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 Modern History Mains Synopsis
Sr. Topic Page No.
1 Advent of European and consolidation of British Empire in India 1
2 Revolt of 1857 7
3 Tribal Revolt 14
4 Socio - Religious Reform Movements 18
5 1857 to 1905 29
6 1905 to 1918 35
7 1919 to 1939 47
8 1939 to 1947 75
9 British Rule, Policies and Administration in India 90
10 Economic Impact of British rule in India 102
11 Challenges Before New Born Nation 106
12 Other Important Topics 111
 Topic 1 : Advent Of European And Consolidation Of British Empire In India

1 Contributions of Tipu Sultan

2 Reasons Responsible for the Decline of the Mughal Empire in India
3 Rise and Fall of Marathas
4 Causes of French failure and English Success
5 Significance and Decline of Portuguese in India
6 Why the British Succeeded against Other European Powers
7 Why Many Empire-shaking Battles at Panipat (Haryana) ?

1
Sub-Topic 1 : Contributions of Tipu Sultan :
• Tipu Sultan was Born in November 1750 to Haidar Ali and Fatima. A knowledgeable man, he could freely chat in
Arabic, Persian, Kanarese and Urdu.
• Tipu was an incredible hero (known as the 'Tiger of Mysore') and gave most extreme consideration to the raising
and support of a productive military power.
• He sorted out his military on the European model with Persian expressions of order. Despite the fact that he
took the assistance of the French officials to prepare his fighters, he never permitted them (French) to form into a
pressure group.
• Like his father, Tipu understood the significance of a maritime power. In 1796, he set up a Board of Admiralty
and got ready for an fleet of 22 war vessels and 20 huge frigates. Three dockyards were set up at Mangalore,
Wajedabad and Molidabad. In any case, his arrangements didn't fructify.
• Tipu was a patron of science and Technology. He is credited as the 'pioneer of rocket innovation' in India. He
composed a military manual clarifying the operation of rockets.
• He was likewise a pioneer in acquainting sericulture with the Mysore State.
• Tipu was an extraordinary admirer of majority rule government and an incredible representative.
• He gave his help to the French warriors at Seringapatam in setting up a Jacobin Club in 1797. He requested a
salute of 2,300 guns and 500 rockets to celebrate the event. Tipu himself become the member of the Jacobin Club
and permitted himself to be called “Citizen Tipu”.

Sub-Topic 2 : Reasons Responsible for the Decline of the Mughal Empire in India :
• The process of disintegration of the Mughal Empire began during the reign of Aurangzeb, but it picked up
momentum only after his death in 1707.

The major Causes which contributed to the downfall of the Mughal Empire are discussed below :
1. The government of the Mughals was a personal despotism and so its success depended on the character of the
ruler. The later Mughals were unworthy and neglected the administration of the state.
2. With the absence of a definite law of succession, there always occurred a war of succession; this weakened the
stability of the government, and fostered partisanship at the cost of patriotism.
3. The degeneration of the rulers led to the degeneration of the nobility, with factious dispute and intrigues costing
the empire heavily.
4. The deterioration of the army also proved disastrous for the empire.
5. The empire had become too vast and difficult to be governed from a central authority under weak rulers,
especially under the prevailing conditions of transport and communication.
6. Aurangzeb’s religious policy was largely responsible, leading to revolts by Rajputs, Sikhs, Jats and Marathas.
7. Aurangzeb’s Deccan policy was a complete failure and was an important cause of the downfall of the Mughal
empire.
8. Invasions of Irani and Durrani kingdoms gave a death-blow to the Mughal empire.
9. Rise of Regional States : The states that emerged as a result of the decline of the Mughal Empire can be classified
into the following three broad categories:

These were the Mughal provinces that turned into states after separate from the empire.
Though they didn't challenge the sovereignty of the Mughal ruler, the establishment
Successor States of virtually independent and hereditary authority by their governors showed the
beginning of autonomous polity in these territories. Some examples are Awadh, Bengal
and Hyderabad.
Independent These states came into existence primarily thanks to the destabilisation of the Mughal
Kingdoms control over the provinces, examples being Mysore, Kerala and therefore the Rajput
states.
The New States These were the states found out by the rebels against the Mughal empire, examples
being the Maratha, the Sikh and therefore the Jat states.

2
 Sub-Topic 3 : Rise and Fall of Marathas:
Rise of the Marathas :
• As the Mughal Empire declined, one of the staunchest and hardiest of the empire’s adversaries, the Marathas, got
a chance to rise in power.
• They controlled a large portion of the country; besides, they also received tributes from areas not directly under
their control. By the middle of the eighteenth century, they were in Lahore thinking of becoming rulers of the north
Indian empire and in the court of the Mughals playing the role of kingmakers.
• Though the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), in which they were defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali, changed the
situation, they regrouped, regained their strength and within a decade achieved a position of power in India.

Causes of fall of Marathas :

• Incompetent Leadership → The Maratha state was despotic in character. The personality and character of the head
of the state had a great bearing on the affairs of the state. But, unluckily, the later Maratha leaders Bajirao II,
Daulatrao Sindhia and Jaswantrao Holkar were worthless and selfish leaders.
• Defective Nature of Maratha State → The cohesion of the people of the Maratha state was not organic but artificial
and accidental, and hence precarious. There was no effort, right from the days of Shivaji, for a well thought out
organised communal improvement, spread out education or unification of the people.
• Loose Political Set-up → The Maratha empire was a loose confederation under the leadership of the Chhatrapati
and later the Peshwa. Powerful chiefs such as the Gaikwad, the Holkar, the Sindhia and the Bhonsle carved out
semi- independent kingdoms for themselves and paid lip service to the authority of the Peshwa. Further, there existed
inconsistent hostility between different units of the confederacy. The Maratha chief frequently took sides with one
or the other. The lack of a cooperative spirit among the Maratha chiefs proved detrimental to the Maratha state.
• Inferior Military System → Though full of personal prowess and valour, the Marathas were inferior to the English
in organisation of the forces, in war weapons, in disciplined action and in effective leadership. The adoption of the
modern techniques of warfare by the Marathas was inadequate. The Marathas neglected the paramount importance
of artillery.
• Volatile Economic Policy → The Maratha leadership failed to evolve a stable economic policy to suit the changing
needs of time. There were no industries or foreign trade openings. So, the economy of the Maratha was not
conducive to a stable political set-up.
• Superior English Diplomacy and Espionage → The English had better diplomatic skill to win allies and isolate
the enemy. The disunity among the Maratha chiefs simplified the task of the English. Unlike the Marathas’
ignorance and lack of information about their enemy, the English maintained a well-knit spy system to gather
knowledge of the potentialities, strengths, weaknesses and military methods of their foes.
• Progressive English Outlook → The English were rejuvenated by the forces of Renaissance, emancipating them
from the shackles of the Church. They were dedicate their energies to scientific inventions, extensive ocean voyages
and acquisition of colonies. Indians, on the other hand, were still steeped in medievalism marked by old dogmas
and notions.
• The Maratha leaders paid very little attention to mundane matters of the state.

In the end, it can be concluded that the English attacked a ‘divided house’ which started crumbling after a few pushes.

Sub-Topic 4 : Causes of French failure and English Success

• The English company was a private enterprise - this created a sense of enthusiasm and self-confidence among
the people. With less governmental control over it, this company could take instant decisions when needed without
waiting for the approval of the government. The French company, on the other hand, was controlled and
regulated by the French government and was hemmed in by government policies and delays in decision-making.
• The English navy was superior to the French navy; it helped to cut off the vital sea link between the French
possessions in India and France.
• The English held three important places, namely, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras whereas the French had only
Pondicherry.

3
• The French subordinated their commercial interest to territorial ambition, which made the French company
inadequacy of funds. In spite of their imperialistic motives, the British never neglected their commercial interests.
So they always had the funds and the consequent sound financial condition to help them significantly in the wars
against their rivals.
• A major factor in the success of the English in India was the superiority of the commanders in the British camp.
In comparison to the long list of leaders on the English side - Sir Eyre Coote, Major Stringer Lawrence, Robert
Clive and many others - there was only Dupleix on the French side.

Sub-Topic 5 : Significance and Decline of Portuguese in India :

Significance:
• Most historians have observed that the coming of the Portuguese not only initiated what might be called the
European era, it marked the emergence of naval power.
• The Portuguese ships carried cannon, and this was the first step in gaining monopoly over trade - with the
threat or actual use of force.
• In the Malabar of the sixteenth century, the Portuguese showed military innovation in their use of body armour,
matchlock men, and guns landed from the ships.
• The Portuguese may have contributed to the use of field guns, and the ‘artillery of the stir-up’. However, an
significant military contribution made by the Portuguese onshore was the system of drilling groups of infantry, on
the Spanish model, introduced in the 1630s as a counter to Dutch pressure.
• The Portuguese were masters of improved techniques at sea. Their multi-decked ships were heavily constructed,
designed as they were to ride out Atlantic gales rather than run before the regular monsoons; this permitted them
to carry a heavier armament.
• In India, the memory of religious persecution and cruelty detracts from the other contributions made by the
Portuguese in the cultural field. However, it cannot be unnoticed that the missionaries and the Church were also
teachers and patrons in India of the arts of the painter, carver, and sculptor. As in music, they were the
representation, not just of Portuguese, but of European art to India.
• The art of the silversmith and goldsmith flourished at Goa, and the place became a centre of elaborate filigree
work, fretted foliage work and metal work embedding jewels.

Causes of their Decline :

• By the 18th century, the Portuguese in India lost their commercial influence, though some of them still carried
on trade in their individual capacity and many took to piracy and robbery.
• The local advantages gained by the Portuguese in India were reduced with the emergence of powerful dynasties
in Egypt, Persia and North India and the rise of the turbulent Marathas as their immediate neighbours. (The
Marathas captured Salsette and Bassein in 1739 from the Portuguese).
• The religious policies of the Portuguese, such as the activities of the Jesuits, gave rise to political fears. Their
antagonism for the Muslims apart, the Portuguese policy of conversion to Christianity made Hindus resentful.
• Their dishonest trade practices also evoked a strong reaction. The Portuguese earned notoriety as sea pirates.
Their arrogance and violence brought them the animosity of the rulers of small states and the imperial Mughals as
well. The discovery of Brazil turn away the colonising activities of Portugal to the West.
• The union of the two kingdoms of Spain and Portugal in 1580-81, dragging the smaller kingdom into Spain’s
wars with England and Holland, badly affected Portuguese monopoly of trade in India.
• The earlier monopoly of knowledge of the sea route to India held by the Portuguese could not remain a secret
forever; soon enough the Dutch and the English, who were acquire the skills of ocean navigation, also learnt of
it.
• As new trading communities from Europe arrived in India, there began a fierce rivalry among them. In this Fight,
the Portuguese had to give way to the more powerful and enterprising competitors. The Dutch and the English had
greater resources and more compulsions to expand overseas, and they overcame the Portuguese resistance.

Sub-Topic 6 : Why the British Succeeded against Other European Powers ?

4
 Of all the other European nations who came as traders to India after new sea routes were discovered, England emerged
as the most stronger and successful by the end of the eighteenth century.

The major Causes which can be attributed for the success of the English against other European powers:
1. The Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies → The British East India Company, formed through
amalgamation of several rival companies at home, was controlled by a board of directors whose members were
elected annually. The companies of France and Portugal were largely owned by the State and their nature was in
many ways feudalistic.
2. Naval Superiority → The Royal Navy of British was not only the largest but it was most advanced of its times.
The victory against the Spanish and against the French had put the Royal Navy at the peak of the European naval
forces. In India too, the British were able to defeat the Portuguese and the French due to fast movement of the naval
ships. The English learnt from the Portuguese the worth of an efficient navy and improved their own fleet
technologically.
3. Industrial Revolution → The Industrial Revolution begin in England in the early 18th century, with the invention
of new machines like the steam engine, the power loom and several others. These machines significantly improved
production in the fields of textile, metallurgy, steam power and agriculture. The industrial revolution reached other
European nations later and this facilitate England to maintain its hegemony.
4. Military Skill and Discipline → The British soldiers were a disciplined alot and well trained. The British
commanders were strategists who tried new tactics in warfare. Technological evolution equipped the military well.
All this combined to enable smaller groups of English fighters defeat larger armies.
5. Stable Government → With the exclusion of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, Britain witnessed stable
government with efficient monarchs. Other European nations like France suffers violent revolution in 1789 and
afterwards the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, greatly weakened France’s position and from then on
it was forced to side with Britain. The Italians were unify as a nation as late in 1861. The Dutch and Spain were also
participate in the 80-years war in the 17th century which weakened Portuguese imperialism.
6. Secular in Nature → Britain was less zealous about religion and less concerned in spreading Christianity, as
compared to Spain, Portugal or Dutch. Thus, its rule was far more acceptable to the subjects than that of other
colonial powers.
7. Use of Debt Market → One of the major reasons why Britain succeeded between the mid-eighteenth century and
the mid-nineteenth century, while other European nations fell, was that it used the debt markets to fund its wars.
The world’s first central bank—the Bank of England was established to sell government debt to the money markets
on the promise of a decent return on Britain’s defeating rival countries like France and Spain. Britain was thus
enabled to spend in a greater extent on its military than its rivals.

Sub-Topic 7 : Why Many Empire-shaking Battles at Panipat ( Haryana ) ?

Panipat and its adjacent region, located in present Haryana on the banks of the Yamuna and between the fertile
plains of the Ganga and Indus rivers, have seen several battles. These battles changed the course of Indian history at
different points of time.

First Battle of Panipat in 1526
Second Battle of Panipat in
1556
Third Battle of Panipat in 1761
The first Battle of Panipat in 1526 was between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi. The
result of the battle laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire by finished the rule
of the Delhi Sultanate.
The Second Battle of Panipat in 1556 was between Akbar and Hemu; it
decided in favour of the prolongation of the Mughal rule.
The Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 between the Marathas and Ahmad Shah
Abdali put an end to the Maratha aspiration of ruling over India.

Why Panipat was a favourite battle field?

1. Panipat had a strategic location : One of the parties of the war generally came from the north through the Khyber
Pass to get hold over Delhi, the capital of northern India. To travel a military through rough terrains - deserts of
Rajasthan or the other northern areas infested with dense forests - was very risky and difficult. On the other hand,
the rulers at Delhi considered Panipat as a confrontable strategic ground and therefore they preferred to take the
fight there.

5
2. Its nearness to Delhi made it easier for the Indian rulers to transport weapons, military and food supplies etc., to
the battleground, and still keep the capital insulated from the conflict at hand.
3. Panipat’s surrounding region has a flat ground which was suited for cavalry movement—the main mode of
warfare at the time.
4. After construction of the Grand Trunk Road by Sher Shah Suri (1540-45), Panipat was on this route. It became
easier for conquerors to find their way there.
5. The duration of monsoon rainfall in the region is short in comparison to other areas making it easier to fight.
6. The artisans/smiths of these regions were experts in making warfare-related materials and hence it became easier
for forces of both parties to replenish their war materials.

6
 Topic 2 : Revolt of 1857

1 Causes behind 1857 Revolt

2 Weakness of 1857 Revolt
3 Aftermaths of the Rebellion
4 Nature of the Revolt
5 Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor in 1857 Revolt

7
Sub-Topic 1 : Causes behind 1857 Revolt

Administrative
Causes
Religious and Economic
Cultural
Causes Causes

Causes
Political behind Immediate
Causes 1857 Causes
Revolt

Political Causes :
• Subsidiary Alliance (under Wellesely) → Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to fall under it. It made it mandatory
for a ruler to – Maintain military force trained by company but paid by ruler and prohibition of establishing relation
with other European nations.
• After demise of Bahadurshah Jafar, British refused to recognize his descendants as ‘Kings’ (but only as
‘Princes’). His name was also removed from coins.
• “Doctrine of Lapse” under Dalhousie → Annexations and Loss of Sovereignity.
• Ban on Pension → Nana shaeb claimed pensions of on behalf of his father after his demise. However company
refused to entertain it.
• Annexation of Awadh in 1856 → caused much resentment and also created panic among local rulers. Humiliation
of their ruler, forced people to join the mutiny.

Economic Causes :
• Peasant Dissatisfaction → Farmers were also dissatisfied due to oppressive farm loans by planters and coercive
farm practices like beggar and high land revenues.
• Permanent Settlement → Zamindari System also didn’t helped and it led to rise of Money Lenders Class and
growth in indebtedness of farmers and atrocities of money lenders. It led to ‘absentee landlordism’ and rise of
‘tenancy’ and ‘share cropping’.
• Drain of Wealth → This was later highlighted by Dadabhai Naroji (Poverty and Un-British Rule In India) and
R C Dutt (Economic History of India) and it was felt that British rule is to the detriment of Indians and Indian
wealth was gradually drained to Britain.
• Ruin of traditional and handicraft industry.

Religious and Cultural Causes :

• In 1850, government enacted a law that enabled a convert to Christianity to inherit the anestoral property.
• Promoted Christian missionaries → On religious front also Indians resented British policies. Further, British in a
bid to reform the Indian society, promoted Christianity, this also resented people and was seen as an attack on
religion. ‘Religious Disability Act’, 1856 was passed to legalized conversion.
• An 1856 Act was passed under which a new recruit was required to serve even overseas and it was anti-reigion
to Hindus.
• Sati was banned, widow remarriage was allowed (Widow Remarriage Act, 1856) and reforms were seen as anti-
religion campaign.
• Intrusion of missionaries was seen as interference in their religious beliefs.

Administrative Causes :
• Discontent among Sepoys → Sepoys of the company were also discontented. They were unhappy about their pay,
allowances and conditions of service. Sepoys also reacted to what was happening in the countryside. Many of them
were peasants and had families living in the villages. So the anger of the peasants quickly spread among the sepoys.

8
 • Racial nature and access to only manial jobs.
• Alien Rule → the very fact that British rule was alien hurt the self-respect of Indians.

Immediate Causes
• Rumours of Bone mixed in flour, Cow/Pig fat coated cartridges in Enfield rifles.
• Poor treatment of soldiers

Beginning and spread of the Revolt :

• To realize a common enemy, a common communication is required and some sort of organization of disparate
groups is required. These conditions were fulfilled in Northern India in 1857.
• On 29 March 1857, a young soldier, Mangal Pandey, was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore.
Some days later, some sepoys of the regiment at Meerut refused to do the army drill using the new cartridges, which
were suspected of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs.

Sub-Topic 2 : Weakness of 1857 Revolt

Causes of Failure :
• Apathy of Many Indian Rulers – like Scindia, Holkar and Nizam of Hyderabad sided with the British.
• Lack of capable and all Indian leadership was also there, Bhadur Shah Jafar was an accidentally made reluctant
leader.
• There was a lack of popular support also, less participation by rural folks.
• Middle class and upper class was critical factor of the revolt.
• Since moneylenders were chief targets also, they sided British. Similarly, Zamindars also remained loyal to the
British.
• Unorganised, scattered and isolated nature of the revolt
• Lack of modern weaponary viz-a-viz Britishers, outdated weaponary, if any.
• Lack of communication among key leaders.

Sub-Topic 3 : Aftermaths of the Rebellion

Following were the prominant changes that were brought about –

Power Transfer & End of Company Rule:

• The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858 and transferred the powers of the East India Company to the
British Crown to ensure a more responsible management of Indian affairs.
• A member of the British Cabinet was appointed Secretary of State for India and made responsible for all matters
related to the governance of India. It was given a council to advise him, called the India Council.
• The Governor-General of India was given the title of Viceroy, that is, a personal representative of the Crown and
he was put under Secretary of State. Through these measures the British government acknowledged direct
responsibility for ruling India.

Queen’s Proclamation –
• All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territory would never be annexed in future. They were
permit to pass on their kingdoms to their heirs, including adopted sons. However, they were made to recognised
the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount. Thus the Indian rulers were to hold their kingdoms as
subordinates of the British Crown.

Act for Good Governance in India (1858) –

• Government of India Act (1858) → The Act was termed as - ‘Act for Good Government in India’
• Queen Victoria issued a proclamation on November 1, 1858, placing India under direct government of the
Crown, whereby –

9
 ➢ A viceroy was appointed in India – i.e. end of Governor General System – Canning, last governor general,
became first viceroy.
➢ An ‘Executive Council’ was provided for the Governor General/Viceroy
➢ Princes were given the abolition of Doctrine of Lapse (right to adopt a son). However, they were made to
acknowledge the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount. Thus the Indian rulers were to hold their
kingdoms as subordinates of the British Crown.
➢ Treaties were honoured
• It abolished Board of Control (British Crown’s appointed body to look into political affairs of India) and
Court of Directors (Company body to look into administrative and trade functions) and instead a ‘Secretary of
State’ was appointed. He was a member of British Cabinet and directly responsible to British Parliament.
• Religious freedom was restored and equality treatment promised to Indians.
• Secretary of State was made highest authority, directly responsible to crown. Charles Wood made first secretary
of state. ‘India Council’ – a 15 member body – was established for assisting him.
• It was also decided that instead of recruiting soldiers from Awadh, Bihar, central India and south India, more
soldiers would be recruited from among the Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans.
• The British decided to respect the customary religious and social practices of the people in India.
• The Proclamation was called the 'Magna Carta of Indian Liberty'. The British rule in India was strongest
between 1858 and 1905. Because of various subjective and objective factors which came into existence during this
era, the feeling of nationalism in Indians started and grew.
• The act only aimed at administrative aspects while the way India was ruled remained more or less similar to
company rule.

Reduction in Indian Soldiers –

• It was decided that the proportion of Indian soldiers in the army would be reduced and the number of European
soldiers would be increased.
• It was also decided that instead of recruiting soldiers from Awadh, Bihar, central India and south India, more
soldiers would be recruited from among the Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans.
• Indians were prevented to take higher ranks in army. Crucial branches of army like Signals, Artillery etc were
in hands of Europeans only.
• They also adopted “policy of divide and rule” in army to counter balance different communities and discrimination
on the basis of cate, region and religion was practiced.
• It was insulated from national ideas and newspapers, journals and nationalist publications were not allowed
to reach to soldiers.
• Indian army became very expensive to maintain. In 1904 it absorbed 52% of total revenues.

Policy Towards Princly States –

• In the wake of recent unrest, Britain has to reverse its earlier policy of annexing states at every possible
opportunity. Another reason for this reversal of policy was support from many princely states to crush the revolt.
In the words of Lord Canning, ‘Princly states acted as breakwaters in storm’.
• They were rewarded by the announcement that they will now be allowed to adopt heirs and their territorial
integrity will be respected.
• British now saw them as useful allies.
• However, subordinate position of the princely states remained. States have to acknowledge Britain as paramount
power.
• Queen Victoria when assumed throne declared herself of empress of Indian subcontinent as a whole and later
Curzon also clarified that princes ruled merely as agents of crown.
• As paramount power, Bitain retained the power to supervise their affairs and for this purpose a ‘Resident’
was appointed in courts of these states.
• Further British also interfered continuously even in day to day matters on name of administration, railways
and communication and so on.

Antagonism Towards Muslims:

10
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 • The land and property of Muslims was confiscated on a large scale and they were treated with suspicion and
hostility.
• The British believed that they were responsible for the rebellion in a big way.
• However, post-1870 British started to attract Muslims to counter the Indian national movement.

Changed Outlook towards Customs and Religion:

• The British decided to respect the customary religious and social practices of the people in India.
• Policies were made to protect landlords and zamindars and give them security of rights over their lands.
• Zamindars were hailed as traditional natural leaders. Zamindars also recognized that their existence is linked with
the existence of British rule.
• India Councils Act 1861 was passed and it expanded the council of viceroy and it now also performed legislative
functions also and was known as Imperial Legislative Council. It was merely an advisory body to viceroy.

Sub-Topic 4 : Nature of Revolt

• The Revolt of 1857 was a major upheaval against the British Rule in which the dissatisfied princes, disconnected
sepoys and disillusioned elements, participated.

Approaches towards nature of revolt of 1857

Approach 1 : Not the first Approach 2 : Not National Approach 3 : Not First war
war in nature of Independence :

1st Approach : Not the first war :

• It is important to note that right from the beginning of operation of the East India Company there had been resistance
from divergent section in different parts of the sub-continent.
• Earlier revolt in different parts of country :

Poligars on the eastern coast of India were the local military chiefs within their jurisdiction.
Their position was adversely impacted by the Company’s agreement with the Nawab of Arcot
Poligars revolt in 1781, according to which, the Nawab acquired the right of management and control of the
entire revenue of the Tirunelvelli and Carnatic provinces on behalf of the Company. The
Poligars, who had been revenue farmers for generations organized themselves to oppose against
the encroachment on their right.
Vellore Mutiny The Vellore mutiny in 1806 was the first instance of a large-scale and violent mutiny by
Indian sepoys against the East India Company. The revolt, which took place in the South Indian
city of Vellore, during which mutineers seized the Vellore Fort and wounded 200 British troops.
Tribal and Many tribal and peasant uprisings for instances Bhil revolt, Ramosi peasant uprising among
peasant others took place before 1857. However, they were towards their immediate grievances rather
uprisings than to remove British from India.
The Paika Bidroha of 1817 in Odisha briefly shook the foundations of British rule in the eastern
Paika Rebellion part of India. Paikas under the leadership of Baxi Jagabandhu, the ancestral chief of the militia
army of the Gajapati King of Khurda (a kingdom near Puri), rose in rebellion in March 1817,
taking support of tribals and other sections of society.

Approach 2 : Not National in nature :

• The British historians Sir John Lawrence, considered it nothing more than a sepoy mutiny. According to John
Seeley, the Revolt of 1857 was a wholly unpatriotic and self-centred sepoys mutiny with no native leadership and
no popular support.

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• Though in certain areas the revolt pretend the character of popular rising and constituted a danger to the British
power, it was poorly organized.
• Each of the leaders of the uprising fought for their regional or personal interests.
• In the middle of the nineteenth century, nationalism in India was yet in its infancy. There was no feeling of
nationalism, as we know it today.
• In 1857, the Bengalis, the Punjabis, the Marathas and Rajputs never felt even for a moment that they all
belonged to one and the same nation.
• Bahadur Shah II was not a national King. He was in fact, ‘the king of no land”. He was compelled by the Indians
sepoys to assume their leadership.
• Most of the leaders raised the banner of revolt to protect and promote their own interests.
• When the defeat of the British seemed imminent, the conflicting regional and class loyalties reappeared on the
surface.

Approach 3 : Not First war of Independence :

• It was “never all-Indian” in character, but was localised, restricted and poorly organized”. Further, the
movement was marked by absence of cohesion and unity of purpose among the various sections of the rebels.
• Modern concept of “nationalism” had not emerged yet.
• The idea of the revolt never resonated with the elite classes and the urban population. Majorly, it was confined
to North-India alone.
• The greater part of India and the majority of the people remained uninterested and neutral.
• The absence of unity of purpose and cohesion among the different sections of society and local character of the
uprising does not fully qualify the Revolt of 1857 as the first war of Indian Independence.

The final Analysis and Significance of Revolt :

• It can be said that it was definitely something more than a mutiny because it saw the popular participation of
many Zamindars, Jagirdars, Indian Princes and people of Awadh and other areas besides the soldiers.
• The concept of modern nationalism may not have yet emerged. However, if we look at the facts, that it was a national
uprising and the prime factor that led to this war was the way the East India Company and the British officials were
attacking the cultural ethos of this nation and especially of the majority.
• There was also Hindu-Muslim unity during the revolt.
• Therefore, it will be more rational to consider the Revolt of 1857 as the first major struggle or effort made by
Indians to overthrow the British rule which paved the way for the rise of Indian nationalism.
• During the freedom struggle in the twentieth century it kept on inspiring the leaders and people alike. It proved
to be a turning point in the history of Modern India.
• The Revolt of 1857 was the first sign that the Indians wanted to end British rule and were ready to stand united
for this cause.
• Even though they failed to achieve their objective they succeeded in sowing the seeds of nationalism among the
Indians.
• It is for these above reasons, V. D. Savarkar called the revolt as “First war of Indian Independence”

Sub-Topic 5: Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor in 1857 Revolt :

• During the whole revolt, there was complete cooperation between Hindus and Muslims at all the levels—
people, soldiers, leaders.
• All rebels acknowsedged Bahadur Shah Zafar, a Muslim, as the emperor.
• According to Maulana Azad, “Two facts stand out clearly in the midst of the tangled story of the Rising of 1857.
The first is the remarkable sense of unity among the Hindus and the Muslims of India in this period. The other
one is the deep loyalty which the people felt for the Mughal Crown.”
• Rebels and sepoys, both Hindu and Muslim, respected each other’s sentiments.
• Immediate banning of cow slaughter was ordered once the revolt was successful in a particular area.
• Both Hindus and Muslims were well represented in leadership, such as Nana Saheb had Azimullah, a Muslim
and an expert in political propaganda, as an aide, while Laxmibai had the solid support of Afghan soldiers.

12
 Thus, the revolt of 1857 demonstrated that the people and politics of India were not basically communal or
sectarian before 1858.

13
 Topic 3 : Tribal Revolts

1 Tribal revolt - Causes and Significance

2 Ulgulan Movement
3 Paika Rebellion
4 Weaknesses of Tribal Revolt
5 Heraka movement

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 Sub-Topic 1 : Tribal revolt - Causes and Significance
Causes :
• The common thread that ran across all the tribal uprisings was that – rise of money lenders, revenue farmers and
traders as middlemen in tribal areas.
• Tribals deemed outsiders as undesirable and were called “Dikus”. Tribal movements were largely driven by the
intrusions of Dikus – British in this case.
• An active forest policy and a slew of Forest Acts deprived tribals of their traditional forest rights.
• Reactionary and ill conceived legislations like 'Criminal Tribes Act, 1971' made the condition of tribes worse.
By this Act many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as ‘Criminal Tribes’. They
were declared to be criminal by nature and birth. Once this Act came into force, these communities were expected
to live only in notified village settlements. They were not allowed to move out without a permit. The village
police kept a continuous watch on them.
• The tribals were reduced to being landless agricultural labourers.
• Introduction of money lenders → The British introduced money lenders into the tribal areas which led to severe
exploitation of the local tribals. They became bonded labourers under the new economic system.
• The tribal societies had a system of joint ownership of land which was replaced by the notion of private property.
• Restrictions on Minor forest Produce → There were restrictions imposed on the use of forest produce, on shifting
agriculture and on hunting practices. This led to the loss of livelihood for the tribals.
• Disturb their social fabric → Tribal society was traditionally egalitarian compared to mainstream society which
was marked by caste and class distinctions. With the coming of the non-tribals or outsiders, the tribals came to be
classified under the lowest strata of society.
• Change in forest administration → A Forest Department was set up in 1864 by the government mainly to control
the rich resources of Indian forests. The Forest Act of 1865 and the Indian Forest Act of 1878 established complete
government monopoly over the forested land.
• Encroachment by the Christian missionaries → The work of the Christian missionaries also led to social upheaval
in tribal society and this was also resented by them.

Why British want to put restrains over tribes?

• The British were uncomfortable with groups who moved about and did not have a fixed home. They wanted tribal
groups to settle down and become peasant cultivators as this could have subjected them under better control.
• Settled peasants were easier to control than people who were always on the move.
• The British also wanted a regular revenue source for the state from the revenue in form of tax on agriculture.

Tribal reaction against land settlement move of British :

• Many tribal groups reacted against the colonial forest laws. They disobeyed the new rules, continued with practices
that were declared illegal, and at times rose in open rebellion.
• Such was the revolt of 'Songram Sangma' in 1906 in Assam, and the 'forest satyagraha of the 1930s' in the Central
Provinces.

Causes of Failure of Tribal Movements :

• Failure to Identify the real Enenmy
• Primitive Methods and ideologies
• Unorganised, isolated and sporadicated nature of revolts.
• Superstition and backward looking attitude.

Nature of Tribal Movement :

• With the onset of colonialism, they were often reduced to being agricultural labourers on their own land and
increasingly recruited as coolies to work in distant mines, plantation and factories.
• Tribal movement in colonial India were distinguished from the movements of other communities in that they
were the most militant, most isolated and most frequent.
• The tribal uprisings were marked by immense courage.

15
• Tribals’ community consciousness is strong. Tribal movements were not only agrarian but also forest-based.
Some revolts were ethnic in nature as these were directed against zamindars, moneylenders and petty government
officials who were not only their exploiters but aliens too.

Significance of Tribal revolt :

• It forced the colonial government to introduce laws so that the land of the tribals could not be easily taken over
by dikus.
• It showed once again that the tribal people had the capacity to protest against injustice and express their anger
against colonial rule.

Sub-Topic 2 : Ulgulan Movement

Who is Birsa Munda ?
• Birsa Munda was an Indian tribal freedom fighter, religious leader, and folk hero who belonged to the Munda
tribe of Jharkhand.
• He led a tribal religious movement that arose in the Bengal Presidency (now Jharkhand) in the late 19th century,
during the British Raj, thereby making him an important figure in the history of the Indian independence movement.

About the movement :

• The Mundas used to live near the present day Chhotanagpur area.
• The Mundas practised ‘the Khuntkatti’ system ( joint holding of land), but it was replaced by the Zamindari
System with the advent of the British and the outsiders, which created indebtedness and forced labour.
• Birsa Munda started a rebellion in 1894 and declared himself ‘God’ and organised people to openly revolt against
the government and also asked people to stop paying taxes.
• In December 1899, the Mundas torched police stations, houses of the landlords, churches and British property.
• The revolt mainly concentrated in the Munda belt of Khunti, Tamar and Bandgaon.

Topic 3 : Paika Rebellion

The Paika Rebellion, also called the Paika Bidroha was an armed rebellion against the British East India
Company's rule in 1817.

Who are Paikas?

• Paikas had been employed since the 16th century by kings in Odisha from a variety of social groups to render martial
services in return for rent-free land (nish-kar jagirs).
• They were the traditional land-owning militia of Odisha and served as warriors.

Who led the movement ?

• Bakshi Jagabandhu, the highest-ranking military general of King of Khorda Mukund Dev II, led the Paikas
Rebellion.

Causes behind the movement :

• The rise in the price of salt.
• Abolition of the cowrie currency for payment of taxes.
• An overtly extortionist land revenue policy.
• When armies of the East India Company overran most of Odisha in 1803, the Raja of Khurda lost his primacy and
the power and prestige of the Paikas went on a decline. The British were not satisfied with these aggressive, warlike
new subjects and set up a commission under Walter Ewer to look into the issue. The commission recommended
that the hereditary rent-free lands granted to the Paikas be taken over by the British administration and this
recommendation was zealously adhered to paikas Hence, they revolted against the British.

16
 Nationalist movement or a peasant revolt ?
• The Paika Rebellion is one among the peasant Revot that took place in India when the English East India
Company was expanding its military enterprise.
• Because these uprisings violently clashed with European colonialists and missionaries on many occasions, their
resistance is sometimes seen as the first expression of resistance against colonial rule and therefore considered to be
“nationalist” in nature.

Sub-Topic 4 : Weaknesses of Tribal Revolt :

• Localised in nature : These uprisings drew a large number of participants but were, in fact, localised and occurred
at different times in different regions.
• For local grievances : They mostly arose out of local grievances.
• Poor leadership : The leadership was semi-feudal in character, backward- looking, traditional in outlook and their
resistance did not offer alternatives to the existing social set-up.
• These rebellions were centuries-old in form and ideological / cultural content.
• Those who were not so uncooperative, were pacified through concessions by the authorities.
• The methods and arms used by the fighters in these uprisings were practically obsolete compared to the weapons
and strategy employed by their opponents.

Sub-Topic 5 : Heraka movement

Who was Rani Gaidinliu ?
• Gaidinliu was a Naga spiritual and political leader who led a revolt against British rule in India.
• At the age of 13, she joined the Heraka religious movement of her cousin Haipou Jadonang. The movement later
turned into a political movement seeking to drive out the British from Manipur and the surrounding Naga areas.
• Within the Heraka faith, she came to be considered an incarnation of the Goddess Cherachamdinliu.
• Gaidinliu was arrested in 1932 at the age of 16, and was sentenced to life imprisonment by the British rulers.
• Jawaharlal Nehru gave her the title of "Rani" ("Queen"), and she gained local popularity as Rani Gaidinliu.

