History Optional Notes

By Ashutosh Kulkarni, AIR 44, CSE 2019

Early Medieval India

INSTRUCTIONS
1. These notes are only for value addition. They are
NOT a substitute to reading primary sources
2. Please read the basic sources first before reading
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3. Some topics may not be covered
4. Some topics are properly covered in sources, hence
rather than typing them here, I have given the
name of the source.
Early Medieval period starts after Harsha’s death in 647 CE and lasts
up till 13th century when the Turks under Mohammad Ghuri set up
control in Delhi

Tripartite War
After death of Harsha in 647 CE, it is said that there was a struggle for Kanauj
because of it’s strategic location. All these years, Pataliputra was the center of
activity, now it had shifted to Kanauj in the times of Hasha because Kanuaj was in
the Gangetic basin and also near to the north western frontiers and Deccan

After the death of Harsha, a tripartite struggle ensued to take control of Kanauj
between the Gurjar-Pratiharas of Ujjain, Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta and Palas of
Gauda. Apart from that, there was political interference by the Chinese emperor
in selecting the successors of Harsha. Kanauj was taken over by these in some or
the other time from 8th to 11th century CE until all declined due to Turk invasions
of Ghazni and Arab conquest of Sindh.

Political Situation in Early Medieval Age

Pratihara kingdom –
 They are also called Gurjar Pratiharas due to their relation with Gurjar tribe.
They were probably the iffivials in the courts of Chalukyas of Gujarat. Early
king was Vatsraja and later was Nagabhatta II. They had captured Kanauj
but pressure from Palas in east and Arabs in west destroyed it. The most
famous king to revive the smpire was Bhoja (after 836AD) who defeated
Devapala of Palas and captured Kannauj for a large amount of time. An
inscription at Karnal shows the extent of his empire.
 His son Mahendrapala I extended sway over Magadha after declining Pala
empire. Poet Rajashekhara in the court of Pratiharas joined their lineage
with that of Rama. In the start of 10th century, Rashtrakutas once again
attacked Pratiharas and their kingdom declined after Mahipala. Al Masudi
mentions about the vastness of Pratihara empire.
 Primary reason of decline was cut off of sea trade due to Gujarat falling in
hands of Rashtrakutas. Pratiharas are said to have the best of horses due to
their trade relations with the Arabs.
Pala and Sena
 Palas derived their power from agriculture and trade with south-east Asia.
They had commercial relations with the Shrivijaya empire of Sumatra. They
had given donations to Nalanda, Vikramshila and Odantapuri. First king was
Gopala around 750AD, then Dharmapala 770-810 AD, then Devapala and
Ramapala. All had tried to increase their influence in the Gangetic basin,
even when Turks had invaded many parts of north India. They had captured
Kanauj for a brief time.
 The Palas declined and have way to Sena kingdom in the 11th century.
Dharmapala had fought with Vatsaraja of Pratiharas to gain control of
Kannauj but due to attack of Rashtrakuta king Dhruva on Pratiharas,
Dharmapala succeeded in annexing Kannauj. The Pratiharas recovered
under Nagabhatta II who attacked Dharmapala but yet again Govind III of
Rashtrakutas intervened and Pratiharas went back. Gwalior inscription talks
of Nagabhatta II defeating Turushkas and Saindhavas (Arabs).
 The Palas had sway over eastern Gangetic valley and also some parts of
Assam, Orissa and Nepal. Tibetan sources say Palas were patrons of
Buddhism and had sent two Buddhist scholars to Tibet.
 Gopala is said to have been selected by the nobles to reign down anarchy.
Political chaos - Matsyanyaya- made people select Gopala.

Nepal –
 It overthrew Tibetan domination in 878AD and became an independent
kingdom. It was a center for Tantrik Buddhist learning. New cities like
Kathmandu and Patan came up. It was on the trade routes of India and
China, thus earned huge profits. There was a constant fight between the
landowners and the kings of Nepal.
 Apart from these, many hill states in Garhwal, Kumaon, Kulluta, etc came
up in the Himalayas who were not directly related to the happenings in the
plains.
Assam
 The earliest kings known are the Varmans of the 9th century who took up
royal titles declaring themselves independent of the Palas. Their king was
Harjaravarman. Later, they were taken by Shalastambha kings. Assam has
the history of defeating the Turkish invasions in 1205 but alter on, they
were captured by the Ahom kings in 13th century.
Orissa-
 It mainly consisted of the Shailodbhava dynasty who is considered to be the
descendens of the outcaste Pulindas. Then kingdoms like Gangas from
Andhra, Somavanshis captured Orissa in the 10th century.

Afghanistan-
 Hindu Shahi dynasty of Jayapala, Anadapala, etc who ruled in the Kabul
valley. Later had to shift in Punjab due to Turkish invasions. Finally
overthrown due to conquests of Mahmud of Gaznavi.
Chalukyas of Gujarat-
 They ruled in the 12th century. Their most famous king who converted to
Jainism is Kumarapala and his minister Hemachandra.

Transformations during the early medieval age

Sources - Prabandha-Chintamani, Yajnavalkya Smriti, commentaries of Medhatithi
on Manu, Naishadhiyacharita, Adipurana, Rajtarangini, Manasollasa, etc.

Changes in Caste Order

 Varna system was in total chaos due to arrival of different invader tribes of
Hunas, Shakas, etc.
 New tribes that were assimilated gained Kshatriya status. Khatris in Punjab,
Gurjars, Jats and Abhiras gained Kshatriya status. This swelled the ranks of
kshatriyas. The existence of 36 clans amongst the Rajputs is an example.
 The land grants to Brahmins made them land owners and reduced the
vaishyas and shudras to mere peasants. This created total chaos.
 We find many kings using terms like Varshashramadharma-sthapana.
 Manasollasa talks of Varnadhikari or an official to maintain varna order.
Thus, there was focus on restoring the old social order
 Dissent was also building. 11th century Jaina text Dharmapariksha
questions caste on birth. Kathakoshaprakarana does the same.
Kshemendra, a physician in Kashmir talks of asking caste and clan of patient
as a big disease in society. Also, Alvar and Nayanar saints in Tamil Nadu
questioned caste
  Buddhism split into 18 sects. Jainism split into seven sects. Heterogeneous
sects also had rivalries like that of Virshaivas and Lingayats in Karnataka.
Thus, everywhere there was chaos and turmoil and splitting.
 Family laws were governed by Dharmashastras. It is argued that
subsequent commentaries of Medhatithi and Kulluka to Dharmashastras
incorporated the changing social conditions. The laws of sharing property
called Dayabhaga and Mitakshara came up. Medhatithi also advocated
action against unjust kings. This is seen as a challenge to divine theory
propagated by Puranas.

