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com 1
 CONTENT

CHAPTER: 1 - PREHISTORIC ROCK PAINTINGS ................................................................................ 3

CHAPTER 2- ARTS OF THE INDUS VALLEY ......................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER: 3- ARTS OF THE MAURYAN PERIOD ................................................................................ 8

CHAPTER: 4 - POST MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE................... 10

CHAPTER: 5 - LATER MURALS IN INDIA ............................................................................................ 18

CHAPTER: 6 - TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE ......................................................... 22

CHAPTER: 7 - INDIAN BRONZE SCULPTURE .................................................................................... 34

CHAPTER: 8 - SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE ......................................... 36

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 CHAPTER: 1 - PREHISTORIC ROCK PAINTINGS
• Prehistoric period- Old Stone Age or the
Palaeolithic Age. Lower and Middle
Palaeolithic Periods have not shown any
evidence of artworks so far. The Upper
Palaeolithic Age shows a lot of artistic
activities.
• Earliest paintings in India are from the
Upper Palaeolithic Age. First discovery of
rock paintings was made in Sohagighat,
Mirzapur District, Uttar Pradesh, India
(1867-68) by an archaeologist, Archibold
Carlleyle, twelve years before the discovery
of Altamira in Spain.
• Cockburn, Anderson, Mitra & Ghosh- early
archaeologists. Districts of MP, UP, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Uttarakhand (Kumaon
hills) & Bihar- rock paintings were found.
• Rock shelters- banks of River Suyal at
Lakhudiyar (one lakh caves), about twenty
kilometres on the Almora- Barechina road.
Paintings at Lakhudiyar are of three types-
o Humans - represented in stick-like
forms.
o Animal motifs - long-snouted
animal, a fox and a multiple legged
lizard
o Geometric designs - wavy lines,
rectangle-filled & groups of dots
can also be seen here, hand-linked
dancing human figures.
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Hand-linked dancing figures, Lakhudiyar,
Uttarakhand
• Superimposition of paintings: earliest in
black; over these- red ochre paintings & last
group- white paintings. Two slabs found
from Kashmir.
• Kupgallu (Telangana), Piklihal &
Tekkalkota (both in Karnataka), three types
of paintings found in white, in red ochre
over a white background & in red ochre;
subjects are bulls, sambhars, elephants,
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sheep, gazelles, goats, horses, stylised
humans & tridents.
• Richest paintings - Vindhya ranges of MP
& their Kaimurean extensions into UP.
• Largest & most spectacular rock-shelter-
Vindhya hills at Bhimbetka, MP.
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Fig. Cave entrance, Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh
• Caves of Bhimbetka- discovered in 1957-58
by eminent archaeologist V.S. Wakankar.
Paintings Themes here- mundane events of
daily life to sacred & royal images.
• Rock art of Bhimbetka classified into
various groups on the bases of style,
technique and superimposition.
• Two major sites of prehistoric rock/cave
paintings in India: Bhimbetka Caves and
Jogimara Caves (Amarnath, Madhya
Pradesh).
• Bhimbetka- one of the oldest paintings in
India and the world.
• The drawings and paintings can be
catagorised into seven historical periods.
• Period I, Upper Palaeolithic; Period II,
Mesolithic; and Period IlI, Chalcolithic.
After Period Ill there are four successive
periods.
UPPER PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD
• The paintings of the Upper Palaeolithic
phase are linear representations, in green
and dark
red, of huge
animal
figures,
such as
bisons,
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ODSTU.COM
 CHAPTER 2- ARTS OF THE INDUS VALLEY
• Indus Valley Civilisation- emerged during
second half of third millennium BCE.
• Forms of art found from various sites of the
civilisation include sculptures, eals, pottery,
gold jewellery, terracotta figures, etc.
• Delineation of human and animal figures.
• Two major sites of the Indus Valley
Civilisation, along the Indus river-the cities
of Harappa (north) & Mohenjodaro (south).
STONE STATUES
• Found at Harappa & Mohenjodaro.
TERRACOTTA