Causes behind the movement :

• The British colonial power also started penetrating into the Zeliangrong inhabited areas by the first half of the 19th
century.
• The presence of outsiders disrupted the peaceful existence of the indigenous settlers and prompted social
tension between different communities.
• In the second half of the 19th century, the British colonial power divided the Zeliangrong people and their land and
placed them under Assam and Manipur for their administrative conveniences without the consent of Zeliangrong
people.

About Zeliangrong people :

• The Zeliangrong people are one of the major indigenous communities living in the tri-junction of the present
states of Assam, Manipur and Nagaland in North East India.
• The Zeliangrongs are the descendants of the same ancestor who founded the great Makuilongdi village, the ‘cradle
of Zeliangrong culture’.
• They have a long history and inherited a rich cultural heritage.

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 Topic 4 : Socio-Religious Reform Movements

1 Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform

2 Fight for Betterment of Position of Women
3 Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation
4 Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj
5 Young Bengal Movement and Henry Vivian Derozio
6 Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and his contribution as a social reformer
7 Satyashodhak Samaj and Jyotiba Phule
8 The Ramakrishna Movement and Swami Vivekananda
9 Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj
10 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement
11 Significance of Reform Movements

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 Sub-Topic 1 : Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform
The opening period of the nineteenth century testimony the birth of a new vision among some educated sections of the
Indian society. This enlightened image was to shape the course of events for the decades to come and even beyond.

Factors:

1. Impact of British Rule :

• The presence of a colonial government on Indian soil played a complex, yet decisive role in this crucial phase of
modern Indian history.
• The impact of British rule on Indian society and culture was widely different from what India had known before.
Most of the previous invaders, who had come to India to settled within its frontiers, were either absorbed by its
superior culture or interacted positively with it and had become part of the land and its people.
• However, the British conquest was different. It came at a time when India, in contrast to an enlightened Europe of
the eighteenth century affected in every aspect by scientific outlook, presented the picture of a stagnant civilisation
and a static society.

2. Religious and Social ills :

• Indian society in the nineteenth century was caught in a vicious web created by religious superstitions and social
obscurantism.
• Hinduism had become steeped in magic and superstition.
• The priests exercised an overwhelming and unhealthy influence on the minds of the people.
• Idolatry and polytheism helped to reinforce their position, and their monopoly of scriptural knowledge imparted
a misleading character to all religious systems.

3. Depressing Position of Women :

• Social conditions were equally depressing. The most distressing was the position of women.
• Attempts to kill female infants at birth were not unusual.
• Child marriage was another bane of society.
• The practice of polygamy prevailed and in Bengal, under Kulinism, even old men took very young girls as wives.
• Several women hardly had a married life worth the name, yet (at least among the higher castes) when their husbands
died they were expected to commit sati which Raja Rammohan Roy described as a “murder according to every
shastra”. If they escaped this social coercion, they were condemned to a life of misery and humiliation.

4. The Caste Problem :

• Another debilitating factor was caste. This entailed a system of segregation, hierarchically ordained on the basis
of ritual status.
• At the bottom of the ladder came the untouchables or scheduled castes, as they came to be called later.
• The untouchables suffered from numerous and severe disabilities and restrictions.
• In modern times, it became a major obstacle in the growth of a united national feeling and the spread of
democracy.
• Under a rigid caste system, social mobility was checked, social divisions grew, and individual initiative was
unsuccessful. Above all, the humiliation of untouchability - so much a part of the caste system would be militated
against human dignity.

5. Opposition to Western Culture :

• The establishment of colonial rule in India was followed by a systematic attempt to propagate colonial culture and
ideology as the dominant cultural current.
• Faced with the challenges of the trespass of colonial culture and ideology, an attempt to reinvigorate traditional
institutions and to realise the potential of traditional culture developed during the nineteenth century.

6. New Awareness among Enlightened Indians :

• The impact of modern Western culture and consciousness of defeat by a foreign power gave birth to a new
awakening.

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• There was an awareness that a vast country like India had been colonised by a foreigners because of weaknesses
within the Indian social structure and culture.
• During the last decades of the nineteenth century, the rising tide of nationalism and democracy also found expression
in movements to reform and democratise the social institutions and religious outlook of the Indian people.
• Factors such as growth of nationalist sentiments, emergence of new economic forces, spread of education, impact
of modern Western ideas and culture and increased awareness of the world strengthened the resolution to reform.

The socio-cultural regeneration of the India of the nineteenth century was occasioned by the colonial presence,
but not created by it.

Sub-Topic 2 : Fight for Betterment of Position of Women

Poor conditions of women:
• Women were generally accorded a low status and were considered to be inferior to men, with no identity of
their own.
• They enjoyed no scope of giving expression to their talents as they were suppressed by practices such as purdah,
early marriage, ban on widow-marriage, sati, etc.
• Both Hindu and Muslim women were economically and socially dependent on male relatives, while education
was generally denied to them.
• The Hindu women did not enjoy the right to inherit property or to terminate an undesirable marriage. Muslim
women could inherit property but only half as much as men could, while in case of divorce there was no equality
between men and women.
• Polygamy was prevalent among Hindus as well as Muslims.
• Their glorification as wives and mothers was the only way in which society recognised the contribution of women
as members of society.

Reforms:
• Education of Women: The Christian missionaries were the first to set up the Calcutta Female Juvenile Society
in 1819. The Bethune School, founded by J.E.D. Bethune, president of the Council of Education in Calcutta in
1849 was the first fruit of the powerful movement for women’s education that arose in the 1840s and 1850s. Pandit
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was associated with no less than 35 girls’ schools in Bengal and is considered one
of the pioneers of women’s education. Charles Wood’s Despatch on Education (1854) laid great emphasis on the
need for female education.
• The reformers basically appealed to the doctrines of individualism and equality, and argued that true religion
did not sanction an inferior status to women.
• They raised their voice against degrading customs such as polygamy, purdah, child marriage, restrictions on
widow marriage, and worked relentlessly to establish educational facilities for women, to persuade the
government to enact favourable legislations for women and to propagate the uselessness of medieval, feudal
attitudes which required to be given up.
• Abolition of Sati: Influenced by the frontal attack launched by the enlightened Indian reformers led by Raja
Rammohan Roy, the government declared the practice of sati illegal and punishable by criminal courts as culpable
homicide.
• Preventing Female Infanticide: The practice of murdering female infants immediately after their birth was a
common practice among upper class Bengalis and Rajputs who considered females to be an economic burden.
The Bengal regulations of 1804 declared infanticide illegal and equivalent to murder. An Act passed in 1870 made
it compulsory for parents to register the birth of all babies and provided for verification of female children for some
years after birth, particularly in areas where the custom was resorted to in utmost secrecy.
• Widow Remarriage: The Brahmo Samaj had the issue of widow remarriage high on its agenda and did much to
popularise it. But it was mainly due to the efforts of Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, the principal of Sanskrit
College, that the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856, was passed; it legalised marriage of widows and declared
issues from such marriages as legitimate. Vidyasagar cited Vedic texts to prove that the Hindu religion
sanctioned widow remarriage.

20
 • Controlling Child Marriage: The Native Marriage Act, 1872 signified legislative action in prohibiting child
marriage. It had a limited impact as the Act was not applicable to Hindus, Muslims and other recognised faiths.
The relentless efforts of a Parsi reformer, B.M. Malabari, were rewarded by the enactment of the Age of Consent
Act (1891) which forbade the marriage of girls below the age of 12. The Sarda Act (1930) further pushed up the
marriage age to 18 and 14 for boys and girls respectively. In independent India, the Child Marriage Restraint
(Amendment) Act, 1978 raised the age of marriage for girls from 15 to 18 years and for boys from 18 to 21.

Women's organisation for uplifting Women's position :

Bharat Stree Mahamandal:
Ladies Social Conference:
National Council of Women:
The All India Women’s
Conference (AIWC):
In 1910, Sarla Devi Chaudhurani convened the first meeting of the Bharat Stree
Mahamandal in Allahabad. Considered as the first major Indian women’s
organisation set up by a woman, its objectives included promotion of education
for women, abolition of the purdah system and improvement in the socio-
economic and political status of woman all over India.
Ramabai Ranade founded the Ladies Social Conference, under the parent
organisation National Social Conference, in 1904 in Bombay. Pandita Ramabai
Saraswati founded the Arya Mahila Samaj to serve the cause of women. She
pleaded for improvement in the educational syllabus of Indian women before the
English Education Commission which was referred to Queen Victoria. This
resulted in medical education for women which started in Lady Dufferin College.
Later Ramabai Ranade established a branch of Arya Mahila Samaj in Bombay.
In 1925, the National Council of Women in India, a national branch of the
International Council of Women, was formed. Mehribai Tata played a vital role
in its formation and advancement. She opined that the purdah system, caste
differences and lack of education prevented women from working to solve societal
problems.
AIWC founded by Margaret Cousins in 1927, was perhaps the first women’s
organisation with an egalitarian approach.

Sub-Topic 3 : Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation

Caste based exploitation :
• The concept of Hindu chaturvarnashrama dictated that the caste of a person determined the status and relative
purity of different sections of population.
• It was caste that determined who could get education or ownership of landed property, the kind of profession
one should pursue, whom one could dine with or marry, etc.
• In general, caste decided a person’s social loyalties even before birth.
• The dress, food, place of residence, sources of water for drinking and irrigation, entry into temples - all these were
regulated by the caste factor.
• The worst-hit by the discriminatory institution of caste were the ‘untouchables’ or the scheduled castes/dalits.
The disabilities imposed on them were humiliating, inhuman and based on the principle of inequality by birth.

Factors that Helped to Mitigate Caste-based Discrimination :

• British rule: It created certain conditions that undermined caste consciousness to an extent. British rule in India
unleashed certain forces, sometimes through direct administrative measures and sometimes indirectly by creating
suitable conditions. Though these measures had negative effects in one way, they had a positive effect too. For
instance, the creation of private property in land and free sale of land upset caste equations.
• Modern commerce and industry gave rise to several economic avenues while growing urbanisation and modern
means of transport added to the mobility of populations.
• The British administration introduced the concept of equality before law in a uniformly applied system of
law which dealt a severe blow to social and legal inequalities, while the judicial functions of caste panchayats were
taken away.

21
• The administrative services were made open to all castes and the new education system was on totally secular
lines.
• The social reform movements also strove to undermine caste-based exploitation. From the mid-19th century
onwards, numerous organisations and groups such as the Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj,
Ramakrishna Mission, the Theosophists, the Social Conference and individuals worked to spread education among
the untouchables and remove restrictions imposed on them from entering temples or using ponds, tanks, etc.
• The social reformers attacked the rigid hereditary basis of caste distinctions and the law of karma which formed
the basis of the religio-philosophic defence of the undemocratic authoritarian caste institution.
• The Congress governments in various provinces after 1937 election did some useful work for the upliftment of
the depressed classes; for instance, free education for Harijans (‘untouchables’) was introduced in some provinces.
• The rulers of states like Travancore, Indore and Devas took the initiative in opening all state temples by
proclamation.
• Efforts by Gandhi : Gandhi always had in mind the objective of eradicating untouchability by root and branch. His
ideas were based on the grounds of humanism and reason. He argued that the Shastras did not sanction
untouchability and, even if they did, they should be ignored since truth cannot be confined within the covers of a
book. In 1932, he founded the All India Harijan Sangh.
• In Maharashtra, Jyotiba Phule, born in a low caste Mali family, led a movement against the brahminical
domination of Hindu society. He accorded the highest priority to education of lower castes, especially girls for
whom he opened several schools.
• Babasaheb Ambedkar, who had experienced the worst form of casteist discrimination during his childhood, fought
against upper caste tyranny throughout his life. He organised the All India Scheduled Castes Federation, while
several other leaders of the depressed classes founded the All India Depressed Classes Association. Ambedkar
condemned the hierarchical and insular caste system as a whole, and advocated the annihilation of the institution
of caste for the real progress of the nation.
• The struggle of the depressed classes led to the provision of special representation for these classes in the
Government of India Act, 1935.
• During the 1920s in South India, the non-brahmins organised the Self-Respect Movement led by E.V.
Ramaswamy Naicker. There were numerous other movements demanding that the ban on the entry of lower castes
into temples be lifted. Sri Narayana Guru in Kerala led a lifelong struggle against upper caste domination. He
coined the slogan “one religion, one caste, one God for mankind”, which his disciple Sahadaran Ayyapan
changed into “no religion, no caste, no God for mankind”.
• The Constitution of free India has made equality and non-discrimination on basis of caste imperative. The
Constitution of free India abolishes untouchability and declares the endorsement of any disability arising out of
untouchability as unlawful. It also forbids any restriction on access to wells, tanks, bathing ghats, hotels, cinemas,
clubs, etc. In one of the Directive Principles, the Constitution has laid down that “the State shall strive to
promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting as effectively as it may a social order in which
justice—social, economic and political—shall inform all the institutions of the national life”.

Sub-Topic 4 : Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj

Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833), often called the the father of Indian Renaissance and the maker of Modern India,
was a man of versatile genius.

About Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his ideals:

• Rammohan Roy believed in the modern scientific approach and principles of human dignity and social
equality.
• He put his faith in monotheism. He wrote Gift to Monotheists (1809) and translated into Bengali the Vedas and
the five Upanishads to prove his conviction that ancient Hindu texts support monotheism.
• In 1814, he set up the Atmiya Sabha (or Society of Friends) in Calcutta to propagate the monotheistic ideals
of the Vedanta and to campaign against idolatry, caste rigidities, meaningless rituals and other social ills. 4. He
Strongly influenced by rationalist ideas, he declared that Vedanta is based on reason and that, if reason demanded
it, even a departure from the scriptures is justified.

22
 • He said the principles of rationalism applied to other sects also, particularly to the elements of blind faith in
them.
• He earned the wrath of missionaries over his advocacy to incorporate the message of Christ into Hinduism.
• He stood for a creative and intellectual process of selecting the best from different cultures, over which, again,
he faced orthodox reaction.
• He founded the Brahmo Sabha in August 1828; it was later renamed Brahmo Samaj. Through the Sabha he
wanted to institutionalise his ideas and mission. The Samaj was committed to “the worship and adoration of the
Eternal, Unsearchable, Immutable Being who is the Author and Preserver of the Universe”.
• His ideas and activities were also aimed at political uplift of the masses through social reform.
• He was a determined crusader against the inhuman practice of sati. He started his anti-sati struggle in 1818 and
he cited sacred texts to prove his contention that no religion sanctioned the burning alive of widows, besides
appealing to humanity, reason and compassion.
• He also visited the cremation grounds, organised vigilance groups and filed counter petitions to the
government during his struggle against sati. His efforts were rewarded by the Government Regulation in 1829
which declared the practice of sati a crime.
• As a campaigner for women’s rights, Roy condemned the general subjugation of women and opposed
prevailing misconceptions which formed the basis of according an inferior social status to women.
• Roy attacked polygamy and the degraded state of widows and demanded the right of inheritance and property
for women.
• Rammohan Roy did much to disseminate the benefits of modern education to his countrymen. He supported
David Hare’s efforts to found the Hindu College in 1817, while Roy’s English school taught mechanics and
Voltaire’s philosophy. In 1825, he established a Vedanta college where courses in both Indian learning and Western
social and physical sciences were offered.
• He also helped enrich the Bengali language by compiling a Bengali grammar book and evolving a modern
elegant prose style.
• Rammohan was a gifted linguist. He knew more than a dozen languages including Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic,
English, French, Latin, Greek and Hebrew. A knowledge of different languages helped him broadbase his range of
study.
• As a bold supporter of freedom of the Press and as a pioneer in Indian journalism, Roy brought out
journals in Bengali, Hindi, English, Persian to educate and inform the public and represent their grievances before
the government.
• As a political activist, Roy condemned oppressive practices of Bengali zamindars and demanded fixation of
maximum rents.
• He also demanded abolition of taxes on tax- free lands. He called for a reduction of export duties on Indian goods
abroad and abolition of the East India Company’s trading rights.
• He demanded the Indianisation of superior services and separation of the executive from the judiciary.
• He demanded judicial equality between Indians and Europeans and that trial be held by jury.
• Rammohan was an internationalist with a vision beyond his times. He stood for cooperation of thought and
activity and brotherhood among nations.

The features of Brahmo Samaj:

• It denounced polytheism and idol worship;
• It discarded faith in divine avataras (incarnations);
• It denied that any scripture could enjoy the status of ultimate authority transcending human reason and
conscience;
• It took no definite stand on the doctrine of karma and transmigration of soul and left it to individual Brahmos
to believe either way;
• It criticised the caste system.

Significance of the Brahmo Samaj:

• In matters of social reform, the Samaj attacked many dogmas and superstitions.
• It condemned the prevailing Hindu prejudice against going abroad.

23
• It worked for a respectable status for women in society—condemned sati, worked for abolition of purdah system,
discouraged child marriage and polygamy, crusaded for widow remarriage and for provisions of educational
facilities.
• It also attacked casteism and untouchability though in these matters it attained only limited success.

Sub-Topic 5 : Young Bengal Movement and Henry Vivian Derozio

During the late 1820s and early 1830s, there emerged a radical, intellectual trend among the youth in Bengal, which
came to be known as the ‘Young Bengal Movement’.

About the movement :

• A young Anglo-Indian, Henry Vivian Derozio (1809-31), who taught at the Hindu College from 1826 to 1831,
was the leader and inspirer of this progressive trend.
• Drawing inspiration from the great French Revolution, Derozio inspired his pupils to think freely and
rationally, question all authority, love liberty, equality and freedom, and oppose decadent customs and
traditions.
• The Derozians also supported women’s rights and education.
• Also, Derozio was perhaps the first nationalist poet of modern India.

Weakness of movement :
• The main reason for their limited success was the prevailing social conditions at that time, which were not ripe
for the adoption of radical ideas.
• Further, there was no support from any other social group or class.
• The Derozians lacked any real link with the masses; for instance, they failed to take up the peasants’ cause.
• In fact, their radicalism was bookish in character.

But, despite their limitations, the Derozians carried forward Rammohan Roy’s tradition of public education on social,
economic and political questions. For instance, they demanded induction of Indians in higher grades of services,
protection of ryots from oppressive zamindars, better treatment to Indian labour abroad in British colonies, revision of
the Company’s charter, freedom of press and trial by jury.

Sub-Topic 6 : Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and his contribution as a social reformer

• The great scholar and reformer, Vidyasagar’s ideas were a blend of Indian and Western thought.
• He believed in high moral values, was a deep humanist and was generous to the poor.
• In 1850, he became the principal of Sanskrit College. He was determined to break the priestly monopoly of
scriptural knowledge, and for this he opened the Sanskrit College to non-brahmins.
• He introduced Western thought in Sanskrit College to break the self-imposed isolation of Sanskritic learning.
• As an academician, he evolved a new methodology to teach Sanskrit.
• He also devised a new Bengali primer and evolved a new prose style.
• He started a movement in support of widow remarriage which resulted in legalisation of widow remarriage.
• He was also a crusader against child marriage and polygamy.
• He did much for the cause of women’s education. As government inspector of schools, he helped to organise
thirty- five girls’ schools many of which he ran at his own expense. As secretary of Bethune School (established in
1849), he was one of the pioneers of higher education for women in India.

Sub-Topic 7 : Satyashodhak Samaj and Jyotiba Phule

• Jyotiba Phule, born in Satara, Maharashtra, belonged to the mali (gardener) community and organised a
powerful movement against upper caste domination and brahminical supremacy.
• Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers’ Society) in 1873, with the leadership of the samaj
coming from the backward classes, malis, telis, kunbis, saris and dhangars.

24
 • The main aims of the movement were social service, spread of education among women and lower caste
people.
• Phule’s works, Sarvajanik Satyadharma and Gulamgiri, became sources of inspiration for the common
masses.
• Phule used the symbol of Rajah Bali as opposed to the brahmins’ symbol of Rama.
• Phule aimed at the complete abolition of the caste system and socio-economic inequalities; he was against
Sanskritic Hinduism.
• Phule, a firm believer in gender equality, was a pioneer in women’s education; he with the help of his wife,
Savitribai, opened a girls’ school at Poona;
• He was a pioneer of widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra and also opened a home for widows in 1854.
• Phule was awarded the title ‘Mahatma’ for his social reform work.

Sub-Topic 8 : The Ramakrishna Movement and Swami Vivekananda

Objectives of the Ramakrishna movement were:
• To bring into existence a band of monks dedicated to a life of renunciation and practical spirituality, from
among whom teachers and workers would be sent out to spread the universal message of Vedanta.
• To carry on preaching, philanthropic and charitable works, looking upon all men, women and children,
irrespective of caste, creed or colour, as veritable manifestations of the Divine.

About Swami Vivekananda :

• Narendranath Datta (1862-1902), who later came to be known as Swami Vivekananda spread Ramakrishna’s
message and tried to reconcile it to the needs of contemporary Indian society.
• He emerged as the preacher of neo-Hinduism.
• Certain spiritual experiences of Ramakrishna, the teachings of the Upanishads and the Gita and the examples
of the Buddha and Jesus are the basis of Vivekananda’s message to the world about human values.
• He subscribed to the Vedanta which he considered a fully rational system with a superior approach.
• His mission was to bridge the gap between paramartha (service) and vyavahara (behaviour), and between
spirituality and day-to-day life.
• He believed in the fundamental oneness of God and said, “For our own motherland a junction of the two great
systems, Hinduism and Islam, is the only hope.”
• Emphasising social action, he declared that knowledge without action is useless.
• He pointed out that the masses needed two kinds of knowledge - secular knowledge about how to work for their
economic uplift and the spiritual knowledge to have faith in themselves and strengthen their moral sense.
• He called upon his countrymen to imbibe a spirit of liberty, equality and free thinking.
• At the Parliament of Religions held at Chicago in 1893, Swami Vivekananda made a great impression on
people by his learned interpretations. The keynote of his opening address was the need for a healthy balance
between spiritualism and materialism.
• Envisaging a new culture for the whole world, he called for a blend of the materialism of the West and the
spiritualism of the East into a new harmony to produce happiness for mankind.
• In India he delivered a series of lectures, the focus of which were to infuse into the new generation a sense of
pride in India’s past, a new faith in India’s culture, and a rare sense of confidence in India’s future; to bring
about a unification of Hinduism by pointing out the common foundation of its sects; to make the educated people
see the misery of the downtrodden and work for their uplift by the application of practical Vedanta principles.
• His emphasis was not only on personal salvation, but also on social good and reform.
• In 1897 he founded the Ramakrishna Mission.
• He was a great humanist and used the Ramakrishna Mission for humanitarian relief and social work. The
Mission stands for religious and social reform.
• He advocated the doctrine of service—the service of all beings. The service of jiva (living objects) is the
worship of Siva. Life itself is religion. By service, the Divine exists within man.
• Vivekananda was for using technology and modern science in the service of mankind.
• Ever since its inception, the Mission has been running a number of schools, hospitals, dispensaries. It offers help
to the afflicted in times of natural calamities like earthquakes, famines, floods and epidemics.

25
• The Mission has developed into a worldwide organisation. It is a deeply religious body, but it is not a
proselytising body. It does not consider itself to be a sect of Hinduism. In fact, this is one of the strong reasons for
the success of the Mission. It believes that the philosophy of Vedanta will make a Christian a better Christian,
and a Hindu a better Hindu.
• It was in 1898 that Swami Vivekananda acquired a large piece of land at Belur where the Ramakrishna Math
was finally shifted and registered as such. The monastic order is open to all men without discrimination on the
basis of caste or creed.

Sub-Topic 9 : Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj

• The Arya Samaj Movement, revivalist in form though not in content, was the result of a reaction to Western
influences.
• Its founder, Dayananda Saraswati or Mulshankar (1824-1883) was born in the old Morvi state in Gujarat in a
brahmin family. He wandered as an ascetic for fifteen years (1845-60) in search of truth.
• The first Arya Samaj unit was formally set up by him at Bombay in 1875 and later the headquarters of the Samaj
were established at Lahore.
• Dayananda’s views were published in his famous work, Satyarth Prakash (The True Exposition).
• His vision of India included a classless and casteless society, a united India (religiously, socially and nationally),
and an India free from foreign rule, with Aryan religion being the common religion of all.
• He took inspiration from the Vedas and considered them to be ‘India’s Rock of Ages’, the infallible and the true
original seed of Hinduism. He gave the slogan “Back to the Vedas”.
• Along with his emphasis on Vedic authority, he stressed the significance of individual interpretation of the scriptures
and said that every person has the right of access to God.
• He criticised later Hindu scriptures such as the Puranas and the ignorant priests for perverting Hinduism.
• He launched a frontal attack on Hindu orthodoxy, caste rigidities, untouchability, idolatry, polytheism, belief
in magic, charms and animal sacrifices, taboo on sea voyages, feeding the dead through shraddhas, etc.
• He subscribed to the Vedic notion of chaturvarna system in which a person was not born in any caste but was
identified as a brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya or shudra according to the occupation the person followed.
• He attacked the prevalent popular belief that every individual contributed and got back from the society according
the principles of niyati (destiny) and karma (deeds).
• He held the world to be a battlefield where every individual has to work out his salvation by right deeds, and
that human beings are not puppets controlled by fate.
• It should be clearly understood that Dayananda’s slogan of ‘Back to the Vedas’ was a call for a revival of Vedic
learning and Vedic purity of religion and not a revival of Vedic times.
• He accepted modernity and displayed a patriotic attitude to national problems.

Contribution played by Arya samaj:

• Equal status for women was the demand of the Samaj, both in letter and in spirit.
• The Samaj also helped the people in crises like floods, famines and earthquakes.
• It attempted to give a new direction to education. The nucleus for this movement was provided by the
Dayananda Anglo-Vedic (D.A.V.) schools, established first at Lahore in 1886, which sought to emphasise the
importance of Western education.
• The Arya Samaj’s social ideals comprise, among others, the fatherhood of God and brotherhood of Man, equality
of the sexes, absolute justice and fair play between man and man and nation and nation.
• The Arya Samaj was able to give self-respect and self- confidence to the Hindus which helped to undermine
the myth of superiority of whites and the Western culture.

The guiding principles of the Arya Samaj are:

• God is the primary source of all true knowledge.
• God, as all-truth, all-knowledge, almighty, immortal, creator of Universe, is alone worthy of worship.
• The Vedas are the books of true knowledge.
• An Arya should always be ready to accept truth and abandon untruth.
• Dharma, that is, due consideration of right and wrong, should be the guiding principle of all actions.

26
 • The principal aim of the Samaj is to promote world’s well-being in the material, spiritual and social sense;
• Everybody should be treated with love and justice.
• Ignorance is to be dispelled and knowledge increased;
• One’s own progress should depend on uplift of all others;
• Social well-being of mankind is to be placed above an individual’s well-being.

Sub-Topic 10 : Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement

The British view on the revolt of 1857 held the Muslims to be the main conspirators. This view was further
strengthened by the activities of the Wahabis. But later, an opinion got acceptance among the rulers that the Muslims
could be used as allies against a rising tide of nationalist political activity represented, among others, by the foundation
of the Indian National Congress. This was to be achieved through offers of thoughtful concessions to the Muslims.

About Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and his ideologies:

• A section of Muslims led by Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898) was ready to allow the official patronage (to British
government) to stimulate a process of growth among Indian Muslims through better education and employment
opportunities.
• Syed Ahmed Khan, born in a respectable Muslim family, was a loyalist member of the judicial service of the
British government. After retirement in 1876, he became a member of the Imperial Legislative Council in 1878.
His loyalty earned him a knighthood in 1888.
• He wanted to reconcile Western scientific education with the teachings of the Quran which were to be
interpreted in the light of contemporary rationalism and science even though he also held the Quran to be the ultimate
authority.
• He said that religion should be adaptable with time or else it would become fossilised, and that religious tenets
were not immutable.
• He advocated a critical approach and freedom of thought and not complete dependence on tradition or custom.
• He was also a educationist, he opened schools in towns, got books translated into Urdu and started the
Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College (later called , the Aligarh Muslim University) at Aligarh in 1875.
• He also struggled to bring about an improvement in the position of women through better education and by
opposing purdah and polygamy, advocating easy divorce, and condemning the system of piri and muridi.
• He believed in the fundamental underlying unity of religions or ‘practical morality’.
• He also preached the basic commonality of Hindu and Muslim interests.
• Syed Ahmed Khan argued that Muslims should first concentrate on education and jobs and try to catch up with
their Hindu counterparts who had gained the advantage of an early start.
• Syed’s progressive social ideas were propagated through his magazine Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq (Improvement of
Manners and Morals).

About the Movement :

• The Aligarh Movement emerged as a liberal, modern trend among the Muslim intelligentsia based in
Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh.
• It aimed at spreading-
a) Modern education among Indian Muslims without weakening their allegiance to Islam;
b) Social reforms among Muslims relating to purdah, polygamy, widow remarriage, women’s education, slavery,
divorce, etc.
• The ideology of the followers of the movement was based on a liberal interpretation of the Quran and they
sought to harmonise Islam with modern liberal culture.
• They wanted to impart a distinct socio-cultural identity to Muslims on modern lines. Soon, Aligarh became
the centre of religious and cultural revival of the Muslim community

Sub-Topic 11 : Significance of Reform Movements :

Positive Aspects :

27
• These movements managed to contribute towards the liberation of the individual from the fear and
exploitation by the priests and other classes.
• Simplification of rituals: The translation of religious texts into vernacular languages, emphasis on an individual’s
right to interpret the scriptures and simplification of rituals made worship a more personal experience.
• The movements emphasised the human intellect’s capacity to think and reason.
• By weeding out corrupt elements, religious beliefs and practices, The reformers enabled their followers to
taunt that their religions and society were immoral and inferior.
• The reform movements gave the rising middle classes the much needed cultural roots to adhere to, and served the
purpose of reducing the sense of humiliation which the conquest by a foreign power had produced.
• Realisation of the special needs of modern times, especially in terms of scientific knowledge, and thus promoting
a modern, secular and rational outlook was a major contribution of these reform movements.
• Socially, the reform movements sought to create a favourable social climate for modernisation.
• To that extent, these movements ended India’s cultural and intellectual isolation from the rest of the world. The
reformers argued that modern ideas and culture could be best imbibed by integrating them into Indian cultural
streams.

Negative Aspects:
• One of the major limitations of the religious reform movements was that they had a narrow social base,
namely the educated and urban middle classes, while the needs of the vast masses of peasantry and the urban
poor were ignored.
• The tendency of reformers to appeal to the greatness of the past and to rely on scriptural authority
encouraged irrational thought in new garbs and fostered pseudo-scientific thinking while exercising a check on
the full acceptance of the need for a modern scientific outlook.
• The emphasis on religious and philosophical aspects of the cultural heritage got somewhat magnified by an
insufficient emphasis on other aspects of culture—art, architecture, literature, music, science and technology.
• To make matters worse, the Hindu reformers confined their praise of the Indian past to its ancient period
and looked upon the medieval period of Indian history essentially as an era of degeneration. This tended to
create a notion of two separate peoples, on the one hand; on the other, an uncritical praise of the past was not
acceptable to the low caste sections of society which had suffered under religiously sanctioned exploitation during
the ancient period.
• The process of evolution of a composite culture which was evident throughout Indian history showed signs
of being arrested with the rise of another form of consciousness— communal consciousness along with national
consciousness among the middle classes.
• Many other factors were certainly responsible for the birth of communalism in modern times, but undoubtedly
the nature of religious reform movements also contributed to it.

On the whole, however, whatever the net outcome of these reform movements, it was out of this struggle that a
new society evolved in India.

28
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 Topic 5 : Modern India-From 1857 To 1905

1 Early Political Organisations In India

2 Formation Indian National Congress (INC)
3 Moderate Phase or Early Nationalism (1885-1905)
4 Moderates versus Extremist Approach
5 Factors responsible for the Growth of Modern Nationalism
6 Indian Councils Act 1892

29
Sub-Topic 1: Early Political Organisations In India
The Indian National Congress was not the first political organisation in India. However, most of the political
associations in the early half of the nineteenth century were dominated by wealthy and aristocratic elements. They were
local or regional in character.

Objectives and Demands of Early political Organisation in India :

Through long petitions to the British Parliament most of them demanded—
• Administrative reforms
• Association of Indians with the administration.
• Spread of education.
• The collection and dissemination of information relating to the actual condition of the people of British India.
• Convey Indian grievances to the British Govt.
• Reform in Company’s upcoming charter like Need for the establishment of a separate legislature, separation of
judicial functions from executive functions, salaries of higher officers to be reduced, abolition of abkari, salt duty
and stamp duties.

Landholder’s Society (1838):
Bengal British India Society
(1839):
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha
(1867):
India League (1875):
Indian Association (1876):
• It was originally founded to take up the interests of Zamindars and Landlords,
but later it took the cases of peasants as well.
• It was perhaps the first organization which made the start of political activities
for achieving its ends which laid the foundation of national movement.
• While landholder’s Society worked in India, it worked for Indian cause in
England.
• This was the first important organsisation setup post 1857 uprising.
• It was a brainchild of Mahadev Govind Ranade – the first Indian Judge.
• It protested against Vernacular Press Act (1878) and also demanded
introduction of Local Self government.
• It started with the aim of working as a mediating body between the
government and people of India.
• It started as an elected body of 95 members elected by 6000 persons in 1870.
• The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha provided many of the prominent leaders of
national stature to the Indian freedom struggle including Bal Gangadhar
Tilak.
• It was established in Bengal and one of the founding members was Sisir
Kumar Ghosh (founder of Amrita Bazar Patrika).
• This organization truly represented first political awakening of people.
• The nationalist leaders like Ananda Mohan Bose, Durgamohan Das,
Nabagopal Mitra, Surendranath Banerje and others were associated with
this organisation.
• The League represented the middle class and worked to stimulate the sense
of nationalism among the people and to encourage political education.
• The India League was soon replaced by Indian Association.
• It was led by Anand Mohan Bose and Surendranath Banarjee.
• It was the most important political organisation before formation of INC.
• It mainly composed of educated middle class and gave rise to an
intellectual ferment on nationalism.
• It published ‘The Bengalee’– a daily which highlights the intellectual
developments of that time.
• It came into highlight when it took a firm stance over the ‘Ilbert Bill’
Controversy (1883).
• It conceived as an ‘All India National Conference’ and it met in Calcutta
in 1883. This conference is considered as a precursor of Indian National
Congress which was formed two year later in 1885.

30
 Madras Mahajan Sabha • It formed by P Anada Charlu, M Viraragahavchari, G Subramania Aiyer was
(1884): the first political organization of South India.
Bombay Presidency • It formed by Pherozshah Mehta, K T Telang and Badruddin Taiyabji.
Association (1885):

Sub-Topic 2: Formation Indian National Congress (INC)

Background of its formation :
• The dissatisfaction with British rule deepen in the 1870s and 1880s.
• The Arms Act was passed in 1878, disallowing Indians from possessing arms. In the same year the Vernacular
Press Act was also passed in an effort to silence those who were critical of the government.
• In 1883, there was a furore over the attempt by the government to introduce the Ilbert Bill and its later withdrawal
under pressure. The event emphasized the racial attitudes of the British in India.
• Although the British succeeded in suppressing the 1857 Revolt, they could not stop the growth of political
awareness in India.

Formation of INC (1885)

• The Indian National Congress was founded in December 1885 in Bombay in presence of 72 delegates.
• The first meeting was scheduled to be held in Pune, but due to outbreak of plague the venue was shifted to Gokuldas
Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay.
• It was the visible embodiment of the national awakening in the country.
• Its founder was an Englishman, Allan Octavian Hume, a retired member of the Indian Civil Service.
• The first President of the Congress was W C Bannerjee.

Congress as a Saftey Valve Theory:

• Primarily propagated by Allan Octavian Hume and other englishmen.
• It was argued by some that British allowed the formation of Congress because it would act as a ‘Saftey Valve’.
However, they was also influenced by the noble cause of India.
• After 1857 uprising, a need for a political organization was felt which could not only vent people’s grienvances but
also shows the true picture of nation so that British can better handle the situation.
• However, this theory is debunked by many a historian who think that leaders agreed for a British face as it
would have made British less suspicious of activities of Indians.