Varna Changes to Caste

 The 4 Varna system changed to caste system based on 3 principles-
o Birth
o Geography- Kanyakubja vs Saryuparin Brahmins
o Occupation- Lohar, Kumhar, Chamar, etc
 Multiple castes started to appear within the same varna. Within the
Brahmins we find new Jatis taking up names from the place they belonged
to. Pancha-Dravida and Pancha-Gauda categories.
 Among the Brahmins, we find many landlords. Mitakshara, commentary on
Yajnavalkya Smriti, talks of a 10-fold gradation among the Brahmins.
 New terms like pandit, shrotriya, upadhyaya, yajnik, etc came up.
 The migration of Brahmins to different places also gave rise to new castes.
Migration is confirmed from land grants.
 Proliferation of castes among Shudras too. Brahmavaivarta Purana
mentions some 100 castes of Shudras that mainly coincides with their
profession.
 Thus, Shudras comprise of Swarnakaras, Charmakaras, Tambulika, etc
based on professions making it a heterogeneous varna. They are called
Ashrita showing their dependency on ruling class.
 Some Shudras are also Anashritas or independent and were well to do
people.

Condition of Shudras
 Guilty of practising heretic acts, physical impurity etc became the reason
for exclusion of Shudras leading to untouchability.
  The Brihat Naradiya Purana talks of Chandalas having to beat a stick so that
everyone comes to know of his presece. Untouchables were already
mentioned by Hsuan Tsang during times of Harsha.

Rise of Kayasthas
 A new social category called Kayasthas came into picture who were
involved in administration. They had the task of writing and maintaining
records.
 Their origins were contested, with some calling them degraded Kshatriyas
and some a mixture of Brahmins and Shudras.
 We find varying names for Kayasthas origin Karnika, Lekhakas, Pustspala,
etc.
 Though they were recruited from different varnas, they crystallized into a
single new varna of Kayasthas.
 The Kayasthas became social elites due to proximity to power and even
received land grants. Such Kayastha landlords were seen in places like
Bengal till recent times. Kayasthas are said to be employed by Chandellas,
Gangas, etc
 Kayasthas now became a challenge to Brahmins because even they were
literate and could decide on giving a land grant to a brahmin or not. This
hesitation is mentioned by Kshemendra.
 The Kayasthas took up good positions like Tathagata-Rakshita teaching
Tantra in Vikramshila university. Brahmins in vengeance declared Kayasthas
as Shudras.

Condition of Women-
 Practice of Sati became even more prevalent. Earliest proof is a memorial
for a Sati built in Eran in Madhya Pradesh in 510 CE
 Even though medieval lawmakers took care of her rights to Stridhana,
nothing was done to stop Sati. Rajtarangini mentions Sati prevalent among
royal women.
 Very less is known about the status of education of women. However, 9th
century poet Rajashekhara mentions in his Kavyamimansa a list of women
poets worthy of respect like Avantisundari, Indulekha, Kuntidevi,
Prabhudevi, etc.
 He also says scholarship doesnt depend on sex.
 Rajput women and their status was much more free than common women.
  Anupamadevi, wife of merchant Tejapala of Solankis was expert in Jainism.
 During same time, Kalhana mentions queens of Kashmir like Didda,
Sugandha and Yashomati

Rise of Sub-national Entities

 Sub-national entities began to appear in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, etc.
 They had different scripts of their own. Till the Gupta age, script was
common. But later on, they diverged.
 Hsuan Tsang, Vishakhadatta and several Jain texts mention various sub-
nationalities.
 Faint starting of languages like Bengali, Oriya, Gujarati, Rajasthani, etc.
 The reason for development of these languages is attributed to the
Apabhramsha tradition of Prakit language where Sanskrit words are
adopted with changed pronunciations. Kuvayalamala, a text of 8th century
mentions as many as 18 Apabhramshas spoken in various parts of India.
 The plays written like MudraRakshasa show unimportant characters
speaking Prakrit while important ones speaking Sanskrit. The characters in
Naishadhiyacharita are worried about not being understood due to their
lamguage.
 Vernacular languages like Magadhi, Abhiri, Chandali, etc formed the part of
curriculum as mentioned in Varna Ratnakara. However, Sanskrit learning
was also progressing due to its importance amongst upper classes.
 Al Beruni mentions that these Vernacular languages were neglected by the
upper classes.
 Proliferation of scripts like Devanagari, Tamil, Oriya, Bengali, Telugu, etc.
 This was a marked change from Gupta times when Brahmi was a widely
accepted script throughout India. It is interesting to note that Chera, Cholas
and Pandyas accepted Tamil as their language but adopted different
variations of its script.
 Sanskrit got a fillip in the alter years of Christian era. The style of verbose in
prose was adopted by Bana which is an example even today. The language
was used by kings and by law makers. All the important texts of Sanskrit
that were composed and transmitted orally began to be written down as
manuscripts. Sanskrit began to be used as a language besides regional
dialects. Thus, we see bilingualism as a feature with Sanskrit inscriptions
 appearing besides those in regional languages. It is believed that Sanskrit
also adopted some words. Natya Shastra has listed down such languages.

Land Grants
Two broad types- secular grants and religious grants. Religious grants classified as
Brahmadeyas and Devadanas.

History -
 Mahabharata in its Danadharma Parva mentions that gifts should be given
to Brahmins for it is they who are king makers without whose favor, the
king cannot rule. The Dana talks of 3 gifts - Go-Dana, Hiranya-Dana and
Prithvi-Dana or land grants, land grants being the best.
 Arthashastra, talks of Brahmins being given lands that are tax free.
 A clear assertion is also found in Brihaspati Sutra that land granted to
Brahmins should be tax free.
 Pali texts of Buddhism also talk of land grants to Brahmins given by
Bimbisara and Prasenjit of Kosala.
 The Naneghat caves also talk of royal grants, privileges and exemptions in
Satvahana times.
 Thus, it can be said that the practice of giving land grants to Brahmins was
an old one. It's just that it became even more prevalent after 5th century
AD.
 In those days, land grants were given to Buddhist and Jain institutions,
temples, royal beneficiary and Brahmins alike. But the grants given to
Brahmin outnumbered all.

Secular land grants –

 Gained momentum especially after Gupta period.
 Land grants were also given to feudatories. Eg- land grants given by Guptas
to the feudatory king of Baghelkhand. The amount of land grants given to
officials varies.
  Sub-infeudation. Example – A Gupta king had granted land to
Surashmichandra who in turn had granted land to Matrivishnu.
 Pala grants talks of grants to rajas, Samantas, ranakas, etc. Similar is seen in
Chalukyas of Gujarat. However, in places of Bihar, South India, it's not that
prevalent.
 Although language like till sun, moon and stars exist was used, in some
cases the land grants were given for a fixed time. The Yavatmal plate of
Pravarsena II of Vakatakas is a land grant renewal order.

Devadanas
 The land was given to temple institutions, Hindu or otherwise.
 The land grants were given for acculturation of tribals and other non
religious people.
 The temple management committees came up. In places where Brahmin
landowners existed, institutions like the Sabhas or mahajanas of agrahara
lands managed the temple while in non Brahmin landlords, their
committees managed it. Eg- velalas of Tamil nadu.
 The land was further leased to tenants who paid higher revenues.
 Temple grant phenomenon is seen mainly in south India where entire
Temple towns came up with all castes being assigned a ritual with respect
to the temple. Impure castes were kept out.

