieval India was ruled by kings who • Southern India (home of Dravidian cultures),
India belonged to various sections of which is itself a region of many regions, is
religions. There were evidently different from the north, the west, the
numerous governors who central and the north-east. Even the east of
ruled the smaller provinces and India is different from the North-East of India
170
comprising today seven constituent units of formation of states like Jharkhand and
Indian federation with the largest concentration Telangana.
of tribal people. • But there are also specific areas where the
• Past Traditions: Reverence of historical local worth of independence is yet to be realized
leaders by the local people. in terms of socio-economic development.
• E.g. Shivaji in Maharashtra, Maha Rana
Pratap in Rajasthan, Lachit Borphukan of (v) Political-Administrative Factors:
Assam. • Political parties, especially the regional
political parties as well as local leaders,
Caste and Region: exploit the regional sentiments, regional
• The caste system and religion in Indian deprivation and convert them to solidify their
society play only a marginal role in causing factional support bases. e.g. TDP (Andhra
regionalism. Only when caste is combined Pradesh), DMK (Tamil Nadu), Akali Dal
with linguistic preponderance or religion it (Punjab)
may cause the regional feeling. In the like • They give place to the regional problems in
manner, religion is not so significant except their election manifesto and promise for
when it is combined with linguistic political and regional development.
homogeneity or based on dogmatism and
orthodoxy or linked with economic Linguistic factors-
deprivation. • India has 22 official languages that is
• However, regionalism is usually a secular recognized by the constitution. But there are
phenomenon in a relative sense, and it can around 1600+ mother tongues in India. The
cross-cut the caste affiliation or religious mother tongue of a person creates a profound
loyalties. For e.g., The differences based on attachment to his own language and hence the
religion have led to the creation of Pakistan. identity of belonging also develops. E.g.
Similarly, the violent demand for an Bombay to Mumbai, Bangalore to Bengaluru,
independent country of Khalistan was raised and Madras to Chennai shows the affinity of
by Sikhs in the 1980s. people towards their language.
• These economic factors cause problems • Hindi has been envisaged by the constitution to
between regions. E.g. formation of states like be promoted as a “Lingua Franca”. Indian
Jharkhand and Telangana were based on lack of Government after independence has made
development efforts to promote Hindi. But there has been
widespread agitation against this move from
(iv) Economic Factors: non-Hindi speaking states. For Example, The
• In the present times, uneven developments in Anti Hindi agitations in southern states.
different parts of the country may be
construed as the prime reason for regionalism Scarcity of resources:
and separatism. • Due to the scarcity of resources, which is
• Economic policies have led to regional shared by two or more regions, often, the
imbalances and wide economic disparities competition is fuelled by regional aspirations.
among various regions resulting in Example - Cauvery water dispute
discontentment among them.
• There are certain regions in the country where Ethnic Factors:
industries and factories have been • India has many ethnic differences that formed
concentrated, educational and health the base for demands for political autonomy
facilities are sufficiently provided; the and secession. E.g., based on their ethnic
communication network has been identity, the Nagas of Nagaland are
developed, rapid agricultural development demanding a nation.
has been made possible. For example, the lack
of development was the reason for the
171
WHY REGIONALISM STILL PERSISTS IN International Examples of regionalism- In UK,