Its initial demands were:

• Expansion of Legislative assembly.
• Reduction in military expenditure, which was around 50% of annual revenues at that time.
• Granting of more civil rights to people.
• Setting up of a ‘Royal Commission’ to enquire into Indian Administration (Welby Commission on Indian
Expenditure was appointed in 1895 following their demand).
• Holding up of simultaneous Public Service examination in India and England and rainsing the age limit for the
candidates (their first achievement was in form of establishment of Public Service Commission in 1886 – which
was disappointing though – and later a resolution to that effect was passed in 1893 for simultaneous examination)
• The demand for Indianisation of the administration was part of a movement against racisim. Further, since
British officers were sending a major part of their large salaries home, Indianisation, it was hoped, would also reduce
the drain of wealth to England.
• Other demands included the separation of the Judiciary from the Executive, the repeal of the Arms Act and the
freedom of speech and expression.
• The early Congress also raised a number of economic issues. It declared that British rule had led to poverty and
famines.

Sub-Topic 3: Moderate Phase or Early Nationalism (1885-1905)

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This phase start From Formation of Congress and end till the Partition of Bengal. This phase helped in creating
intellectual background of the national movement. They used Constitutional agitation, petitions, meetings, memoranda
etc.

Contribution of Moderates:
• Economic Critique of British Empire - It was perhaps the most important contribution of the moderates (R C
Dutt and Dadabhai Naroji). They also exposed the ill effect of foreign capital in India in form of suppression of
Indian industries.
• Constitutional Reforms – Indian Councils Act of 1892 was result of their efforts which increased the number of
members in Imperial Legislative Council as well as Provincial Legislative Council.
• Efforts for national unity – To unite India politically, Congress sessions were held in different cities every year
and initially president would have been from a city other than the hosting city.
• A truly representative body – It has representation from all parts of India, from all castes and religions. Its early
presidents included – Muslims, Hindus, Parsis and even Britishers.
• Administrative Reforms – Indianisation of higher civil services.
• Defence of Civil rights – They support for freedom of press, freedom of speech etc. They also opposed aggressive
foreign policy towards India’s neighbors.
• They also help to formed public opinion and aroused nationalism.

Though they are criticized for not reaching to the masses and having failed to bring any significant reforms, their
achievement lie in the fact that they ignited spirit of nationalism, showed way of political agitation, propagated modern
outlook and so on

Sub-Topic 4: Moderates versus Extremist Approach

Moderates
• Social base - zamindars and upper middle classes in
towns.
• Ideological inspiration - western liberal thought and
European history.
• Believed political connections with Britain to be in
India’s social, political and cultural interests.
• Professed loyalty to the British Crown.
• Believed that the movement should be limited to
middle class intelligentsia; masses not yet ready for
participation in political work.
• Demanded constitutional reforms and share for
Indians in services.
• Insisted on the use of constitutional methods only.
• They were patriots and did not play the role of a
comprador class.
Extremists
• Social base - educated middle and lower middle
classes in towns.
• Ideological inspiration - Indian history, cultural
heritage and Hindu traditional symbols.
• Believed that political connections with Britain
would perpetuate British exploitation of India.
• Believed that the British Crown was unworthy of
claiming Indian loyalty.
• Had immense faith in the capacity of masses to parti-
cipate and to make sacrifices.
• Demanded swaraj as the panacea for Indian ills.
• Did not hesitate to use extra- constitutional methods
like boycott and passive resistance to achieve their
objectives.
• They were patriots who made sacrifices for the sake
of the country.

Sub-Topic 5: Factors responsible for the Growth of Modern Nationalism

The rise and growth of Indian nationalism has been traditionally explained in terms of Indian response to the
stimulus generated by the British Raj through creation of new institutions, new opportunities, resources, etc. In
other words, Indian nationalism grew partly as a result of colonial policies and partly as a reaction to colonial policies.
In fact, it would be more correct to see Indian nationalism as a product of a mix of various factors.

Factors :
• Worldwide upsurge of the concepts of nationalism and right of self-determination initiated by the French
Revolution.

32
 • Birth of Indian Renaissance.
• Offshoot of modernisation initiated by the British in India.
• Strong reaction to British imperialist policies in India.
• Understanding of Contradictions in Indian and Colonial Interests.
• People came to realise that colonial rule was the major cause of India’s economic backwardness and that the
interests of the Indians involved the interests of all sections and classes - peasants, artisans, handicraftsmen, workers,
intellectuals, the educated and the capitalists.
• Political, Administrative and Economic Unification of the Country : The British rule in the Indian subcontinent
extended from the Himalayas in the north to the Cape Comorin in the south and from Assam in the east to Khyber
Pass in the west. While large areas of India had been brought under a single rule in the past—under the Mauryas or
later under the Mughals— the British created a larger state than that of the Mauryas or the great Mughals.
• The British imposed political unity in India : A professional civil service, a unified judiciary and codified civil
and criminal laws throughout the length and breadth of the country imparted a new dimension of political unity to
the hitherto cultural unity that had existed in India for centuries.
• Spread means of transport and communication : The necessities of administrative convenience, considerations
of military defence and the urge for economic penetration and commercial exploitation (all in British interests) were
the driving forces behind the planned development of modern means of transport and communication such as
railways, roads, electricity and telegraph.
• Western Thought and Education : The introduction of a modern system of education offered opportunities for
assimilation of modern Western ideas. This, in turn, gave a new direction to Indian political thinking, although the
English system of education had been conceived by the rulers in the self-interest of efficient administration. The
liberal and radical thought of European writers like Milton, Shelley, John Stuart Mill, Rousseau, Paine, Spencer and
Voltaire helped many Indians imbibe modern rational, secular, democratic and nationalist ideas.
• The English language helped nationalist leaders from different linguistic regions to communicate with each other.
• Those among the educated who took up liberal professions (lawyers, doctors, etc.) often visited England for
higher education. There they saw the working of modern political institutions in a free country and compared that
system with the Indian situation where even basic rights were denied to the citizens. This ever-expanding English
educated class formed the middle class intelligentsia who constituted the nucleus for the newly arising political
unrest. It was this section which provided leadership to the Indian political associations.
• Role of Press and Literature : The second half of the nineteenth century saw an unprecedented growth of Indian-
owned English and vernacular newspapers, despite numerous restrictions imposed on the press by the colonial rulers
from time to time. The press while criticising official policies, on the one hand, urged the people to unite, on the
other. It also helped spread modern ideas of self-government, democracy, civil rights and industrialisation. The
newspapers, journals, pamphlets and nationalist literature helped in the exchange of political ideas among nationalist
leaders from different regions.
• Rediscovery of India’s Past : The historical researches by European scholars, such as Max Mueller, Monier
Williams, Roth and Sassoon, and by Indian scholars such as R.G. Bhandarkar, R.L. Mitra and later Swami
Vivekananda, created an entirely new picture of India’s past. This picture was characterised by well-developed
political, economic and social institutions, a flourishing trade with the outside world, a rich heritage in arts and
culture and numerous cities.
• The theory put forward by European scholars, that the Indo-Aryans belonged to the same ethnic group from
which other nations of Europe had evolved, gave a psychological boost to the educated Indians. The self-
respect and confidence so gained helped the nationalists to demolish colonial myths.
• Progressive Character of Socio-religious Reform Movements : These reform movements sought to remove social
evils which divided the Indian society; this had the effect of bringing different sections together, and proved to be
an important factor in the growth of Indian nationalism.
• Rise of Middle Class Intelligentsia : British administrative and economic innovations gave rise to a new urban
middle class in towns. This class, prominent because of its education, new position and its close ties with the ruling
class, came to the forefront. The leadership to the Indian National Congress in all its stages of growth was provided
by this class.
• Impact of Contemporary Movements in the World : Rise of a number of nations on the ruins of the Spanish and
Portuguese empires in South America, and the national liberation movements of Greece and Italy in general and of
Ireland in particular deeply influenced the nationalist ranks.

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• Reactionary Policies and Racial Arrogance of Rulers : Racial myths of white superiority were sought to be
perpetuated by the British through a deliberate policy of discrimination and segregation. Indians felt deeply hurt by
this. Lytton’s reactionary policies such as reduction of maximum age limit for the I.C.S. examination from 21 years
to 19 years (1876), the grand Delhi Durbar of 1877 when the country was in the severe grip of famine, the Vernacular
Press Act (1878) and the Arms Act (1878) provoked a storm of opposition in the country

Sub-Topic 6: Indian Councils Act 1892

Main Provisions of the act :
• Number of additional members in Imperial Legislative Councils and the Provincial Legislative Councils was raised.
• In Imperial Legislative Council, now the governor-general could have ten to sixteen non-officials (instead of six
to ten previously).
• The non-official members of the Indian legislative council were to be nominated by the Bengal Chamber of
Commerce and provincial legislative councils. The members could be recommended by universities, municipalities,
zamindars and chambers of commerce. So the principle of representation was introduced.
• Budget could be discussed.
• Questions could be asked.

Limitations :
• The officials retained their majority in the council, thus making ineffective the non-official voice.
• The ‘reformed’ Imperial Legislative Council met, during its tenure till 1909, on an average for only thirteen days
in a year, and the number of unofficial Indian members present was only five out of twenty-four.
• The budget could not be voted upon, nor could any amendments be made to it. Supplementaries could not be
asked, nor could answers to any question be discussed.

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 Topic 6 : 1905 to 1918

1 Partition Of Bengal
2 Swadeshi Movement (1905)
3 Rise Of Extremists Or Militant Nationalism
4 Surat Split (1907)
5 Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)
6 First World War (1914-1919) And Its Impact
7 Ghadar Party And Komagata Maru Incident
8 Home Rule Movement
9 Lucknow Pact (December 1916)
10 Montegue Chelmsford Reforms (1919)

35
Sub-Topic 1 : Partition Of Bengal
On December 30, 1898, Lord Curzon took over as the new Viceroy of India. The partition of Bengal was proclaimed
in 1903, through a Royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating a new province of East
Bengal, which later became East Pakistan and present day Bangladesh.

Background and the Motive of Government behind the partition :

• Bengal was a unified Province Constituting Bihar, Orissa, Bengal and Dacca. Partition consider separation of
Muslim population as East Bengal and Bihar, Orissa and a part of Bengal as another province.
• Huge protests followed, but the government remained unchanged and ultimately it happened on 20th July 1905 and
came into effect on October 16, 1905.
• The government explained that it was done to stimulate growth of underdeveloped eastern region of the Bengal
and for administrative convenience as Bengal was largest province in term of population and this was making
administration difficult.
• But, actually, the main objective was to 'Divide and Rule' the most advanced region of the country at that time
and Muslim Community was allured away by lure of a separate province for them.
• Nationalists also saw it as a challenge to Indian nationalism and not merely an administrative action. They saw it as
a blow to Bengali culture and language also.
• In Curzon’s Words – It attempted ‘to dethrone Calcutta’, as it was the nerve center of Congress during that
time and center point of nationalist activity.

Nationalist response :
• The Partition also led to conflict of opinion among Congress as Moderates wanted to confine the partition
agitation to Bengal only.
• On the other hand, Extremists wanted to launch a nation wide agitation and wanted to make it impact feel
through launching a Swadeshi Movement.
• This led to heightened tensions among the two camps and it came to head in 1906 session of congress in which a
face off was avoided by appointing Dadbhai Naroji as the president (he was respected by the both factions and as
a result Tilak – the leader of extremist – also agreed to his name. However earlier he was frontrunner for
presidentship).

Sub-Topic 2 : Swadeshi Movement (1905)

In August 1905 boycott resolution was passed in Calcutta Townhall meeting, formal proclamation of Swadeshi
movement was made.

Background and activities performed during the movement :

• The Swadeshi movement has its genesis in the anti-partition movement which was started to oppose the British
decision to divide Bengal.
• With the start of the Swadeshi movement at the turn of the century, the Indian National Movement took a major
leap forward.
• Partition was done on October 16, 1905 and it was celeberated as a day of mourning.
• People tied rakhis as a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity and unity of two Bengals. People took a dip in holy rivers.
• People sang Bande Matram which almost became a national song.
• Tagore composed “Amar Sonar Bangla” for the occasion which became national anthem of Bangladesh in 1971.
• During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed. It had eight
lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims.
• Another means of creating a feeling of nationalism was through reinterpretation of history. The British saw
Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the
past to discover India’s great achievements. They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times when art
and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished.
• During the movement, demand for foreign cloth dropped many a times. There was a widespread call for boycott
of Manchester cloth and Liverpool salt.

36
 • Corps of Volunteers or ‘Samitis’ were also orgnised by the extremists. Ashwini Kumar Dutt’s Swadeshi Bandhab
Samiti in Bengal is such an example. It helped in building political consciousness. Along with Tilak, Ashwini
Kumar Dutt emerged as one of the early militant extremist.

Leadership of the Movement –

• Initial leadership was provided by the moderates including Surendernath Banarjee, Krishan Kumar Mitra and
P C Ray.
• In fact, both moderates and extremists cooperted during the movement. Ajit Singh and Lajpat Rai led the
movement in Punjab. Syed Haider Raza took command in Delhi. Chidambaram Pillai took the movement to
Madras Presidency which was also galvanized by Bipin Chandra Pal’s extensive lecture tour.

Divide in Congress over Swadeshi Movement –

• Before the split, in 1906 Calcutta session under Dada Bhai Naroji, four resolutions were passed – Boycott;
National Education; Swadeshi and Condemnation of Partition.
• Question of either retention or rejection of these resolution became the major cause of split in the Congress.
• A faction – led by moderates wanted to confine the movement to Bengal only, the other – led by extremists –
wanted to make it a pan Indian movement in shape of a wide struggle.
• Further, Extremist wanted to rise beyond politics of partition and wanted to demand for full Swaraj, Moderates on
the other hand thought that country is not yet ready for such demands and mass movement. (This demand was
however somehow reached a compromise in the 1906 session under Naroji in which Naroji demanded ‘Swaraj’ or
‘Self rule’ like other colonies of British. Demand of Swaraj is landmark in Indian history.)

Success of Swadeshi Movement :

• All major political trends of future – militant nationalism, socialism etc – had their origin in Swadeshi
Movement.
• For the first time mass participation was seen.
• Economic expolitation narrative was further pushed forward and this time even some Zamindars also involved in
the movement.
• Many factories observed strikes.
• Women and student for the first time participated in large number.
• Population of the nation saw the first political awakening.
• The richness of the movement was not confined to politics alone, it was reflected in arts, literature, music, science
and industry as well.
• Swadeshi education was promoted and Bengal National College was founded with Aurobindo as its principle.
• National Council of Education was also formed in 1906.
• A cultural movement also started during that time. Many prominant writers and poets like Rajanikanta Sen,
Mukunda Das, Dwijedralal Ray wrote large number of patriotic scores.
• Rabindranath Tagore wrote ‘Amar Sonar Bangla’ at that time which was later adopted as the National Anthem of
Bangladesh.
• In art, Abnindra Nath Tagore broke the domination of Victorian style and pioneered the Tagore School by
reviving the Mughal, Rajput and Ajanta style. He also drew the iconic Bharat Mata figure which became a rallying
point in the movement.
• Nandlal Bose was another important Oriental artist.
• In field of science, P C Ray and Jagdish Chandra Basu made their mark. Acharya P C Ray’s Bengal Chemical
Factory was a shining example of successful indegenious venture. All it marked what is termed as Bengal
Renaissance.
• Fresh ideas were put forward by militant nationalists and extremists and new means of propaganda emerged.
Techinque of ‘Extended Boycott’ from schools to jobs to Britsh goods was followed.
• Some leaders like Tilak used the movement to creatively celebrate the traditional festival (Ganesh Chaturthi
and Shivaji festival) which added mass appeal to the movement. Traditional folk theatre like Jatra was used
extensively for spreading the idea of nationalism.

37
• Many Muslim leaders like – Saiyaed Haider Raza, Abdul Rasool, Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, Liaqat Hussain
etc also participated.

Major causes of its decline :

• There was squabble in Congress and its split in 1907 (Surat Split) led to weakening of leadership.
• Tilak was jailed for six year in 1908, Ashwini Kumar Dutt and others were also deported. Bipin Chandra Pal and
Aurobindo Ghosh retired from politics.
• The movement was mired with low inertia.
• It was no longer possible for common people to keep boycotting foreign goods due to constrained domestic
supply and economic implications.
• Loss of jobs was another issue.
• Government came down heavily and students were expelled, people were expelled from jobs and arrests were also
made.

Criticism of Swadeshi Movement :

• The movement was largely untouched in Southern states.
• It could also not take it along the peasant class and hence is often criticized as a middleclass movement.
• Mass of the Muslim didn’t participate and their participation was limited. Ultimately, Muslim League was also
established in 1906.
• When the past being glorified by Hindu, when the images celebrated were drawn from Hindu iconography, then
people of other communities felt left out.

Sub-Topic 3 : Rise Of Extremists Or Militant Nationalism

Causes for the rise of extremists or militant nationalism are very much same as those responsible for the rise of
nationalism in India. Leaders like – Tilak, Ashwini Kumar Dutt etc had been active to propagate militant nationalism
since beginning. Leadership of Swadeshi Movement transferred from moderates to extremists like Bipin Chandra Pal,
Aurobindo Ghosh, Tilak etc.

It was due to many factors :

• Failure of Moderates – Politically conscious nationalists believed that exploitation by British will continue as
moderate's demands were making no effect on British policies. Moderates belived that foreign rule can be reformed,
but it was not happening.
• Anti-Congress attitude of Curzon convinced people that Congress will remain an ineffective organization.
• Congress largely gained status of Zamindars’ and upper middle class elite party. Poets like Bankim Chandra
called the Congress session as ‘a three day annual show’.
• Indian Council Act of 1892 was a complete disappointment and it questioned the tactics of the Moderates.
• International Events –

Defeat of Russia by Japan

Defeat of Italian Army by Ethopians broke the myth of Western Supermacy

Revolutionary movement in Russia and Ireland etc inspired Indian nationalists

Boer War in South Africa also inspired Indian nationalists.

• Ill treatment of nationalist leaders – Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh were deported in 1907. KK Mitra, Ashwini
Kumar Dutt were deported in 1908. Tilak was also given severe sentence of 6 years in 1908.
• Evils of foreign rule were now clearly evident in death of around 3 crore people in famines from 1850 to 1900.
• Official Secrecy Act considerably reduced the freedom of press.

38
 • Arrest of Natu Brothers in 1897 and their deportation even without disclosing charges against them infuriorated
people.
• In the same year, Tilak and other newspaper editors were sentenced for long sentences for arousing public
sentiments.
• Spread of political education made people realize that British rule is not for India’s good and it also led to
rejection of White Man’s burden theory.
• Indians were becoming educated, at the same time high un-employment was also a reality. Educated Indians
became the torch-bearers of new militant nationalism.
• New leaders on the bloc aroused the self-respect of people and people now find humiliating to subjugate to
alien rule. It led to awareness among masses too which moderates have ignored.
• Police assault on the peaceful delegates in a conference in Barisal emerged as one of the dastardly acts of
government which angered people.

Immediate Causes :
• During time of Curzon Bengal Partition happened and it became one of the biggest rallying points in the history
of Indian freedom struggle.
• There were other events which lead to rise in anger of people like Municipal Act and Delhi Darbar being a few
of them.
• Failure of early militant nationalists – They failed to give a definitive direction to the movement. They also failed
to reach masses.

Sub-Topic 4 : Surat Split (1907)

In 1906 an imminent confrontation was avoided with appointment of Dadabhai Naroji as the new president – since he
was revered by both the groups, they were pacified. With a view of conciliating the differences, idea of ‘Swaraj’ was
given in this session by Naroji and it was defined as the goal of Congress.

Four resolutions were passed at the 1906 session of Congresss (Presided by Naoroji) –

Condemning partition and policies of Curzon

Uphold Boycott Movement,

Support the Swadeshi Movement,

Protest against existing Education Policy.

Moderates
• Social base - zamindars and upper middle classes in
towns.
• Ideological inspiration - western liberal thought and
European history.
• Believed political connections with Britain to be in
India’s social, political and cultural interests.
• Professed loyalty to the British Crown.
Extremists
• Social base - educated middle and lower middle
classes in towns.
• Ideological inspiration - Indian history, cultural
heritage and Hindu traditional symbols.
• Believed that political connections with Britain
would perpetuate British exploitation of India.
• Believed that the British Crown was unworthy of
claiming Indian loyalty.

39
 • Believed that the movement should be limited to
middle class intelligentsia; masses not yet ready for
participation in political work.
• Demanded constitutional reforms and share for
Indians in services.
• Insisted on the use of constitutional methods only.
• They were patriots and did not play the role of a
comprador class.
• Had immense faith in the capacity of masses to parti-
cipate and to make sacrifices.
• Demanded swaraj as the panacea for Indian ills.
• Did not hesitate to use extra- constitutional methods
like boycott and passive resistance to achieve their
objectives.
• They were patriots who made sacrifices for the sake
of the country.

Causes of split :
• The split happened on the question of retention of four resolutions and spreading of movement to the rest of
nation.
• Failure of Moderates – After the failure of moderates to get major gains, extremists became impatient.
• Bengal Split Agitation Issue – Led by Tilak and others they demanded for extension of mass movement and
demand for Swaraj during Swadeshi Movement. This didn’t go down well with Moderates who wanted to restrict
the movement to Bengal only.
• Extremists were also encouraged by the two events outside India, namely –
1. Defeat of Russia by Japan and
2. Defeat of Italian Army by Ethopians which broke the notion of invincibility of Europeans.
• Extremists were optimist over appointment of new Secretary of State - Morley, but he failed to do anything
over issue of partition and it greatly annoyed the Extremists.
• Extremists wanted either Tilak or Lala Lajpat Rai as president, but moderates wanted Rash Behari Ghose
(not ‘Rash Behari Bose’) to be president in 1907 session (which was to be held at Nagpur, but moderates
shifted it to Surat so that Tilak couldn’t be appointed as president as it had been policy of Congress to appoint
a person from outside the province where session is held as president.)
• Meeting for the first time was ruptured and when it held for next day, Tilak was denied the opportunity to speak
by the Chair. A brawl ensued ending in suspension of meeting sine die. This came to a relief to British who were
looking for an opportunity to subdue the activities of Congress. From next meeting, Extremists were barred from
Congress.
• All in all, the split benefitted neither Moderates nor Extremists, but only British government. Tilak was
jailed soon after for a long 6 years to Mandaley in 1908.

Future course :
Extremists resorted to passive resistance and moderates took to petition for greater legislative reforms. Moderates
felt it as dangerous to support extremists as they might attract wrath of mighty British rule. Moderates didn’t realize that
concessions by government were not to placate them, but to create a rift between them and extremists.

Sub-Topic 5 : Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)

Morley-Minto Reforms were introduced in 1909 during the period when Lord Minto was the Governor General of India.
Salient features :
• Separate Electorates –
o The reforms envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims besides other constitutional measures.
o The government thereby sought to create a rift within the Congress on the one hand by winning the support
of the moderates, and on the other, to win favour of Muslims against Hindus.
o To achieve the latter objective, the reforms introduced the system of ‘separate electorates’ under which
Muslims could only vote for Muslim candidates.

40
 o This was done to encourage the notion that the political, economic and cultural interests of Hindus and
Muslims were separate and not common.
o It sowed the seeds of communalism and checked the historical process of unification of India. It also distracted
Indians from focusing on economic and political problems.
o Lord Minto came to be called as ‘Father of Communal Electorate’.
• Expanded Legislative Councils, but still no power – Both Provincial legislative council and imperial legislative
councils were expanded but still members were elected indirectly and council didn’t have any real powers like
discussion of budget, though they were allowed to pass resolutions now etc.
• Association of Indians with Executive Council of Viceroy and Governors – For the first time it allowed
association of Indians in Executive functions. Satyendra Prasad Sinha (SP Sinha) became the first Indian to join
Viceroy’s executive Council as a law member. (Number was restricted to one).
• Franchisee was introduced for the first time – It was limited however, women didn’t have voting power and it
was limited in other sense also.
• Element of Self Rule was introduced – It made provisions for Indirect Elections.

Positive aspects were :

Voting on some part of budget was allowed.

More power was given regarding asking of questions.

More representation was given.

• Still reformed council didn’t enjoy any power. In fact purpose of reforms was to confuse moderate nationalists
and check the growth of unity among nationalists.

Evaluation :
• The reforms of 1909 afforded no answer to the Indian political problem.
• Lord Morley made it clear that colonial self-government (as demanded by the Congress) was not suitable for India,
and he was against the introduction of parliamentary or responsible government in India.
• The ‘constitutional’ reforms were, in fact, aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks by confusing the Moderates
and at checking the growth of unity among Indians through the obnoxious instrument of separate electorates.
• The government aimed at rallying the Moderates and the Muslims against the rising tide of nationalism. The
officials and the Muslim leaders often talked of the entire community when they talked of the separate electorates,
but in reality it meant the appeasement of just a small section of the Muslim elite.
• Besides, the system of election was too indirect and it gave the impression of “infiltration of legislators
through a number of sieves”.
• While parliamentary forms were introduced but no responsibility was conceded, which sometimes led to
thoughtless and irresponsible criticism of the government.
• Only some members like Gokhale put to constructive use the opportunity to debate in the councils by
demanding universal primary education, attacking repressive policies and drawing attention to the plight of
indentured labour and Indian workers in South Africa.
• What the reforms of 1909 gave to the people of the country was a shadow rather than substance. The people had
demanded self-government but what they were given was ‘benevolent despotism’.

Sub-Topic 6 : First World War (1914-1919) And Its Impact

In the First World War (1914-1919), Britain allied with France, Russia, USA, Italy and Japan against Germany, Austria-
Hungary and Turkey.
Different interpretation of nationalist to response against British government during first world war :
• War was seen as differently by the different groups.

41
 Extremists and revolutionaries • Extremists and revolutionaries saw the plight of British as their opportunity
and many organizations like Home Rule League by Annie Besant and Tilak.
Moderates • Moderates on the other hand extended support to government hoping that
government will reciprocate by more relaxation in to them.
• Ghadar party saw this as an opportunity that they have been waiting for,
though, they were not fully prepared. They didn’t want to let the opportunity
go. It exhorted its leaders to go to other countries like Singapore, Malya,
Ghadar party Phillipines and Burma etc and exhort Indian nationals there to stand for the
cause. An attempt was made to overthrow the British rule by military revolt.
Rash Behari Bose was chosen as the leader. However Government CID
foiled this bid and Ghadar Conspiracy failed. More than 40 were sentenced
to death.

Impact of First World war on Indian National movement :

• Fiscal and human loss of India – Millions of Rupees from India was diverted for use in war, Indian soldiers died
while fighting in Europe.
• Working Class – Middle class had more job opportunities as new factories were setup to supply European. However
wages were low and working conditions were bad. Trade Unionism was still to become popular so it left workers
with little bargaining power.
• Capitalists – Capitalists had a field day as industrial production boomed.
• Agriculture – After scourge of famine, World War further led to crash in prices of agriculture commodities in
international markets. This pushed farmers further into debt trap.
• Politics and National Movement – Nationalist leaders saw it as an opportunity to bargain more rights and
conditional support in war was provided in the hope that post-war, Britain will take political actions in favor of
Indians.
• After the war, Economic situation deteriorated. Industry which prospered during war time, was now facing
closure and fall in output.
• Workers and artisans who now faced loss of jobs and high prices also turned toward the national movement.
• Promise made during the war were betrayed and it also pushed nationalism. While colonies were promised
democracy they got a raw deal in turn. Erstwhile colonies of defeated powers were distributed among winners as
war bounty.
• Russian revolution further stoked nationalism.
• As the war was over, national Leaders were disappointed by the measures taken by government. Government of
India Act of 1919 was a huge disappointment.
• Treatment of Ottoman Empire after Treaty of Severs led to rousing Muslim Sentiments and it paved way for
Khilafat Movement and Non- Cooperation.
• After war, trade unionism also flourished and in 1920, first headway was made with formation of AITUC under
N M Joshi.
• This period saw the maturing of Indian nationalism.

Sub-Topic 7 : Ghadar Party And Komagata Maru Incident

About Komagata Maru Incident :
• The importance of this event lies in the fact that it created an explosive situation in the Punjab.
• Komagata Maru was the name of a ship which was carrying 370 passengers, mainly Sikh and Punjabi Muslim
would-be immigrants, from Singapore to Vancouver.
• They were turned back by Canadian authorities after two months of privation and uncertainty.

42
 • It was generally believed that the Canadian authorities were influenced by the British government. The ship finally
anchored at Calcutta in September 1914. The inmates refused to board the Punjab- bound train. In the ensuing
conflict with the police at Budge Budge near Calcutta, 22 persons died.
• Inflamed by this and with the outbreak of the First World War, the Ghadr leaders decided to launch a violent attack
to oust British rule in India. They urged fighters to go to India.

About Gadar party and movement :

• First World War period also saw growth of revolutionarism. Most notable of these was Ghadar party which was
found in San Francisco by Lala Hardayal, Sohan Singh Bakhna, Mohammed Barkattullah etc were some of the
leaders.
• It was a secular party and its influence was also spread in other Asian nations where Indians were there.
• As First World War broke out, Ghadar party also took arms against British Empire. 21st February 1915 was
decided as a day of mutiny in India which has to be started from Punjab. However, British CID foiled it and
Ghadarites were arrested, tried and many hanged.
• The British met the wartime threat with a formidable battery of repressive measures - the most intensive since
1857 - and above all by the Defence of India Act passed in March 1915 primarily to smash the Ghadr movement.

Evaluation of Ghadar :
• The achievement of the Ghadr movement lay in the realm of ideology.
• It preached militant nationalism with a completely secular approach.
• But politically and militarily, it failed to achieve much because it lacked an organised and sustained leadership,
underestimated the extent of preparation required at every level - organisational, ideological, financial and
tactical strategic - and perhaps Lala Hardayal was unsuited for the job of an organiser.

Sub-Topic 8 : Home Rule Movement

Background of the movement :
• In background of disappointment from 1909 Act and failure of moderates to make headway, ground has been
prepared for another movement.
• Tilak was released from the jail in 1914 and was ready to assume a greater role, however, leadership of Congress
was with moderates and he had to launch a separate movement.
• Russian Revolution of 1917 provided additional edge while the movement was still in progress.
• The two factions of Congress reunited in December 1915. Next year the Congress and the Muslim League signed
the historic Lucknow Pact and decided to work together for representative government in the country.

About Home Rule League Movement (September 1916) :

• After Tilak was released from jail in 1914, he again started his nationalist activities. He was in a bid to gain
entry into Congress. However his first such bid was thwarted by moderates led by Pherozshah Mehta.
• However after death of Pherozshah Mehta, opposition towards the Extremists weakened and they were allowed
to rejoin Congress in December 1915.
• Apparently no progress was made on the front of self-rule and many leaders were disappointed by the attitude of
moderates.
• Dr. Annie Besant (along with George Arundale), who had gained enough experience in national activism from
her activities with her association with Theosophical Society, inspired by the Irish rebellion, started a Home Rule
Movement in India in September 1916. She was supported by B W Wadia and C P Ramaswamy Aiyer in her
efforts.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak also launched another Home Rule Movement and wholeheartedly supported this movement.
Tilak took the lead and in 1916, he started the Home Rule League Movement from Maharashtra. It was during
Home Rule Movement that Tilak declared that – ‘Swaraj is My Birth Right and I will have it’.
• Gandhi was not involved in the movement as he had only arrived last year and was still testing the waters in new
political environment.

43
The objective of movement :
• ‘To enjoy Dominion status as enjoyed by other British Colonies like – Australia, South Africa and New Zealand’.

Spread of the movement and leadership :

• The movement spread rapidly and branches of the Rome Rule League were established all over India.
• While Tilak mainly focused in Maharashtra, Besant focused on rest of India.
• Many leaders like Jawahar Lal Nehru joined Home Rule League, but he mostly worked with Annie Besant.
• Annie Besant was arrested in 1917, however this further stoked the fire of movement. The movement has now even
wider reaches and had now even penetrated villages.
• And many more important leaders like C Y Chintamani, Motilal Nehru, Tej Bahadur Sapru stood by her and
joined the movement.
• S Subramania Aiyer renounced his knighthood in protest and joined the movement.
• Owing to Annie Besant popularity due to the movement, she was chosen as the next and the first woman president
of Congress in 1917.

Reason behind the decline of Home Rule Movement :

• After release of Besant, moderates were pacified and the anger was calmed down.
• New Secretary of State Montague declared in Britain Parliament that Indians will be given more role (unlike
his predecessor Morley who denied any such possibility) in administration. Pronouncement of Montegue was termed
as ‘August Declaration’. This rendered demand for self-rule no more seditious and moderates were considerably
pacified by this new announcement.
• Rise of Gandhi and talks of Civil Disobedience diverted the national attention.
• Tilak went to US and this left a leadership void.
• Communal riots sparked in 1917-18

Success of the movement :

• The movement succeeded in attracting masses and marked a shift from elite participation model of moderates.
• Tilak and Besant’s effort revived Congress after Lucknow Pact of 1916.
• They compelled the government to go for more reforms in form of Mont-Ford reforms of 1919.
• Further, movement also prepared ground for Gandhian politics of mass movement.
• The Home Rule Leagues and the associated activities had some positive effects and contributed to the fresh direction
that the freedom struggle was to take in the coming years.
• It created an organisational link between the town and the country, which was to prove crucial in later years
when the national movement entered its mass phase in a true sense.
• It lent a new dimension and a sense of urgency to the national movement.

Sub-Topic 9 : Lucknow Pact (December 1916)

Background :
In the First World War, Turkey entered against Britain, Muslims were on side of Turkey and were angered by the British.
Congress was also exhausted with its pleas for self-rule.

Significance of Lucknow session:

• After a lapse of about 10 years, since the Surat Split, both the Moderates and Extremists were united in this
session.
• In the Lucknow session, the Congress and the Muslim League signed the Lucknow Pact and build political
consensus over the future course of action.
• It paved the way for Hindu-Muslim cooperation in the Indian Independence Movement which can also be seen
in Khilafat Movement and Non-Cooperation Movement.
• It also strengthened the Congress as the two factions united under the same banner.

44
 • Communal politics in India was formally established with the agreement between the parties on a separate
communal electorate. The demand of Muslim League for communal Electorate recognized by the INC ultimately
led to the partition of India in 1947.
• According to the Lucknow Pact of 1916, any legislature would not work if more than 3/4th members of any religion
were against such resolution. Acceptance of such proposal led to the introduction of a kind of communal veto
in legislature.
• Through this pact, the INC also tacitly accepted the Muslim League’s idea that India consisted of two different
communities with different interests.
• This pact pushed the hitherto less relevant Muslim League into the forefront of Indian politics along with the
Congress Party.

Following broad agreements were reached :

• Direct Elections to the Legislative Councils – Four-fifths of the provincial and central legislatures were to be
elected on a broad franchise, and half the executive council members, including those of the central executive
council, were to be Indians elected by the councils themselves. (unlike indirect election as envisaged by the 1909
Morley-Minto Reforms)
• More Powers should be conferred upon Councils.
• Self Government at the earliest – dominion status at the earliest.
• At least half of the Viceroy’s ‘Executive Council’ should be filled by Indians (Morley-Minto reforms suggested
one Indian member).
Evaluation of Lucknow session :

• These proposals were largely embodied in the Government of India Act of 1919.
• This pact paved the way for Hindu-Muslim cooperation in the Khilafat movement and Mohandas Gandhi’s
non-cooperation movement from 1920.
• However, this is also said to color the Pact with Communalism. Among most controversial outcomes of the
pact was that the Congress also agreed to separate electorates for Muslims in provincial council elections.
• Acceptance of separate electorate is considered as one of the biggest follies of Congress which ultimately led to
extreme communalism in country. It showed the acceptance by Congress of the separate identities of Hindu
and Muslims.
• Further, it didn’t involve either Hindu or Muslim masses.

The Lucknow session of Congress had a long lasting impact on India. It may have united the warring factions for time
being, but it legitimised the politics of Muslim League which was based on hatred and separation.

Sub-Topic 10 : Montegue Chelmsford Reforms (1919)

The Mont-Ford (Montegue Chelmsford) commission submitted its report in 1918. It professed to pave way for self-
government in India, however it also aimed at appeasing Indians to persuade to support British during First World War
(1914-18). For the first time government showed its intention of gradual introduction of responsible government
in India.

Salient features of the Reforms :

• The Government of India Act, 1919 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It was passed to expand
participation of Indians in the government of India.
• The Act covered ten years, from 1919 to 1929. This retraction of British imperialism was also partially a result of
India's enthusiastic participation in World War I and continued struggle of Indians which was growing stronger.
• The structure of this Act also allowed Britain to use the Princely States (who were directly represented in the
Council of States) to offset the growing power of the native political parties.