Brahmadeyas
 Brahmadeyas are land grants given to the Brahmins and religious
institutions in general. The rights of the donee were declared by the royal
order.
 Does it represent political fragmentation? Why would kings erode their
own status? It can be argued that the kings were deliberately giving such
lands which were not productive or yielding any revenue. However, there
are also references in Bengal that already cultivable land was given as
Brahmadeyas. Given the times where kingdoms were large enough, it
didn't matter if some pieces of land were given to religious institutions. It
 also served as a way of legitimizing the rule of the king by collaboration
with a social group of Brahmins. Kalhana' Rajtarangini talks of Brahmins
greedily accepting land grants from the newly invader Huna tribe. Secular
land grants might challenge central authority but not Brahmadeyas as they
were just Brahmins.
 Autonomy- Brahmadeya villages were autonomous with the writ of the
state not working. No revenues to be paid and the king's officials and
soldiers were not allowed to interfere. Example - Brahmadeyas in Chola
kingdom had the Taniyur status of not coming under jurisdiction of Nadu.
The Pala inscriptions in Bengal talk of land being given with rights over
ground, water, land, trees and exemption from taxes like kara, bhaga,
bhoga, etc. However, some land grants do refer to the grantee paying a
minimal tax. The Ganjam plates of King Prithvivarmadeva, plates of Gangas
of Kalinganagara talk of minimum tax. Such grants are called kara-
shashanas.
 Judicial rights - the Pala inscriptions talk of the right of sa-dashaparadha of
the grantee which can be interpreted as exemption from 10 types of crimes
or the right to punish for these crimes. However, it is not seen everywhere.
 Revoking - Land could also be taken away from them. The Chammak plates
of Pravarsena II say that the land was donated to 1000 Brahmins only on
the condition that they did not commit treason against the kingdom,
indulge in oppression or harm villages. If so, their land would be taken back.
 Royal servants- It has also been observed that some land grants were given
to Brahmins who were associated with royal courts. A 13th century land
grant copper plate of Calcutta Sahitya Parishat where king vishvarupasena
gives land to a Brahmin called Halayudha. In other cases too the grantees
are found to be royal purohits, jyotishis, shantyagarikas, etc.
 Migrants- The land grants refer to the gotra, pravara, shakha, Charana and
native place. From the native place it can be told that there were many
migrant Brahmins who were given land. From the land grants after 5th
century AD, it can be seen that there was a influx of Brahmins from
madhya-desha to areas of maharashtra, bengal, orissa, etc. The possible
reason for migration could be for better livelihood. Main reason could be
 the proliferation of kingdoms in different parts of subcontinent and the
need of those rulers for religious legitimacy. This could also explain the
need to classify Brahmins living in different areas into Pancha-Gauda and
Pancha-Dravida in 10th century.
 Brahmadeyas included small to large land grants. Example - the
Paschimbaug plate of King Srichandra of Bengal which talks of a vast tract
of land given to 6000 Brahmans.
 Self Request- Sometimes Brahmins would put up a request for getting a
land grant. The Damodarpur inscription in 444CE show that a Brahmin had
requested the Guptas for a land to be granted in Pundravardhan bhukti.
 Land rights- No right to dispose the land i.e to sell or lease or transfer it.
Orissa inscriptions contain a term called a-lekhani-praveshataya or whose
another record can't be created. Thus, Brahmins was more than landlord
but less than landowner

Impact of land grants

 The peasants and farmers came under the control of the donees. The land
grants were tax exempt for grantees which meant they were to collect and
appropriate taxes for themselves and not give it to the state. If the grantees
had the power to vary the rates, it would lead to more economic
oppression.
 The possible judicial rights would have harmed the village level Judiciary
which used to settle the local disputes. Rights over the land and forests and
other community resources meant that villages lost their right on them.
Opposition was weak where other social groups were not organised. The
Brahmin grantees in Chola kingdom organised themselves into the
institution of Sabha.
 BD chattopadhyaya has argued that this act of Brahmadeyas has far
reaching consequences. It gave a socially powerful group politics well as
economic power. In border areas, it made tribals take to agriculture. Their
cultures mixed with Hinduism and a composite culture was formed. An
example could be of the tribal lord Jagannatha.
  RS Sharma says that this relation was also a reason for the rise of Tantra.
 Revolts- Peasant unrest was also seen due to new kind of oppression by
brahmins, temples and non Brahmin landlords. Cases like Damara revolt of
Kashmir, rebellion of Kaivarthas in Bengal, etc.

Indian Feudalism
Characteristics are as described by RS Sharma in Indian Feudalism

1 Administrative structure based on possession of land

2 Fragmentation of political authority

3 Hierarchy of landed aristocracy

4 Dependence of peasants on landlords

5 Oppression and immobility of peasants

Thus, RS Sharma envisages feudalism developed entirely from top.

Impact of Indian Feudalism

 It resulted in development of hierarchy from king - landed aristocrats -

tenants - sharecroppers and cultivators.
 Result of de-urbanization and monetary anaemia. Since currency is not
available, kings prefered to give away lands as salaries. It led to increasing
ruralization of India.
 Foced labour or Vishti prevalent. Earlier, the king used to exercise this right
but now it was also exercised by the land owners.
 Anyone could become a landed aristocrat. The titles of thakur, rana,
ranaka, etc were not limited to kshatriyas and we're open to anyone who
received a land grant especially Kayasthas. In kashmir, title of rajanaka or
nearly a king was conferred to Brahmins who have surname Razdan today.
Kulluka's commentary on Manu talks of even merchants joining aristocracy.
 A Deopara inscription in Bengal talks of a head of artisans holding the title
of Ranaka. Revolts among lower castes mentioned under land grants note.
Views of other historians-
 Bhakti was as a challenge to feudalism- DC Sircar and opposite by DN Jha
 D.D Kosambi calls it feudalism from above and below. From above it was
imposed by land grants by kings and from below by land consolidation by
select few who declared themselves as landlords.
 Henri Pirenne's logic of closed economy in Europe due to Arabic invasions
applied to India. There was immobility of labour. Hun invasion in India

Criticism of Indian Feudalism

 Harbans Mukhia- impossible for one system in one part of the world to get
replicated in India. It is beyond the reach of any pre-capitaliat system. 4
month ecology of Europe that needed to control the labour from going
away but not applicable to India.
 European feudalism was marked by peasant revolt against feudal lords. No
such revolts could be identified by RS Sharma except Kaivartas and
Damaras.
 Andre Wink in his Al-Hind is critical of RS Sharma saying that RS Sharma has
tried to find elements in India that fit in the preconceived notion of
European feudalism.
 Karl Marx called agriculture in India as Asiatic Mode of Production and an
exception to European model of feudalism.
 European feudalism involved economic as well as legal relationship
between the feud and the vassal. In india, there is no proof to suggest that
the people were forced to work for the landowner.
 There is high possibility that people considered agriculture labour as a
source of income and not as a form of compulsory labor with less pay.
 Also, in the grants given by kings, specific conditions were set forth with
rights and obligations of the grantee and also the taxes he is allowed to
collect. This introduced a buffer for unruly taxes.
Religion-
 Worship of female goddess was prevalent since the Harappan times. It
became popular once more in the form of goddesses of fertility and magical
power called as Yoginis. The female counterparts of male gods started to be
worshipped like Lakshmi, Durga, Parvati, etc. The mysticism and magical
powers gave rise to another sect called Tantricism. Tantrik beliefs also
influenced Buddhism especially in Tibet called as Vajra-yana.
 The Hindu religion then had got distinct characteristics. Complex Pujas and
innumerable deities, their temples and elaborate rituals had come up. The
main source being the Puranas. The giving of gifts however small, the
keeping of fasts and vows, travelling collectively to places of pilgrimage
became the main features of a new movement called Bhakti. It can be
argued that Puranas did assimilate local deities to civilize the tribal and
marginal lands.
 International spread of Buddhism- It was a dominant religion in
Afghanistan, Central Asia, Tibet and China. As early as 4th century BC, we
find Kumarajiva settled in Kucha as a merchant. The proliferation of
Buddhism took place by zealous Sanghas who established monasteries at
trade routes and their junctions. They were also supported by the local
kings who were impressed by Buddhist philosophy. Tibetan king in the 7th
century adopted Buddhism as an instrument to unite the Tibetan provinces.
By 379 AD, Buddhism was an accepted religion in China.