INDIA? there are regional aspirations in Scotland, Wales
• Low rate of economic growth → With respect and Northern Ireland. Spain faces such issue in
to High population growth, the economic Basques and Sri Lanka in Northern Province of the
growth has been not enough to catch the country.
development with full speed. Now economic
growth is reeling under the influence of world POSITIVE IMPACT OF REGIONALISM
economic crisis and other bottlenecks at • Given the increasing uncertainty in the
domestic level.
• Socio-economic and political organisation of
states → Relative failure of land reforms in
majority of states and the feudal mentality still
persists. Bhoodan and Gramdaan movement
s were not enthusiastically carried and even
land under land Banks were not efficiently
distributed. The political activities in the
backward states were limited to vote bank
politics and scams. contemporary globalized world, regionalism
• Lower level of infrastructural facilities in has become a source of identity among
backward states → The level of infrastructural people. The accommodation of such identities
development, such as- power distribution, is healthy for maintaining the socio-cultural
irrigation facilities, roads, modern markets for fabric of India. For Example, the Naga
agricultural produce has been at back stage. All movement was to preserve the distinct
these are state list subjects. character of their proposed Nagalim.
• Low level of social expenditure by states →
• It further helps in the economic development of
Education, health and sanitation subjects are backward regions. For Example, demand for
core for human resource development. The Vidarbha in Maharashtra solely to deal with
states which have invested heavily on these Economic distance present in the region.
subjects, fall under the developed and advanced
• It has brought imbalanced regional
states, E.g. Tamil Nadu, Kerala where health
development and regional issues to focus on
care services in Primary health centre is
and the opportunity to solve them. The
benchmark for other states.
creation of new states like Uttarakhand had
• Political and administration failure → This
resulted in the fast growth of it.
is source of tension and gives birth to sub-
• It can lead to inter-group solidarity in a
regional movements for separate
specific region. People belonging to a region
states. Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Uttarakha
may feel the need to come together to protect
nd and recently Telangana are result of these
their vested interests, setting aside their
failures only. Many such demands are in
differences.eg. Tripura Tribal Autonomous
pipeline such as- Vidarbha, Saurashtra,
District Council that was formed in 1985 has
Darjeeling and Bodoland, etc. These failures
served to protect an otherwise endangered
also weaken the confidence of private players
tribal identity in the state by providing a
and do not attract investors in the states.
democratic platform for former separatists and
• “Son of the soil” doctrine → explains a form
has reduced the bases of political extremism in
of regionalism, which is in discussion since
the state.
1950. According to it, a state specifically
belongs to the main linguistic group inhabiting
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF REGIONALISM
it or that the state constitutes the exclusive
homeland of its main language speakers, • It gives internal security challenges by the
who are the sons of the soil or local residents. insurgent groups, who propagate the feelings of
regionalism against the mainstream politico-
administrative setup of the country.
172
• Regionalism impacts politics as days of • Due to rising aspirations, the significant

coalition government and alliances are taking involvement of people takes place that leads
place. Regional demands become national to more competition.
demands, policies are launched to satisfy local • For the young workforce, the economy’s
demands, and generally, those are extended to failure to create enough employment
all pockets of the country. Hence national opportunities.
policies are now dominated by regional
demands. Examples of Son of Soil Doctrine
• Violence is a very popular character of • Job reservations for locals in private sector in
regionalism. To protect regional identity, Andhra Pradesh and Goa.
people may take violent means - Example • “Mulki rule” provided in article 371(D) of
Nellie massacre during the Assam Indian constitution safeguards the rights of
movement. local people in employment and education and
• It impacts the ease of doing business. Due to was created after agitation in the state of
regional aspiration, local people pass Andhra Pradesh.
difficulties for private investors to hire freely as • Anti-migrant or implementation of Sons of the
per their own requirement private companies Soil doctrine was movement led by Shiv Sena
are often forced to reserve jobs and contract and MNS which appealed regional
only for local people son of the soil. chauvinism.
• It can give a leeway to external factors (E.g.
terrorist groups, extremist groups) to get DEMAND FOR KHALISTHAN
involved in regional issues and create • The claims for Khalistan, as a separate
disruption by inciting the masses
• It can be exploited and used for political
leverage in order to garner votes.
WHAT IS THE SON OF SOIL?

• It has been in discussion since 1950, and it
explains a form of regionalism.
• According to it, a state mainly belongs to the theocratic country for the Sikhs, have its
major linguistic group inhabiting it, or the origin in the 1940s, due to the fear of being
state constitutes the exclusive homeland of its reduced into a minority after the partition of
primary language speakers, who are the sons of India and Pakistan. The separatist movement
the soil or local residents. reached its zenith in 1970 and 1980 with
• Examples of implementation of the concept to increasing funds from outside India.
further the cause of regionalism include
campaign for safeguard of interests of
Maharashtrians by the Shiv Sena, clashes DEMAND FOR DRAVIDA NADU
among Bodos and Bengali speaking Muslims
in Assam, among others.
Why the son of the soil?

• A competition for the job between migrant and
local educated middle-class youth always
remained.
• The theory of son of the soil works mostly in
cities because here, outsiders or migrant
peoples also get an opportunity for education,
etc.
173