45
• Provincial Diarchy introduced (Dual Rule) – The Act provided a dual form of government (a ‘diarchy’) for the
major provinces. It relaxed control over provinces by demarcating subjects as ‘central subjects’ and ‘provincial
subjects’. Provincial subjects were further divided as –
o Reserved Subjects – Administered by governor with the help of his ‘Executive Council’. The 'reserved list'
included Defence (the military), Foreign Affairs, and Communications.
o Transferred Subjects – Administered by Governor with the aid of ‘Ministers’ responsible for ‘Provincial
Legislative Council’. The 'transferred list' included Agriculture, supervision of local government, Health and
Education.
o This dual system of government was known as ‘Diarchy’. This new system, however, failed to gain popular
acceptance and Simon Commission recommended that Diarchy should be done away with and 1935 Act did the
same.
• For the first time introduced ‘Direct Elections’ and limited franchise was granted on the basis of tax paid, education,
property etc. in the country.
• A bicameral system at center (the Central Legislature would comprise two chambers – the Council of State and the
Indian Legislative Assembly) was introduced and majority members of both the houses in this bicameral system
were directly chosen.
• Establishment of unicameral Provincial Legislative councils.
• The Central Legislature was empowered to enact laws on any matter for whole of India.
• Separate Electoral provision of Morley Minto was retained.
• The Governor General was given powers to summon, prorogue, dissolve the Chambers, and to promulgate
ordinances. Thus, despite reserved and transferred list, governor general reigned supereme.
• The number of Indians in Viceroy's Executive Council was increased to three out of eight members. The
number was increased, however the council still remained at best an advisory body and no real power conferred.
• Review Provision for Reforms – The Montagu-Chelmsford report stated that there should be a review after 10
years. Sir John Simon headed the committee (Simon Commission) responsible for the review which
recommended further constitutional change. Three Round Table Conferences were also held in London later in
1930, 1931 and 1932 with representation of the major interests to consider further constitutional measures.
• One important significance of the reforms was that, demand by nationalists for self-government or Home Rule
couldn’t be termed as seditious since attainment of self-government for Indians now officially became a
government policy which was indicated in August Declaration of Montegue.

Drawbacks of the reforms :

• Franchise was very limited. The electorate was extended to some one-and-a-half million for the central legislature,
while the population of India was around 260 million, as per one estimate.
• At the centre, the legislature had no control over the viceroy and his executive council.
• Division of subjects was not satisfactory at the centre.
• At the level of provinces, division of subjects and parallel administration of two parts was irrational and, hence,
unworkable. Subjects like irrigation, finance, police, press and justice were ‘reserved’.
• The provincial ministers had no control over finances and over the bureaucrats; this would lead to constant friction
between the two.
• Ministers were often not consulted on important matters too; in fact, they could be overruled by the
governor on any matter that the latter considered special.

46
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 Topic 7: 1919 to 1939 (Era of Mass Nationalism Begins)

1 Why Nationalist Resurgence After First World War

2 Start Of Gandhian Era
3 Rowlett Satyagraha
4 Khilafat And Non-Cooperation Movement
5 Why Attraction For Revolutionary Activity After Non-Cooperation Movement
6 Simon Commission (1928)
7 Nehru Report (1928)
8 Demand For Purna Swaraj (1929)
9 Civil Disobedience Movement, 1930
10 Gandhi – Irwin Pact Or Delhi Pact (March 1931)
11 Karachi Session (March 1931)
12 2nd Round Second Table Conference (Dec 1931)
13 Communal Award (1932) And Poona Pact (1933)
14 Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign And Thoughts On Caste
15 Ideological Differences Between Gandhi And Ambedkar
16 Government Of India Act (1935)
17 1937 Elections

47
Sub-Topic 1 : Why Nationalist Resurgence After First World War
After the war, the conditions in India and influences from abroad created a situation that was ready for a national upsurge
against foreign rule.

Reasons :
• Post-War Economic Hardships : India contributed in men and money towards the British war efforts. Thousands
of Indian men died in the war on various fronts.
• The food supplies and ammunition and the army’s keep came from the money raised by taxing Indians.
• When the war ended, all sections of the Indian population were experiencing hardships on various fronts.
• Industry First, an increase in prices, then a recession coupled with increased foreign investment brought many
industries to the brink of closure and loss.
• Workers and Artisans : This section of the populace faced unemployment and bore the brunt of high prices.
• Peasantry Faced with high taxation and poverty.
• Soldiers who returned from battlefields abroad gave an idea of their experience to the rural folk. They were
also surprised to return to a country that was impoverished and had less liberty than before.
• Educated Urban Classes : This section was facing unemployment as well as suffering from an acute awareness of
racism in the attitude of the British.
• Expectations of Political Gains for Cooperation in the War : The contribution of Indians to the British war effort
was huge, though it has gone unacknowledged. Gandhi and most nationalists extended cooperation to the war effort
and a huge number of Indian troops sacrificed their lives on the war fronts. So, after the war, there were high
expectations of political gains from the British government and this too contributed towards the charged atmosphere
in the country.
• Nationalist Disillusionment with Imperialism Worldwide : The Allied powers, to rally the colonies to their side
during the war, had promised them an era of democracy and self- determination after the war. But soon it became
clear from the Paris Peace Conference and other peace treaties that the imperialist powers had no intention of
loosening their hold over the colonies; in fact they went on to divide the colonies of the vanquished powers among
themselves. All this served to further erode the myth of the cultural and military superiority of the whites. As a
result, the post-war period saw a resurgence of militant nationalist activity throughout Asia and Africa.
• Impact of Russian Revolution (November 7, 1917) : The Bolshevik Party of workers overthrew the Czarist regime
and founded the first socialist state, the Soviet Union, under the leadership of Lenin. The October Revolution
brought home the message that immense power lay with the people, and that the masses were capable of challenging
the mightiest of tyrants provided they were organised, united and determined.

Sub-Topic 2 : Start Of Gandhian Era

Gandhi stay in South Africa for almost 20 years. His experiments with Satyagraha started there. He started
a newspaper Indian Opinion while he was in South Africa. Gandhi returned India on 9thJanuary 1915. He
spent initial one year travelling all over India and understanding Indian conditions and Indian people and then in
1916 found Sabarmati Ashram, in Ahmadabad.

Changed situation when Gandhi arrived :

• After the World War, Imperialist forces were totally exposed and White Man’ Burden theory was now
debunked.
• Russian Revolution of 1917 also showed way for new ideological revolution.
• After the war, India was facing high unemployment, peasantry was suffering from taxes and workers were affected
by high costs of goods.

48
 His Early Career and Experiments with Truth in South Africa :
• Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869 in Porbandar in the princely state of
Kathiawar in Gujarat. His father was a diwan (minister) of the state.
• Having studied law in England, Gandhi, in 1898, went to South Africa in connection with a case involving his
client, Dada Abdullah.
• In South Africa he witnessed the ugly face of white racism and the humiliation and contempt to which
Asians, who had gone to South Africa as labourers, were subjected.
• He decided to stay in South Africa to organise the Indian workers to enable them to fight for their rights. He
stayed there till 1914 after which he returned to India.
• The Indians in South Africa consisted of three categories—one, the indentured Indian labour, mainly from south
India, who had migrated to South Africa after 1890 to work on sugar plantations; two, the merchants—
mostly Meman Muslims who had followed the labourers; and three, the ex-indentured labourers who had settled
down with their children in South Africa after the expiry of their contracts.
• These Indians were mostly illiterate and had little or no knowledge of English. They accepted racial
discrimination as a part of their daily existence. These Indian immigrants had to suffer many disabilities.
They were denied the right to vote. They could reside only in prescribed locations which were insanitary and
congested. In some colonies, Asians and Africans could not stay out of doors after 9 PM nor could they use
public footpaths.

Moderate Phase of Struggle (1894-1906) of Gandhi in South Africa :

• During this phase, Gandhi relied on sending petitions and memorials to the authorities in South Africa
and in Britain hoping that once the authorities were informed of the plight of Indians, they would take
sincere steps to redress their grievances as the Indians were, after all, British subjects.
• To unite different sections of Indians, he set up the Natal Indian Congress and started a paper Indian Opinion.

Phase of Passive Resistance or Satyagraha (1906-1914) of Gandhi in South Africa :

• The second phase, which began in 1906, was characterised by the use of the method of passive resistance or civil
disobedience, which Gandhi named satyagraha.
• Satyagraha against Registration Certificates (1906) :
➢ A new legislation in South Africa made it compulsory for Indians there to carry at all times certificates of
registration with their fingerprints.
➢ The Indians under Gandhi’s leadership decided not to submit to this discriminatory measure. Gandhi formed
the Passive Resistance Association to conduct the campaign of defying the law and suffering all the penalties
resulting from such a defiance.
➢ Thus was born satyagraha or devotion to truth, the technique of resisting adversaries without violence.
➢ The Indians under the leadership of Gandhi retaliated by publicly burning their registration certificates.
➢ All this showed up the South African government in a bad light. In the end, there was a compromise settlement.
• Campaign against Restrictions on Indian Migration :
➢ The earlier campaign was widened to include protest against a new legislation imposing restrictions on Indian
migration. The Indians defied this law by crossing over from one province to another and by refusing to produce
licences.
• Campaign against Poll Tax and Invalidation of Indian Marriages :
➢ A poll tax of three pounds was imposed on all ex-indentured Indians.
➢ The demand for the abolition of poll tax (which was too much for the poor ex-indentured Indians who earned
less than ten shillings a month) widened the base of the campaign.
➢ Then a Supreme Court order which invalidated all marriages not conducted according to Christian rites and
registered by the registrar of marriages which drew the anger of the Indians and others who were not

49
 Christians. By implication, Hindu, Muslim and Parsi marriages were illegal and children born out of such
marriages, illegitimate. The Indians treated this judgement as an insult to the honour of women and many
women were drawn into the movement because of this indignity.

Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa :

• Gandhi found that the masses had immense capacity to participate in and sacrifice for a cause that moved
them.
• He was able to unite Indians belonging to different religions and classes, and men and women alike under his
leadership.
• He was able to evolve his own style of leadership and politics and new techniques of struggle on a limited
scale.

Gandhi’s Technique of Satyagraha :

• Gandhi evolved the technique of Satyagraha during his stay in South Africa.
• It was based on truth and non-violence.
• He combined some elements from Indian tradition with the Christian requirement of turning the other cheek and
the philosophy of Tolstoy, who said that evil could best be countered by non-violent resistance.
• Its basic tenets were as follows:
➢ A satyagrahi was not to submit to what he considered as wrong, but was to always remain truthful, non-
violent and fearless.
➢ A satyagrahi works on the principles of withdrawal of cooperation and boycott
➢ Methods of satyagraha include non-payment of taxes, and declining honours and positions of authority.
➢ A satyagrahi should be ready to accept suffering in his struggle against the wrong-doer. This suffering was
to be a part of his love for truth.
➢ Even while carrying out his struggle against the wrong-doer, a true satyagrahi would have no ill feeling for
the wrong-doer; hatred would be alien to his nature.
➢ A true satyagrahi would never bow before the evil, whatever the consequence.
➢ Only the brave and strong could practise satyagraha; it was not for the weak and cowardly. Even violence
was preferred to cowardice. Thought was never to be separated from practice. In other words, ends could
not justify the means.

Major Influencing factors on his personality are :

• Religious Factors – He borrowed the Karma Theory from Buddhism and took the idea of Ram Rajya from
Hinduism while on the other hand his idea of Non-Violence is inspired from Jaina teachings and Hijra – leave
the place where you are not respected – from Kuran.
• Personalities – he was greatly affected by the works of likes of Tolstoy and Henry David Thoreau. His idea
of Civil Disobedience is influenced by Thoreau.
• Idea of Trusteeship – According to him the rich and well-off are the chosen one – the trustees – of the wealth
that is endowed upon them by the almighty. They should treat this wealth for the benefit of the deprived.
• He believed in ‘Sarvodya’ – i.e. rise of all. This idea was further taken forward by Vinoba Bhave in his Bhoodan
and Gramdan movements.
• He believed in local self governance and local self rule. He had a great faith in cottage industries and
panchayati raj. This is one of the differences of opinion between him and Nehru who favoured industrialization..
• What differentiated Gandhi from hitherto existing leadership was his mass appeal and ability to connect
to peasant class. Therefore he was able to appeal masses and peasantry into national struggle and raised their
issues as well.
• He spun charkha daily to signify dignity of human labor and self reliance.

50
 Initial Stayagrahas by Gandhi after coming to India :

1. Champaran Satyagraha, 1917 :

• When Gandhiji returned from South Africa, he heard about the case in Champaran that the British forced the
poor peasants to grow indigo and they had no other choice.
• More than cultivation of Indigo what was appalling was the sharing system that was prevalent – Tinkathia
System.
• According to the Tinkathia System, farmers were under compulsion to grow Indigo on 3/20thof their land and
were allowed to take only one-third of the indigo produced by themselves while two-thirds had to be given to
the British/European planters.
• The Government favored the planters, overlooking any pleas including legal action. The Bengal Tenancy
Act and other reactionary laws further helped exploit the peasants, requiring the peasants to plant 3/20, and
sometimes up to 5/20, of their holdings with indigo.
• Raj Kumar Shukla was an indigo cultivator of Champaran (Bihar), who met Gandhiji to make him aware of
the plight of the cultivators in Champaran and persuaded him to come there.
• In 1917, he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against the oppressive
plantation system.
• He began leading the clean-up of villages, building of schools and hospitals and encouraging the village
leadership to undo purdah, untouchability and the suppression of women. He was joined by many young
nationalists from all over India, including Dr. Sri Krishna Sinha, Ramarshi Deo Trivedi ‘Rishi Ji’,
Brajkishore Prasad, J B Kriplani, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha and Jawaharlal
Nehru.
• Gandhi led organized protests and strike against the landlords, who with the guidance of the British government,
signed an agreement granting more compensation and control over farming for the poor farmers of the region,
and cancellation of revenue hikes and collection until the famine ended.
• It was during this agitation, that Gandhi was addressed by the people as Bapu (This was given by Subhash
Chandra Bose) and Mahatma (It was given by Rabindranath Tagore). (Earlier, he had also got the title of
Kaiser- e- Hind from British government after he started Ambulance service during Boers War while he was in
South Africa).

2. Ahembdabad Mills Strike, 1918 :

• In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmadabad to organize a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill
workers.
• Workers were, among other things, demanding continuation of ‘Plague Bonus’ post epidemic.
• Mahatma Gandhi intervened in a dispute and arbitrated between the workers and mill-owners of
Ahmadabad. He advised the workers to go on strike and to demand a 35 per cent increase in wages. He went
on fast unto death and mill owners agreed to give the hike to workers.
• Anasuya Behn was one of the major lieutenant of Gandhi during this Satyagraha. She was, however, sister of
one of the mill owners and close friend of Gandhi – Ambalal Sarabhai.
• He also founded – ‘Ahembdabad Textile Labor Association’ – after the mill strike. It gave Gandhi an urban
and industrial base and is said to have set the tone of industrial relations in the city.

3. Kheda or Kaira Satyagraha, 1918 :

• He organized a Satyagraha to support the peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat.

• Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were
demanding that revenue collection be relaxed.

51
• Despite their difficulties, British government raised the revenue. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and devoted
Gandhians, namely Narhari Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya, Indulal Yagnik and Ravi Shankar Vyas toured the
countryside, organized the villagers and gave them political leadership and direction.
• Many aroused Gujaratis from the cities of Ahmedabad and Vadodara joined the organizers of the revolt,
but Gandhi and Patel resisted the involvement of Indians from other provinces, seeking to keep it a purely
Gujarati struggle.
• British government after facing a united opposition agreed on a compromise and the revenue was waived for
that year and next year.

Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda :

• Gandhi demonstrated to the people the efficacy of his technique of satyagraha.
• He found his feet among the masses and came to have a surer understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the
masses.
• He acquired respect and commitment of many, especially the youth.

Sub-Topic 3 : Rowlett Satyagraha

Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act or Rowlett Act – Termed as ‘Black Act’ :
• After the dis-satisfaction from Montford Reforms of 1919, government passed Rowlett Act to suppress the
freedom.
• The Rowlatt Act passed by the British in colonial India in March 1919, indefinitely extending ‘emergency
measures’ (of the Defence of India Regulations Act, 1915) enacted during the First World War in order to control
public unrest and root out conspiracy.
• The Act authorizes the authority to imprision a person suspected of terrorism for maximum of two years
without trial.
• The Act was condemned by one and all including Congress and League.
• This Act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of
the Indian members (Non-official Indian members to the Imperial Legislative Council like – Tej Bahadur Sapru,
D E Wacha, and Surendranath Banarjee were opposed to the bill, though they didn’t like the idea of Satyagraha
either).

The Nationalist Response inform of Rowlett Satyagraha :

• The Rowlatt Satyagraha of 1919 turned out to be the first all-India struggle against the British
government although it was largely restricted to cities.
• Satyagraha launched in protest of this Act also marked the first attempt of Gandhiji for a nation wide
movement. It was thus the first of Gandhian mass struggle. (Earlier events like Champaran and Ahembdabad
mill strikes were mainly concentrated on local and specific issues).
• Heartened with the success of initial efforts in Ahemdabad, Kheda and Champaran, Gandhiji in 1919
decided to launch a nationwide Satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act (1919). He gave a call to
massive Hartal on 6thApril 1919 and people participated enthusiastically.
• The protests gathered huge momentum. It was during such protests that Jalianwalan Massacre took place.
• The Indians had been promised extension of democracy during the war. They felt humiliated and were filled
with anger when they found that their civil liberties were going to be curtailed still further. The protests were
particularly intense in the Punjab, where many men had served on the British side in the War – expecting to be
rewarded for their service. Instead they were given the Rowlatt Act.
• This Satygraha launched Gandhi as a truly National leader.

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 • During the protests against the Act two prominent leaders of Congress were arrested in Punjab – Saifudin
Kitchlew and Satya Paul. People protested their arrest in Jalianwala Bagh which later saw the Jalianwala
Massacre.

British Reaction to Satyagraha :

• Alarmed by the popular upsurge, and scared that lines of communication such as the railways and
telegraph would be disrupted, the British administration decided to clamp down on nationalists.
• Local leaders were picked up from Amritsar, and Mahatma Gandhi was barred from entering Delhi.
• On 10 April, the police in Amritsar fired upon a peaceful procession, provoking widespread attacks on banks, post
offices and railway stations. Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took command.

Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre :

• On 13 April 1919, the infamous Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place.
• On that day a crowd of villagers who had come to Amritsar to attend a fair gathered in the enclosed
ground of Jallianwalla Bagh. They were also protesting the arrest of Dr Satyapaul and Saifuddin
Kitchlew.
• Being from outside the city, they were unaware of the martial law that had been imposed. Dyer entered the area,
blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds.
• His object, as he declared later, was to ‘produce a moral effect’, to create in the minds of satyagrahis a feeling
of terror and awe.
• As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets in many north Indian towns. There
were strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings. In a protest, Tagore renounced
hisknighthood.
• The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise people – satyagrahis
were forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets, and do salaam (salute) to all sahibs; people
were flogged and villages (around Gujranwala in Punjab, now in Pakistan) were bombed. Seeing violence
spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement.
• The Satygraha failed in achieving what it aimed to – repealing of the Rowlett Act, but it launched Mahatma
Gandhi as national leader. In 1922, the Act was repealed by the government itself.

Hunter Committee/Commission, 1920 :

• Government of India named an investigatory committee to be led by Lord William Hunter (1865- 1957) charged
with the examination of the violence which had occurred in Amritsar and elsewhere in Punjab, in consequence of
the catastrophic Jalianwalabagh Amritsar massacre.
• On 8th March 1920, the Hunter Committee’s majority reprimanded Brigadier-General Dyer in its final report for his
mistaken concept of duty.
• The report concluded that Brigadier-General Dyer was justified in firing on the mob, though notice should have
been given and its duration shortened. However, Dyer was exonerated and the commission. This enraged Indians
and they termed the commission as ‘Whitewash Commission’.

Sub-Topic 4 : Khilafat And Non-Cooperation Movement :

Ground for Hindu Muslim cooperation in national struggle has been prepared by Lucknow Pact of 1916. An
opportune movement came in form of Turkey issue which was encashed by Gandhi to further forge unity ties among
Hindus and Muslims for a joint struggle against British.

Background :

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• Jalianwala Bagh Massacre exposed the ugly face of repressive government. This forced Mahatma to go from
cooperation to non-cooperation.
• Hunter Commission whitewash further fuelled the frustration of Indians.
• Montegue Chelmsford reforms failed on expectation of each and everyone.
• While the Rowlatt Satyagraha had been a widespread movement, it was still limited mostly to cities and
towns (limitation).
• Mahatma Gandhi now felt the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India. But he was certain that no
such movement could be organised without bringing the Hindus and Muslims closer together. One way of doing
this, he felt, was to take up the Khilafat issue.
• The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. And there were rumours that a harsh
peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor Claiph – the spiritual head of the Islamic world
(the Khalifa).
• Caliphet (Khalifa) was viewed as symbolic representative of Pan-Islamic group and the leadership was
abolished by ‘Treaty of Severs’ and instead a puppet sultan was put in his place (However, later Mustafa
Kamal Attaturk replaced the puppet Sultan of Turkey and started modernizing Turkey. In the aftermaths, the
treaty was also revised in favor of Turkey. This to some extent placated Muslims in India).
• British refused to make any moves in support of Khalifa (who at the start of war was against British) and said
that they will abide by Treaty of Severs.
• To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919 by Ali
Brothers, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Abdul Kalam Azad, Hasrat Mohani etc. and All India Khilafat Conference
was held in Delhi in November 1919.
• A young generation of Muslim leaders like the brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began discussing with
Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action on the issue.
• Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement.
At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced other leaders of the need to start a non-
cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj. (i.e. Non-cooperation was combined with
Khilafat movement to maximize the impact).
• Economic situation in country worsened in aftermaths of World war.
• Lucknow Pact has brought Congress closer to League.

From where the Idea of Non-Cooperation came :

• In his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was established in India
with the cooperation of Indians, and had survived only because of this cooperation.
• If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would come.
• Embolden with the success of the Rowlett Satyagrah, Gandhiji decided to take things to next level, from
Satyagrah to Non-Cooperation.

From Cooperation to Non-Cooperation :

• While Gandhi was initially cooperative with British, but events of Punjab (Jalianwala, Marshel Law,
Hunter report) and Treatment of Khalifa of Turkey forced him to take the route of Non-Cooperation.
• Further, as mentioned above, it was cooperation of Indians only which has sustained British rule in India and if
Indians start to non-ccoperate, the rule will collapse.

Concerns of Congress Regarding Non-Cooperation :

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 • Many within the Congress were, however, concerned about the proposals. They were reluctant to boycott
the council elections scheduled for November 1920, and they feared that the movement might lead to
popular violence.
• In the months between September and December there was an intense tussle within the Congress. For a while
there seemed no meeting point between the supporters and the opponents of the movement.
• Non cooperation movement (1920-22) was led by Mahatma Gandhi. Veterans like Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
Bipin Chandra Pal, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant opposed the idea outright. But the younger
generation of Indian nationalists were thrilled, and backed Gandhiji. The Congress Party adopted his plans, and
he received extensive support from Muslim leaders like Abul Kalam Azad, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Hakim
Ajmal Khan, Abbas Tyabji, Maulana Mohammad Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali.

About the Movement :

• The 'Non-Cooperation-Khilafat' Movement was launched on 1stAugust 1920.
• Congress too passed a resolution in its Calcutta special session of September 1920 presided over by Lala Lajpat
Rai and agreed Gandhiji’s plan for non-cooperation with the government till wrongs of Punjab (Jalianwala) and
Khilafat are undone and Swaraj is established. It was ratified in Nagpur Session in December 1920.
• Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration. All of them
responded to the call of Swaraj, but the term meant different things to different people. Non-cooperation for the
first time shook the roots of the British Empire since 1857 revolt.
• Gandhiji famousluy said that – ‘Swaraj is possible within 1 year if Non-Cooperation is continued as a
movement’.
• Thousands of students left schools and colleges under Britsh and new crop of national schools and colleges
cameup including Jamia Milia, Kashi Vidyapith, Bihar Vidyapith etc. Many leaders like Subhash Chandra
Bose, Lala Lajpat Rai, Zakir Hussain led these institutes.
• Tilak-Swaraj fund was formed as a tribute to Tilak and fuel nationl sentiments which was oversubscribed at
more than Rs 1 crore.
• In November 1921 huge demonstrations greeted Prince of Wales during his visit to India.
• Jinnah and Malviya opposed the idea of Swaraj and Jinnah left the Congress after an association of 15
years.

Spread of the Movement :

• From Central provinces many big nationalists like – Motilal Nehru, Prushottam Das Tandon, Ganesh Shankar
Vidyarthi, G B Pant, Lal Bahadur Shastri etc participated.
• Leadership : From Punjab Lala LajpatRai, Peasants in Avadh were led by Baba RamChandra, In Andhra- T
Prakasam and Pattabhai Sitaramaiya took the lead.
• Non-Cooperation in Towns – The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities. Thousands of
students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up
their legal practices. The council elections of 1920 were boycotted in most provinces except Madras, where the
Justice Party, the party of the non- Brahmans, felt that entering the council was one way of gaining some power.
• The effects of non-cooperation on the economic front were more dramatic. Foreign goods were boycotted,
liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921
and 1922, its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore. In many places merchants and traders refused to
trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade.
• But the movement subdued in urban areas for many reasons – like – Khadi was more expensive that mass
produced mill cloth and urban poor couldn't afford it. Difficulties were there in complete boycott of the British
institutions as they were providers of the major services.

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• Non-Cooperation in Rural Areas – The movement spread from cities to rural ares and included peasants tribal
areas as well.

Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement :

• Gandhi felt that people had not learnt or fully understood the method of non-violence. Incidents like
Chauri-Chaura could lead to the kind of excitement and fervour that would turn the movement to become
generally violent.
• A violent movement could be easily suppressed by the colonial regime who would make the incidents of violence
an excuse for using the armed might of the State against the protestors.
• The movement was also showing signs of fatigue. This was natural as it is not possible to sustain any
movement at a high pitch for very long. The government seemed to be in no mood for negotiations.
• The central theme of the agitation—the Khilafat question—also dissipated soon. In November 1922, the
people of Turkey rose under Mustafa Kamal Pasha and deprived the sultan of political power. Turkey was
made a secular state. Thus, the Khilafat question lost its relevance. A European style of legal system was
established in Turkey and extensive rights granted to women. Education was nationalised and modern agriculture
and industries developed. In 1924, the caliphate was abolished.

Different Interpretation (manifestations) of Non-Cooperation Movement :

• The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded from
peasants exorbitantly high rents and a variety of other cesses.
In Awadh, peasants • Peasants had to do begar and work at landlords’ farms without any payment.
were led by 'Baba As tenants they had no security of tenure, being regularly evicted so that they
Ramchandra' : could acquire no right over the leased land.
• The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and
social boycott of oppressive landlords.
• As the movement spread in 1921, the houses of talukdars and merchants were
attacked, bazaars were looted, and grain hoards were taken over.
• Tribal peasants interpreted the message of Mahatma Gandhi and the idea of
swaraj in yet another way. In the 'Gudem Hills'of Andhra Pradesh, for instance,
a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s – not a form of
‘Gudem Hill’ Tribe struggle that the Congress could approve.
War, or Koya • Here, as in other forest regions, the colonial government had closed large forest
Rebellion or Rampa areas, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to
Rebellion 1922: collect fuelwood and fruits. This enraged the hill people.
• Not only were their livelihoods affected but they felt that their traditional rights
were being denied. When the government began forcing them to contribute
begar for road building, the hill people revolted.
• The person who came to lead them was 'Alluri Sitaram Raju'.
• Workers too had their own understanding of Mahatma Gandhi and the notion
of swaraj. For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant the right to move
freely in and out of the confined space in which they were enclosed, and it
meant retaining a link with the village from which they had come.
Idea of Swaraj of • Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not
Plantation Workers: permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission, and in fact they were
rarely given such permission.

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 • When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers
defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home. They believed that
Gandhi Raj was coming and everyone would be given land in their own
villages.
• Towards the end of 1921, peasant discontent surfaced again after earlier Kisan
Sabha movements in the districts of Hardoi, Bahraich and Sitapur of United
Provinces with grievances relating to the extraction of a rent that was generally
Eka Movement 50 percent higher than the recorded rent.
• Madari Pasi from the depressed class and the one of the key leaders who gave
the movement direction opposing the non-violence methods and called for
violent struggle.
• The ‘Forest Satyagraha’ was of the ryots of Palnad in Guntur district in 1921
during Non-Cooperation Movement.
• The peasants of this place had to pay heavy tax for permission to graze
Palnad Satyagraha or their cattle in forests.
Forest Satyagraha • When the crops failed that year, they decided to send their cattle into the forests
without paying the fee and suffer the penalties. However authorities retaliated
by compounding the cattle and a clash ensued between the cattle owners and
the armed police.
Chirala-Perala (name • It happen during Non-Cooperation which was led by Duggirala
of two villages in Gopalakrishnayya.
Guntur district) • The movement was against the merger of two villages into municipality, which
episode: would have attracted taxes and villagers opposed this move.
• Just like the Birsa’s religious movement among the Mundas, a similar religious
movement gained among the Oraon of Chotanagpur, Bihar known as Tana
Tana Bhagat Bhagat.
Movement: • The movement aimed against the missionaries and British colonialists.
• During Non-Cooperation also they participated and they boycotted liquor.

Decline of Non-Cooperation Movement :

• Chaura Chauri Incident – A crowd which was fired upon by police, burnt a police station in Chaura Chauri in
which 22 policemen were killed and this distressed Gandhiji a lot. He deemed it as under-preparedness of the people
to adopt his methods. Many Congress leaders including Subhash Chnadra Bose, Nehru were in disbelief over this
decision of Gandhi. ‘For a sin of handful people down in the Himalayas, the entire nation has been brought down
to its knees’ – SC Bose said on withdrawl of Non-Cooperation. However, Gandhi was aware that in the event of
violence and a direct confrontation with the British, Indians are a no match to British power and they will be crushed
brutally. Incidents like Chaura-Chauri would have led to a direct confrontation and ultimately loss to Indians.
• Moplah Incident generated considerable acrimony between Hindu andMuslims.
• Support of Ali brothers and Muslims was on religious grounds rather than nationalistic grounds. As the cause
diminished, their support to be vanished.
• ‘The treaty of Severs’ was revised by the British in favor of Turkey. The cause of unity was no longer there and
Muslims were no longer attached to Congress.
• Mustafa Kamal Pasha toppled the theocratic puppet government installed by the British in Turkey and started
a new era of modernization and made it a secular state. He took extensive steps to nationalized education, lierate
woman, develop agriculture etc and this broke the back of Khilafat.
• After arrest of Ali Brothers and other leaders, Gandhi gave a memorandum to the government for their
release and lift the ban from civil liberties or face mass civil disobedience (which he planned to start from
Bardoli as a no-tax movement). But things took a different turn and Chaura-Chauri incident took place. Gandhi

57
 called off the movement (even in face of disappointment of leaders like Nehru, Subhash etc) and he was sent to Jail
for 6 years which was reduced (1922-24) owing to his health.

Achievements of Non-Cooperation Movement

• Congress became a mass party – Hitherto, one of the important criticism of Congress had been that it was a party
of elites representing only a minority. For the first time people from all sections participated. From 1920 Session of
the Congress, joining fee was reduced (25 paisa per annum) considerably and so was reduced Age of Joining (18
years from 21 years), which took it into even villages and expanded its mass base.
• Khilafat movement produced many leaders of tall stature like – Maulana Azad, Saifuddin Kitchlew, M A Ansari
and so on.
• Charkha a National Symbol – Under Gandhi a new ideological support was given in form of Non-Violence and
Satyagraha which later became important tools for national struggle.
• Muslims also Participated – Barring the incident of Moplah rebellion in Malabar the movement saw participation
of Muslims also.
• Removed fear of British Might from the minds of people.
• Many educational institutes like Jamia Milia Islamia, Bihar Vidyapeeth, Kashi Vidyapith, Gujarat Vidyapith etc
were established.

Failures of Non-Ccoperation Movement –

• Swaraj – as it was claimed – was not achieved within 1 year. This disheartened many.
• Alienation of Muslims – Failure of Non-Cooperation also menat failure of Khilafat. Ali brothers accused congress
for failure. Further movements by Congress saw less enthusiastic participation from Muslims.
• Divide in Congress – With recall of movement, many resented this step and others became anxious to take part
into Provincial elections and Swaraj Party is born.
• Revival of Revolutionary Activities – This also gave birth to second phase of revolutionary activities after
partition of Bengal.
• Mass Reach – Khadi was unaffordable to poor and this was the reason that middle class and poor swept away
from movement.

SWARAJ PARTY (1923):

• Gandhiji's decision to call off the agitation caused frustration among masses. His decision came in for
severe criticism from his colleagues like Motilal Nehru, C R Das and N C Kelkar, Vithalbhai Patel, G S
Kaparde, S Srinivas Iyenger, M R Jaykar who organized the Swaraj Party.
• The foundations of the 'Swaraj Party' were laid on January 1, 1923, as the 'Congress Khilafat-Swarajya Patty'.
• It proposed then an alternative programme of diverting the movement from widespread civil disobedience
programme to restrictive one which would encourage its member to enter into legislative councils
(established under Montford Reforms of 1919) by contesting elections in order to wreck the legislature from
within and to use moral pressure to compel the authority to concede to the popular demand for self-government.
• The ones who favored the entry into council were called – ‘Pro Changers’ and involved C R Das, Motilal
Nehru, Hakim Ajmal Khan and N C Kelkar, while others were called ‘No-Changers’ (included Vallabhai,
Rajendra Prasad, Vijiaraghavachariar and C Rajgopalachari).
• Proposal of pro-changers for entry was rejected in Congress Gaya Session. They (No-Changers) argued that
council entry will distract them from carrying out constructive work among masses and the legislatures entering
councils will ultimately get sucked into system and will be reduced to mere rubber stamps.
• Pro-Chagers insited upon the idea and formed a Swaraj Party. Later in 1923 meet at Delhi, the differences
were reconciled to a large extant and it was declared that Swaraj Party is a part of Congress.
• When Gandhiji returned from jail, he initially opposed the idea of Council Entry and he also didn’t like
the idea of Swarajists putting hurdles in council work on ideological grounds. As British were hoping a split

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 in Congress, Gandhi started to coming to terms with the constructive work of Swarajists and in Belgam Session
of 1924 (which he himself presided) Swarajists were given full support.
• Manifesto of Sawaraj Party declared – ‘While swaraj is ultimate aim of the party, the immediate goal would
be Dominon Status’ and ‘it is a party within Congress and not a rival party’. It declared that they will take the
Non-Cooperation inside the legislature and will disrupt the business in legislature and will attract attention
towards national Issues.
• Elections and Aftermaths – The party fought the 1923-24 elections and won majority of seats despite less time
for preparations and formed the coalition government in provinces and brought out important issues in legislative
assemblies.
• After death of CR Das in 1925, in response to government’s failure to bring self-rule reforms, Swarajists decide
to walk away from legislatures. However, some of the members decided to stay back and broke away (Lajpat
Rai, Madan Mohan Malviya, NC Kelkar and M R Jayakar) to form a separate party ‘Responsivist Party’ that
still preferred co-operation with British. Likes of Lajpat Rai and Malviya accused Motilal of ignoring Hindu
interests.
• In 1926 elections, party didn’t fare so well as earlier due to communal campaign by other parties,
weakened leadership, anti-incumbancy etc. However it still managed to pull some good jobs like defeat of
Public Safety Bill, 1928 which aimed at deporting the subversive elements inspired by communist ideology. In
wake of imminent Civil Disobedience Movement, party completely pulled back from the assemblies in 1930.

Success of Swarajists :
• They filled the political vaccum at a time when Gandhiji was absent from political scene and national movement
was loss in its strength.
• They exposed the hollowness of 1919 Act.
• Active participation of Motilal and CR Das in assemblies earned them good attention of media and this helped
in making people interested in working of Legislative assemblies and higtened their political awareness level.
• It exposed the true nature of provincial governments and hollowness of 1919 reforms.
• It also exposed budget effectively and for the first time intense analysis of budget was done.