Agriculture in Early Medieval Times

Marco Polo in 12th century talks of excellent quality of pepper and ginger
production in India and that three crops grown in a year and of crop rotation.

The early medieval India is characterized by the growth in agriculture. Various

reasons include-
  RS Sharma believes that feudalism led to growth of agricukture. Due to
these land grants, it made revenue from agriculture and important source
thus making cultivation as a significant activity.
 Acculturation and Reclamation- more and more land was brought under
cultivation by granting peripheral and waste lands as grants. BD
Chattopadhyaya talks of Brahmadeyas in tribal areas that converted tribal
societies into agrarian ones.
 This period is also characterized by monetary anaemia and downturn in
trade. This also led to loss of employment which might have resulted in
people taking up agriculture as renumerative activity.
 Thus, multiple crops like rice, wheat, barley, lentils and cash crops like
arecanut, sugarcane, cotton, etc. were grown.

Texts on Agriculture-
 The indicator of growth in agriculture is seen in the multiples texts that deal
with cropping pattern, weather, diseases, etc. The need for such texts
arises only when large swathes of population is indulged in cultivation.
 Thus 10th century text Krishiparashara declares knowledge of rainfall as
root of agriculture. It talks of importance of Sara or manure. It also says
Vaishakha month as sowing time and Pausha month as harvesting.
 Vrikshayurveda mentions methods to cure tree diseases
 Gurusamhita about weather conditions and cropping patterns
 Shunyapurana mentions 50 types of rice grown in Bengal
 Rajashekhara tells us about the excellent quality of sugarcane grown in
North bengal.

Irrigation Systems -
 Expansion of cultivation meant growth of irrigation because rains cannot be
relied upon.
 Deva-Matrika or rain dependent and Nadi-Matrika or river dependent
classification of land
  Water lifting devices like Ghatiyantra mentioned in Krishnasukti of
Kashyapa.
 Araghatta or Persian wheel- pots on the rim of wheel to lift water
 Kashmir- Rajatarangini mentions Lalitaditya Muktapida changing route of
Vitasta or Jhelum and giving Araghattas to villages
 Gujarat- Step-well or Vav famous. Rani ki Vav of Solanki dynasty. Maitraka
king inscription of 7th century talks of king gifting Vav to a village. Kunda
were built like Surya Kunda at Sun Temple, Modhera.
 Rajasthan- 7th century inscription of Mewar talks of Araghattas being gifted
to villages.
 Orissa- 13th century inscription of Ganga kings talks of demarcation of field
and to use water from Tungana tank till crop ripen. This shows use of tank
irrigation
 In Bundelkhand, references to Chandellas using irrigation canals to grow
sugarcane.
 Well or Kupa were famous in most parts and were common source of
irrigation.
 South India- role of temples crucial.
 Development in technology - use of cisterns and sluice valves, damming of
river waters, flood control, etc

Fall in Urbanisation -
 6-9th century- RS Sharma talked of an urban decay after 6th century due to
fall in trade due to multiple reasons
 Monetary anaemia meant shortage of currency which led to fall in
economic activity. This led to downfall of cities.
 Increase in land grants that led to ruralization of economy. Immemse
proliferation of land grant copper plates after 600CE.
 Political fragmentation led to confusion
 Xuanzang talks of decay in Pataliputra, Shravasti, Kapilvastu, etc but
mentions flourishing cities like Thanesar, Prayaga, Kannauj, etc.
  Archaeology- Sonkh near Mathura shows 7 layers during Kushana times but
only two in later times

However, references to flourishing cities exist

 Regular mention of words like Pura, Pattana and Nagara in inscriptions.
 Hemchandra Suri in 11th century mentions villages often resembled towns
 BD Chattopadhyaya says old centers gave way to new ones.
 Ahichhatra, Varanasi and Atranjikhera show continuous habitation till
medieval times
 Tattanandapura has a huge size of 3800 acres and references of various
Mandapikas
 Inscription at Gopagiri or today's Gwalior shows a municipal head called
Kottapala
 In east, cities like Pundranagara show continuous habitation while new
cities like Ramavati and Lakhnauti rise.

Urbanization Trend after 10th century-

 The trend from 9th to 12th century is of growth of urban cities coupled
with a growth in rural economy due to land grants through which
agriculture grew
 Urban centers can be studied into two main categories- centers of trade
and commerce and second is administrative units, capitals and forts.
 Brahmadeyas and Agraharas were clustered which resulted in growth of
temple-centered towns and hubs of commercial activity. Examples are
mainly from South india- Kumbhakonam and Kanchipuram. Kanchipuram
was also a large craft center.
 Nagarams of Cholas give rise to trade cities
 Trade routes via Gujarat and Rajasthan increase cities. Sripatha or Bayana,
Mangalpura or Mangrol in 12th century has a Mandapika or trade market
 Chaturaka or a city at junction of 4 roads- References found in Sena plates
  Sea trade resulted in growth of coastal towns in Karnataka. The trade with
arabs, West and Persia resulted in growth of cities like Mangalore, Bhatkal,
Goa, Karwar, etc.
 Pilgrimage centers began to be converted into urban centers due to trwde,
royal patronage and mixing of population from different regions. The
growth of Bhakti in medieval india resulted in different cults being formed
with their regional influences. Thus, in a particular region, that particular
place become the center of activity for that cult. Examples like Kashi,
Tirupati, Pushkara, Madurai, Puri, etc were revered by mainly the regional
population residing there. The concept of Tirtha and regular visit to them to
earn blessings was a ancient practice in India.
 Royal capitals - since the times of mahajanapadas, the places of residence
of royal family became big cities due to nearness to the seat of power and
patronage of kings. Similar situation was observed in newly established
kingdoms.
o Chalukyas- Vatapi and Vengi
o Pallavas- Kanchipuram with their ports at Mamallapuram
o Cholas- Thanjavur and port at Nagapattanam
o Chandellas at Khajuraho
o Paramaras at Dhar
 Forts also became urban centers like Chittor, Bayana, Ranthambore, etc.