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Bust of a bearded priest
• Excellent examples of handling three
dimensional stone are two male figures- one
is a torso in red sandstone and the other is a
bust of a bearded man in steatite.
• Figure of the bearded man interpreted as a
priest, is draped in a shawl coming under
the right arm and covering the left shoulder.
Shawl is decorated with trefoil patterns.
The eyes are a little elongated, and half-
closed as in meditative concentration.
• Hair- parted in the middle, and a plain
woven fillet is passed round the head.
• An armlet is worn on the right hand and
SEALS
holes around neck suggest a necklace.
BRONZE CASTING
• Practised on a wide scale by Harappans
• Bronze statues were made using the lost
wax' technique.
• Human as well as animal figures
• Dancing Girl- animal figures in bronze the
buffalo with its uplifted head, back and
sweeping horns and the goat are of artistic
merit.
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• Also found are copper dog and bird of
Lothal and the bronze figure of a bull from
Kalibangan.
• Late Harappan and Chalcolithic sites-
Daimabad in Maharashtra yielded excellent
examples of metal-cast.
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Mother goddess, terracotta
• Terracotta images are crude. More realistic
in Gujarat sites and Kalibangan.
• Important among them- mother goddess.
• Few figurines of bearded males with coiled
hair, their posture rigidly upright, legs
slightly apart, and arms parallel to the sides
of the body; terracotta mask of a horned
deity.
• Toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles,
birds and animals, gamesmen and discs.
ODSTU.COM
• Usually made of steatite, & occasionally of
agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta.
• Had beautiful figures of animals, such as
unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant,
bison, goat, buffalo, etc were also used as
amulets,
• Harappan seal- square plaque 2x2 square
inches, usually made from soft river stone,
steatite.
• Most remarkable- Pashupati Seal- a human
figure seated cross-legged.
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 CHAPTER: 3- ARTS OF THE MAURYAN PERIOD
• Sixth century BCE- new religious and
social movements in the Gangetic valley.
• By third century BCE, a large part of India
was under Mauryan control. Ashoka
emerged as the most powerful king of the
Mauryan dynasty.
PILLARS, SCRIPTURES AND ROCK CUT
ARCHITECTURES
• In this period, apart from stupas
and viharas, stone pillars, rock-
cut caves and a monumental
figure sculptures were carved.
• Mauryan pillars are rock-cut
pillars thus displaying the
carver's skills.
• Achamenian pillars are
constructed in pieces by a
mason.
• Stone pillars were erected all
over the Mauryan Empire with inscriptions
engraved on them.
• Top portion of the pillar was carved with
capital figures like the bull, the lion, the
elephant, etc
• Existing pillars with capital figures were
found at Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya-
Nandangarh, Rampurva, Sankisa and
Sarnath.
• Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath,
Lion Capital is the finest example of
Mauryan sculptural tradition- also our
national emblem- this pillar capital
symbolising Dhammachakrapravartana (the
first sermon by the Buddha) has become a
standard symbol of this great historical
event in the life of the Buddha.
• Large statues of Yakshas
and Yakhinis are found in
Patna, Vidisha and
Mathura- in standing
position and unlike others
have a, polished surface.
• Example- Yakshi figure
from Didarganj, Patna.
• Terracotta figurines- very
different delineation of the
body as compared to the ODSTU.COM
sculptures.
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• Rock-cut elephant at Dhauli in Orissa
shows modelling in round with linear
rhythm- Ashokan rock-edict.
• Rock-cut cave carved at Barabar hills near
Gaya in Bihar is known as the Lomus Rishi
cave- semicircular chaitya arch at the
entrance.
• Was patronised by Ashoka for Ajivika sect.
• Lomus Rishi cave- an isolated example of
this period. Stupas were constructed over
the relics of the Buddha at Rajagraha,
Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa,
Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar
and Pippalvina.
• Stupa, vihara and chaitya- part of Buddhist
and Jaina monastic complexes but the
largest number belongs to the Buddhist
religion
• Best examples of the structure of a stupa in