Failures of Swarajists :
• They failed to make a dent into the policies of government.
• They soon indulged into power politics.
• They couldn’t connect to masses.
• They alienated Muslim members who vouched for peasant interests.
• They also couldn’t do much about plight of peasants of Bengal.

Sub-Topic 5 : Why Attraction For Revolutionary Activity After Non-Cooperation Movement

The revolutionaries had faced severe repression during the First World War. But in early 1920, many were
released by the government under a general amnesty to create a harmonious environment for the Montford
Reforms to work. Under the persuasion of Gandhi and C.R. Das, many revolutionary groups either agreed to join the
non-cooperation programme or suspended their activities to give the non-violent Non- Cooperation Movement a chance.

Why ?

• The sudden withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement, however, left many of them disillusioned; they
began to question the basic strategy of nationalist leadership and its emphasis on non-violence and began to look
for alternatives.

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• The younger nationalists were not attracted to the parliamentary work of the Swarajists or to the patient,
undramatic, constructive work of the No-changers, they were drawn to the idea that violent methods alone
would free India. Thus, revolutionary activity was revived.
• Upsurge of working class trade unionism after the War; the revolutionaries wanted to harness the revolutionary
potential of the new emergent class for nationalist revolution.
• Russian Revolution (1917) and the success of the young Soviet state in consolidating itself.
• Newly sprouting communist groups with their emphasis on Marxism, socialism and the proletariat.
• Journals publishing memoirs and articles extolling the self-sacrifice of revolutionaries, such as Atmasakti, Sarathi
and Bijoli.
• Novels and books such as Bandi Jiwan by Sachin Sanyal and Pather Dabi by Sharatchandra Chatterjee (a
government ban only enhanced its popularity).

Sub-Topic 6 : Simon Commission (1928)

Background :

• It was set up in response to the nationalist movement, the commission was to look into the functioning of
the constitutional system facilitated by the 1919 Act in India and suggest changes.
• The Government of India Act 1919 had introduced the system of diarchy to govern the provinces of British
India. However, the Indian public clamoured for revision of the difficult diarchy form of government, and the
Government of India Act 1919 itself stated that a commission would be appointed after 10 years to investigate
the progress of the governance scheme.
• In the late 1920s, the Conservative government then in power in Britain feared imminent electoral defeat
at the hands of the Labour Party, and also feared the effects of the consequent transference of control of
India to such an ‘inexperienced’ body. Hence, it appointed seven MPs (including Chairman Simon) to
constitute the commission that had been promised in 1919 that would look into the state of Indian constitutional
affairs. The people of the India were outraged and insulted, as the Simon Commission, which was to determine
the future of India, did not include a single Indian member in it.

The Commission’s recommendations were :

• An outline of new constitution was put forward.
• Diarchy should be scrapped and Ministers responsible to the Legislature would be entrusted with all provincial
areas of responsibility. It strongly opposed diarchy at the center. In place of diarchy it called for responsible
government in the provinces.
• It suggested a formally federal union, including both British India and the Princely States, was the only long-
term solution for a united, autonomous India.
• It recommended that the franchise should be extended; and the Legislature enlarged.

The nationalist and Congress response :

• Congress in its Madras Session of 1927 decided to oppose it. Major reason behind its opposition was that – though
the Commission aimed at reviewing constitutional reforms in India, all its members were white and there was no
Indian member.
• In 1928, when the Simon Commission arrived in India, it was greeted with black flags and the slogan ‘Go back
Simon’. All parties, including the Congress, Hindu Mahasabha and the Muslim League, participated in the
demonstrations. When commission arrived in Lahore, it met with the huge protests and Lala Lajpat Rai dies.

The outcome of the Simon Commission (and Round Table Conferences) :

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 • It the Government of India Act 1935, which established representative government at the provincial level in India
and is the basis of many parts of the Indian Constitution. In 1937 the first elections were held in the Provinces,
resulting in Congress Governments being returned in almost all Provinces.

Rise of New Generation of Youth

• Simon Commission provided an opportunity to youth to prove its mettle. It was this Commission and death of Lala
Lajpat Rai that fired the spirit of likes of Bhagat Singh. It was after this commission that a new breed of young
leaders like Bhagat Singh and Subhash rose to prominence. This upsurge of youth saw the germination of new ideas
of socialism.

Impact of Appointment of Simon Commission on the National Movement :

• It gave a stimulus to radical forces demanding not just complete independence but major socio-economic reforms
on socialist lines. When the Simon Commission was announced, the Congress, which did not have any active
programme in hand, got an issue on which it could once again forge mass action.
• The challenge of Lord Birkenhead to Indian politicians to produce an agreed constitution was accepted by various
political sections, and thus prospects for Indian unity seemed bright at that point of time.

Sub-Topic 7 : Nehru Report (1928)

Background :
• There was a long standing demand on the part of people of India to new constitution and their greater say in its
drafting.
• The report was an attempt to address this need for a new constitution. Lord Birkenhead had challenged Indians
to produce an agreed constitution. This report came in that background.

About the Report :

• The ‘Nehru Report’ (1928) was a memorandum outlining a proposed new Dominion constitution (it was an
outline and not a constitution itself) for India.
• It was prepared by a committee of the All Parties Conference chaired by Motilal Nehru with his son Jawaharlal
acting as secretary. There were nine other members in this committee including two Muslims.
• The report didn’t seek complete independence but, the constitution outlined by the Nehru report was for India
enjoying dominion status within the British Commonwealth.
Recommendations :
1. It called for Dominion Status
2. Unlike the eventual Government of India Act 1935, it contained a Bill of Rights.
3. It did not provide for separate electorates for any community or weightage for minorities.
4. It advocated federal structure.
5. Seperation of state from religion.
6. A parliamentary form of government.
7. Residual powers with federal/Central Government
8. Adult franchise.
9. Redistribution of provincial boundries on a linguistic basis.

Most of its recommendations formed the basis of constitution of independent India.

Controversies over report :

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• It did away with Communal/Separate Electorate – this attracted much ire from Muslim league and other
minoritycommunities.
• It asked for Dominion Status and not complete Independence – On this issue, even Jawahar Lal differed with
his father (which was reflected a year later when he came up with a demand for Purna Swaraj). Nehru and
Subhash formed ‘Independence for India League’.
• Neither Muslim League nor Hindu Mahasabha nor ardent Sikhs agreed with the report and it set the stage for
the communal confrontation.

Fourteen Points, 1929 :

In reaction, Mohammad Ali Jinnah drafted his Fourteen Points in 1929 which became the core demands the Muslim
community put forward as the price of their participating in an independent united India.

Main points of 14 Point Formula were –

1. Separate electorate
2. 33% seats reserved for Muslims in Central legislatures.
3. Residual powers vested with provinces
4. Provincial autonomy
5. No constitutional amendment by the by the center without the concurrence of the states constituting the
federation.
6. Adequate representation of Muslims in services

However, Gandhi and a few others also, didn’t support the separate electorate for Muslim or Dalits as he saw it
divisive and perpetuating the divide that exist. Over Dominion status, Gandhiji and Motilal argued that consensus
over it has been built by great efforts and 2 years should be given to see government response. After negotiations
this time was reduced to 1 year and it was decided that if Dominion Status was not realized during this period a demand
for full independence will be made and Civil Disobedience will be launched.

Sub-Topic 8 : Demand For Purna Swaraj (1929)

Background:
• Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose and Satyamurti became more assertive after the Nehru Report which
defied their expectations by announcing Dominion Status as their demand.
• However, Motilal Nehru and Gandhi were reluctant to shed the gains they have made by demanding Dominion
Status and they demanded to give a one year’s time to government. There was some hope after the new Labor
government was elected in 1929 (headed by Ramsay McDonald) and new Secretary of State ‘Wedgewood Benn’
was also sympathetic to Indian cause. Viceroy Irwin too raised some hope among likes of Motilal and Gandhi when
hinted towards Dominion Staus (which was, however, not confirmed) a round table talk for the same. This, however,
didn’t assuage the sentiments of neither liberals nor Jawahar Lal and others.
• In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalized the demand of
‘Purna Swaraj’ or full independence for India.
• Jawahar unfurled Indian flag at the bank of Ravi on midnight of 31st December.

Following broad decisions were taken:

• Boycott of Round Table Conference.
• Demand for Poorna Swaraj.
• All members of legislature may resign.
• It was declared that 26 January 1930, would be celebrated as the Independence Day when people were to
take a pledge to struggle for complete independence.

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 • Lahore session also marked a leadership shift to younger generation.
• It was also decided that a Civil Disobedient movement will be launched under leadership of Gandhi.
• Call for nation wide meetings was made and it saw huge participation from both Rural and Urban areas and
pledges were made for Purna Swaraj.

Sub-Topic 9 : Civil Disobedience Movement, 1930

Background :
• After non-action of government over Nehru Report and failure of government to agree upon any demand for
even dominion status, Gandhiji was looking for a new plan amidst growing restlessness among the Congress and
nation as a whole.

Mahatma Gandhi's eleven demand :

• On 31 January 1930 – Soon after demand for Purna Swaraj, he sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven
demands (11 points). In his letter to Viceroy he stated – ‘British rule has impoverished ‘the Dumb Millions’ by a
system of progressive exploitation, reducing us to political serfdom and sapped us culturally, degraded us
spiritually’.
• The idea was to make the demands wide-ranging, so that all classes within Indian society could identify with them
and everyone could be brought together in a united campaign.
• These included among others –
➢ Total prohibition
➢ Release of political prisioners
➢ Reduce expenditure on civil services and military
➢ Levy of duty on foreign cloth
➢ Issue of fire arm licences
➢ Reduce land revenue by 50%
➢ Reduce Rupee Sterling exchange ratio to make Indian exports profitable
➢ Reserve Coastal shipping for Indians
➢ Abolition of Salt Tax.
• The most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax. Salt was something consumed by the rich
and the poor alike, and it was one of the most essential items of food. The tax on salt and the government
monopoly over its production, Mahatma Gandhi, revealed the most oppressive face of British rule. Further, Salt
Satyagraha had a potential of mass appeal and mass-involvement.

Indian reaction to proposed 11 Points :

• There was some resentment among nationalist leaders over the 11 points as they saw it running counter
the Swaraj Declaration that was made just some time back. However Gandhi wanted to see the sincerity of
British.
• Industrial class whole-heartedly supported Gandhian demands in full as they saw them more of economic
nature (levy of duty on foreign cloth and other demands if would have been accepted would have promoted
domestic industry).

About the movement :

• If the demands were not fulfilled by 11 March, the letter stated, the Congress would launch a civil
disobedience campaign. Irwin was unwilling to negotiate and no-response was given to deamnds. Gandhi
decided to go for Civil Disobedience.

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• Mahatma Gandhi started his famous salt march accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers which also
included Sarojini Naidu. Congress vested in Gandhi power to launch Civil Disobedience Movment. The march
was over 240 miles, from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi. The volunteers
walked for 24 days, about 10 miles a day. Thousands came to hear Mahatma Gandhi wherever he stopped, and
he told them what he meant by swaraj and urged them to peacefully defy the British. On 6 April they reached
Dandi, and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling sea water. This marked the beginning
of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Masses participated in the movement. Salt laws were broken everywhere. Even women participated in huge
numbers. Kamla (wife of Nehru), Swarup Rani (Mother of Nehru) were at the forefront. In Tamil Nadu, C
Rajagopalchari led the march, In Malabar K Kelappan took the lead.
• Thousands in different parts of the country broke the salt law, manufactured salt and demonstrated in
front of government salt factories. As the movement spread, foreign cloth was boycotted, and liquor shops
were picketed. Peasants refused to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes, village officials resigned, and in many
places forest people violated forest laws – going into Reserved Forests to collect wood and graze cattle.
• There was a wide scale boycott of liquor shops and in protest toddy trees were cutdown.
• Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan launched a Khudai Khidmatgar Movement at the North West Frotnier Provinces.
• Rani Gaidillieu at the age of 13 responded to Gandhian call in Manipur and was sentenced for life
imprisionment and was released only in 1947.
• Chowkidar Tax Non-Pyment Campaign was initiated in the Eastern part of the nation.
• Forest laws were liberally violated in Southern and Central provinces.
• Bardoli Satyagraha was launched by Patel just before Civil Disobedience movement and it became a
model no-tax campaign in other parts of the country during the Civil Disobedience movement.
• UP saw another form of ‘No-Revenue, No Rent’ Campign. No-Revenue call was for Zamindars and they were
asked not to pay revenue to government and No-rent call was for cultivators.
• A variety of mass mobilization techniques like Prabhat Pheris, Patrikas (illegal newsprint) were used. Children
were organized into Vanar Sena and Girls into Manjari (cat) Sena.

British Response :
• Worried by the developments, the colonial government began arresting the Congress leaders one by one.
This led to violent clashes in many palaces.
• A frightened government responded with a policy of brutal repression. Peaceful Satyagrahis were attacked,
women and children were beaten, and about 60,000 people were arrested.
• Big leaders like C Rajagopalachari, Vallabhai, Jawahar, Madan Mohan Malviya, J M Sengupta etc were also
arrested. Gandhi too was arrested in May 1930 and leadership was transferred to Abbas Tyabji and he too was
arrested. Later Sarojini took the lead, but she was also arrested.
• Government came up with many ‘repressive resolutions’, ‘Congress was declared illegal’.

Success of Movement :
• It rallied masses like never before
• Import of foreign goods was effectively boycotted
• Students and Women participated in masses
• Workers also joined the movement.

Failures of Movement :
• Not all social groups were moved by the abstract concept of swaraj. One such group was the nation’s
‘untouchables’, who from around the 1930s had begun to call themselves dalit or oppressed.

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 • Muslims – except in NWFP under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan – show apathetic response. They were
polarized by communal rhetorics of leaders as well as government’s positive response to their demands. After
the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, a large section of Muslims felt alienated from the
Congress. From the mid-1920s the Congress came to be more visibly associated with openly Hindu religious
nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha. As relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened, each
community organised religious processions with militant fervour, provoking Hindu-Muslim communal clashes
and riots in various cities.
• Lukewarm Support from Industrial Class.
• Poor participant from peasents.

Non-Cooperation vs Civil Disobedience :

• People were now asked not only to refuse cooperation with the British, as they had done in 1921-22, but also to
break colonial laws. So, it was an ideological progression.
• This time objective was complete independence.
• There was poor Muslim participation this time and labor participation was also poor.
• This movement, however, catapulted Gandhi on international arena and for the first time women also participated
in large number in a national movement.

Why Salt was Chosen as the Important Theme :

• As Gandhi said, “There is no other article like salt, outside water, by taxing which the government can reach the
starving millions, the sick, the maimed and the utterly helpless... it is the most inhuman poll tax.”
• Salt in a flash linked the ideal of swaraj with a most concrete and universal grievance of the rural poor.
• Like khadi, it offered to the urban populace the opportunity of a symbolic identification with mass suffering.

Sub-Topic 10 : Gandhi – Irwin Pact Or Delhi Pact (March 1931)

Background –

• As British repression became harder during Civil Disobedience Movement, it led to sufferance of common
people.
• In such a situation, Mahatma Gandhi once again decided to call off the movement and he along with many others
was arrested.
• Congress didn’t participate in first Round Table Conference which was though attended by Muslim
League, Hindu Mahasabha, Chamber of Princes, the Liberals and Dalits and it was speculated that any
agreement without the participation of Congress will be futile.
• Irwin was also anxious to find a solution and in a gesture he released the political prisioners and decided to
directly talk to Gandhi.
• In this backdrop, Gandhi entered into a pact with Irwin on 5 March 1931. The Pact put Congress on equal
terms with government and this move of Irwin was also criticized in Britain for shedding too much space.

Below were the proposed conditions –

• Discontinuation of the civil disobedience movement by the Indian National Congress.
• Participation by the Indian National Congress in the Round Table Conference.
• Withdrawal of all ordinances issued by the British Government imposing curbs on the activities of the Indian
National Congress.
• Release of prisoners arrested for participating in the civil disobedience movement.

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• Removal of the tax on salt, which allowed the Indians to produce, trade, and sell salt legally and for their own
private use.

Things that were not accepted by British as a part of Gandhi Irwin pact or Delhi Pact :
• Congress demand for a police enquiry into arrests and atrocities made during Civil Disobedience movement
was rejected.
• Not accept Commutation of sentences of Bhagat Singh and his comrades.
• The pact also didn’t accept demand of immediate return of the lands confiscated during movement (this caused
much resentment among the radicals).

Outcome of the Pact :

• By this Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Gandhiji consented to participate in a Round Table Conference in London
and the government agreed to release the political prisoners.
• The pact was criticized by radicals for not extracting definite gains from government and compromising
on the demand of Swaraj by agreeing to participate in Round Table Conference.
• Gandhij was perhaps aware that mass movements are essentially short lived and he tried to leverage the
situation by extracting some gans from British government.

Was Gandhi-Irwin Pact a Retreat?

Gandhi’s decision to suspend the civil disobedience movement as agreed under the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was not a retreat,
because:

• Mass movements are necessarily short-lived;

• Capacity of the masses to make sacrifices, unlike that of the activists, is limited; and
• There were signs of exhaustion after September 1930, especially among shopkeepers and merchants, who had
participated so enthusiastically.

Sub-Topic 11 : Karachi Session (March 1931)

Background :

• The Gandhi-Irwin pact was criticised by radical nationalists, It was unable to obtain from the Viceroy a
commitment to political independence for Indians; It had not agreed even to the demand that the death
sentence on Bhagat Singh and his two comrades be commuted to life imprisonment. It was termed as a
bourgeoise agreement, which ignored masses. However, the session aimed at approving Gandhi Irwin Pact.
• Gandhiji prevailed upon the session to approve the agreement. He was greeted with black flag and flowers
by angry protestors. Further, Gandhiji and Congress as national representatives in that congress was
disputed by three sections – Muslim League, Princly states and BR Ambedkar (he accused congress of
ignoring the welfare of lowercastes).

However, the session is significant from following point of views :

• It endorsed Delhi Pact or Gandhi Irwin Pact.
• For the first time it moved a resolution on Fundamental Rights and the draft resolution was prepared by Jawahar
Lal Nehru (session was presided over by Vallabhai Patel).
• It for the first time explained the concept of Purna Swaraj and reiterated it as goal.
• It also declared that interests of minority will be looked after and their culture will be preserved.
• It acknowledged the brave sacrifice of Bhagat Singh and others.

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 Significance of the Karacahi Resolution lies in the fact that – it remained the basic essence of political and economic
programmes of Congress in later years.

Sub-Topic 12 : 2nd Round Second Table Conference (Dec 1931)

Background :
• The Congress had boycotted the first Round Table Conference (1930) which was actively attended by princely
states, Ambedkar and other non-Congress parties.
• Ambedkar also raised the issue of separate electorate for Dalits and Jinnah demanded more safeguards for the
Muslims (these two demands were reflected in Communal Award of 1932).
• After Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Gandhi was sent as a representative of Congress.

About 2nd Round table Conference :

• Round table conference were in line with the constitutional progression envisaged by the British which
were outlined by the Simon Commission as well to chart out a future course of action for political
mechanism in India. One of the prime objective of Congress to participate in it was demand of Indians for more
autonomy and dominion status.
• Though the round table conferences were termed as 1st, 2nd, and 3rd. It will be wrong to term as so because
– it was basically a single conference that was held in three sessions.
• In April, before Second Round Table Conference, Irwin was replaced by new Viceroy Willingdon and he was
not ready to take a liberal attitude as taken by Irwin.
• Non-Congress parties were involved by the British in a big way at the 2ndRound Table Conference as well.
• In December 1931, Gandhiji went to London for the conference, but the negotiations broke down on the
minority issue. Not only Muslims demanded separate electorate, this time minorities led by Ambedkar also
demanded separate electorate.

Outcomes :
• Two new Muslim majority provinces – NWFP and Sindh to be created.
• Setting up of Indian Consultative committee.
• Prospect of a unilateral Communal Award.
• New right/conservative government under Churchil refused to put Congress on equal footing and adopted
a stern attitude, in its aftermath new Viceroy refused to have a meeting with Gandhiji.
• Gaffar Khan and Jawaharlal Nehru were both in jail, the Congress had been declared illegal, and a series
of measures had been imposed to prevent meetings, demonstrations and boycotts. Press was gagged and
Congress was still facing ban. New Viceroy Willington and Secretary of State had adopted a tough stance against
Gandhi and they decided not to negotiate any further like the former Viceroy Irwin did earlier.
• With great apprehension, Mahatma Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement. For over a year,
the movement continued, but by 1934 it lost its momentum due to severe repression by government.

Causes of Failure of 2ndPhase of Civil Disobedience Movement :

• Major Leaders were Behind bars.
• Poor Support from Peasentry
• Low Inertia and apparent disappointment from Gandhian politics.

Future course of action by Nationalists :

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• To break the lull in activities, council entry was suggested on the line of Swarajists by Satayamurti which was
later endorsed by Bhulabhai Desai and M A Ansari. As a result Congress participated in Central Legislative
Elections of 1934 and it won a heavy majority.
• Within Congress as well, an alternative ideological development happened and Congress Socialist Party was
born as a left leaning faction.
• In the meanwhile, many nationalists thought that the struggle against the British could not be won through non-
violence.
• In 1928, the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) was founded at a meeting in Ferozeshah Kotla
ground in Delhi as an offshoot of Hindustan Republican Association visibly influenced by socialist ideas.
Amongst its leaders were Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das and Ajoy Ghosh. In a series of dramatic actions in different
parts of India, the HSRA targeted some of the symbols of British power.
• In April 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar Dutta threw a bomb in the Legislative Assembly. In the same year
there was an attempt to blow up the train that Lord Irwin was travelling in.

Sub-Topic 13 : Communal Award (1932) And Poona Pact (1933)

Background :
• In the wake of inconclusive Round Table Talks, British government had declared that, if a consensus was not
reached on separate representation of minorities, a unilateral communal award will be made. Government kept its
promise in form of Communal Award of 1932.

About communal award and its aftermath :

• The Communal Award was by the British Prime Minister Ramsay McDonald on 4 August 1932 to grant
separate electorates to minority communities in India, including Muslims, Sikhs, and Dalit (then known as
the Depressed Classes or Untouchables) in India (during Round Table Discussions, separate electorate was
demanded by not only Muslim Leaders but by Ambedkar and other minorities as well).
• The depressed classes were assigned a number of seats to be filled by election from special constituencies
in which voters belonging to the depressed classes only could vote.
• The award was opposed for provision of separate electorate by Congress and other nationalist leaders and was
viewd as a part of ‘Divide and Rule’ policy of Britain.
• The Award was highly controversial and opposed by Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi called the award as –
‘English Attack on Hindu-Muslim Unity’. He argued that what Dalits need is eradication of untouchability
and discrimination and not further division. In the award he saw similar consequences of Muslim having separate
electorate and ultimately demanding a separate nation. He began an indefinite hunger strike at Yerwada Central
Jail from September 20, 1932 to protest this Award.
• Communal Award was supported by many among the minority communities, most notably the Dalit
leader, Dr. B R Ambedkar.
• Madan Mohan Malviya acted as a mediater between Gandhi and Ambedkar and after lengthy negotiations,
Gandhi reached an agreement with Dr. Ambedkar to have a single Hindu electorate, with Dalits having seats
reserved within it (in fact, seats for Dalits were increased after the Pact). This is called the Poona Pact.
Electorates for other religions like Muslim and Sikh remained separate.
• After this pact, Gandhi put renewed effort towards upliftment of Dalits. He started a magazine called –
Harijan and he also spent one year in community service of Dalits and spreading the message of untouchability.
However, orthodox Hindus sternly opposed his efforts.

Impact of Poona Pact on Dalits :

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 • The Poona Pact, despite giving certain political rights to the depressed classes, could not achieve the
desired goal of emancipation of the depressed class. It enabled the same old Hindu social order to continue
and gave birth to many problems.
• The Pact made the depressed classes political tools which could be used by the majoritarian caste Hindu
organisations.
• It made the depressed classes leaderless as the true representatives of the classes were unable to win against the
stooges who were chosen and supported by the caste Hindu organisations.
• This led to the depressed classes to submit to the status quo in political, ideological and cultural fields and
not being able to develop independent and genuine leadership to fight the Brahminical order.
• It subordinated the depressed classes into being part of the Hindu social order by denying them a separate and
distinct existence.
• The Poona Pact perhaps put obstructions in the way of an ideal society based on equality, liberty,
fraternity and justice.
• By denying to recognise the Dalits as a separate and distinct element in the national life, it pre-empted the rights
and safeguards for the Dalits in the Constitution of independent India.

Sub-Topic 14 : Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign And Thoughts On Caste

Determined to undo the divisive intentions of the government’s divide and rule policy, Gandhi gave up all his other
preoccupations and launched a whirlwind campaign against untouchability—first from jail and then, after his release in
August 1933, from outside jail.

Gandhi's Anti-untouchability campaign :

• While in jail, he set up the All India Anti-Untouchability League in September 1932 and started the weekly
Harijan in 1933.
• After his release, he shifted to the Satyagraha Ashram in Wardha as he had vowed in 1930 not to return to Sabarmati
Ashram unless swaraj was won.
• Starting from Wardha, he conducted a Harijan tour of the country in the period from November 1933 to
July 1934, covering 20,000 km, collecting money for his newly set up Harijan Sevak Sangh, and propagating
removal of untouchability in all its forms.
• He urged political workers to go to villages and work for social, economic, political and cultural upliftment of the
Harijans.
• He undertook two fasts—on May 8 and August 16, 1934—to convince his followers of the seriousness of his effort
and the importance of the issue.
• Throughout his campaign, Gandhi was attacked by orthodox and reactionary elements. These elements disrupted
his meetings, held black flag demonstrations against him and accused him of attacking Hinduism. They also offered
support to the government against the Congress and the Civil Disobedience Movement. The government obliged
them by defeating the Temple Entry Bill in August 1934.
• He called for total eradication of untouchability symbolised by his plea to throw open temples to the
untouchables.
• He stressed the need for caste Hindus to do ‘penance’ for untold miseries inflicted on Harijans. For this reason he
was not hostile to his critics such as Ambedkar. He said, “Hinduism dies if untouchability lives, untouchability has
to die if Hinduism is to live.”
• His entire campaign was based on principles of humanism and reason. He said that the Shastras do not
sanction untouchability, and if they did, they should be ignored as it was against human dignity.

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• Gandhi was not in favour of mixing up the issue of removal of untouchability with that of inter-caste marriages and
inter-dining because he felt that such restrictions existed among caste Hindus and among Harijans themselves.
• Similarly, he distinguished between abolition of untouchability and abolition of caste system as such. On this point
he differed from Ambedkar who advocated annihilation of the caste system to remove untouchability.
• Gandhi felt that whatever the limitations and defects of the varnashram system, there was nothing sinful
about it, as there was about untouchability. Untouchability, Gandhi felt, was a product of distinctions of high
and low and not of the caste system itself. If it could be purged of this distinction, the varnashram could function
in a such manner that each caste would be complementary to the other rather than being higher or lower.
• He believed that the removal of untouchability would have a positive impact on communal and other
questions since opposition to untouchability meant opposing the notion of highness and lowness.
• His fasts were aimed at inspiring friends and followers to redouble their work to abolish untouchability.
• Gandhi’s Harijan campaign included a programme of internal reform by Harijans covering education, cleanliness,
hygiene, giving up eating of beef and carrion and consumption of liquor, and removing untouchability among
themselves.

Impact of the Campaign :

Gandhi repeatedly described the campaign as not a political movement but as being primarily meant to purify Hinduism
and Hindu society. Gradually, the campaign carried the message of nationalism to Harijans who also happened to be
the agricultural labourers in most parts of the country, leading to their increasing participation in the national and peasant
movements.

Sub-Topic 15 : Ideological Differences Between Gandhi And Ambedkar

Gandhi, the principal architect of the Indian freedom struggle, and B.R. Ambedkar, the principal architect of the
Constitution of independent India shared many ideas, though in many ways they held different beliefs.

Ideological differences :

• Gandhi believed that freedom was never to be bestowed but to be wrested from the authority by the people
who desire it, whereas Ambedkar expected bestowing of freedom by the imperial rulers.
• The two leaders differed over the nature and scope of democracy as a method of government. Ambedkar
advocated parliamentary system of government for independent India, but Gandhi had very little respect for the
parliamentary system of governance. Gandhi believed that democracy tends to get converted into mass democracy
with a propensity for domination by leaders.
• As a political and social activist, Ambedkar had certain principles which were very rigid, while Gandhi had
no rigidities of ideology or principles except the uncompromising notion of non-violence.
• Gandhi tried to put forward simple practical alternatives to the political streams of the twentieth century like
liberalism, communism and fascism. Ambedkar, on the other hand, had a natural inclination for liberal ideology
and desired institutional framework and structures.
• Ambedkar’s politics tended to highlight the aspect of Indian disunity whereas the Gandhian politics tried to
show the aspect of Indian unity. In ‘Hind Swaraj’, Gandhi tries to prove that India has always been a nation prior
to the beginning of the imperial rule and it was the British rule who broke this cultural unity. Ambedkar, on the
other hand, believed in the notion that Indian unity was the by-product of the legal system introduced by the imperial
state.
• For Gandhi, ‘Gramraj’ and ‘Ramraj’ was real independence for Indians. But for Ambedkar, the status-
quoist nature of the Indian villages denied equality and fraternity and also liberty. As the curse of casteism
and untouchability was most dominant in the rural areas of India, Ambedkar believed that ‘Gramraj’ would continue

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 the social hierarchy based on discrimination and inequality. So he vehemently propagated that there was nothing to
be of proud of the Indian village system.
• The two leaders also differed in their views and approaches in respect of the context of development for
deprived classes. For instance, when Gandhi named the depressed classes and the untouchables as ‘Harijan’,
Ambedkar denounced it as a clever scheme. Thus, when the Depressed Classes League was renamed as Harijan
Sevak Sangh (by Gandhi), Ambedkar left the organisation by claiming that for Gandhi removal of untouchability
was only a platform, not a sincere programme.
• Ambedkar held that the centre of religion must be between man and man, and not between man and God
alone, as preached by Gandhi. In the beginning, Ambedkar too wanted to cast away the evil practices prevalent
in Hinduism in an attempt to reform and reconstruct, rather than destroy it fully. But in the later phase of his life, he
left Hinduism, denouncing it as an entity which couldn’t be reformed.
• Ambedkar denounced the Vedas and other Hindu scriptures. He believed that the Hindu scriptures do not
lend themselves to a unified and coherent understanding, and reflect strong contradictions within and across
sects. And the caste system and untouchability were the manifestations of the Hindu religious scriptures. On the
contrary, Gandhi held that caste system in Hinduism has nothing to do with religious precepts and spirituality. For
Gandhi, caste and varna are different, and caste is perversive degeneration.
• In political percepts, Ambedkar believed in freedom of religion, free citizenship and separation of State and religion.
Gandhi also endorsed the idea of freedom of religion, but never approved a separation of politics and religion.
• The notions of violence and non-violence got differing explanations from Gandhi and Ambedkar. Ambedkar
held absolute non-violence as an end and relative violence as a means, whereas Gandhi never made such a distinction
and was an avowed opponent of violence of any kind.
• Ambedkar believed in purity of ends and justified means as just when the ends were just. Whereas in
Gandhian perception it was purity of means that determined the end.
• Gandhi and Ambedkar differed greatly in their views concerning mechanisation of production and utilisation
of heavy machinery. Gandhi was apprehensive about the de- humanising impact of mechanisation and held it
responsible for the creation as well as sustaining of exploitative socio- economic orders in the world. Ambedkar, on
the other hand, attributed the evil effect of machinery to wrong social organisations that gave sanctity to private
property and the pursuit of personal gains. Ambedkar was of the firm belief that machinery and modern civilisation
were of benefit to all, and held that the slogan of a democratic society must be machinery and more machinery,
civilisation and more civilisation.
• The methods and skills of communication and mobilisation of both were different. Gandhi spoke in plain
local vernacular, whereas Ambedkar spoke in English.
• To disobey the law to make the law more just was a Gandhian principle; its outward manifestations were non-
cooperation, hartal, satyagraha and civil disobedience. Ambedkar was more inclined towards the observance of law
and constitutionality in the political process.
• Gandhi viewed the untouchables as an integral part of the Hindu whole, whereas Ambedkar had an
ambivalent stand on the issue. Ambedkar regarded the untouchables as a religious minority and not a part
of the Hindu community, and preferred to call them a ‘political minority’ or ‘minority by force’.

Sub-Topic 16 : Government Of India Act (1935)

The Act provided for an all India federal structure as a union of Princly States and Provinces. Inclusion of Princly
States was an idea to act as a balance against the rising nationalism in the provinces.

Features of the Act :

• It introduced Federalism in India with Princly States and Provinces being its parts and introduced Federal List,
Provincial List and Concurrent List. However, this never became a reality as Princly States didn’t approve this.

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• Provincial Autonomy replaced Provincial Diarchy (after unpopular nature of Dyarchy in Provinces, Simon
Commission suggested its abolition) i.e. Responcible Government was introduced in Provinces. Governor has
to now act on the advice of the miniters responsible to Provincial Legislature.
• Bicameralism was introduced in 6 out of 11 Provinces.
• There was also to be a bicameral federal legislature in which the (princely) states were given disproportionate
weight age. Moreover, the representatives of the states were not to be elected by the people, but appointed
directly by the rulers.
• NWFP was given status of province and Burma was separated from India.
• Diarchy at federal/central level was introduced and abolished at provincial level.
• Emergency power was vested in Governor General and Governors in Provinces – The Governor- General and
the Governors were to be appointed by the British government. Though power was given to provinces, the
Governors were given special powers. They could veto legislative action. Moreover, they retained full control
over the civil service and the police. Governer General was given ‘Emergency Powers’.
• Separate Electorate was provided for Hindu and Muslims as was provided by 1909 and 1919 Acts too.
• Limited Franchise – Only 14 per cent (1/6) of the total population in British India was given the right to vote.
Even this legislature, in which the princes were once again to be used to check and counter the nationalist
elements, was denied any real power.
• Key Portfolios were kept under British Control – Defense and foreign affairs remained outside its control,
while the Governor-General retained special control over the other subjects.
• Lower house termed as – Legislative Assembly and Upper House as Council of States.
• Vote on Budget was also allowed.
• ‘Vote of No Confidence’ and ‘Idea of Collective Representation’ was introduced.
• There were also other features of the act like – Establishment of a Fedearl Court, A Federal Bank (RBI),
Federal Public Service Commission etc.

The evaluation of Government of India 1935 act :

• Congress condemned the Act as ‘totally disappointing’. The act was condemned by one and all. Jawaharlal
Nehru termed this Act as – ‘The Act is a car without engines, but all brakes’.
• It didn’t mention the Dominion Status as which was promised by Simon Commission.
• It also carried on provision of separate electorate which would also lead to further communal divide. Separate
electorate was long opposed by Congress.
• On the basis of the Act, the first ‘provincial elections’ were held in February 1937 and they conclusively
demonstrated that a large majority of Indian people supported the Congress and it recorded majority in 8 out of
11 provinces.
• Numerous ‘safeguards’ and ‘special responsibilities’ of the governor-general worked as brakes in the
proper functioning of the Act.
• The Act provided a rigid constitution with no possibility of internal growth. Right of amendment was reserved with
the British Parliament.
• The Long-Term British Strategy through this act : Suppression could only be a short-term tactic. In the long run,
the strategy was to weaken the national movement and integrate large segments of the movement into colonial,
constitutional and administrative structure. Reforms would revive the political standing of constitutionalist liberals
and moderates who had lost public support during the Civil Disobedience Movement. Repression earlier and reforms
now would convince a large section of Congressmen of the ineffectiveness of an extra-legal struggle. Reforms could
be used to create dissensions within Congress—right wing to be placated through constitutional concessions and
radical leftists to be crushed through police measures.

72
 • Provincial autonomy would create powerful provincial leaders who would gradually become autonomous
centres of political power. Congress would thus be provincialised and the central leadership would get weakened.
• Despite the criticism of the Act at that time, many of the provisions of the Act were adopted by the government
of India after Independence and this act was landmark in terms of concessions provided to Indians and the
changes that it proposed in the governing system. Congress for the first time officially demanded
establishment of a Contitutional Aseembly in its 1935 session based on adult franchise to draft Constitution.