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• The early 20th century saw a rise in the social • Article 368 amendment procedure for having
reforms movement in Tamil Nadu and other ratification by half of the States if an
southern states of India. amendment is∙ affecting federalism.
• The Justice party and the social reform leader
E. V. Ramaswami accused the Brahmins and GOVERNMENT EFFORTS TO PROMOTE
the North Indians for dominating the NATIONAL INTEGRITY
Dravidians and forcing Hindi language and • GOI constituted the Interstate Council
culture. under Article 263 after accepting the Justice
• The movement was an anti-Brahmin, anti- Sarkaria Commission’s report on center-
Aryan, and and-Hindi movement. In the state relations. Its vision is to develop the
early 1960s, the DMK and other pro-Tamil Inter-State Council Secretariat as a vibrant
organizations arranged for a joint campaign organization to support Centre-State and Inter-
throughout Madras state demanding for a State coordination and cooperation in India.
sovereign and independent Tamil Nadu’. • The Backward Region Grant Fund
• Later, DMK proposed that the states of (BRGF) is a Programme implemented in 272
Madras, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, and identified backward districts in all states of the
Mysore should come together and secede country to redress regional imbalances in
from the Indian union and form the development.
independent Republic of Dravida Nadu. • Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan
Yojana (PMKKKY) was launched in
There have been many demands, including the September 2015 for the welfare of tribals and
creation of Bodoland for the Bodo-speakers in tribal areas and others affected by mining.
Assam; Gorkhaland for ethnic Gorkha (Nepali) • State Reorganisation act of 1956 → Zonal
people in West Bengal; a Bundelkhand state councils to promote interest of different
(covering part of Madhya Pradesh and part of Uttar geographic zones.
Pradesh) for promoting the development of the • North-eastern States Reorganisation Act,
region. 1971.
• Creation of new states by taking economic
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS TO and administrative viability into account. E.g.
PROMOTE NATIONAL UNITY AND Telangana
INTEGRITY • Plan assistance to the backward states→
• Freedom of speech and expression (Art. 19) Backward Area Development Program.
to express regional • Public investment → Industries such as steel,
priorities and fertilizers, oil refining, petro chemicals, heavy
criticize the chemicals, and in power and irrigation projects
government if a has been a tool for the reduction of regional
region is being inequality. E.g. Polavaram irrigation and Indira
neglected. Gandhi canal projects.
• Fifth and sixth • Government
schedule to preserve tribal identity. incentives
• Article 38 (DPSP) to deal with inequality in
have been
income status and opportunity among provided to
individuals and regions. the private
• Schedule 7 (division of power) between center
sector to
and state to give more regional autonomy invest in
through∙ state backward
• Eighth schedule recognized different regional
areas→
languages in the constitution of India∙ subsidies, tax
• Article 79 and 80 provisions of Rajya Sabha as
concessions, concessional banking and
Council of States institutional loans.
174
• New institutional structures like NITI Aayog creed, culture, religion, or region.
to ensure federal equilibrium. • Regionalism puts the regional priority above
• GST council to ensure fiscal federalism the national priority. Therefore, it may impair
• Cultural connect and student exchange the national development.
programme among • While a nation tries to establish harmony
states education between all its citizens by uniting them through
Institutes. a constitution, national symbols, and songs,
• Ek bharat Shrestha regionalism glorifies the heritage of only one
bharat programme. particular region and one culture.
• National Register of • Regionalism leads to the formation of
Citizens of Assam multiple communities within one nation and
Govt.→ To expel outsider and protect cultural restricts the efforts of national integration.
identity of natives.
• National Integration Council (NIC)
REGIONALISM VERSUS FEDERALISM
• If we see our past, we can observe that there
has been a continuous demand for
respecting the federal features of the Indian
political system. Moreover, there is also the
demand for decentralization of resources and
powers, both for the state level and to grass root
levels.
• Divergent ethnic identities and their
continuous struggle for more autonomy, as
• North-Eastern Council (NEC) was set up in
expressed in the demand for separate statehood
1971 to provide a forum for inter-state
for themselves, within the federal system, too
coordination regional planning and integrated
much complicated the work of centralized
development of the region to avoid intra-
governance from any level.
regional disparities.
• Federalism is seen here as a social
• Representation to regional parties in
equilibrium, which results from the
parliamentary engagements.
appropriate balance between shared rule
• Inter State Council to resolve issues of and self-rule.
common interest → Art. 263
• The relations between the two may be
• Special status in Indian constitution setup→ conflicting as well as collaborating depending
Art. 371 to 371 F on the manner of accommodation, if any,
• Special category status to economically which is undertaken in a federal system.
backward states. E.g., hilly, border states.
REGIONALISM Vs. NATIONALISM