Monetary Anaemia or less currency during 700-900 CE

 This theory was put forth by DD Kosambi and RS Sharma in his book Indian
Feudalism where he talks of paucity of coins in post Gupta times.
 In spite of big kingdoms, there is paucity of coins as well as coin moulds in
archaeological findings in this period.
 Big kingdoms like that of Palas, Senas, Rashtrakutas, Gurjara-Pratiharas
existed but no large-scale coins have been found.
 Orissa was carrying trade with South East Asia between 6th to 12th century
but no large solar coins have been found. This indicates the existence of
 barter system. The findings in Cambodia during the same period also show
no coins but a barter system.
 If the people had resorted back to barter system and stopped using coins, it
adversely affected the commercial economy. Coins are used as a bullion
and could be carried to login distances. They can be accumulated as capital
as well as lent to people giving rise to banking system. In absence of coins,
these aspects of Comercial econony suffered and it caused a decline in
trade.
However, coins have been found too
 In Bengal where during the times of Palas and Senas, media of exchange
was Harikela silver coins and dust of gold and silver called Churni. Mainly
found in Samatata region, they were in circulation since 8th century. They
followed the weight standards of Indian Karshapana.
 From 7th to 12th century, hoards of Gadhaiya coins have been found in
Gujarat and Malwa indicating trade via Arabs.
 A rare case exists only in Kashmir where copper coins have been found but
of a very poor quality
 Shahi rulers of North west India issued high quality silver coins.
 Cowries became principle medium of exchange. Excavations near
Bhagalpur. Plus, a large number of copper plates mention Kapardaka or
cowries.
 John Deyell says that debasement or less number of coins does not indicate
monetary anaemia. It could also mean the demand for coins was more than
the supply of gold and silver that led to debasement.

Decline in Trade 6th to 10th century CE - internal and external

reasons.
 Decline of Roman Empire in 4th century had already affected trade with
Europe
 Byzantine empire in 6th century learned to make silk thus reducing the
share of trade of India and China in Europe
  Arab presence in overland tra see routes made land trade hard for Indians.
Their invasion in northwest India in 8th century made things hard for Indian
traders.
 Arabs also disrupted sea trade by sacking Baruch and Thana ports in 7th
century and also destroyed Valabhi in 8th century.
 Overall, Arabs began to be middlemen in sea trade of India either with
Europe and south east asia.
 Within india, the concept of land grants oppressed the peasants and
artisans and their extra profits were taken due to heavy taxes by landlords.
Thus, the emergence of landed aristocracy hindered trade and commerce.
 Another reason is that due to political instability, the rulers were not able
to impart security to the trade routes which led to plunder of merchants,
improper maintenance of trade routes making the travel harder.
 Description in Brihannaradiya Purana- merchants reduced to servants or
Karmopajivin
 Port like Tamralipti dies in 8th century so does Barbaricum and Bharoch.
Dabhol raises only after 10th century
 Overall, commercial activity had declined due to emergence of self-
sufficient villages. Thus, production was limited only to local needs. The
only place where it continued was the demand for luxurious goods by
landlords, local kings and monarchs.

Other side-
 Hattas- mentioned in multiple Pala texts. Devapaladevahatta near Nalanda
in 9th century famous. Hatta and Hatta-Marga mentioned in
Tattanandapura in 9th century. Today's Bulandshahr
 Prthudaka or Pehowa inscription in 9th century about Ghotaka-Yatra or
horse fair
 Mandapika- A big Mandapa with various shops for trade. Kiragram
insvription in Kangra in 9th century. Siyadoni inscription also mentions
same. 9th century inscription at Sripatha in Bayana in Rajasthan.
Lekhapadhhati in Gujarat uses term Maha-Mandapika
  10th century Alberuni mentions trade routes connecting Kanauj to
Patliputra, Ayodhya, Kalinga and roads up to Kanchipuram.
 8th century texts Kuvalayamala and Jatakamala mention trade via
Shurparaka or Sopara
 Arab texts show names like Stambhapura or Cambay in Gujarat.
 Mention of officers controlling trade- Hattapati, Shaulkika, Gamagamika
 Ranabir Chakravarti has shown existence of Arab trade. Arab texts mention
Al Bahr Al Hind or the Sea of India divided into two parts- Bahr Larvi or Sea
of Gujarat and Bahr Harkal or Sea of Bengal.
 9th century text Chachnama names Daybhul in Indus Delta
 Texts mention Thane, Kalyan, Sopara, Cambay, Sanjan, Chaul like Al Masudi
while Sanskrit texts mention Hormuz as Ardrapura.

Growth of Trade after 10th century

 Land grants, even though lead to oppression of peasants and artisans in the
start, later on lead to proliferation of agriculture which lead to growth in
commercial activity.
 Change - If trade with Romans slumped, it picked up in West Asia through
Arabs, and in South east Asia and China.
 A Chinese record says Canton River was full of Indian, Persian and Arab
ships. The Chinese had to restrict the outflow of gold and silver. Cotton was
introduced in Japan during this period by Indians.
 Marcopolo mentions trade routes from Anhilwara to parts of Gujarat like
Viramgam, Vanthali
 Change- Meera Abraham’s study of Ayyavole inscriptions suggests that now
the choice shifted from luxury goods to basic goods like food grains,
pepper, horses, iron, textiles, etc.
 Textile industry grew in this time. Marco Polo in 13th century me tons the
high-quality cloth of Bengal and Gujarat. Manasollahasa, a 12th century
text mentions paithan, nagapattanam, multan, etc as centers of cotton
trade.
  Ginza records of Jews in 12th century show the existence of a brass
industry in india. Jew records mention Al Dyb or Diu
 Tejapala and Vastupala as rich merchants of Chalukyas of Gujarat.
 Growth in port cities- Chola ports like Nagapattinam. Kerala port of Quilon
or Kollam became an important port trading silk. In Gujarat, Cambay and
Prabhaspatan traded with Arabs.
 Besides, iron, sugarcane and derivative products, oilseeds, metal industry
also grew in india.
 Growth of trade meant growth of currency. This is seen from increased
instances of coins issued by Paramaras, Chandellas, Senas, Kalachuris,
Cholas, etc. 12th century coin mints have also been found in Karnataka.

Sino-Indian trade-
 Tansen Sen has argued that the nature of trade with China has changed
from Buddhist dominated to trade dominated
 By 10th century, China was no longer dependent on Indian Buddhism due
to rise of Chinese Buddhist schools and increasing sinofication of Buddhism.
 Xuanzang has mentioned Indian craze for Chinese silk called China-Patta.
Silk fabric and garments were important gifts brought by Chinese missions
to India
 Apart from silk, things traded were camphor, porcelain, mercury, exotic
fruits, etc while India sent spices, ivory, leather, cotton textiles, rosewater,
etc.
 Cholas and Palas were important traders. Rajendra I mission to China in
1015CE
 A Chinese record says Canton River was full of Indian, Persian and Arab
ships. The Chinese had to restrict the outflow of gold and silver. Cotton was
introduced in Japan during this period by Indians.
 Chinese copper coins, pottery and artefacts have been found at
Khalakpatna and Manikpatna ports of Orissa between 11th to 14th century.
 Various Persian and Arabic products also found way through India to China
like rosewood.
Trading communities -
 Trade slumped in 700-900 AD but grew later on till 13th century. This led to
growth of traders. Not that traders were completely absent earlier. They
were present then but in less number and trading in luxurious goods
 Existence of vibrant trade means the rural economy is booming. Trade
forms backward and forward linkages. It takes raw material and finished
products from peasants and artisans and deals with customers. Thus
booming trade indicates the overall health of economy.
 Traders also started indulging in usuary. There emerged a separate
merchant group called Nikshepa-Vanika in western India. Lekhapaddhati
texts in Gujarat mention a son of merchant who asked his share of property
to start lending budiness. Medhatithi, a medieval law maker talks of
corporations of merchants. The terms used for them was Shrehthi or the
one who indulged in sale of goods and Sarathavaha or one who lead the
merchant caravans.
 Role of traders - the families became influential and also took political
positions. Merchant family of Vimala and his descendents Vastupala and
Tajapala who became ministers in Gujarat is an example. Having big
amounts of money, merchants also donated to temples. Same Vastupala
and Tajapala built Jaina temples atop mount Abu.
 Jineshvara Suri in 11th century mentions Jaina traders of western India.
 Al-Idrisi and Marco Polo in 12th and 13th century talk of truthfulness of
Indian traders.