Sub-Topic 17 : 1937 Elections

Jawahar Lal Nehru, Bose, Congress Socialists and Communists were against the idea of entering into Provincial
elections which were scheduled to be held in 1937 for the first time according to the 1935 Act.

According to them it defeats their purpose because –

• Paticipating would dilute their stand and will be akin to cooperating with the repressive government
• Assuming offices after elections means having ‘responsibility without power’ as the governing structure has not
changed much
• Assuming the office would take away the revolutionary character that movement has assumed since 1919.

Others argued that while focus of congress is still on the activities outside the legislature, entering the
legislatures is only a short term tactic to bust the Act of 1935 from within and to practically demonstrate the
hollowness of the Act. It was also termed as a part of all round strategy with ultimate goal as independence.

With this assurance, Jawahar started his campaign extensively in 1936 and in his election manifesto made three
things clear –

1. Goal of Congress is still attainment of Independence

2. Congress still rejects 1935 Act
3. Formation of Constituent Assembly is still top priority of Congress (INC in 1936 for the time proposed to
constitute the Constitution Assembly to form the Indian constitution).

Congress won in majority of provinces with exception of Bengal, Sind, Punjab, Assam, NWFP etc and it
formed ministries in many of them. To match their acts with their electoral promises, leaders took the steps like –
reduced their salaries, travelled through trains in second and third class. It initiated many reforms, passed many
legislations, freed political prisioners.

Outcomes of 1937 election :

• It widened the rift between Congress and the League and it became more communal and more strident in its
demand of a separate nation.
• The Congress’s failure to mobilise the Muslim masses in the 1930s allowed the League to widen its social support.
• The Congress’s rejection of the League’s desire to form a joint Congress League government in the United Provinces
in 1937 also annoyed the League.

However, Congress performance was limited by various factors because :

• Inherent power still lied with center and Viceroys and Governors had the power to veto their resolutions
• Congress had little financial resources as lion’s share was taken by the Center
• According to mechanism of bicameralism in provinces, In most of the provinces, there were ‘legislative
councils’ which had elections on the basis of limited franchise and were occupied by the landlords, zamindars
and other elites.

73
• Vested interests within Congress also scuttled its plans of reforms.

Evaluation of Congress rule :

• Though by 1939 internal strifes, opportunism and hunger for power had started surfacing among
Congressmen, yet they were able to utilise council work to their advantage to a great extent.
• Congressmen demonstrated that a movement could use state power to further its ends without being co-opted.
• The ministries were able to control communal riots.
• Council work helped neutralise many erstwhile hostile elements (landlords, etc).
• People were able to perceive the shape of things to come if independence was won.
• Administrative work by Indians further weakened the myth that Indians were not fit to rule.
• The huge Congress victory in the elections had aroused the hopes of the industrial working class; there was
increased militancy and industrial unrest in Bombay, Gujarat, the United Provinces and Bengal at a time when
the Congress was drawn into a closer friendship with Indian capitalists. This resulted in what appeared to be an
anti-labour shift in Congress attitudes that led to the Bombay Traders Disputes Act in 1938.
• In the meanwhile, the All India Muslim League, annoyed with the Congress for not sharing power with them
established the Pirpur Committee in 1938 to prepare a detailed report on the atrocities supposedly committed
by the Congress ministries. In its report the committee charged the Congress with interference in the religious
rites, suppression of Urdu in favour of Hindi, denial of proper representation and of the oppression of Muslims
in the economic sphere.

Muslim League and 1937 election

The election came as a great disappointment for Muslim League. Jinnah was called from London to lead Muslim League
in 1935, but despite that it secured only around 100 seats out of the allotted 480 seats. This failure left it with no choice
but to resort to communalism and it got manifested in the 1937 by elections in UP when it rallied the voters on the name
of Allah and Kuran. Nehru strongly condemned this Act. This was turning point in the history of communalism in India
when it took an extreme form which was aggravated in coming years.

74
 Topic 8 : 1939 to 1947 (Towards Freedom and Partition)
1 Tirupuri Session And Forward Block (1939)
2 Gandhi and Bose: Ideological Differences
3 Second World War And India
4 August Offer (1940)
5 Individual Satyagraha (1940)
6 Cripps Mission (1942)
7 Quit India (1942) Or August Kranti
8 How Did Quit India Movement Differ From Other Gandhian Movements?
9 C R Formula Or Rajaji Formula And Gandhi-Jinnah Talks (1944)
10 Shimla Conference And Wavell Plan (1945)
11 INA or Azad Hind Fauj And INA Trials
12 Rin Rating Mutiny (1946)
13 Post Second World War
14 Cabinet Mission (1946)
15 Mountbatten Plan (1947) Or 3rd June Plan

75
Sub-Topic 1 : Tirupuri Session And Forward Block (1939)
Gandhi had retired from Congress in 1934 and Congress under Jawahar’s leadership has acquired a taste of
socialism and radicalism. Subhash chandra Bose was chosen unanimously in February 1938 session of Congress at
Haripura to built upon that trend. In that session under the leadership of Bose, Congress passed a resolution to opposition
to the impending imperialistic war.

Difference between Gandhi and Subhash and the formation of forward block :
• Gandhi had a sympathetic corner for British in this hour of difficulty (during World War II ) and he also
didn’t like the idea of Subhash to join the other European forces in a bid to bring freedom to India.
• Other issue was Subhash’s plan for industrialised development, which Gandhi opposed in favour of grass root level
changes.
• These differences came in open in the next session of Congress of 1939 in Tirupuri when Gandhi fielded Patabhai
Sitaramaiya as candidate and he was defeated and Bose re-elected.
• Bose declared its opposition to fascism and imperialism alike and passed a resolution in this effect along with a
resolution demanding independence and forming a constituent assembly. He also openly criticized moderate policies
of Congress and called for an aggressive movement. This open criticism irked many veterans and 12 of the working
Committee members (out of 15) resigned and in the same year Govind Vallabh Pant moved a resolution to form a
new working committee under Gandhian leadership. The resolution was passed and Bose stepped down from
presidency.
• Congress Socialist Party refrained from voting and Bose called it as a betrayal. Finally, He formed Forwards
Block in 1939.

Sub-Topic 2 : Gandhi and Bose: Ideological Differences

• Gandhi and Subhash Chandra Bose had a deep respect for one another despite their hugely differing ideologies.
Each appreciated the work done by the other in the national struggle for freedom.
• In 1942, Gandhi called Bose the “Prince among the Patriots”. When the death of Bose was reported, Gandhi said
that Netaji’s “patriotism is second to none... His bravery shines through all his actions.
• Bose was fully aware of Gandhi’s importance as a symbol of Indian nationalism and called him “The Father of
Our Nation” in a radio broadcast from Rangoon in 1944 even though in the same speech he expressed his own
conviction that force was the only way to win freedom from the British.

1. Ideological differences :
• Incidentally, both men considered socialism to be the way forward in India, though in slightly different ways.
Gandhi did not subscribe to the Western form of socialism which he associated with industrialisation, but agreed
with the kind of socialism advocated by Jayaprakash Narayan.
• Both Gandhi and Bose were religious men and disliked communism. Both worked against untouchability and
spoke for women’s emancipation. But they differed widely in their ways and methods and in their political and
economic ideologies.

2. Non-Violence versus Militant Approach :

Gandhi was a firm believer in ahimsa and satyagraha, the non- violent way to gain any
goal. He believed that it was the way in which the masses could be involved. He objected to
Gandhi violence firstly because an unarmed masses had little chance of success in an armed rebellion,
and then because he considered violence a clumsy weapon which created more problems than
it solved, and left behind hatred and bitterness which could not be overcome through
reconciliation.
Bose believed that Gandhi’s strategy based on the ideology of non-violence would be
inadequate for securing India’s independence. To his mind, violent resistance alone could
Bose oust the alien imperialist rule from India. He considered the Gandhian civil disobedience
campaign as an effective means of paralysing the administration, but did not think it to be

76
 efficacious unless accompanied by a movement aimed at total revolution that was prepared, if
necessary, to use violence.

3. Means and Ends :

Gandhi felt that the non-violent way of protest that he propagated could not be practised
unless the means and ends were equally good. One could not just use any means to achieve
Gandhi an end however desirable that end may be. Besides, he had a deep dislike for the ideas of the
Fascists and the Nazis and would not think of using them to ally against the British, especially
when the latter were in a difficult situation.
Bose had his eye on the result of the action. When war clouds hung over Europe, he saw the
Bose situation as an opportunity to take advantage of the British weakness. He had no compunction
in taking the help of the Nazis or the Fascists and later of Imperial Japan.

4. Form of Government :

Gandhi’s ideas on government can be found in the Hind Swaraj (1909). Gandhi’s idealised
state, his Ramrajya—a utopia, in fact—did not need a representative government, a
constitution, an army or a police force. Capitalism, communism, exploitation and religious
violence would be absent. Instead, the country was to be modelled on the India of the past. In
many ways, Gandhi’s writings call for a pre-modern, morally-enlightened and apolitical
Gandhi Indian state. Swaraj lays stress on self-governance through individuals and community
building. He was sceptical of the party system and sure that representative democracy could
not provide people with justice. He advocated a stateless society in which life becomes
perfect. Gandhi was opposed to centralisation. He believed in decentralisation of political
as well as economic power, and this could come about only by beginning from the basic unit.
The basic unit would be the village whose people will always abide by the ideals of truth
and non-violence. Every village would be a self-sufficient republic or panchayat. (Self-
sufficiency did not mean that in times of need help could not be taken from other villages.)
The panchayat, the unit of local self-government, will consist of five persons male and female
– elected annually. It would represent the village community and be the custodian of all
authority. Moreover, it would be an autonomous political institution in the context of village
administration.
In his early writings, Bose expressed the opinion that democracy was the acceptable
political system for India. But later, he seemed to have veered towards the idea that, at least
in the beginning, a democratic system would not be adequate for the process of nation
rebuilding and the eradication of poverty and social inequality. In an address to students in
Bose Tokyo University in 1944, Bose is quoted as saying: “You cannot have a so-called
democratic system, if that system has to put through economic reforms on a socialistic
basis. Therefore we must have a political system—a State—of an authoritarian
character.” Indeed, it is clear from his letters that, despite his dislike of colonial power and
his desire to oust the alien British rule from India, he was impressed by the methodical and
systematic approach of the British and their disciplined way of life.

5. Militarism :

Gandhi and most of his supporters were uneasy with this display. Gandhi was against the
military on the whole. His Ramrajya, being built on the concept of truth and non-violence
and self-regulation would be a perfect place and would not require either police or armies.
Gandhi He was not against defensive war: if the innocent were attacked, there was no option but to
defend oneself. So, of course, the military was required for self-defence, but it was to be on
minimal scale.
Subhas Bose was deeply attracted to military discipline and was thankful for the basic
training he received in the University Unit of the India Defence Force. He volunteered to form

77
 Bose a guard of honour during the ceremonial functions at the Calcutta session of the Congress in
1930. And it was done on a massive and grand scale. Bose, in full dress uniform, reviewed his
‘troops’.

6. Ideas on Economy :

Gandhi’s concept of Swaraj had its own brand of economic vision. He wanted a
decentralised economy without state control. Gandhi dismissed both capitalism and Western
socialism. Both, he believed, led human beings to crave for luxury and self-indulgence. Gandhi
wanted people to get rid of greed and make do with just the bare necessities of life. He
developed the idea of village Sarvodaya. He advocated a “back to the roots” vision when
production was “simultaneous with consumption and distribution and the vicious circle of
Gandhi’s money economy was absent. Production was for immediate use and not for distant
markets.” He was against large scale industrialisation. But, He was not against instruments
and machinery that saved individual labour. He wrote that “mechanisation is good when the
hands are too few for the work intended to be accomplished. It is an evil when there are
more hands than required for the work, as is the case in India”. In his opinion, if a person
had inherited wealth or had made a lot of money through trade and industry, the amount was
to be shared with the entire society and must be spent on the welfare of all. He put forward
his theory of trusteeship under which he wanted the capitalists to be trustees, and as such
would take care of not only themselves but also of others.
Bose considered economic freedom to be the essence of social and political freedom. He
was all in favour of modernisation which was necessarily to be brought about by
industrialisation. He believed that India’s downfall in the political and material sphere had been
brought about by the people’s inordinate belief in fate and the supernatural accompanied by an
Bose indifference to modern scientific developments, especially in the field of war weapons. He felt
the backward agriculture had to be modernised. The labour that was ousted from the
agricultural sector as a result of such modernisation could be helped only with the development
of industry, which could absorb the surplus labour from agriculture. He also spoke about
abolition of landlordism and liquidation of agricultural indebtedness. He was much impressed
by the success attained by the Soviet Union in economic development through rapid
industrialisation within a short period of time.

7. Religion

Gandhi said “God is Truth and Love; God is ethics and morality; God is fearlessness”.
God is the source of Light and Life and yet he is above and beyond all these, God is conscience.
He is even the “atheism of the atheist.” Gandhi was primarily a man of religion. He had a
Gandhi steadfast view on religion, and his religion was the basis of all his other ideas. Truth and non-
violence were the two principles that helped Gandhi in evolving a comprehensive view of
religion that went beyond narrow sectarianism. For Gandhi there is no higher way of
worshipping God than serving the poor and identifying God in them. He considered
different religions to be merely the different paths towards the same destination. He claimed
that religion is a binding force and not a dividing force. He said that each person should
follow his or her own religion freely.
Subhash Bose believed in Upanishadic teachings. He revered the Bhagavad Gita and was
inspired by Vivekananda. He was also inspired by the India of the past as reinterpreted by
thinkers. According to many scholars, Hindu spirituality formed the essential part of his
political and social thought throughout his adult life. However, he was free of bigotry or
orthodoxy. He was for total non-discrimination on the basis of religion and in context he
Bose took up the Hindus’ cause when he demanded that Hindu prisoners be given the right to do
Durga Puja just as Muslims and Christians were allowed to celebrate their festivals. He named
his force Azad Hind Fauz, and there were many non-Hindus in that army and who were close
to him. The INA was to be a mixture of various religions, races, and castes with total social

78
 equality of all soldiers. They were served food cooked in the common kitchen and shared
space in common barracks breaking the age old caste bonds and practices. Common
celebrations of all religious festivals took place in the INA.

Bose was a secularist with an impartial attitude to all religions. He said that Free India must have an absolutely
neutral and impartial attitude towards all religions and leave it to the choice of individuals to profess or follow a
particular religion of his faith. Religion is a private matter, the State has nothing to do with it.

8. Caste and Untouchability :

Gandhi’s goals for society were mainly three: eradicating untouchability, maintaining the
varna distinctions of the caste system and strengthening tolerance, modesty and
religiosity in India. Gandhi believed that one way of reinvigorating India was to wipe out
Gandhi untouchability, which he considered to be a pernicious practice preventing millions of
peasants from realising their dreams and aspirations. It was incompatible with Swaraj. He
said that if any Shastra propounded untouchability that Shastra should be abandoned.
He, however, supported the varna system; he believed that the laws of caste were eternal, and
were the base for social harmony. In the India that Gandhi visualised, each village would be
organised around the four-fold divisions with every member of society doing his or her own
duty.
Bose looked forward to an India changed by a socialist revolution that would bring to an
end the traditional social hierarchy with its caste system; in its place would come an
Bose egalitarian, casteless and classless society. Subhas Bose completely rejected social inequality
and the caste system. He spoke in favour of inter-caste marriages. In his public speeches,
Bose spoke vehemently against untouchability. He was inspired by Vivekananda in his
belief that the progress of India would be possible only with uplift of the downtrodden and the
so-called untouchables.

9. Women :

In Gandhi’s words, “To call women the weaker sex is a libel; it is man’s injustice to
women.” Gandhi played an important role in uplifting the status of women in India. Gandhi
was instrumental in bringing women out of their homes to take part in the struggle for
freedom. It involved bringing women out of the purdah – a system that was prevalent among
Hindus as well as Muslims of the time. Apart from bringing women into the struggle for
swaraj, he vehemently opposed various social ills affecting women like child marriage, the
dowry system and female infanticide, and the treatment of widows. He considered men and
women to be equal and declared that men should treat women with respect and
consideration. However, in the matter of the roles of men and women, Gandhi would be
regarded as patriarchal and traditional by present standards. He wrote in 1937: “I do believe
Gandhi’s that woman will not make her contribution to the world by mimicking or running a race with
man. She can run the race, but she will not rise to the great heights she is capable of by
mimicking man. She has to be the complement of man.” Again, in 1940, he wrote: “Whilst
both are fundamentally one, it is also equally true that in the form there is a vital difference
between the two. Hence, the vocations of the two must also be different. Her duty of
motherhood….requires qualities which man need not possess. She is passive, he is active. She
is essentially mistress of the house. He is the bread winner, she is the keeper and the
distributor of the bread. She is the caretaker in every sense of the term. The art of bringing
up the infants of the race is her special and sole prerogative. Without her care, the race must
become extinct.” Gandhi considered women to be the presiding deities of the home. It was
their dharma to take care of the home. “If they do not follow dharma, the people would be
totally destroyed,” said Gandhi. Women should not tolerate ill-treatment from their
husbands. But he did not ask women to walk out of their homes and launch agitations,

79
 personal or public, against their plight or a satyagraha within their exploitative domestic
environments.
Subhash Bose had a more robust view of women. Differing from the German National
Socialists (Nazis) and the Italian Fascists, who stressed the masculine in almost all spheres of
social and political activity, Bose considered women to be the equals of men, and thus they
should be prepared to fight and sacrifice for the freedom of India. He arduously
campaigned to bring women more fully into the life of the nation. When, as Congress President
in 1938, Bose set up the Planning Commission, he insisted that there should be a separate
planning commission for women. This commission was chaired by Rani Lakshmi Bhai and
was to deal with the role of women in planned economy in future India. Later, in 1943, he
called on women to serve as soldiers in the Indian National Army. This was a most radical
Bose view. He formed a women’s regiment in the INA in 1943, named the Rani of Jhansi
Regiment. Many women were enthused to join the regiment commanded by Captain
Lakshmi Swaminathan (Sahgal after marriage).While those less suited to combat duties
were employed as nurses and in other support roles, the majority were trained as soldiers. They
were given the same treatment as the men and received no special privileges. In Bose’s
view, women should be given a high position in the family as well as in society. He believed
in female emancipation, in liberating women from age-old bondage to customs and man-made
disabilities, social, economic and political. He wanted women to get all-round education
including not only literacy, but physical and vocational training. He was all for abolition
of purdah and also supported widow remarriage. Women, he said, should also be made
conscious of their social and legal rights as well as their duties as citizens.

10. Education :

Gandhi was against the English system of education as also against the use of English as
a medium of instruction. He wanted education to be in the vernacular. He advocated free
and compulsory education for all-boys and girls between 7 and 14 years. In Gandhi’s view
education should be an integrated approach to the full development of the personality; it
should include physical training and high moral principles along with intellectual and cognitive
development. To Gandhi morality had to be a part of education. The end of education was
not merely a means to make a career and achieve social status. Education should be a means
Gandhi to enlightenment. Gandhi also wanted the Hindu scriptures to be a part of education as they
propounded discipline and self-restraint. He conceived his Nai Talim or basic education for
all in 1937. Nai Talim aimed to impart education that would lead to freedom from ignorance,
illiteracy, superstition, psyche of servitude, and many more taboos that inhibited free thinking
of a free India. This scheme of education was to emphasise on holistic training of mind and
body, so along with academics, there was to be purposeful manual labour. Handicrafts, art and
drawing were the most fundamental teaching tools in Nai Talim. As Gandhi wanted to make
Indian villages self-sufficient units, he emphasised on vocational education which increases
the efficiency of students in undertaking tasks in those villages and make the village a self-
sufficient unit.
Subhash Bose was for higher education, especially in the technical and scientific fields, as
Bose he wanted an industrial India. He said, “National Reconstruction will be possible only with
the aid of science and our scientists.” He wanted Indian students to be sent abroad for
“training in accordance with a clear and definite plan so that as soon as they returned home,
they may proceed straight away to build up new industries”.

Sub-Topic 3: Second World War And India

Background :
• In 1939 World war broke out and British declared participation of India in War without permission from or
consultation with Indians. League (on conditional support that constitutional decisions will be taken with its
consent) and Princly States supported the War.

80
 • Gandhi expressed sympathy, while Subhash urged for taking benefit of this situation to launch a full blown
movement. Nehru was in middle and argued for refraining from the war and at the same time not taking advantage.
British offered Dominion Status to India after War, but Congress found it too little too late. All Congress ministers
resigned from provinces in 1939 in protest of alleged involvement of India in war without consultation with Indians.
League celebrated 22 December 1939 as ‘Deliverence Day’ from Congress rule.

Congress agreed to provide conditional support and put forward two demands –
• After the war constituent assembly should be convened Immediately.
• Some form of responsible government should be established at the center.

British government response :

• Viceroy Linglithgo rejected these demands. Government tried to use Chamber of Princes and Muslim League
against Congress. It further wanted to regain lost ground on pretext of war.

A nationalist movement was not initiated by Congress during the war because –
• Gandhi and other leaders thought that cause of Allied Forces was just and it will be unfair to go for a national
movment at this difficult hour.
• Secondly, communal passions were at an all times high and this threatened any new national movement also and a
movement may degenerate into a communal riot.
• Most importantly, leaders thought that people were not ready for the mass movement at this stage.
• Gandhi wrote – ‘We don’t seek our Independence out of British ruin’. This view was summed up in the Ramgarh
Session of the Congress when the working committee passed a resolution to this effect.

Future course of action :

• However, as the condition of Allied Forces aggravated and a danger loomed even on India, Congress agreed for a
conditional support if the British free India after the war.
• To negotiate, the demands of Indians of Complete dependence, Viceroy made an offer known as – ‘August Offer’
– which didn’t talk of independence and was rejected by both League and Congress.
• In the meanwhile in 1940, Muslim league demanded a ‘separate constituency’ (still a demand for separate nation
was not there) for Muslims in its Lahore Resolution.
• Gandhi launched an Individual Satyagraha in the meanwhile.
• Amidst this, British PM sent Stafford Cripps to forge a compromise with Gandhi and Congress and seek their
support for war. Talks broke down, however, after the Congress insisted that if it was to help the British defend
India from the Axis powers, then the Viceroy had first to appoint an Indian as the Defence Member of his Executive
Council.

Sub-Topic 4 : August Offer (1940)

About the offer :
• The August offer 1940 was made on August 8, 1940 by Viceroy Lord Linglithgow, the eve of the Battle of Britain
in which it was beleagured to seek support of India by providing some concessions on front of self-rule that were
earlier demanded by Indians.
• The offer in principle accepted the demand for Constituent Assembly.
• The Viceroy at the time, Lord Linlithgow, made a fresh offer that promised –
➢ Dominion Status
➢ The expansion of the governor-general's Executive Council to include more Indians.
➢ The Establishment of an Advisory War council
➢ Giving full weight to minority opinion
➢ Recognition of Indians' right to frame their own constitution (after the war would end), framed ‘mainly’ by
Indians.
• In return, it was hoped that all parties and communities in India would cooperate in Britain's war efforts.

Response by the Congress and Muslim league :

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• However, the Congress as well as League rejected this offer, and Gandhi viewed it as having ‘widened the gulf
between Nationalist India and the British ruler’ and he launched ‘Individual Satyagraha’ as result. Nehru
reacted that – ‘Dominion Status is dead as doornail’.

Significance of the offer :

• However, this offer for the first time recognized right of Indians to frame their own constitution. Further, for
the first time Dominion Status was explicitly offered.

Sub-Topic 5 : Individual Satyagraha (1940)

Background :
• In 1940, after refusal of August Offer, Congress was in a fix again. While some wanted to organize a mass Civil
Disobedience movement as they saw it as a right opportunity as Britain was entangled in war, others – mainly
Gandhi – wanted to go for Individual Satyagraha as he didn’t want to take advantage of difficult situation of the
British.

Objective :
• Its aim was to show that nationalist patience was not a symbol of weakness and people made no difference
between colonialism and Nazism.
• Further, it was a warning to government as well as giving it another opportunity.

People nominated by the Gandhi for individual Satyagraha :

• There were three people who were nominated by Gandhi himself as Individual satyagrahi. First was Acharya
Vinoba Bhave. He was arrested soon after he started it. Other two were Jawaharlal Nehru and Brahama Dutt.
• They too were arrested. Individual Satyagraha was very limited and was withdrawn by end of 1940. However it was
relaunched in 1941 and this times it had some mass appeal and thousands were arrested.

Sub-Topic 6 : Cripps Mission (1942)

Background :
• In 1939, the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, declared India a party to war without consulting Indian political
leaders or the elected provincial representatives. This caused considerable resentment in India and provoked the
resignation of elected Congress Provincial Governments in 1939 (which were elected in 1937), giving rise to the
prospect of public revolt and political disorder in India.
• Government tried to reconcile with August Offer, but that was rejected and instead Individual Satyagraha was
launched.
• News that ‘Atlantic Charter’ won’t be applicable to Indians (which was signed between US and Britain and
provided the freedom to people to chose their own government) further angered Indian leaders.
About the Cripps Mission :
• It was another attempt in late March 1942 by the British government to secure Indian cooperation and support
for their efforts in World War II.
• The offer was made in a situation in which, Britain was pushed against the wall in wake of rising facism aggression
– As Japan approached towards Asia, British felt a need to garner support of British Indian Army.
• There was also pressure from Allied forces to seek Indian cooperation.
• Pandit Nehru and Mulana Azad were official negotiators with the Cripps Mission.
• Cripps spent a major chunk of his time in bringing congress and league on the same table. But, there was little trust
between the British and Congress by this stage, and both sides felt that the other was concealing its true plans.

Major Features of Cripps Mission were (Almost same as August Offer) –

• Dominion Status with later right to withdraw from Commonwealth.
• Reconstitution of Viceroy’s Executive council.

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 • Constitutional Making Body for India – Consisting of elected members of provinces and representatives from
princely states.
• War Executive Council – A war executive council was proposed having Indian representation, however Defense
of India will be retained by the government
• Provinces may have separate Constitution

Significance of cripps mission :

• Unlike August offer, it gave offer of Constitution making by Indians alone and not ‘mainly’ by Indians as
proposed in August Offer. Secondly, it was given right to withdraw from Commonwealth.

Failure of Cripps Mission –

• It spent most of the time in negotiations with Congress and League which remain adamant.
• Viceroy and Secretary of State worked from behind to sabotage its efforts.
• Gandhi's opposition led the Indian National Congress to reject the British offer;
• Cripps' modification of the original British offer, which provided for no real transfer of power and offered only
Dominion Status which was rejected by Indians.
• Another major reason was the Cripps incapacity to bargain, he was told to not go beyond the boundaries of Draft
plan.
• While the demand of Congress was of Independence, Gandhi said that Cripps’s offer of Dominion status after the
war was a ‘Post dated cheque drawn on a crashing bank’.
• Major objections of Congress were dominion status. It also objected to the basis of nomination of the princely
states through nomination and not by people themselves.
• Right of provinces to secede also went against plan of united India.
• Muslim League criticized idea of a single union. Depressed felt that partition will leave them at the mercy of
Hindu and Muslim majority elite.

Sub-Topic 7 : Quit India (1942) Or August Kranti

Background :
• Failure of August offer and Cripps Mission has left Indians with little choice and government has also shown
repressive tendencies as witnessed in Individual Satyagraha.
• Government was also adamant with its lame proposal of Dominion Status.
• There was a general price rise and hardship for common man in wake of war.
• News of reversals suffered by British in War and expectations of its imminent collapse as the Imperial Japanese
Army advanced closer to India with the conquest of Burma, Indians perceived an inability upon the part of the
British to defend Indian soil.
• When the British remained unresponsive, Gandhi and the Congress began planning a major public revolt, the
Quit India movement – the first truly pan Indian mass movement. This period concurred with the rise of the Indian
National Army, led by Subhash Chandra Bose.

About Quit India Movement :

• In the 8thAugust Bombay session, Congress passed the Quit India resolution at Gowalia Tank and its draft was
prepared by Jawahar Lal Nehru and seconded by Patel.
• Gandhi called for a ‘Do or Die’ and gave slogans of ‘Quit India’ and ‘Bharat Choro’.
• Very next day of Gowalia Tank meet, major leaders were arrested under ‘Operation Thunderbolt’ launched by the
British.
• Common people showed unprecedented heroism, but they also faced unprecedented repression.
• On the name of war, government had armed itself with draconian provisions and laws.
• There were other events like – Forcing people in Bengal and Orissa to restrict the use of their boats in fear of
Japanese capture and use against British, news from South East were that British only evacuated white natives when
Japanese attacked and thus leaving locals on their fate.
• This lead to anger and confusion and people came on roads, hartaals ensued and clashes happened.

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• Underground activities started and even parallel governments were formed like the one in Satara. A new
underground leadership emerged led by Achyut Patwardhan, R M Lohia, Sucheta Kriplani, Chhotubhai
Puranik, R P Goenka and J P Narayan.
• A new event happened in 1943, when Gandhi announced a 10 day fast in Jail in response to British government’s
exhortation to condemn the violence committed by people. Instead of condemning the violence, Gandhi fasted on.
It raised public anger many a fold.
• Gandhi issued specific instructions to various groups –
➢ Government Servants – Don’t resign, but declare your allegiance to theCongress.
➢ Soldiers – Don’t leave the army, but don’t ire on yourcompatriots
➢ Students – If confident leave thestudies
➢ Peasants – If Zamindars are pro-government, don’t pay the rent. If they are anti government, pay.
➢ Princes – Support the masses and accept the sovereignty of people.
• The movement was short lived, but significant as it marked a new high in mass participation and made it clear
to British that it will no longer be possible to suppress the masses. Students and the peasantry served as the backbone,
middle class and bureaucracy sided government.

Features of Quit India Movement –

• It was a spontaneous movement
• It was not non-violent like earlier movements of Gandhi, it was first violent movement and the last one too launched
by Gandhi. There were many incidences of violence.
• It didn’t attract labor class in general
• Gandhi didn’t call for the government servants to leave their jobs but declare their support to Congress. Similarly
he asked army not to leave, but not fire on compatriots.

Phases of Quit India Movement –

Urban Phase Lasted for only one week.

Rural Phase Sabotage of government communication lines and transportation. It lasted for a few
months around 3-4 months.
Under ground • It was the most violent and long lasting.
movement • All India Congress Radio was operated by Usha Mehta. Asif Ali and Aruna Asif
Ali trained everyone to operate multiple centers.
Parallel Various parallel governments were formed:
Governments • Balia, UP – Under ChittuPandey
• Tumluk, Bengal – Tamralipta National Government of Tumluk was different as it set
up separate police, and revenue system. It also carried out relief work, supplied paddy
from rich to poor. They also had an active Women’s Wing ‘Bidyut Vahini’. Its major
leaders were – Ajoy Kumar Mukharjee, Matangini Hazara, Satish Chandra Samanta,
Sushil Kumar Dhara.
• Satara, Maharashtra – Under Achyut Patwardhan, YB Chavan, Nana Patil etc. Village
libraries were formed and Nyayadan Mandals were organized, prohibition campaigns
were organized.

Quit India repression was one of the most violent repressions since repression of 1857. Around 10,000 people lost
their lives. It made in a way final assertion of the will of people who were determined now not be held back by any false
promises.

Sub-Topic 8 : How did Quit India Movement differ from other Gandhian movements?
• The Quit India Movement was Gandhi’s last all-India Satyagraha on the Indian soil. It was during the Second World
War that the Quit India movement was launched, and Gandhi gave the slogan of ‘Do or Die’.

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 The Quit India Movement (QIM) is different from the preceding two Gandhian movements in the following ways:
• It was launched under unfavourable circumstances because the government armed itself with absolute powers in the
wake of the ongoing World War-II. The common people showed unique gallantry even though they had to face
the atrocious repression by the British.
• The timing of the movement was also very crucial and different than other previous movements. Although
Gandhi stated that he did not want to turn the difficult situation of the British into an opportunity for the 3ndian
masses to gain freedom, although the prevailing circumstances forced him to launch QIM.
• The great significance was that the movement placed the demand for independence on the immediate agenda of
the national movements. After Quit India, there could be no retreat.
• At the kickstart of the movement, the British government arrested the first rung leaders of the movement,
therefore left the younger and militant elements to their own initiatives.
• The QIM saw participation from throughout the country in true sense. It was broad-based and multi-
dimensional. Elites, lawyers, middle class, lower class, students, women, workers and almost every strata of the
society participated in QIM.
• The participants in the movement were the Socialists, Forward Bloc members, Gandhi ashramites, revolutionary
nationalists and local organisations.
• Women also played a spectacular role in the QIM. Their participation was no longer confined to picketing and
salt manufacturing as was done in the earlier movements launched by Gandhi. They came forward to carry on
processions, hoist the national flag, and act as couriers and helpers in underground activities etc.
• Some other unique features of QIM: There was an ‘underground movement’; the operation of Congress Radio by
a group of young workers in Bombay; the running of parallel governments in many places for varying periods
(Balia, Tamluk and Satara).

Though the movement could not achieve independence immediately, it demonstrated India’s irrepressible will to be free
and people’s great capacity for struggle and sacrifice succeeded, in as much as it prepared the ground for independence.

Sub-Topic 9 : C R Formula Or Rajaji Formula And Gandhi-Jinnah Talks (1944)

Background :
• Muslim League was adamant on any issue of conciliation with Congress.
• Gandhi wanted a united India and sought to break this deadlock and on C Rajaji’s inducement he got ready for talks.

About the formula :

• C Rajagopalachari proposed a formula (or C R formula or Rajaji formula) to solve the political deadlock between
the All India Muslim League and Indian National Congress on independence of India from the British. It was
presented via a pamphlet ‘The Way Out’.
• It offered the League the after independence, Pakistan based on plebiscite of all the peoples in the regions where
Muslims made a majority and in turn Muslim League should support the demand for Independence.
• This in some way gave approval for separate Pakistan to which as per C Rajaji, Gandhi also agreed as formula had
provision that after Independence if plebiscite called for a separate sovereign Pakistan, so it be.
• Although the formula was opposed even within the Congress party, Gandhi used it as his proposal in his talks with
Jinnah in 1944.
• However, Jinnah rejected the proposal and the talks failed. Jinnah refused to accept the Rajaji Formula as It did not
meet the League’s full demand for Pakistan. The provision of plebiscite in the formula didn’t go down well with the
Muslim leaders. They agreed for plebiscite only in some areas and not in all places.
• Gandhi was also adamant that any talk of partition should be held after British leave India which was not
acceptable to Jinnah. Hence, Jinnah rejected the initiative, telling his Council that it was intended to 'torpedo' the
‘Lahore resolution’; it was 'grossest travesty', a 'ridiculous proposal' and he termed it as – ‘a shadow and a husk,
maimed, mutilated Pakistan’.

Sub-Topic 10 : Shimla Conference And Wavell Plan (1945)

Background :

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As the Gandhi-Jinnah talks over Rajaji formula failed, government offered another way to reconcile the differences
between the two through Simla conference.

About the Simla conference :

• Shimla Conference was a 1945 meeting between Viceroy Wavell and the major political leaders of India at Simla,
India to discuss composition of Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• Convened to agree on and approve the Wavell Plan for Indian self-government, it reached a potential agreement
for the self-rule of India that provided separate representation to Muslims and reduced majority powers for
both communities in their majority regions.

Why it failed?
• However, talks stalled on the issue of selection of Muslim representatives.The conference broke down on the
insistence of Jinnah that his party should have an exclusive right to nominate Muslim members of the Viceroy’s
Executive Council. This was something which the Congress could not concede without repudiating its national
composition and saw this as an attempt to brand itself a caste Hindu party.
• This scuttled the conference, and perhaps the last viable opportunity for a united, independent India. When the
Indian National Congress and All India Muslim League reconvened under the Cabinet Mission the next year, the
Indian National Congress was far less sympathetic to the Muslim League's requests despite Jinnah's approval of the
British plan.
• In the meanwhile, Government changed in Britain and hostile Churchil was replaced by Clement Attlee of Labor
Party. Pethwick Lawrence became new secretary of state.
• Further, elections were held in 1945-46 in India too and both Muslim League and Congress won heavily in their
respective constituencies. This further bolstered the confidence of Muslim League.