• Nationalism is a sense of belonging to one
nation, a
feeling one
shares with
all the
citizens of the
country
regardless of
their caste,
175
• Federation rather than a nation-state, ideal- relative deprivation, the situation will
typically, is better able to accommodate improve, and they can be drawn into the
ethnically distinct regions because while the national mainstream.
nation-state demands uniformity, federalism is • The Formation of the NITI Aayog has been a
based on the recognition of differences. positive step to enhance cooperative federalism
• A two-tier federation may not be sufficient by fostering the involvement of the State
to accommodate regionalism in many forms Governments of India in the economic policy-
and levels. A tier below the ‘states’, or making process using a bottom-up approach.
‘provinces’ with appropriate constitutional
guarantee may be necessary for regional IS REGIONALISM A THREAT TO
accommodation. NATIONAL INTEGRATION?
• Regionalism is not significant merely as a
disintegrating force. Regionalism is not
WAYS TO PREVENT REGIONALISM AND opposed to national integration. Both can
PROMOTE UNITY AND INTEGRITY exist together in a creative partnership. Both
• While the government has taken several steps, are in favor of
such as the launch of centrally sponsored development.
schemes, incentives to private players for • Regionalism
development in backward states for inclusive stresses the
development, there is a greater need for their development of a
effective implementation. region and national
• Moral education and national education is integration for the
the key to reduce regionalism Governments development of the
should use their arms to give free and nation as a whole.
compulsory moral education, which will reduce • Regionalism is not disruptive of national
unemployment, increase the rate of skill solidarity. The important condition for national
development, etc, which will ultimately solidarity is that nationalism should be able to
minimize regionalism. hold the different types of regional sub-
• The Election Commission should provide nationalities together.
rules for regional parties as they should not • Regionalism can make federalism a greater
use regionalism as the main list to gain political success.
mileage. • It will reduce the centralizing tendencies in a
• Most of the backward regions of the country do nation and power will shift from the centre to
not have a proper link with the rest of the the states.
country through the transport and
communication system. Due to this reason, CONCLUSION
their interaction and contact with other regional • It is vital to develop each region of India
groups become restricted, and they develop a through the devolution of power to local
feeling of alienation. Therefore, the transport
and communication system should be
developed in the backward areas to bring
economic and social development.
• Due to the uneven development of different
areas of the country, political issues have been
made (As in the case of Telangana in Andhra
Pradesh and Vidarbha in Maharashtra) and
hostility between different regions increased.
Therefore, if the top priority is given to
economic development of those areas where
the people have developed the feeling of
176
governments and empowering people for their

participation in decision-making. The state
governments need to find out the alternative
resources of energy, source of employment for
local people, use of technology in governance,
planning, and agriculture development. The
12th five-year targets
for “Faster, sustainable and more inclusive
growth”, which will be instrumental for
balanced regional growth.
• If religious, communal, cultural, and linguistic
differences threaten the unity of India, they
present, as well, a challenge to the social Union.
For ‘unity in diversity’ is at once a threat and
a promise”.
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS:

1. Discuss whether the formation of new states in
recent times is beneficial or not for the
economy of India. (2018) - 15 Marks
2. What is the basis of regionalism? Is it that
unequal distribution of benefits of development
on a regional
3. basis eventually promotes regionalism?
Substantiate your answer. (2016) - 12.5 Marks
4. The growing feeling of regionalism is an
essential factor in the generation of demand for
a separate state. Discuss. (2013) - 10 Marks
5. Has the formation of linguistic states
strengthened the cause of Indian Unity? (2016)
- 12.5 Marks
PRACTICE QUESTIONS:
1. Is regional inequality in India actually a
problem of economic geography? Discuss
2. What is regionalism? Critically examine
various reasons that led to regionalism in India.
Support your answer with relevant examples.
3. Regionalism puts the regional priority above
the national priority. Comment
4. Discuss the role of the Government of India to
reduce regionalism. Suggest some measures to
promote national unity.
5. What do you understand by regionalism? Do
you agree that regionalism supports India’s
federal character?
177
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2. EFFECTS OF GLOBALISATION ON INDIAN SOCIETY 18

CH-1 SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY

CHARACTERISTICS OF ANY SOCIETY

• An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY MULTI-LINGUAL SOCIETY:

Migration of labor mobility

Annexation and colonialism

• According to Karl Max - 'Man is a class

Nuclear Family Joint or Extended

Family Patriarchal Family Matriarchal family

Polygamous Monogamous Patriarchal The family in which all the power

• Factory employment: It has freed young TRIBES IN INDIA

• Untouchability - It is the practice of

Factors Affecting the Changes in the Caste

example, where Dalits are trying to assert their

Difference between Caste and Class

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because of spices. The land in

Various forms of diversity in India

• It is the most outstanding feature of India’s Others restricted to a small number of

• Sports and Cinema: These are followed by

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

CH-2 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON INDIAN SOCIETY

Social and Technology

diffusion of best practices. MNCs source the divided ‘cold war’

improvement to their products so as to face

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