Guilds of Early Medieval Times

 A guild is a voluntary association of merchants dealing with the same type
of commodity.
 It is an association of merchants in the town having permanent residence.
 Copy from ancient. Guilds could decide where to sell and on what day
depending on local circumstances.
  Head of guild elected. He performs judicial functions for the guild. He
decides the code of conduct and punished the errants.
 Full backing for merchant from his guild so that he can do business
properly.
 Terms like shreni, sangha, nigama, samuha, etc were used. Medhatithi
mentions shreni as a group of people indulging in small professions.
Lekhapaddhati refers to a separate department by King to deal with
merchant guilds. Manasollasa mentions shreni kept their own army for
personal safety called shreni-bala.
 Guild in south India was known as Ayyavole and Manigraman. Ayyavole
sprung with an initial membership of 500 and grew right from Sangli district
of Maharashtra till Tamil nadu. 10th century onwards, the Chola kings gave
it patronage and it's trade increased in the bay of Begala too. It was not a
uniform trade guild but was made of various types of traders. The
inscriptions of its commercial activity have been found in Burma, Java,
Sumatra and Sri Lanka.
 Relations with artisans - artisans and merchants are two important aspects
of any commercial activity. Ideally, they should be independent of each
other in work and dependent only during exchange of goods. Howevee,
from a Tamil nadu inscription in 11th century, it talks of merchants giving
asylum to craftsmen. Al-Beruni and jurist Lakshmidhara in 11th century also
talk of artisans living amidst merchnats. Perhaps the merchants provided
them with work and capital.

Temples and effect on local life

 Temples as center of education. Devadanas included grants for education
and colleges where subjects like law, philisophy, sciences and scriptures
were taught. Being the center of education, it gave impetus for the rise of
the temples and settlement around them. Eg- Bhojshala
 As temple was the center of activity, it gave rise to professions that were
dependent on the yemple. Services of priets, singers, garland makers,
suppliers of milk, butter, etc, painters, gardeeners, watchmen, accountants,
 etc were needed. The Thanjavur temple inscription of 1011 AD talks of
these different professions and the wages they were receiving.
 The settlement of different professions in a single area around the temple
gave rise to temple towns especially in south india.
 The temple was the largest building in the town and it's Mandapa also
provided a center for gathering of people. Thus, festivals began to be
celebrated in the temple. They became centers of music and dancing. This
can be sent from life size images of musicians in Khajuraho temples of 10th
century. Existence of a hall of natmandir or hall for artists in almost many
temples in orissa.
 Temples as financial institutions- A Chola inscription in Alangudi talks of a
Famine in the villags. The temple gave a loan to villagers to buy grains from
its own treasury.
 Temples and Bhakti movement- integration of local cults and gods into
Bhakti sects was done. Worship of Gods made temples a necessity.
 It also gave rise to certain wrong customs. The system of Devadasi who
were devoted to that particular God came up. They dang devotional hymnal
for that God and lived in the temole. Chola emperor Rajaraja I had to build
two streets along the Brihadeshvara temple in Thanjavur to accommodate
the dancing women of the temple.
 Big yearly festivities started. Eg- Rathayatra of Jagannatha.
 Temples managed lands given to them, collected revenue and invested in
agriculture and irrigation. Thus, they became centers of local governance.
(Show important temples on map)

Sanskrit Literature of Early Medieval India

 Different styles of writing came up. The concept of Prashasti and writing of
biographies was started by Banabhatta.
 It was continued by Sandhyakaranandin’s Ramacharita and Bilhana’s
Vikramdevacharita.
  Different plays were written in Sanskrit as well as Prakrit languages.
Karpuramanjari by Rajashekhara and Krishna Mishra’s Prabodh-
Chandraodaya.
 Specialized texts pertaining to agriculture, weaponry, etc were written
down which might have required collaboration between Sanskrit and the
local languages.
 Commentaries came up – Chakrapanidatta and Vagabhatta on Charaka
Samhita, Medhatithi and Kulluka on Manu Smriti.
 Lyrical poetry with love themes like Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda and Bilhana’s
Chaurapanchashika came up.
 Even Buddhist and Jaina texts were written down in Sanskrit like Mahavira
Charita, Prabandha Chintamani. Jaina scholars like Hemachandra and
Merutunga were famous.
 We also find short stories like Kathasaritasagara by Somdeva.

Education -
 The donations Agraharas and Devadanas to temples, mathas and different
Buddhist Viharas,etc made them the centers of education. Apart from that,
religious towns became seat of learning like Kashi for shaivism, etc. Capitals
like Dhar, Anhilwada, etc also were centers of learning.
 Students used to travel long for education. Kshemendra mentions students
coming from Bengal to study in Kashmir mathas.
 Rajashekhara's Prabandhakosha mentions more than 70 subjects studied
by students.
 Tibetan historian Taranatha in 17 th century mentions the craze for
studying Tantra and Mantra in Indian universities of Nalanda, Odantapuri,
Vikramshila, etc.
 Trend of temple libraries came up after 8th century CE. It was first taken
forth by Jainas and Buddhists and later on adopted by Hindus. The big
libraries had Bhandaras or stores of manuscripts dealing with different
subjects. The library at Nalanda burned down by Bakhtiyar Khalji in 12th
century.
  Foreign students in Nalanda
 But literacy less. Still limited to Brahmins and Sramanas.

Rajtarangini as a source of history-

 A good history has power to take the person into past and explore in a way
like eye witness - Prologue of Rajtarangini
 Kalhana declares his intentions of writing a historical account as mentioned
above in his very prologue of Rajtarangini or River of Kings composed in
1148 CE.
 Rajtarangini is considered as the most authentic source of history of
Kashmir, its king and kingdoms.
 Authenticity- In his prologue, Kalhana declares to have prsented the history
of 52 kings which earlier historians had confused about. Such a clear setting
of mandate of the text renders it authentic. The list begins from kings
‘contemporary to Yudhisthira’ and ends in king Jayasimha, a contemporary
of Kalhana.
 Kalhana was also well informed due to fact that his father and uncle were
courtiers in the royal court. Hence, Kalhana knew minutely the political
realities that are reflected in his analysis
 However, Kalhana had no royal patronage. Hence he could write with full
freedom. This can be seen in his criticism. Eg- authoritative rule of Queen
Didda (10th century). He says brahmims greedily accepted land grants from
Hunas who were iconoclasts
 A mark of a history text is the cognizance of other texts and their criticism.
Kalhana mentions earlier texts like Kshemendra’s Nripavali, sage Neel’s
Nilamatapurana, Sruvat’s texts, etc. He even criticizes them in his epilogue
saying they confused history.
 Lastly, Kalhana mentions his sources like royal epigraphs, temple
inscriptions, land grants, coins, etc in his prologue and says they ‘cleared his
confusions’
  However, even Kalhana has gone wrong. Eg- In 3rd century CEKing
Ranaditya's reign is shown as 300 years. Difference between Toramana and
his son Mihirkula is given as 700 years.
 Barring the small discrepancies, Kalhana's Rajtarangini can be considered as
a source of history. In his own words- History is a superior kind of creativity
that retains relevance after many centuries.