the third century BCE is at Bairat in
Rajasthan- grand stupa having a circular
mound with a circumambulatory path
• Very few inscriptions mentioning the
names of artisans such as Kanha at
Pitalkhora and his disciple Balaka at
Kondane caves.
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Elephant, Dhauli Fig. Lomus Rishi cave-
entrance
THE LION CAPITAL, SARNATH
• Discovered at Sarnath, near Varanasi-
Sarnath Lion Capital.
• Finest examples of sculpture from the
Mauryan period. Built in commemoration
of the historical event of the first sermon or
the Dhammachakrapravartana by the
Buddha at Sarnath, capital was built by
Ashoka.
• The capital was adopted as the National
Emblem of India after independence
without the crowning wheel and the lotus
base.
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 CHAPTER: 4 - POST MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE
• After the decline of the Mauryan Empire in
the second century BC, various rulers
controlled the regions which were once
under the Mauryas, like the Shungas,
Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north
and central India; and the Satavahanas,
Abhiras, Ikshvakus and Vakatakas in the
south and western India.
• In this period there was emergence of
Brahmanical sects- Shaivas & Vaishnavas.
• Examples of fine sculpture- Bharhut &
Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh); Mathura (Uttar
Pradesh); Bodhgaya (Bihar); Jaggayyapeta
(Andhra Pradesh); Bhaja and Pavani
(Maharashtra); and Khandagiri and Udaigiri
(Odisha).
BHARHUT
• Sculptures are tall like the Yakshas and
Yakshinis of the Mauryan era.
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Yakshini, Bharhut
• There is an illusion of three-dimensionality.
Some stories are represented pictorially.
Space is utilised to the maximum extent.
• Earlier carvings were with flat images, i.e.,
projection of hands and feet were not
possible, but later on they merged with deep
carvings and a much naturalised
representation of human and animal forms.
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• Important sculpture at Bharhut: Queen
Mayadevi (the Buddha's mother), dreaming
of an elephant descending towards her
womb. Jataka tales are also seen.
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Jataka panel , Bharhut Fig. Queen Maya’s dream,
Bharhut
• Common characteristic of all male images
after first and second centuries is the
knotted headgear.
SANCHI STUPA
• Sanchi Stupa is a UNESCO world heritage
site since 1989. Sanchi is in Madhya
Pradesh.
• There are many small stupas here with three
mains ones - stupa 1, stupa 2 and stupa 3.
Stupa 1 is also called the Great Stupa at
Sanchi. It is the most prominent and the
oldest and is believed to have the Buddha's
relics.
• It was built by Ashoka in the 3rd century
BCE. Originally, it was smaller than its
present dimensions. It was expanded in
later periods.
• The original structure was made out of
bricks. Later on, it was covered with stone,
vedica, and the torana (gateway).
• There are four gateways to the stupa with
the southern one being built first. The
others were later added. The gateways are
adorned with beautiful sculptures and
carvings. Each torana consists of two
vertical pillars and three horizontal bars on
top. The bars contain exquisite carvings on
front and back. They contain images of
shalbhanjikas - lady holding the branch of a
tree. Stories from the Jataka tales are carved
here.
• The structure has a lower and upper
pradakshinapatha or circumambulatory
path. The upper pradakshinapatha is unique
to this stupa.
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 ODSTU.COM
Fig. View, Ajanta Caves
• Features of the cave no. 19 and 26-
Elaborately carved; Façade decorated with
the images of Buddha and Boddhisattva.
• Apsidal vault-roof variety. Cave no. 26 -
very big, interior hall carved with Buddha
images; biggest image is of
Mahaparinibbana image.
• Ajanta shrine images are big in size.
• Chief patrons at Ajanta were-
o Varahadeva- minister of Vakataka
king Harishena- cave no. 16
o Upendragupta- local king and a
feudatory of the Vakataka king -
cave nos. 17 to 20.
o Buddhabhadra - cave no. 26
o Mathuradasa - cave no. 4
• Paintings have typological variations.
Outward projections- seen from 5th century
onwards. Lines are well-defined and
rhythmic. The figures are heavy much like
the sculptures found in this region. The
colours are limited.
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Sculptural panel in the veranda of Cave No. 2, Ajanta