Sub-Topic 11 : INA or AZAD HIND FAUJ and INA TRIALS

Formation of INA Or Azad Hind Fauj
• INA was first formed by Mohan Singh and was later reorganized by Rash Behari Bose.
• Mohan Singh, Niranjan Shah Gill and Mohammed Akram were the Indian expats who for the first time
originally formed INA with the help of Japan. However, later due to disagreement with Japanese, INA was
disbanded and they were again made PoW.
• Rash Bihari Bose also contributed significantly to unite various local Indian Independence Leagues in East Asian
countries to form All India Independence League.
• Command of INA was given to Subhash when he arrived in 1943.
• Subhash formed a provisional government in Singapore and formed INA headquarters in Rangoon and Singapore
and he famously gave the call of ‘Delhi Chalo’.
• Netaji hoisted Indian flag in Andaman in December 1943 and renamed the islands as – ‘Shahid’ and ‘Swaraj’
in memory of martyrs.
• In 1944, INA started to advance along the eastern border and Kohima was taken. In the Imphal Campaign one Indian
battalion led by Shah Nawaz was also allowed to go along Japanese. However, the failure of Imphal Campign and
unequal treatment by Japanese demoralized INA soldiers.
• With the Japanese surrender in 1945, Azad Hind Fauj’s dream to liberate India was also shattered.

About INA trials :

• After surrender, famous INA trials at Red Fort took place in 1945-46.
• This saw massive rally of people and un-precedented emotional support for the brave patriots.
• Though the court martial held found the officers guilty, government under pressure released them.
• Trials garnered huge support cutting across the community lines as one of the main leaders was Hindu, Prem
Sehgal, one was Muslim, Shah Nawaz Hussain and one a Sikh, Gurbaksh SinghDhillon.
• In Calcutta, an INA officer Rashid Ali was sentenced for 7 years and this caused much anger.

Its impact on British government :

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 The prevailing conditions made it amply clear to the British that holding India away from Independence will no londer
be feasible in a post war arena because:
• It has grown weak
• Peer pressure from US and Russia
• Signals from INA for other possible armed struggles
• Final straw came by RIN mutiny, which proved that army which used to be the stronghold of Britsh cannot remain
insulated to national events, further strike by Signals Corps at Jabalpur also indicated similar things.
• These events broke the notion of loyal-Indians and they realized that Indians can no longer be relied for
administrative work.

In 1945, a Labour government came to power in Britain under prime minister Clement Attlee and committed
itself to granting independence to India. Meanwhile, back in India, the Viceroy, Lord Wavell, brought the Congress
and the League together for a series of talks. Elections took place with separate electorate and both Muslim league
and congress participated and both recorded overwhelming majority in their respective reserved seats. And it
made the political polarization complete, which culminated in the partition.

Sub-Topic 12 : RIN Rating Mutiny (1946)

About :
• It started with an incident when a sailor on board of INS Talwar wrote ‘Quit India’ and he was arrested for
this, however causes were deep rooted. Racial discrimination, unpalatable food, poor working conditions, abuse by
senior officers, INA trials were the causes.
• The Royal Indian Navy mutiny (also called the Bombay Mutiny) encompasses a total strike and subsequent
mutiny by Indian sailors of the Royal Indian Navy on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay (Mumbai)
harbour on 18 February 1946.
• From the initial flashpoint in Bombay, the mutiny spread and found support throughout British India, from Karachi
to Calcutta and ultimately came to involve 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors.
• It was repressed by force by the British Royal Navy. Only the Communist Party supported the strikers; the Congress
and the Muslim League condemned it.
• Notably, the mutinying ships hoisted three flags tied together - those of the Congress, Muslim League, and the
Red Flag of the Communist Party of India (CPI), signifying the unity and demarginalisation of communal issues
among the mutineers.
• Rallies were organized in support of mutineers, food and essential items were sent on ships, hartals were organized.
• The mutiny was called off following a meeting between the President of the Naval Central Strike Committee
(NCSC) and Vallabh Bhai Patel of the Congress, who had been sent to Bombay to settle the crisis. Patel issued a
statement calling on the strikers to end their action, which was later echoed by a statement issued in Calcutta by
Mohammed Ali Jinnah on behalf of the Muslim League.

Two interpretations of mutiny :

1. Revolt for Freeedom – Nationalist historians on the far left have looked at the mutiny as a revolt against the British
Raj and imperial rule.
2. Revolt against Bad Condition of Sailors - However naval historians argue that internal conditions in the Royal
Indian Navy were more important sources of unrest.

Significance of mutiny :
The mutiny was significant because till that day there has been no revolt from the armed forces and this had a
moral effect on masses and it electrified the whole nation. It prompted British government to treat INA prisioners with
lineancy and only those who were accused of murder, and brutal crime were put to trial. Soon Cabinet Mission also
followed.

Sub-Topic 13 : Post Second World War

Background :

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In post world war time, Indians have revealed their heroic tendencies during Quit India and INA. New struggle took
place in the form of massive movement against conviction of INA soldiers. Under enormous pressure, government set
them free.

Change in attitude of government in post war period was because of :

• Power equation changed in post war period and both USA and Russia supported cause of independence of
colonies including India.
• War caused huge economic drain on Britain.
• There was a government change in Britain and Labor party won elections. Hostile Churchil was replaced by a
more pragmatic Clemen Attlee who supported Indian cause.
• British soldiers were haggard after war and were not willing on further foreign jaunts.
• British faith in Indian army and administrative machinery was also broken after RIN mutiny and Signals corps at
Jabalpur.
• Congress as well as Muslim League performed well in provincial elections giving boost to support for domestic
rule.

Sub-Topic 14 : Cabinet Mission (1946)

After failure of Gandhi-Jinnha talks (1944) and Wavell plan (1945) Cabinet Mission was sent to India to –
• Discuss the formation of interim government and outline of future government
• Setting up of a constituent assembly.
• Cabinet mission stood for united India. It was a last opportunity to avoid partition.
• Its members were – Cripps, Pathwick Lawrence, Alexender

Attitude of British Government was now considerably changed due to following reasons –
• War wearied away UK and it was no more a global superpower.
• New Labor government was more sympathetic to Indian demands.
• There was an anti-imperialist wave in South East Asia.
• British soldiers were haggard and economy in a shambles.
• RIN mutiny was a strong signal that Indians will no longer subjugate to imperial oppression

A Cabinet Mission sent in the summer of 1946 failed to get the Congress and the League to agree on a federal system
that would keep India together while allowing the provinces a degree of autonomy.

About the Cabinet Mission Plan :

• The Cabinet Mission toured the country for three months and recommended a loose three-tier confederation.
• India was to remain united. It was to have a weak central government controlling only foreign affairs, defence and
communications with the existing provincial assemblies being grouped into three groups.
• Initially all the major parties accepted this plan.
• It made following proposals initially –
➢ A united Dominion of India would be given independence with opt-out clause.
➢ Formation of a Constituent Assembly
➢ There will be compulsory grouping with three groups.
➢ Muslim-majority provinces would be grouped in two groups (Group B and C) – Baluchistan, Sind, Punjab and
North-West Frontier Province would form one group, and Bengal and Assam would form another.
➢ Hindu-majority provinces in central and southern India would form another group (GroupA).
➢ The central government would be empowered to run foreign affairs, defence and communications, while the
rest of powers and responsibility would belong to the provinces, coordinated by groups. (this provision lend a
truly federal structure, which was not acceptable to center leaning congress).
➢ Princly states will no longer be under Crown and they will be free to join the successor or continue their
relations with Britain.

Response by Congress and Muslim League:

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 • Congress rejected the concept of grouping – while League was vouching for compulsory grouping, Congress
wanted a choice for provinces to join any grouping – as well as power to provinces and in this wake a revision was
made which envisaged separate states for Hindus and Muslims and a choice for provinces to take any of the sides
(Though British suggest that that initially only provinces will be grouped compulsorily, later on after formation of
constitution, they will be free to get out of their grouping to other grouping. But Congress rejected it).
• Congress later ruled out the June 16 plan also calling it divisive. However Muslim League agreed to it.
• Elections of Constituent Assembly in 1946 resulted in huge Congress majority which Jinnah termed as ‘Brute
Majority’. This further stoked Muslim League’s apprehensions of Congress dominance in partition and it led to
demand for separate nation which was rejected by Congress. The rejection of cabinet mission plan combined with
recent Constituent Assembly results led to a resurgence of confrontational politics beginning with the Muslim
League's call for general strike known as ‘Direct action day’ and they called for – ‘Lekar rahenge Pakistan,
Larkar lenge Pakisatan’.
• This led to confrontation on the day and subsequent communal riots and Bihar killings. Only Mahatma Gandhi
and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan of the NWFP continued to firmly oppose the idea of partition.

In a last bid, Wavell was replaced by Mounbetton for last round of talks, but that too failed.

Sub-Topic 15 : Mountbatten Plan (1947) Or 3rd June Plan

Background :
• The failure of the Cabinet Mission was followed by the collapse of the Interim Government.
• Furthermore, by the end of 1946 communal violence increased in the country and the British feared that India would
settle for a civil war.
• In such a tumultuous situation, Lord Mountbatten replaced Lord Wavell as Viceroy of India in1947.

About the Mountbatten plan :

• Mountbatten's formula was to divide India and at the same time retain maximum possible unity.
• The actual division between the two new dominions of India and Pakistan was accomplished according to what has
come to be known as the 3rdJune Plan or Mountbatten Plan.
• It was announced at a press conference by Mountbatten on 4 June 1947, and the date of independence was also
announced – 15 August 1947.

The main points of the plan were–

• Partition – Muslim-dominated areas may be separated to form a Dominion. In that case such domination would be
constituted by a partition of Bengal and the Punjab. Hindus and Muslims in Punjab and Bengal legislative assemblies
would meet and vote for partition. If a simple majority of either group wanted partition, then these provinces would
be divided.
• Referendum for NWFP and Sylhet – The fate of North West Frontier Province and Sylhet district of Bengal was
to be decided by are ferendum.
• India would be free by 15th August 1947.
• Princly States – Independence of princely states was ruled out. They would either join India or Pakistan.
Independence for Bengal also ruled out.
• A boundary commission to be set up in case of partition.
• The Muslim league's demand of a separate state was thus conceded. Congress' position on unity was also taken
into account while integrating the princely states to India.

Gandhi and Azad had been totally opposed to Mounbatten Plan as it confirmed the division of country.

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 Topic 9 : British Rule, Policies and Administration in India
Sub-Topics
1 British Policy Towards Indian States
2 Evolution of Civil Services in India
3 Development of Judiciary in British India
4 Development of local Bodies under British rule
5 British Foreign Policy in India
6 Development of Education under British rule

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 Sub-Topic 1 : British Policy Towards Indian States
According to William Lee Warner in his book – ‘The Native States of India’, The British policy was mainly divided
into three phases – Policy of Ring Fence, Subordinate Isolation and Subordinate Union.

Ring Fence Policy or Buffer State Policy (1765-1813) :

• During initial years, prime concern of the British was defense of their boundry as the Empire was still fledgling
and not strong enough to defend large territories.
• Marathas and Sikhs were still a power to reckon with and Mysore was also a powerful state.
• So it adopted a policy largely based upon non-intervention.
• Under Warren Hastings (1773-85) treaties were made. If a treaty was signed with a princely state, the state was
provided full autonomy in affair of states. This was exemplified, for instance, in Clive’s decision not to annex Oudh
and Delhi in 1765 after the Battle of Buxar, or the decisions of Cornwallis and Barlow to return many conquered
areas to Indian rulers in the peace treaties signed after the battles of 1802-1804.
• However, Wellesly was more aggressive with his policy of Subsidiary Alliance, but authority of treaty states was
still respected.

Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813-1857) :

• Successors of Wellesly were more aggressive. States were deemed as subordinate as many wars were won.
• In a marked shift from earlier policy of treating them on equal footing they were treated as subordinate.
• Under this policy, states could not declare war, establish relations with other states or employ Europeans
without explicit British permission.
• Many of them signed treaties with the British which regulated the size of their armed forces and several native states
had British forces stationed within their territory.
• This policy was reflected in Doctrine of Lapse, Subsidiary Alliance etc.
• The wars of Lord Hastings opened a new epoch in the relations of the East India Company with the Indian states
and annexations of states became rampant.
• Though treaties professed isolation of states, practically they were annexed.

Policy of subordinate union (1858-1935) :

• The mutiny was a turning point in the history of relations of British with Indians. it alarmed British of its policy
of annexations and isolation of states. Policy of annexation was given up.
• After the Queen’s Proclamation, the status of Pricly States changed and they were made part of the British
Empire and this also allowed Government of India to interfare into the matters of state in their own welfare (unlike
complete isolation policy earlier).
• It was in pursuance of this policy that Chamber of Princes was created in 1921 which constituted 120 princes,
this further reaffirmed the abandoning of old British Policy of isolating the Princly States form each other and
outside world.
• Butler Committee also reaffirmed the Paramountcy of Crown and 1935 Act made provisions for representation of
princely states in the Federal Assembly.

Policy of Equal Federation :

• This policy was followed in theory after 1935 onwards, however, in practice, the princely states were largely
subordinate.

Sub-Topic 2 : Evolution of Civil Services in India

The civil service system bring in India by the East India Company for the benefit of its commercial affairs got
transformed into a well structured machinery to look after the administrative affairs of the acquired territories in India.
In fact, in the beginning, the term ‘civil service’ was used to distinguish the servants of the Company engaged in
commercial affairs from those people employed in the military and naval services. Gradually, the civil servants were
bestowed with other responsibilities and authority.

91
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Lord Cornwallis’ Role :
• Cornwallis (governor-general, 1786-93) was the first to bring into existence and organise the civil services.
• He tried to check corruption through -
➢ Raising the civil servants’ salary,
➢ Strict enforcement of rules against private trade,
➢ Debarring civil servants from taking presents, bribes etc.,
➢ Enforcing promotions through seniority.

Lord Wellesley’s Role :

• In 1800, Wellesley (governor-general, 1798-1805) set up the Fort William College for training of new recruits.
• In 1806 Wellesley’s college was disapproved by the Court of Directors and instead the East India College was set
up at Haileybury in England to impart two years’ training to the recruits.

Charter Act of 1853 :

• The 1853 Charter Act ended the Company’s patronage, enjoining recruitment to be through an open competition
henceforth.
• The Indians, however, were barred from high posts from the very beginning.
• Cornwallis thought, “Every native of Hindustan is corrupt.” The Charter Act of 1793 had reserved all posts worth
500 pounds per annum for the covenanted servants of the Company.
• The reasons for exclusion of Indians were—
➢ The belief that only the English could establish administrative services serving British interests;
➢ The belief that the Indians were incapable, untrust- worthy and insensitive to the British interests;
➢ The fact there was high competition among the Europeans themselves for lucrative posts, so why offer them to
the Indians.
• Although the Charter Act of 1833 theoretically threw open the services to the Indians, the relevant provisions were
never really implemented.

Indian Civil Service Act, 1861 :

• This Act reserved certain offices for convenanted civil servants but the examination was held in England in
English language, based on classical learning of Greek and Latin.
• The maximum permissible age was gradually reduced from 23 (in 1859) to 22 (in 1860) to 21 (in 1866) and to
19 (1878).
• In 1863, Satyendra Nath Tagore became the first Indian to qualify for the Indian Civil Service.

Statutory Civil Service :

• In 1878-79, Lytton introduced the Statutory Civil Service consisting of one-sixth of covenanted posts to be filled
by Indians of high families through nominations by local governments subject to approval by the secretary of State
and the viceroy. But the system failed and was abolished.

Congress Demand and Aitchison Committee :

• The Indian National Congress raised the demand, after it was set up in 1885, for lowering of age limit for
recruitment, and holding the examination simultaneously in India and Britain.
• The Aitchison Committee on Public Services (1886), set up by Dufferin, recommended :
➢ Dropping of the terms ‘covenanted’ and ‘uncovenanted’;
➢ Classification of the civil service into Imperial Indian Civil Service (examination in England), Provincial Civil
Service (examination in India) and Subordinate Civil Service (examination in India); and,
➢ Raising the age limit to 23.

Montford Reforms (1919) :

• The Montford reforms stated a realistic policy—“If a responsible government is to be established in India, the
more Indians we can employ in public service, the better.”
• Recommended holding of simultaneous examination in India and England.
• Recommended that one-third of recruitments be made in India itself—to be raised annually by 1.5 per cent.

92
 Lee Commission (1924) :
• The Lee Commission recommended that the secretary of state should continue to recruit the ICS, the Irrigation
branch of the Service of Engineers, the Indian Forest Service, etc.;
• The recruitments for the transferred fields like education and civil medical service be made by provincial
governments;
• Direct recruitment to ICS on basis of 50:50 parity between the Europeans and the Indians be reached in 15 years;
• A Public Service Commission be immediately established (as laid down in the Government of India Act,
1919).
Government of India Act, 1935 :
• The 1935 Act recommended the establishment of a Federal Public Service Commission and Provincial Public
Service Commission under their spheres.
• But the positions of control and authority remained in British hands and the process of Indianisation of the civil
service did not put effective political power in Indian hands since the Indian bureaucrats acted as the agents of
colonial rule.

Evaluation of Civil Services under British Rule :

• Just as Indians were systematically excluded from law and policy-making bodies, they were mostly kept out of the
institutions responsible for policy implementation.
• European supremacy was assured in the civil service as in other spheres of governance. This was done in
mainly two ways -
➢ Firstly, although Indians had begun to enter the coveted ranks of the Indian Civil Services (ICS) ever since
1863, entering the civil services was still extremely difficult for the Indians. The entrance examination for
the ICS was held in London in English medium only, and the subjects included classical Greek and Latin
learning. Moreover, the maximum age for appearing at the examination was reduced from twenty-three in 1859
to nineteen in 1878 under Lytton.
➢ Secondly, all key positions of power and authority and those which were well-paid were occupied by the
Europeans.
• Though a slow process of Indianisation occurred after 1918 under nationalist pressure, but important and senior
positions continued to be occupied by Europeans.

Sub-Topic 3 : Development of Judiciary in British India

Judicial system in India before British rule :
• In the India of pre-colonial times—in the Mughal era or even prior to that (including the ancient period)—the
judicial system, as a whole, neither adopted proper procedures nor had proper organisation of the law courts—in a
regular gradation from the highest to the lowest—nor had any proper distribution of courts in proportion to the area
to be served by them.
• The bulk of the litigation among the Hindus was decided by caste elders or village panchayats or zamindars.
• For Muslims, the unit of judicial administration was the qazi—an office held by religious persons—located in
provincial capitals, towns and qasbas (large villages).
• The rajas and badshahs were considered as the fountainhead of justice, and the process of dispensing justice
could be arbitrary.
• The beginning of a common law system, based on recorded judicial precedents, can be traced to the
establishment of ‘Mayor’s Courts’ in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta in 1726 by the East India Company.
With the Company’s transformation from a trading company into a ruling power, new elements of judicial system
replaced the existing Mughal legal system.

Judicial system of India under British rule :

Reforms under Warren Hastings (1772-1785) :

• District Diwani Adalats were established in districts to try civil disputes.
• These adalats were placed under the collector and had Hindu law applicable for Hindus and the Muslim law
for Muslims.

93
• The appeal from District Diwani Adalats lay to the Sadar Diwani Adalat which functioned under a president and
two members of the Supreme Council.
• District Fauzdari Adalats were set up to try criminal disputes and were placed under an Indian officer assisted by
qazis and muftis.
• These adalats also were under the general supervision of the collector.
• Muslim law was administered in Fauzdari Adalats.
• The approval for capital punishment and for acquisition of property lay to the Sadar Nizamat Adalat at
Murshidabad which was headed by a deputy nizam (an Indian Muslim) assisted by chief qazi and chief mufti.
• Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a Supreme Court was established at Calcutta which was competent to try all
British subjects within Calcutta and the subordinate factories, including Indians and Europeans. It had original and
appellate jurisdictions. Often, the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court clashed with that of other courts.

Reforms under Cornwallis (1786-1793) :

• Introduced Separation of Powers: The District Fauzdari Courts were abolished and, instead, circuit courts were
established at Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad and Patna. These circuit courts had European judges and were to act
as courts of appeal for both civil and criminal cases.
• The Sadar Nizamat Adalat was shifted to Calcutta and was put under the governor-general and members of
the Supreme Council assisted by the chief qazi and the chief mufti.
• The District Diwani Adalat was now designated as the District, City or the Zila Court and placed under a district
judge.
• The collector was now responsible only for the revenue administration with no magisterial functions.
• A gradation of civil courts was established (for both Hindu and Muslim laws) —
➢ Munsiff’s Court under Indian officers,
➢ Registrar’s Court under a European judge,
➢ District Court under the district judge,
➢ Four Circuit Courts as provincial courts of appeal,
➢ Sadar Diwani Adalat at Calcutta, and
➢ King-in-Council for appeals of 5000 pounds and above.
• The Cornwallis Code was laid out —
➢ There was a separation of revenue and justice administration.
➢ European subjects were also brought under jurisdiction.
➢ Government officials were answerable to the civil courts for actions done in their official capacity.
➢ The principle of sovereignty of law was established.

Reforms under William Bentinck (1828-1833) :

• The four Circuit Courts were abolished and their functions transferred to collectors under the supervision of the
commissioner of revenue and circuit.
• Sadar Diwani Adalat and a Sadar Nizamat Adalat were set up at Allahabad for the convenience of the people of
Upper Provinces.
• Till now, Persian was the official language in courts. Now, the suitor had the option to use Persian or a
vernacular language, while in the Supreme Court, English language replaced Persian.
• In 1833, Law Commission was set up under Macaulay for codification of Indian laws. As a result, a Civil
Procedure Code (1859), an Indian Penal Code (1860) and a Criminal Procedure Code (1861) were prepared.

Reforms during Government of India act 1935 :

The Government of India Act provided for a Federal Court (set up in 1937) which could settle disputes between
governments and could hear limited appeals from the High Courts.

Evaluation of judicial system under British rule :

• The rule of law was established.

• The codified laws replaced the religious and personal laws of the rulers.
Positive aspects of Judiciary under • Even European subjects were brought under the jurisdiction, although in
the British: criminal cases, they could be tried by European judges only.

94
 • Government servants were made answerable to the civil courts.
• The judicial system became more and more complicated and expensive.
The rich could manipulate the system.
• There was ample scope for false evidence, fraudulence and chicanery
The Negative Aspects: (the use of tricks to deceive someone).
• Dragged out litigation meant delayed justice.
• Courts became overburdened as litigation increased.
• Often, the European judges were not familiar with the Indian usage and
traditions.

Sub-Topic 4 : Development Of Local Bodies Under British Rule

It was decided to decentralise administration by promoting local government through municipalities and district boards
which would administer local services like education, health, sanitation, water supply, roads and other basic amenities
financed through local taxes.

The factors which made necessary for the British government in India to work towards establishing local bodies:
• Financial difficulties faced by the Government, due to overcentralisation, made decentralisation imperative.
• It became necessary that modern advances in civic amenities in Europe be transplanted in India considering India’s
increasing economic contacts with Europe.
• A section of British policy-makers saw association of Indians with the administration in some form or the other,
without undermining the British supremacy in India, as an instrument to check the increasing politicisation of
Indians.
• The utilisation of local taxes for local welfare could be used to counter any public criticism of British reluctance to
draw upon an already overburdened treasury or to tax the rich upper classes.

The important stages in the evolution of local government can be identified as follows :

Between 1864 and 1868 :

• Local bodies were first formed in this period but in most cases consisted of nominated members and were headed
by district magistrates.
• Thus, these were seen not more than as instruments of additional tax collection.

Mayo’s Resolution of 1870 :

• Financial decentralisation was a legislative devolution inaugurated by the Indian Councils Act of 1861.
• Apart from the annual grant from imperial Government, the provincial governments were authorised to resort to
local taxation to balance their budgets.
• This was done in context of transfer of certain departments of administration, such as medical services, education
and roads, to the control of provincial governments. This was the beginning of local finance.
• Mayo’s Resolution emphasised, “Local interest, supervision and care are necessary for success in the
management of the funds devoted to education, sanitation, medical relief and local public works.”

Ripon’s Resolution of 1882 :

• The Government of Ripon desired the provincial governments to apply in case of local bodies the same principle of
financial decentralisation which Lord Mayo’s Government had begun towards them.
• For his contributions, Lord Ripon is called “father of local self-government in India”.
• Development of local bodies advocated to improve the administration and as an instrument of political and popular
education;
• Policy of administrating local affairs through urban and rural local bodies charged with definite duties and entrusted
with suitable sources of revenues;
• Non-officials to be in majority in these bodies, who could be elected if the officials thought that it was possible to
introduce elections;
• Non-officials to act as chairpersons to these bodies;

95
• Official interference to be reduced to the minimum and to be exercised to revise and check the acts of local bodies,
but not to dictate policies;
• The existing local bodies under lord Ripon had various drawbacks :
➢ The elected members were in a minority in all district boards and in many of the municipalities;
➢ The franchise was very limited;
➢ District boards continued to be headed by district officials, though non-officials gradually came to head the
municipalities;
➢ The Government retained strict control, and it could suspend or supersede these bodies at will.
➢ The bureaucracy, in fact, did not share the liberal views of the viceroy and thought that the Indians were unfit
for self-government.

Royal Commission on Decentralisation (1908) :

• It pointing out the lack of financial resources as the great stumbling block in the effective functioning of local
bodies.
• It emphasised that village panchayats should be entrusted with more powers like jurisdiction in petty cases,
incurring expenditure on minor village works, village schools, small fuel and fodder reserves, etc.
• The panchayats should be given adequate sources of income.
• It emphasised the importance of sub-district boards to be established in every taluka or tehsil, with separate spheres
of duties and separate sources of revenue for sub- district boards and the district boards.
• It urged the withdrawal of existing restrictions on their powers of taxation, and also, the stoppage of regular grants-
in-aid from provincial governments except for undertaking large projects.
• The municipalities might undertake the responsibility for primary education and, if willing, for middle vernacular
schools, otherwise the Government should relieve them of any charges in regard to secondary education, hospitals,
relief, police, veterinary works, etc.

The Government of India Resolution of 1915 :

• This resolution contained the official views on the recommendations of the Decentralisation Commission, but most
of the recommendations remained on paper and the condition of local bodies continued to be as it was left by Lord
Ripon.

The Resolution of May 1918 :

• This resolution reviewed the entire question of local self- government in the light of the announcement of August
20, 1917, which had declared that the future direction of constitutional advance was towards grant of responsible
government to the people of India and the first step towards the progressive realisation of that ideal was to be in the
sphere of local self-government.
• The resolution suggested that the local bodies be made as representative as possible of the people with real and
not nominal authority vested in them.

Reforms under Government of India act 1919 :

• Local self-government was made a ‘transferred’ subject under popular ministerial control by Government of India
Act,1919, and each province was allowed to develop local self- institutions according to provincial needs and
requirements.
• But, since finance was a ‘reserved’ subject under the charge of an executive councillor, the Indian ministers could
not do much work in the sphere of local self-government for lack of funds.

The Government of India Act,1935 and After :

• The provincial autonomy ushered in by the Government of India Act, 1935 gave further impetus to the
development of local self-governing institutions in India.
• Portfolio finance being under the control of popular ministries, now the funds could be made available for
development of local bodies.
• Further, the demarcation of taxation between provincial and local finance which prevailed since the reforms of
1919 was scrapped.
• New Acts were passed in the provinces giving more authority to local bodies.

96
 • However, financial resources and power of taxation of local institutions remained more or less at the same level
as in the days of Ripon.
• Rather, after 1935, certain new restrictions were placed on powers of local bodies to levy or enhance terminal taxes
on trades, callings and professions and municipal property.
• The provincial governments seemed to have ignored the liberal policy of granting wide powers of taxation to local
institutions as recommended by the Decentralisation Commission (1908).

Development of Local bodies after independence :

• The Constitution of free India directs the state governments to organise village panchayats as effective organs of
local self-government (Article 40) - DPSP
• The Seventy- third and Seventy-fourth Amendments are aimed at plugging the loopholes in the structure of local
self-governing institutions in rural and urban areas

Sub-Topic 5 : British Foreign Policy in India

The pursuance of a foreign policy, guided by interest of British imperialism, often led to India’s conflicts with
neighbouring countries.

These conflicts arose due to various reasons:

• Firstly, political and administrative consolidation of the country coupled with the introduction of modern means of
communication impelled the Government of India to reach out for natural, geographical frontiers for internal
cohesion and defence which sometimes resulted in border clashes.
• Secondly, the British Government had as its major aims in Asia and Africa -
➢ Protection of the invaluable Indian empire;
➢ Expansion of British commercial and economic interests;
➢ Keeping other European imperialist powers, whose colonial interests came in conflict with those of the British,
at an arm’s length in Asia and Africa.

These aims led to British expansion and territorial conquests outside India’s natural frontiers, and to conflicts with other
imperialist European powers such as Russia and France. While the interests served were British, the money spent and
the blood shed was Indian.

Sub-Topic 6 : Development Of Education Under British Rule

Under Company Rule :
• For the first 60 years of its dominion in India, the East India Company, a trading and profit-making concern,
took not much interest in the promotion of education. Some minor exceptions were efforts by individuals.
• The Calcutta Madrasah was established by Warren Hastings in 1781 for the study of Muslim law and related
subjects.
• The Sanskrit College was established by Jonathan Duncan, the resident, at Benaras in 1791 for study of Hindu
law and philosophy.
• Fort William College was set up by Wellesley in 1800 for training of civil servants of the Company in
languages and customs of Indians (closed in 1802).
• The Calcutta Madrasah and the Sanskrit College were designed to provide a regular supply of qualified Indians to
help the administration of law in the Company’s court, and the knowledge of classical languages and vernaculars
was useful in correspondence with Indian states.
• Enlightened Indians and missionaries started exerting pressure on the Government to promote modern,
secular, Western education, as they thought that Western education was the remedy for social, economic and
political ills of the country.

A Humble beginning by Charter Act of 1813 :

• Charter Act of 1813 incorporated the principle of encouraging learned Indians and promoting knowledge of modern
sciences in the country.

97
• The Act directed the Company to sanction one lakh rupees annually for this purpose. However, even this petty
amount was not made available till 1823, mainly because of the controversy raged on the question of the direction
that this expenditure should take.
• Meanwhile, efforts of enlightened Indians such as Raja Rammohan Roy bore fruit and a grant was sanctioned
for Calcutta College set up in 1817 by educated Bengalis, imparting English education in Western humanities and
sciences.
• The government also set up three Sanskrit colleges at Calcutta, Delhi and Agra.

Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy :
• Within the General Committee on Public Instruction, the Anglicists argued that the government spending on
education should be exclusively for modern studies.
• The Orientalists said while Western sciences and literature should be taught to prepare students to take up jobs,
emphasis should be placed on expansion of traditional Indian learning.
• Even the Anglicists were divided over the question of medium of instruction—one faction was for English
language as the medium, while the other faction was for Indian languages (vernaculars) for the purpose.
• Unfortunately there was a great deal of confusion over English and vernacular languages as media of instruction
and as objects of study.

Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835) :

• The famous Lord Macaulay’s Minute settled the row in favour of Anglicists—the limited government
resources were to be devoted to teaching of Western sciences and literature through the medium of English
language alone.
• Lord Macaulay held the view that “Indian learning was inferior to European learning” - which was true as far
as physical and social sciences in the contemporary stage were concerned.
• The government soon made English as the medium of instruction in its schools and colleges and opened a few
English schools and colleges instead of a large number of elementary schools, thus neglecting mass education.
• The British planned to educate a small section of upper and middle classes, thus creating a class “Indian in
blood and colour but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect” who would act as interpreters
between the government and masses and would enrich the vernaculars by which knowledge of Western sciences
and literature would reach the masses. This was called the ‘downward filtration theory’.

Efforts of Thomson :
• James Thomson, lieutenant-governor of NW Provinces (1843- 53), developed a comprehensive scheme of village
education through the medium of vernacular languages.
• In these village schools, useful subjects such as mensuration and agriculture sciences were taught. The purpose was
to train personnel for the newly set up Revenue and Public Works Department.

Wood’s Despatch (1854) :

• In 1854, Charles Wood prepared a despatch on an educational system for India.
• Considered the “Magna Carta of English Education in India”, this document was the first comprehensive plan
for the spread of education in India.
• It asked the government of India to assume responsibility for education of the masses, thus repudiating the
‘downward filtration theory’, at least on paper.
• It recommended English as the medium of instruction for higher studies and vernaculars at school level.
• It laid stress on female and vocational education, and on teachers’ training.
• It laid down that the education imparted in government institutions should be secular.
• It recommended a system of grants-in-aid to encourage private enterprise.

Developments after wood despatch :

• In 1857, universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were set up and later, departments of education were set up
in all provinces.
• The Bethune School founded by J.E.D. Bethune at Calcutta (1849) was the first fruit of a powerful movement
for education of women which arose in 1840s and 1850s. Bethune was the president of the Council of

98
 Education. Mostly due to Bethune’s efforts, girls’ schools were set up on a sound footing and brought under
government’s grants- in-aid and inspection system.
• An Agriculture Institute at Pusa (Bihar) and an Engineering Institute at Roorkee were started.
• The ideals and methods of Wood’s Despatch dominated the field for five decades which saw rapid
westernisation of education system in India, with educational institutions run by European headmasters and
principals.

Hunter Education Commission (1882-83) :

• Earlier schemes had neglected primary and secondary education. When education was shifted to provinces in
1870, primary and secondary education further suffered because the provinces already had limited resources at their
disposal.
• In 1882, the Government appointed a commission under the chairmanship of W.W. Hunter to review the progress
of education in the country since the Despatch of 1854.
• The Hunter Commission mostly confined its recommendations to primary and secondary education. The
commission—
➢ Emphasised that state’s special care is required for extension and improvement of primary education, and that
primary education should be imparted through vernacular.
➢ Recommended transfer of control of primary education to newly set up district and municipal boards.
➢ Recommended that secondary (High School) education should have two divisions— literary and vocational.
➢ Drew attention to inadequate facilities for female education, especially outside presidency towns and made
recommendations for its spread.
• The next two decades saw rapid growth and expansion of secondary and collegiate education with the
participation of Indians. Also, more teaching-cum-examining universities were set up like the Punjab University
(1882) and the Allahabad University (1887).

Indian Universities Act, 1904 :

• The dawn of 20th century saw political unrest. The official view was that under private management the quality
of education had deteriorated and educational institutions acted as factories producing political revolutionaries.
• Nationalists accepted the decline in quality but accused the Government of not doing anything to eradicate illiteracy.
• In 1902, Raleigh Commission was set up to go into conditions and prospects of universities in India and to suggest
measures for improvement in their constitution and working.
• The commission precluded from reporting on primary or secondary education. Based on its recommendations, the
Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904.
• As per the Act, universities were to give more attention to study and research;
➢ The number of fellows of a university and their period in office were reduced and most fellows were to be
nominated by the Government;
➢ Government was to have powers to veto universities’ senate regulations and could amend these regulations or
pass regulations on its own;
➢ Conditions were to be made stricter for affiliation of private colleges; and
➢ Five lakh rupees were to be sanctioned per annum for five years for improvement of higher education and
universities.
• Curzon justified greater control over universities in the name of quality and efficiency, but actually sought to
restrict education and to discipline the educated towards loyalty to the Government.
• The nationalists saw in it an attempt to strengthen imperialism and to sabotage nationalist feelings. Gokhale called
it a “retrograde measure”.

Saddler University Commission (1917-19) :

• The commission was set up to study and report on problems of Calcutta University but its recommendations
were applicable more or less to other universities also.
• It reviewed the entire field from school education to university education.
• It held the view that, for the improvement of university education, improvement of secondary education was a
necessary pre-condition.
• Its observations were as follows:
➢ School course should cover 12 years.

99
 ➢ Students should enter university after an intermediate stage (rather than matric) for a three-year degree course
in university. This was done to prepare students for university stage;
➢ Relieve universities of a large number of below university standard students;
➢ Provide collegiate education to those not planning to go through university stage.
➢ A separate board of secondary and intermediate education should be set up for administration and control of
secondary and intermediate education.
➢ There should be less rigidity in framing university regulations.
➢ A university should function as centralised, unitary residential-teaching autonomous body, rather than as
scattered, affiliated colleges.
➢ Female education, applied scientific and technological education, teachers’ training including those for
professional and vocational colleges should be extended.
• In the period from 1916 to 1921 seven new universities came up at Mysore, Patna, Benaras, Aligarh, Dacca,
Lucknow and Osmania.
• In 1920, the Government recommended Saddler report to the provincial governments.