CHOLAS
Imperial Cholas were the most powerful Kingdom of Tamilakam lasting from 9th
to 13th century and the first south Indian kingdom to extend its influence right up
to southeast Asia.

The condition in 9th-10th century AD in south India – The Rashtrakutas of

Manyakheta in Maharashtra, Kadambas and Gangas in Karnataka, Pandyas at
Madurai, Pallavas at Kanchipuram and Cheras on Malabar coast. All were fighting
amongst themselves. Vijayalaya was the feudatory of the Pallavas and declared
independence to establish Chola kingdom yet again. The actual glory came in the
times of Rajaraja I (985 -1014AD) and Rajendra I (1012-1044AD).
Spread of Chola kingdom-
 They conquered the surrounding kingdoms, controlled the trade to SE Asia.
 Rajendra I even went up to Kalinga and Bengal and assumed the title of
Gangaikondachola and built Gangaikondacholapuram on banks of Kaveri.
 He even fought the Shailendra empire to gain control of Chinese trade
routes.
 They destroyed the Chalukyas of Kalyani as well as Sri Lanka.
1015 CE- Chalukyas
1017 CE- Sri Lanka
1019 CE- Ganges
1025 CE- Shailendra dynasty of Srivijaya.

Nature of Chola State-

 Centralized State- KA Nilakanta Sastri's South India under the Cholas
where he puts forth his view of the Chola state being a unitary and
centralized one with the king exercising authority with extensive
bureaucracy and granting autonomy to local institutions.
 Segmentary state- Southall and Burton Stein talk of Cholas being a
segmentary state where the local institutions based on religion, caste
and occupation and the local landlords formed the part of ruling elite
and owed a nominal suzerainty to the king. The concept of segmentary
state was borrowed from the Alur tribe of Africa.
 Stein also puts forth that - an absense is seen of well-structured
bureaucracy. The king had control only in the core areas of Kaveri basin
while peripheral foci of power existed. He said that Chola revenue was
supplemented by looting expeditions. The king did not have a standing
army because he relied groups like peasants, artisans and merchants
 The basic flaw in Steins argument is that the existence of corporate
village organizations does not necessarily indicate the people exercised
authority at a higher level.
 Moreover, the Chola state sustained for 3 centuries with expeditions
into Ganga valley, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and even SE Asia. Unless a
centralized administrative and military structure exists, such activities
cannot take place.
 Economic State- The existence of tax terms levied on multiple entities
like types of land, irrigation tanks, labour fees, profession tax,
occupancy dues, etc indicates a well established revenue structure. A
study by Subbarayalu and Shanmugan shows elaborate tax structure.
 Lastly, village autonomy has been the feature of ancient India. The
Cholas went one step further by introducing elections. However, village
autonomy does not indicate weak central authority.
 Concluding, the Chola state was just like any other monarchy but with
an added feature of elections at Ur, Sabha and Nagaram level with
Nadu as the main center of administration and revenue.
 Feudal State - RN Nandi and Heitzman
  Archaic model by Kathlene Gough- primitive state with a despotic king.
Entire system based on exploitation of subalterns. Existence of slavery,
devadasi, etc.

Chola Administration-
Administrative divisions - Rajam --> 8 Mandalams --> districts called Kottams or
Valanadus --> Nadus --> Assemblies or Varium called Ur, Mahasabha, Nagaram.

 The head of the Mandala was mainly a member of royal family.

 Olainayak was the chief secretary of the king.
 Nadu- Term means assembly of the locality. it was the main administrative
center with important revenue rights. It was managed by Nattar. They
even donated land to temples. Subbarayalu estimates their number as 140
in Cholamandalam area.
 Ur was the asembly of tax paying citizens open to all male members of all
families.
 Mahasabha was assembly of brahmins which included those owning
Brahmadeya lands
 Nagaram was assembly of merchants and traders for promotion of trade.

Judicial system
King was the final authority in serious offences. Local dusputes decided by the
village assemblies. Unlike Guptas, capital punishment was not very harsh. Court
documents recorded in inscriptions. Taxation during calamity was lenient. At local
level, Sabhas also had judicial functions referred as Dharmasana.

Local representation
From Uttaramerur inscription during reign of Parantaka I
 Nadu or Ur- The local govt could have developed in pre-Chola times due to
settlement of agri communities bound by economic and kinship ties. The
villages were made of Vellalas and non-brahmans hence called Vellanvagai.
Nadu also collected taxes and levies at local level and maintained
infrastructure. Headed by Nadalvar.
  Sabha- made of land owning Brahmins who were scholarly and we'll
learned. They formed Variyams or committees to look over various aspects
of admin. Various Variyams existed for looking after gardens, fields, gold
allays, etc. The Samvatsara Variyam was an annual committee of more
experienced elders. The election happened by the system of lots.
Conditions included property, 40 years and knowledge in Shastras. No one
allowed consecutive terms. The Sabha had right to levy taxes collected
through Tanduvan or collector. It also had judicial functions called
Dharmasana.
 Uttaramerur inscription details- the election used to proceed by lots every
year. The eligibility was 35-70 years, own property of 1/4th Veli or 1.5
acres, knowledge of Vedas or one Veda and a Bhashya. No criminal record,
no stolen property, no failure to submit accounts of earlier posts.

Democracy and Local Self Govt

Various aspects of democracy and local government are-
 Elections- From Uttaramerur. held at Ur and Sabha level. Qualifications,
age, criminal record, all people of village voted, etc. The Sabhas
functioned in Variyams or committees. Thus, people chose their own
representatives.
 Financial Autonomy- The Ur and Sabha had taxation rights. They could
levy tolls and levies along with collection of tax for the monarch.
Probably, the villages got some share of it too. The Nagarams levied
taxes on shops and market places. A 13th century inscription at
Mannargudi talks of burden of levies on farmers. The Sabha met the
leading people of locality and decided on the issue.
 Operational Autonomy- the Ur and Sabha had authority to construct
roads, bridges, irrigation tanks and even maintain them. All small level
works were done at village level itself. The Sabha managed the
religious activities of the temples. Thus, operational freedom existed.
 Judicial autonomy- Even though the royal court or Dharnasana existed,
the petty disputes seem to have been solved at Ur and Sabha level
itself.
  Control over community resources- In spite of land grants, communal
landholding was common. The common pastures, forests and lakes
were controlled by the Ur and Sabha.
However,
 There are no references of decisions by voting or quorums.
 The modern definition of democrwcy of by, for and of people doesnt
apply due to overarching influence of monarchy. The assemblies were
bound by the will of the monarchy.
 Concept of separate elecrorates was seen in case of Sabhas.
 It is only in case of electing local representatives that limited
democracy exercised, it did not go to the Nadu or Kottam level.
 Very few examples of women being active in public life- An epigraph
from Shikarpur talk talks of wife of a district headman succeeding him
after his death.

Military Setup
 Elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy were important in an army. The total
army was about 150000. Arabian horses were imported for cavalry but
didnt survive due to climate.
 Army was led by the prince or Yuvaraja. Velaikkarars as bodyguards of
monarch, ranks included Mahadandanayakas, Nayaks and Senapatis. They
were Vellalas, Brahmins and others.
 Very strong navy with Nagapattanam as a port. The conquests went up to
Srivijaya and Shailendras. Thus, Bay of Bengal had become Chola Lake.

Revenue System
 Revenue department kept all records.
 Taxable lands were called Irai while tax-free land was called Irayili.
 Taxes varied according to the type of land. Nansei was wetland, Punsei was
dry land, Nattam was common land, Thottam was garden land. Wetland
gave 1/3rd produce as taxes while dryland gave 1/5th.
 During Rajaraja I, the demand was one third, either in cash or kind.
  Katamai was tax on land. Kutimai was occupancy dues. Vetti, similar to
Vishti were labour dues.
 Eccoru meant obligation of villagers to provide food to State officials.
 New land brought under cultivation - 1/10th tax in first year, 1/9th in
second.
 Professional tax, house tax collected. However, Kullotunga abolished tolls.
 Excluded from taxation were Ur Nattam, temples, tanks, canals, etc.
 Person unwilling to cultivate or migrated out, his lands were confiscated.
 Currency was called Kalanju
(Conclude saying it is centralized state)

Society
 Caste system prevalent. Two major divisions - Valangai or peasants, Idangai
or traders.
 Sati was prevalent in royal families and also devadasi system.
 Tanjore inscription talks of Devanar Makkal or god's daughters who lived
near Brihadeshwara temple
 Different professions find mention like valaiyar or fisherman, vedar or
hunters, kovalar or cowherds, etc.
 Like north india, proliferation of subcastes seen - cheek, rathakar, etc.

Foreign contact-
 Trade through- Nagapatnam, Kaveripatnam, Arikamedu, Korkai, Kolachel,
Thoothukudi, etc.
 Official spread along with spread by monks, traders, guilds like Ayyavole,
etc.
 China under Song dynasty was open for trade. Rajendra I himself a mission
to China in 1015CE. Chinese records mwntion 4 such missions who brought
gifts like ivory, spices, leather, glassware, camphor, etc.
 Tamil Chinese inscriptions and 300 bronze statues found in Guangzou
province of China
  1017CE- Sri Lanka conquered. Shiva temple at Anuradhapura, temples at
Jaffna, Mannar and Trincomalee. Reconstruction of various Busddhist
monesteries in Anuradhapura. A new city of Rajarajapuram with a Shiva
temple. Migration of Tamils via Adam's bridge.
 Conquest on islands of Maldives by Ranjendra’s navy.
 1025 CE- Conquest of Srivijaya kingdom under Shailendra dynasty.
 A reference of grant shows the Srivijaya kind donating for a monastery in
Nagapattinam.
 The Tanjore inscription of Rajendra I mentions kingdom of Madamalingam
near the Kra Isthmus of Thailand.
 A Chola Surya image has been found at Jaiya, regional capital of Srivijaya
empire.
 Similarly, pottery and glass remains have been found at Ko Kao island at
mouth of Takaupa river.
 Expansion of Tamil culture in Singapore.
 Role of merchant guilds - 11th century Ayyavole imscriotion in northern Sri
Lanka and Sumatra. The base for Manigramam was Takaupa in Thailand.

(Chola art and architecture, metal works- Upinder Singh page 637)

Culture-
 Dravida style architecture, temple being the center of activity, temples like
Kailashnath temple of Kanchipuram and Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore
(it even had statues of kings).
 The bronze statues of Nataraja are famous from Chola period.
 Cholas also gave patronage to Tamil language and poets. Kamban’s
Ramayana, Pugalendi’s Nala Venba are masterpieces in Tamil literature.
 Thirumurai are collections of compositions of Nayanar and Alvar saints and
is called the 5th Veda.

Possible Question- Evaluate the socio economic conditions from the Gupta
Period to 1200 C.E. as gleaned from the various types of grants or dana shasanas
Intro- Epigraphy and its importance for socio-economic and political history
The said period had important kingdoms like Guptas, Vakatakas, Rashtrakutas,
Cholas, Rajputs, Palas, etc whose Dana Shasanas throw light on the history of the
period.

Social conditions-
1- decentralisation- Dana shasanas resulted in erosion of king's sovereignty.
Poona plates of Prabhavati Gupta and 10th century Pala plates have words like
"till sun and moon exist' that show permanent nature of land grants. Study by BD
Chattopadhyaya about Rajputs show that they were land owners under Gurjara-
Pratiharas and rose to power due to former's fall
2- Rise of Brahmins- Brahmadeyas led to rise of Brahmins. Religious and economic
power now combined. Pala plates and Ganjam plates of Orissa talk of tax
exemptions. Yavatmal plates of Vakatakas talk of renewal of tenure. Chola land
grants show Taniyur or tax exempted status for Brahmadeyas
3- Rise of Kayasthas- They were scribes who dealt with land records. Pala plates
show them as an intermediate class between Brahmins and Kshatriyas
4- Rise of Brahmins, local chiefs coupled with fall in trade and monetary anaemia
meant worsening status of Vaishyas and Shudras
5- Information on migration- Land grants to Brahmins have details of native place.
Grants show migration of Brahmins from Madhyadesha to Bengal, Orissa and
Deccan.
6- Condition of peasants worsened as they became mere tenants on their lands.
The sub-infeudation meant increased burden of revenue
7- Institution of village eroded as land grants significantly altered community land
rights and judicial rights of Panchayats.
8- Many grants were in regional languages too showing growth of regional
cultures
Overall, society became even more stratified, rigid and inward looking between
Gupta-1200 CE

Economic conditions-
1- Agrarian expansion seen as most plates are given for growth in cultivation i.e
revenues. It shows more rural centric economy than urban and trade centric. RS
Sharma has comcluded this showe de-urbanization.
2- Tax exemptions of Kara, Bali, Bhaga, etc in some cases meant lessening of royal
revenues, although in case of various Kara-Shasanas of Palas and Orissa, certain
taxes had to be paid by grantees.
3- Vakataka land grants like Chammak and Yavatmal plates were studied by
historians Shrimali and Mirashi. They conclude it was more of a barter based rural
economy showing monetary anaemia
4- Plates and inscriptions of Cholas studied by Subbarayulu and Shanmugan show
varied revenue terms like Katimai, Kutimai, Vetti, etc showing robust bureaucracy
and numerous taxes
5- Rise of temple as financial institutions. Temple towns.
Overall, economic condition varied from place to place. But a certain monetary
anaemia and loss of trade and focus on agriculture can be observed.