Education Under Dyarchy :

• Under Montagu-Chelmsford reforms education was shifted to provincial ministries and the government stopped
taking direct interest in educational matters, while government grants, liberally sanctioned since 1902, were now
stopped.
• Financial difficulties prevented any substantial expansion but still education grew, especially under philanthropic
efforts.

Hartog Committee (1929) :

• An increase in number of schools and colleges had led to deterioration of education standards. The Hartog
Committee was set up to report on development of education.
• Its main recommendations were as follows :
➢ Emphasis should be given to primary education but there need be no hasty expansion or compulsion in
education.
➢ Only deserving students should go in for high school and intermediate stage, while average students should
be diverted to vocational courses after VIII standard.
➢ For improvements in standards of university education, admissions should be restricted.

Sergeant Plan of Education :

• The Sergeant Plan (Sergeant was the educational advisor to the Government) was worked out by the Central
Advisory Board of Education in 1944.
• It recommended :
➢ pre-primary education for 3-6 years age group; free, universal and compulsory elementary education for 6-11
years age group; high school education for 11- 17 years age group for selected children, and a university course
of 3 years after higher secondary; high schools to be of two types: (i) academic and (ii) technical and vocational.
➢ Adequate technical, commercial and arts education.
➢ Abolition of intermediate course.
➢ Liquidation of adult illiteracy in 20 years.
➢ Stress on teachers’ training, physical education, education for the physically and mentally handicapped.
• The objective was to create within 40 years, the same level of educational attainment as prevailed in England.
Although a bold and comprehensive scheme, it proposed no methodology for implementation. Also, the ideal of
England’s achievements may not have suited Indian conditions

Evaluation of British Policy on Education :

• Even the inadequate measures the government took for the expansion of modern education were guided by concerns
other than philanthropic.
• The government measures for promotion of education were influenced by— agitation in favour of modern education
by enlightened Indians, Christian missionaries and humanitarian officials;

100
 • The need to ensure a cheap supply of educated Indians to man an increasing number of subordinate posts
in administration and in British business concerns—thus there was an emphasis on English medium as the
language of administration and of education;
• The hope that educated Indians would help expand market for British manufactures in India;
• An expectation that Western education would reconcile Indians to British rule, particularly as it glorified
British conquerors and their administration.
• The British thus wanted to use modern education to strengthen the foundations of their political authority in
India.
• Traditional system of Indian learning gradually declined for want of support, and specially after 1844 when it was
declared that applicants for government employment should possess knowledge of English.
• Mass education was neglected leading to widespread illiteracy (1911—84 per cent and in 1921—92 per cent) which
created a wide linguistic and cultural gulf between the educated few and the masses.
• Since education was to be paid for, it became a monopoly of upper and richer classes and city dwellers.
• There was an almost total neglect of women’s education because the Government did not want to arouse wrath
of orthodox sections and it had no immediate utility for the colonial rule.
• Scientific and technical education was by and large neglected. By 1857 there were only three medical colleges
at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, and only one good engineering college at Roorkee which was open only to
Europeans and Eurasians.

101
 Topic 10 : Economic Impact of British rule in India
1 Depeasantization And Commercialization Of Indian Agriculture And British Rule
2 Deindustrialisation - Ruin of Artisans and Handicraftsmen
3 Economic Drain Theory

102
 Sub-Topic 1 : Depeasantization And Commercialization Of Indian Agriculture And British Rule

• In the latter half of the nineteenth century, another significant trend was the emergence of the
Depeasantization of agriculture. So far, agriculture had been a way of life rather than a business enterprise.
Now agriculture began to be influenced by commercial considerations.
• The commercialization of Indian agriculture was done primarily to feed the British industries and achieved
only in cases-of those agricultural products which were either needed by the British industries or could fetch cash
commercial gain to the British in the European or American market.

Causes :
• The British government, only interested in maximisation of rents and in securing its share of revenue, had
enforced the Permanent Settlement system in large parts.
• Transferability of land was one feature of the new settlement which caused great insecurity to the tenants who
lost all their traditional rights in land.
• There was little spending by Government on improvement of land productivity.
• The zamindars, with increased powers, resorted to summary evictions, demanded illegal dues and ‘begar’ to
maximise their share in the produce and, as such, had no incentive to invest for improvement of agriculture.
• The overburdened peasants had to approach the moneylenders to be able to pay their dues to the zamindars.
• The money-lender, who was often also the village grain-merchant, forced the farmer to sell the produce at
low prices to clear his dues. The powerful money-lender was also able to manipulate the judiciary and law in his
favour.

Impact :
• The peasant turned out to be the ultimate sufferer under the triple burden of the Government, zamindar and
money- lender.
• His hardship increased at the time of famine and scarcity. This was as much true for the zamindari areas as for
areas under Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems.
• The peasant became landless.
• The zamindar had no roots in the villages, while the Government spent little on agricultural, technical or mass
education. All this, together with fragmentation of land due to sub-infeudation, made it difficult to introduce
modern technology which caused a perpetually low level of productivity.
• Indians were forced to produce indigo on 3/20th part of their land and sell it on the conditions dictated by the
Britishers. Unfortunately cultivation of Indigo left the land infertile for some years. This made the farmers reluctant
to grow it.
• It also brought in a large number of merchants, traders and middlemen who further exploited the situation.
The peasant now depended on them to sell their produce during harvest time.
• It resulted in reduced area under cultivation of food crops. Because the peasants now shifted to commercial
crops, food grain production went down. So, less food stock led to famines.
• Commercialisation of agriculture further enhanced the speed of transfer of ownership of land thereby increasing
the number of landless labourers.
• It lead to peasant movement against exploitation by British government like Indigo revolt in 1859.

Sub-Topic 2 : Deindustrialisation - Ruin of Artisans and Handicraftsmen

Factors responsible :

One-Way Free Trade :
• Cheap and machine-made imports flooded the Indian market after the
Charter Act of 1813 allowing one-way free Trade for the British citizens.
• On the other hand, Indian products found it more and more difficult to penetrate
the European markets.
• Tariffs of nearly 80 per cent were imposed on Indian textiles so that Indian
cloth could no longer be cheap.

103
 • After 1820, European markets were virtually closed to Indian exports. Cheap
British made cloth flooded the Indian market.
• The newly introduced rail network helped the European products to reach the
remotest corners of the country. From being a net exporter, India became a net
importer.
• The loss of traditional livelihood was not accompanied by a process of
industrialisation in India, as had happened in other rapidly industrialising
countries of the time.
No Steps towards Modern • This resulted in deindustrialisation of India at a time when Europe was
Industrialisation : witnessing a reintensified Industrial Revolution.
• This happened at a time when Indian artisans and handicraftsmen were
already feeling the crunch due to loss of patronage by princes and the
nobility, who were now under the influence of new western tastes and values.
• Another feature of deindustrialisation was the decline of many cities and a
process of ruralisation of India.
• Many artisans, faced with diminishing returns and repressive policies (in
Bengal, during the Company’s rule, artisans were paid low wages and forced
Ruralisation : to sell their products at low prices), abandoned their professions, moved to
villages and took to agriculture.
• This resulted in increased pressure on land. An overburdened agriculture
sector was a major cause of poverty during British rule and this upset the
village economic set-up.

Sub-Topic 3 : Economic Drain Theory

Meaning of Economic Drain:
• The term ‘economic drain’ refers to a portion of national product of India which was not available for
consumption of its peoples, but was being drained away to Britain for political reasons and India was not getting
adequate economic or material returns for it.

• The drain theory was put forward by Dadabhai Naoroji in his book “Poverty and UnBritish Rule in India”.
• The major components of this drain were salaries and pensions of civil and military officials, interests on loans
taken by the Indian Government from abroad, profits on foreign investment in India, stores purchased in Britain for
civil and military departments, payments to be made for shipping, banking and insurance services which stunted the
growth of Indian enterprise in these services.

Who put forward economic drain theory ?

• The early intellectuals of the first half of the nineteenth century supported British rule under the impression
that it would modernise the country based on latest technology and capitalist economic organisation.
• After the 1860s, disillusionment started to set in among the politically conscious and they began to probe into the
reality of British rule in India.
• The foremost among these economic analysts was Dadabhai Naoroji, the ‘Grand Old Man of India’, who after a
brilliant analysis of the colonial economy put forward the theory of economic drain in Poverty and UnBritish Rule
in India.
• Other economic analysts included Justice Mahadeo Govind Ranade, Romesh Chandra Dutt (The Economic
History of India), Gopal Krishna Gokhale, G. Subramaniya Iyer and Prithwishchandra Ray.
• The essence of nineteenth century colonialism, they said, lay in the transformation of India into a supplier of
foodstuffs and raw-materials to the metropolis, a market for metropolitan manufacturers and a field for investment
of British capital.

104
 • These early nationalist analysts organised intellectual agitations and advocated a complete severance of India’s
economic subservience to Britain and the development of an independent economy based on modern industries.

How this can be happen ?

• The basic assertion of these early intellectuals was that India was poor and growing poorer due to British
imperialism, and since the causes of India’s economic backwardness were man-made, they were explainable and
removable.
• The industrialisation was to be based on Indian and not foreign capital because, according to the early
nationalists, foreign capital replaced and suppressed instead of augmenting and encouraging Indian capital. This
suppression caused economic drain, further strengthening British hold over India. The political consequences of
foreign capital investments were equally harmful as they caused political subjugation and created vested interests
which sought security for investors, thus perpetuating the foreign rule.
• Growth of Trade and Railways to Help Britain : These analysts exposed the force of British arguments that the
growth of foreign trade and railways implied development for India. They pointed out that the pattern of foreign
trade was unfavourable to India. It relegated India to a position of importer of finished goods and exporter of raw
materials and foodstuffs. The development of railways, they argued, was not coordinated with India’s industrial
needs and it ushered in a commercial rather than an industrial revolution. The net effect of the railways was to
enable foreign goods to outsell indigenous products.
• One-Way Free Trade and Tariff Policy : The nationalists claimed that one-way free trade was ruining Indian
handicrafts industry, exposing it to premature, unequal and unfair competition, while tariff policy was guided by
British capitalist interests. The government expenditure was meant to serve colonial needs only, while development
and welfare were ignored.

How much they drain economic wealth from India ?

According to nationalist estimates, the economic drain at that time was - more than the total land revenue, or half
the total government revenue, or one third of the total savings (in today’s terms, it amounted to 8 per cent of the national
product).

What is its impact ?

• The drain of wealth checked and retarded capital formation in India while the same portion of wealth accelerated
the growth of British economy.
• The surplus from British economy re-entered India as finance capital, further draining India of its wealth. This had
immense effect on income and employment potential within India.

105
 Topic 11 : Challenges Before New Born Nation
Sub-Topics
1 Topic 1 : Nehru-Liaquat pact
2 Topic 2 : Challenges in Integration and Unification of India
3 Topic 3 : Issues in integration of tribals
4 Topic 4 : Various sources in Drafting the Constitution for Independent India

106
 Sub-Topic 1 : Nehru-Liaquat Pact
The Nehru-Liaquat Pact which also known as the Delhi Pact, was a bilateral agreement signed between India and
Pakistan in order to provide a framework for the handling of minorities in the two countries.

Background :
• The Mountbatten Plan to transfer power from the British to Indian hands was
signed on 3rd June 1947.
• This period saw India and Pakistan ease a transfer of populations, rationalising
bilateral relations after the violence of Partition, sorting out canal-water issues
and evacuee property disputes without the malice you see between them today.
• The need for such a pact was felt by minorities in both countries following
Partition, which was accompanied by massive communal rioting.
• In 1950 alone, as per the some estimates, over a 10 Lakh Hindus and Muslims
migrated from and to East Pakistan (present day Bangladesh), amid communal
tension and riots such as the 1950 East Pakistan riots and the Noakhali riots.

Silent features of the Agreement :

• Members of the minorities shall have equal opportunity with members of the majority community to participate in
the public life of their country, to hold political or other office, and to serve in their country’s civil and armed forces.
• Both Governments declare these rights to be fundamental and undertake to enforce them effectively.
• Evacuees returning to their respective countries by December 1950 were promised back their homes and
lands. If this was not possible (restoration of immovable property) then government would rehabilitate them and
provide alternative arrangement.
• Both the governments also agreed to make efforts towards restoring looted property.
• The pact did not recognise forced conversions.
• It was decided that cabinets in East and West Bengal and Assam would include minority representatives.
• Migrants were allowed to carry movable property and jewellery with them; adults allowed to carry cash up to ₹150
each and children ₹75 each.
• There would be no harassment by the customs authorities. At each custom post, there would be liason officer
of each country posted to ensure this agreement is adhered strictly.
• The pact planned formation of minorities’ commissions in each country.

Significance of the agreement :

• The bilateral agreement, as Nehru justly claimed, pulled India and Pakistan from a precipice of war.
• The most remarkable achievement noted is the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960 which survived two wars after it was
signed.
• In general, the Government of India followed the policy of trying to improve relations with Pakistan and, above all,
to prevent the emergence of a climate of hostility and hatred. Nehru, in particular, repeatedly assured the people of
Pakistan that India did not think of Pakistan as an enemy.
• One of the reasons for this policy was the effort to preserve and strengthen the secular atmosphere within India,
which was being endangered by the communalism.
• It was bolstered by India’s spearheading of the Non-Aligned Movement during the cold war period on the
foundations of Panchsheel.

Future Indo-Pak relations will require nimble footed diplomacy that has its roots in the principles of Nehru-
Liaqat pact. However, for any substantial talks to materialise, cross-border terrorism needs to be ceased
completely. As the Prime Minister has reiterated “terror and talks cannot go together” and for Pakistan to gain India’s
trust, it is the major requirement.

Topic 2 : Challenges in Integration and Unification of India

The post-independence period was marred with violence and displacement followed by the partition, the issue of
integration of the princely states and re-drawal of internal boundaries based on languages were some of the immediate

107
challenges faced by India post-independence. To maintain the democratic aspirations of the newly formed nation state,
the government took several steps.

Challenges
• Accommodating the diversity of Indian society by taking into account the regional aspirations of the people,
balancing between the rights of different regions and linguistic groups to retain their own culture.
• Formation of the states was not just a matter of administrative divisions. The boundaries had to be drawn in a way
so that the linguistic and cultural plurality of the country could be reflected without affecting the unity of the nation.
• Ethnic tension in North Eastern states: Over 635 tribal groups in the region with distinct language and culture
along with its relative isolation from the rest of the mainland, resulted into social-political disturbances and unrest
for a few years. The isolation of the region, its complex social character and its backwardness compared to other
parts of the country have all resulted in the complicated set of demands from different states of the North-East.
• The vast international border and weak communication between the North-East and the rest of India further
added to the delicate nature of politics there. First Nagaland and then Mizoram witnessed strong movements
demanding separation from India.
• Developing democratic practices in accordance with the Constitution by ensuring the development and wellbeing
of the entire society and not only of some sections.
• Partition had deepened the communal tension in the country and it was important to assure the minority
communities of their equal protection of rights to avoid further communal divisions within the nation.
• Integration of as many as 565 Princely states after independence. These states became legally independent and
were free to join either India or Pakistan or remain independent. However, this decision was left not to the people
but to the princely rulers of these states. The integration of these states was important for the unification of the
country.

Measures taken:
• Under the State Reorganisation Act 1956, states were divided based on the linguistic and cultural differences
between them. This ensured the united social life without losing the distinctiveness of the numerous cultures that
constituted it.
• The cooperative federalism enshrined in the constitution (Schedule VII) empowered the regional identity,
aspirations and provided autonomy to the states to solve their specific regional problems.
• At different points of time the Central Government created Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh
out of Assam. Tripura and Manipur were upgraded into States too.
• Autonomous Councils were created to satisfy the smaller groups within the states without breaking the states down.
• Constitutional safeguards for marginalised and minorities: The adoption of the constitution of India highlighted
the country’s strong beliefs in equality, liberty and secularism (reflected especially in the Fundamental Rights),
assuring the marginalised sections of equality and justice.
• Articles 29 and 30 specifically protect the cultural and linguistic rights of the minorities.
• The leaders of independent India, especially Sardar Patel, negotiated with the rulers of princely states firmly but
diplomatically bringing most of them into the Indian Union through the instrument of accession.

The newly formed democracy in India came to terms with differences in society on several different lines and
accepted the plurality of ideas and diverse ways of life. The challenges are still posed by the differences in the
contemporary socio-political system of the country. These are reflected in continuing communal tension and
intolerance towards the minorities and marginalised and also imperative in statehood demands.

Sub-Topic 3 : Issues In Integration Of Tribals

Tribal situation in India at the time of independence :
• Colonization of Indian states brought about rapid changes such as privatisation of common natural
resources, confiscation of land without authentic ownership, among other issues. Further, businessmen and
contractors set up establishments in tribal areas and eventually owned property by exploiting legal loopholes. This
led to widespread discontentment and protests among tribals.

108
 • Post-independence, democracy was introduced and attempts at total inclusion of tribes in the democratic
system were made. However, there were challenges, such as, the tribal population was dispersed and the various
tribal groups differed from one another.
• Also, except in the North-East they were a minority in their states. Hence, post-independence, different
approaches were discussed to shape the government policy that can facilitate tribal democratic inclusions.

With regard to integration of tribals after independence, the following contesting approaches were suggested:
1. Isolationist Approach: The approach claimed that tribals suffered
monetary oppression at the hands of businessmen and moneylenders
and cultural exploitation by the missionaries. Thus, there should be
autonomy of tribal groups and segregation of their habitation areas.
2. Assimilation Approach: This approach claimed that tribals were
backward Hindus and should be integrated within the Hindu fold.
Their progress was aligned with the progress of the mainstream Indian
society.
3. Integrationist Approach: Jawaharlal Nehru arrived at a middle path
and adopted the Integrationist approach. He formulated five
principles, termed as ‘Panchsheel’, to be pursued vis-a-vis tribals.
They were –
➢ Tribals should develop along the lines of their own genius and
imposition of alien values should be avoided.
➢ Tribal rights regarding land and forest should be respected.
➢ Tribals should be trained in the work of administration and
development.
➢ Tribal areas should not be administered or overwhelmed with a
multiplicity of schemes.
➢ Results should be judged not by statistics or money spent, but by the human character that is evolved.
4. Further, the Constitution entails specific provisions to safeguard tribal rights. For e.g. 5th and 6th Schedules
providing autonomy of decision making, other articles such as 46, 15(4), 330, 332, 335 etc. These provisions protect
their distinctive way of life, protect them from social discrimination and all forms of social injustices and
exploitations.
5. Also, based on the constitutional commitments and integrationist approach, various welfare schemes and
programs were initiated for tribal inclusion and empowerment. For e.g. tribal Sub-Plan, Institutional Support
for Development & Marketing of Tribal Products, Vanbandhu Kalyan Yojana, Eklavya model residential schools
etc.

Sub-Topic 4 : Various sources in Drafting the Constitution for Independent India

Constitutional provisions borrowed from Government of India act 1935 :
• The majority of the today’s constitution has been drawn from this.
• It delivers to the establishment of an All India Federation.
• The previous names transferred and reserved subjects are changed as federal and provincial lists and concurrent list
is definitely an supplement.
• It Abolished diarchy and introduced provincial autonomy.
• Established the RBI, federal court, Provincial PSUs and Joint PSUs.
• The federal structure of government, provincial autonomy, a bicameral central legislature consisting of a federal
assembly and a Council of States and the separation of legislative powers between the centre and states are some of
the provisions of the Act which are present in the Constitution of India.

However Indian constitution has been amalgamation of experiences from freedom struggle and other sources as
well:

• Parliamentary form of government

• The idea of single citizenship

109
 From British Constitution:
From United States
Constitution :
From Irish Constitution :
From Australian Constitution:
From French Constitution:
From Canadian Constitution
From Constitution of the
Soviet Union
From Other Constitutions
From Freedom struggle:
• The idea of the Rule of law
• Institution of Speaker and his role
• Lawmaking procedure
• Procedure established by Law
• Preamble
• Fundamental Rights
• Federal structure of government
• Electoral College
• Independence of the judiciary and separation of powers among the three
branches of the government
• Judicial review
• President as supreme commander of armed forces
• Equal Protection under law
• Directive principles of state policy (Ireland itself borrowed it from Spain)
• Freedom of trade and commerce within the country and between the states.
• Power of the national legislature to make laws for implementing treaties, even
on matters outside normal Federal jurisdiction
• Concurrent List
• Ideals of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity
• A quasi-federal form of government - a federal system with a strong central
government
• Distribution of powers between the central government and state governments
• Residual powers retained by the central government
• Fundamental Duties
• Emergency Provision Under article 356 from Weimar Constitution(Germany)
• Amendment of Constitution from South Africa
• Due Procedure of Law from Japan
• Many of the features can be said to have borrowed from multiple sources. For
example, India has a federal scheme with strong centre. This feature was in
GOI Act 1935 and also in Constitution of Canada. Similarly, Fundamental
rights were not only influenced from US constitution but also the Universal
declaration of Human rights.
• Due to caste and class differences rooted in religious systems .Indian leaders
wanted a constitution which emphasizes on equality.
• Provide equal representation to all including women, to alleviate and bring
social and political equity and rule by people, Leaders focusses on democracy.
110
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 Topic 12 : Other Important Topics
Sub-Topics
1 Rise Of Communalism In India
2 Stages of Colonialism in India
3 Contributions made by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in Indian freedom struggle
4 Why Dalhousie known as maker of modern India ?

111
Sub-Topic 1 : Rise Of Communalism In India
Before start of 20th century, there were no big communal divisions. Earlier the wars were fought on the basis of territories
and religious ideologies were not antagonistic to each other in a communal sense. Even during 1857 revolt both the
communities fought side by side.

Growth of communalism can be seen in three stages in India :

1. Initially, after 1857, belief was propagated that religious communities are distinct from each other.
2. Second phase came when it was believed that interests of one group are different from the other.
3. Third stage came when it was believed that interests of communities are not only different, but also incompatible.

Thus, communalism is a modern phenomenon and its roots in India lies in the ‘Divide and Rule policy’ of British
in India.

How communalism evolve in India ?

• After establishment of Congress in 1885, British support popular leaders like Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja
Shiva Prasad of Benaras to wedge a rift between people and Congress.
• Syed Ahmed believed that Muslim’s share in administration is hogged by Hindu majority and he launched a
campaign to get their rightful place.
• Muslims have remain backward because of their initial hostility towards British and ardent boycott of British
education during first 70 years of 19th century.
• Partition of Bengal, 1905, was the most inglorious attempt of British to stoke the communal fire.
• Separate Electorate introduced by 1909 Morley-Minto reforms was another instrument that deepened the Hindu-
Muslim hostility.
• Militant nationalists also inadvertently promoted Hindu imagery during Swadeshi movement which acted to
alienate Muslims.
• There were economic reasons too. While Muslim remained more of a closed community and less exposed to
modernity, their participation in jobs and economic activities was lower. Economic backwardness of nation ensured
that there was stiff competition in jobs and Muslims felt left out in this. The schism due to economic disparity was
seen as deprivation of opportunity which was attributed to Hindu hegemony. This gave birth to the idea of Hindu-
Domination.
• Education system also contributed to growth of communalism. Historians described medieval period of Indian
history as the period of Muslim period. And declared the Muslims were the rulers and non- muslims were the ruled.
They failed to bring out the point that in that period economic and political interests defined the relations in India
as elsewhere in the world during that time. Hindu communal view on the other hand saw period before Muslim
arrival as golden age of Hinduism which suffered decline after their arrival.
• While it is argued that when seeds of communalism were sown, some say that consent of Congress to join
Khilafat Movement was start of it. By accepting separate identities of Hindus and Muslims, it allowed the
communal seeds to take their roots.
• In the following years ‘Shuddhi Movement’ of Arya Samaj and Later ‘Tabligh’ and ‘Tanzeem’ movements
didn’t help either.
• In 1932, the Communal Award and then the Government of India Act of 1935 accepted nearly all the liberal
communal demands.
• Electoral Politics was the last straw. However, the year 1937 was a turning point in the history of communalism
in India in so far as it concerns the stridency and intensity of politics of hatred. In the elections held for the provincial
legislative assembly, the Muslim League won only 109 out of 492 reserved Muslim seats and only 4.8 % of the total
Muslim votes showing thereby the lack of popular support for Muslim League even among the Muslim population.
This prompted Muslim League to take a communal stance and name of God, ‘Islam in danger’ and ‘Minority
Insecurity’ like slogans were raised and were used as rallying point in coming days by Muslim League.
• British also fueled the communal fire in 1937 in pursuance of their divide and rule policy. By 1937, all other
divisive tactics of the British had failed. There was no tussle between Zamindars and Congress. Right and Left have
also learned to exist together. Dalits were also less hostile after Poona pact. In such a situation only communal card
was left with the British to play with.

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 • On the other hand, in same elections Hindu Communalists haven’t fared better either. Hindu Mahasabha also had a
dismal record in Punjab where seats were reserved for Hindus. Hence the same choice of extinction faced them as
had faced their Muslim counterparts forcing them to embrace a politics of hatred for survival.

• Things only exacerbated after 1940. Muslim league and Congress took diametrically opposite stance on every
major issue. This lead to failure of Cripps Mission and Wavell plan.
• Direct Action day and the ensuing riots were only symbolic confirmation of the larger divide that has already
separated the two communities which was manifested in the realization of Two Nations Theory when the two nations
got independence separately.

Sub-Topic 2 : Stages of Colonialism in India

The fundamental character of British rule in India did not remain the same through its long history of nearly two
centuries. The changing pattern of Britain’s position in the world economy led to changes in the nature of British
colonialism.

Marxist Historians, especially Rajni Palme Dutt, identified three overlapping stages in the history of imperialist rule
in India. He points out that each stage developed out of the conditions of the previous stage and the different modes of
colonial exploitation overlapped—old forms of colonial exploitation never entirely ceased but got integrated into new
patterns of exploitation.

Stages of Colonialism in India

First Phase (1757-1813) - Second Phase (1813-1858) - Third Phase (1858 onwards) -
Mercantilism Free Trade Finance Imperialism

First Stage :
• The Period of Merchant Capital (Mercantilism), often described as the Period of Monopoly Trade and Direct
Appropriation (or the Period of East India Company’s Domination, 1757-1813), was based on two basic objectives:
➢ To acquire a monopoly of trade with India, against other English or European merchants or trading companies
as well as against the Indian merchants;
➢ To directly appropriate or take over governmental revenues through control over State power.
• During this period no basic changes were introduced in administration, judicial system, transport and
communication, methods of agricultural or industrial production, forms of business management or economic
organisation. Nor were any major changes made in education or intellectual field, culture or social organisation.
• In fact, the traditional Indian civilisation, religions, laws, caste system, family structure, etc., were not seen as
obstacles in the colonial exploitation.
• The changes made were:
➢ In military organisation and technology which native rulers were also introducing in their armed forces, and
➢ In administration at the top of the structure of revenue collection so that it could become more efficient and
smooth.
• In this phase there was large scale drain of wealth from India which constituted 2-3 per cent of Britain’s national
income at the time. It was this wealth that played an important role in financing Britain’s industrial revolution.
• In this stage there was no large scale import of British manufactures into India, rather, the reverse
occurred—there was an increase in export of Indian textiles, etc. The weavers were, however, ruined at this
stage by the Company’s monopoly and exploitation. They were forced to produce for the Company under
uneconomic compulsions.

Second Stage :
• Owing to its mode of exploitation being trade, this stage is also termed as Colonialism of Free Trade.

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• It started with the Charter Act of 1813 and continued till 1860s. Soon after the East India Company became the
ruler over most parts of India, there was a debate in Britain as to whose interests the newly acquired colony would
serve.
• The newly emerging industrial capitalists began to criticise the East India Company and its exploitation of India.
They demanded that colonial administration and policy in India should now serve British capitalist interests which
were very different from those of the East India Company.
• Now India was to serve as a market for the ever increasing output of British manufactured goods especially
textiles. At the same time, the new capitalists in England, needed from India exports of raw materials, especially
cotton, and foodgrains.

• The export of raw materials was increased sharply to meet the dividends of the Company and profits of British
merchants. Besides, there was a need of money to pay for pensions of British officials who would go to Britain after
retirement.
• In this phase the following dominant features were visible :
➢ India’s colonial economy was integrated with the British and world capitalist economy. This was made possible
with the introduction of free trade.
➢ All import duties in India were either totally removed or drastically reduced to nominal rates.
➢ Free entry was also granted to the British capitalists to develop tea, coffee and indigo plantations, trade,
transport, mining and modern industries in India.
➢ The British Indian Government gave active State help to such capitalists.
➢ The Permanent Settlement and the Ryotwari system in agriculture were introduced to transform traditional
agrarian structure into a capitalist one.
➢ Administration was made more comprehensive and included villages and outlying areas of the country.
• These changes were brought about to make British goods reach, and agricultural products drawn from,
interior villages and remotest parts.
• Personal law was largely left untouched since it did not affect colonial transformation of the economy. However,
the changes related to criminal law, law of contract and legal procedures were overhauled to promote capitalist
commercial relations and maintain law and order.
• Modern education was introduced to provide cheap manpower to the vastly expanded administration.
However, it was also aimed at transforming India’s society and culture for two reasons:
➢ create an overall atmosphere of change and development and,
➢ give birth to a culture of loyalty to the rulers.
• The taxation and the burden on peasant rose sharply due to economic transformation and costly administration (civil
as well as military).
• India absorbed 10 to 12 per cent of British exports and nearly 20 per cent of Britain’s textile exports. After
1850, engine coaches, rail lines and other railway stores were imported into India at large scale.
• Indian army was used for British expansion of colonialism in Asia and Africa.

Third Stage :
• The third stage is often described as the Era of Foreign Investments and International Competition for Colonies.
• It began around the 1860s in India owing to several changes in the world economy.
• These changes were as follows :
➢ Britain’s industrial supremacy was challenged by several countries of Europe, the United States and Japan.
➢ As a result of the application of scientific knowledge to industry, the pace of industrialisation increased sharply
(use of petroleum as fuel for the internal combustion engine and the use of electricity for industrial purposes
were significant innovations).
➢ The world market became more unified due to revolution in the means of international transport.
• During this stage, Britain made strenuous efforts to consolidate its control over India.
• Liberal imperialist policies got replaced with reactionary imperialist policies which were reflected in the
viceroyalties of Lytton, Dufferin, Lansdowne and Curzon.
• The strengthening of colonial rule over India was meant to keep out the rivals as well as to attract British capital to
India and provide it security. As a result, a very large amount of British capital got invested in railways, loans (to

114
 the Government of India), trade and, to a lesser extent, in plantations, coal mining, jute mills, shipping and banking
in India.
• The notion of training the Indian people for self- government vanished (revived only after 1918 because of pressure
exerted by the Indian national movement).
• Now, the aim of British rule was declared as permanent ‘trusteeship’ over the Indians. The Indians were declared
to be permanently immature - a ‘child’ people - needing British control and trusteeship.
• Geography, climate, race, history, religion, culture and social organisation were all cited as factors in making the
Indians unfit for self-government or democracy. The British thus tried to justify their rule over Indians for centuries
to come - all in the name of civilising a barbaric people - “the White Man’s burden”.

Sub-Topic 3 : Contributions made by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in Indian freedom struggle

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar occupies a unique place in the history of Indian freedom struggle. Even through his
name arouse controversy but some consider him as one of the greatest revolutionaries in the Indian freedom
struggle, others consider him a communalist and right-wing leader.

Contributions made by V.D. Savarkar :

• Savarkar began his political activities as a high school student and continued to do so at Fergusson College in Pune.
He and his brother founded a secret society called Abhinav Bharat Society. He was also involved in the
Swadeshi movement and later joined Tilak’s Swaraj Party.
• His provoking patriotic speeches and activities outraged the British Government. As a result the British
Government withdrew his B.A. degree.
• In June 1906, Veer Savarkar, left for London to become Barrister. However, once in London, he united and charged
the Indian students in England against British rule in India. There he founded the Free India Society. The Society
celebrated important dates on the Indian calendar including festivals, freedom movement landmarks, and was
dedicated to furthering discussion about Indian freedom.
• He believed and preached the use of arms to free India from the British and created a network of Indians in
England, equipped with weapons.
• In 1908, brought out an reliable informative researched work on The Great Indian Revolt, which the British
termed as “Sepoy Mutiny” of 1857. The book was called “The Indian War of Independence 1857”. The British
government immediately enforced a ban on the publication in both Britain and India. Later, it was published by
Madame Bhikaiji Cama in Netherland, and was smuggled into India to reach revolutionaries working across the
country against British rule.
• In 1920, many prominent freedom fighters including Vithalbhai Patel, Mahatma Gandhi and Bal Gangadhar Tilak
demanded the release of Savarkar. On May 2, 1921, Savarkar was moved to Ratnagiri jail, and from there to the
Yeravada jail. In Ratnagiri jail, He wrote the book ‘Hindutva: who is hindu?’.
• Savarkar began describing a “Hindu” as a patriotic inhabitant of Bharatavarsha, venturing beyond a religious
identity. While emphasising the need for patriotic and social unity of all Hindu communities, he described Hinduism,
Jainism, Sikhism and Buddhism as one and the same.
• He outlined his vision of a “Hindu Rashtra” (Hindu Nation) as “Akhand Bharat” (United India), supposedly
stretching across the entire Indian subcontinent. He defined Hindus as being neither Aryan nor Dravidian but as
“People who live as children of a common motherland, adoring a common holy land.”
• Although staunch anti-British in his early years, he supported British efforts in India seeking military efforts to
Hindus during World War 2 and opposed the Quit India Movement.
• He attack on the British proposals for transfer of power, attacking both the
• Congress and the British for making concessions to Muslim separatists.
• He was a president of Hindu Mahasabha from 1937 to 1943. When congress ministries offered resignation on 22nd
Oct 1939, Hindu mahasabha under his leadership cooperated with Muslim league to form government in provinces
like Sindh, Bengal and NWFP.
• His strong views on Hindutva though secular in broader outlook, led to rise in radicalism among his followers.
This also led to rise in tension between two communities.

115
Many of Savarkar’s ideas on social and religious reforms, embrace of science, and building a stronger state continue to
be relevant for India. His controversial position on Hindutva also continues to inform current political debates. It is time
that a wider set of scholars began to engage with Savarkar’s ideas - including controversial ones.

Sub-Topic 4 : Why Dalhousie known as maker of modern India ?

Lord Dalhousie was a Scottish statesman and colonial administrator in British India. He served as Governor-
General of India from 1848 to 1856.

Contribution played by Dalhousie :

• Dalhousie regarded his chief aim in India as the consolidation of British power. He was known to be a hard worker
but was also authoritarian and tough.
• He was responsible for introducing a variety of modern reforms such as the railways, telegraph and postal
networks, and public works in India. The Ganga Canal was completed during his tenure.
• He is most remembered for the Doctrine of Lapse policy which many hold directly responsible for the Indian
Mutiny of 1857.
• Despite the Doctrine, many regard Lord Dalhousie as the ‘Maker of modern India’. To his supporters he stands
out as the far-sighted Governor-General who consolidated East India Company rule in India, laid the foundations
of its later administration, and by his sound policy enabled his successors to stem the tide of rebellion. His period
of rule in India directly preceded the transformation into the Victorian Raj period of Indian administration.
• Lord Dalhousie also started many Anglo-vernacular schools in India. He also brought about social reforms such
as banning the practice of female infanticide. He firmly believed that western administrative reforms were necessary
and far superior to Indian systems.
• He also started engineering colleges to provide resources for the newly-established public works department in
each presidency.
• He also reformed the military. He prohibited the practice of branding criminals. He also expanded the
Legislative Council of India.
• He also reformed the civil services by starting a system of open competition for recruitment.
• Dalhousie attempted to change the land revenue system. In the process, many landlords had portions of their
estates taken away, and many landholders were deprived of their entire landholding. This was significant as many
of the sepoys were taken from this socio-economic class.
• His annexation of states through the Doctrine of Lapse, like Satara, Oudh and Jhansi caused a lot of Indian soldiers
to be disgruntled with the company rule.
• Dalhousie also oversaw the annexation of Punjab and parts of Burma through wars with the local rulers.
• The Second Anglo-Sikh War was fought during his term.
• The hill station of Dalhousie in Himachal Pradesh was named after him. It was established in 1854 as a summer
retreat for English civil and military officials.

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