• Paintings have various skin colours- brown,
yellowish brown, greenish, yellow ochre,
etc. indicating a multi-coloured populace.
• Buddha's life, Jatakas and Avadanas-
themes of the paintings.
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Fig. Painting of the Buddha, Yashodhra and Rahul, Cave
No. 17, Ajanta
• Events from Padmapani and Vajrapani-
very common in the Ajanta caves.
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Apsara, Cave No. 17, Ajanta
• Some paintings cover the entire wall of the
caves; like Simhala Avadana,
Vidhurpundita Jataka and Mahajanaka
Jataka.
• In many paintings, events are grouped
geographically. Famous example of
painting from cave no.l - Padmapani
Boddhisattva.
ELLORA (ODSTU.COM)
• Important cave site in Aurangabad. Located
100 km from Ajanta.
• 32 Buddhist, Jain and Brahmanical caves.
• Unique historical site in India with
monasteries associated to three religions
from 5th 11th century AD.
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Painted ceiling, Cave No. 10, Ajanta
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 CHAPTER: 6 - TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE
EARLY TEMPLES
• While construction of stupas continued,
Brahmanical temples and images of gods
also started getting constructed. Often
temples were decorated with the images of
gods. Myths mentioned in the Puranas
became part of narrative representation of
the Brahmanical religion.
• Each temple had a principal image of a god.
The shrines of the temples were of three
kinds—(i) sandhara type (without
pradikshinapatha), (ii) nirandhara type
(with pradakshinapatha), and (iii)
sarvatobhadra (which can be accessed from
all sides).
• Some of the important temple sites of this
period are Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh, Eran,
Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha
in Madhya Pradesh. These temples are
simple structures consisting of a veranda, a
hall and a shrine at the rear.
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Shiva temple, Nachna-Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh, fifth
century
BASIC FORM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE
• A Hindu Temple consists of the following
elements:
o Garbhagriha: means womb-house.
It is cave-like sanctum which houses
the main icon of the temple. In
earlier times, it was a small cubicle
with one entrance. In later periods, it
grew into a larger chamber.
o Mandapa: The entrance to the
temple. It could be a portico or a
collonaded hall where worshippers
stand.
o Shikhara/Vimana: Started from 5th
century CE and is like a mountain-
like spire on top. Called Shikhara
(curving in shape) in North India. In
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south, it is called Vimana
(pyramidal tower).
o Amalaka: Stone-like disc seen at
the top of the temple. Mostly in
north Indian temples.
o Kalasha: topmost part of the
temple. Mainly seen in north Indian
styles.
o Antarala: a vestibule between
Garbhagriha & Mandapa.
o Jagati: common in north Indian
temples and is a raised platform
where devotees can sit and pray.
o Vahana: vehicle of the main deity
which along with the standard pillar
or Dhvaj which are placed axialy
• Basically there are 3 kinds of temple
architecture:
1. Nagara Style
2. Dravida Style
3. Vesara Style
SCULPTURE, ICONOGRAPHY AND
ORNAMENTATION
• The study of images of deities falls within a
branch of art history called ‘iconography’,
which consists of identification of images
based on certain symbols and mythologies
associated with them.
• Every region and period produced its own
distinct style of images with its regional
variations in iconography.
• For instance, river goddesses (Ganga and
Yamuna) are usually found at the entrance
of a garbhagriha in a Nagara temple,
dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found
on the gateways or gopurams of Dravida
temples, similarly, mithunas (erotic
images), navagrahas (the nine auspicious
planets) and yakshas are also placed at
entrances to guard them.
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ODSTU.COM
THE NAGARA OR THE NORTH INDIAN
TEMPLE STYLE
• The Nagara became popular in northern
India.
• The temple is generally built on a stone
platform with steps leading to it and no
grand boundary walls or gateways (unlike
the Dravida style) are made around the
temple.
• The temples made in the earlier times had
one shikhara whereas the latter temples had
many.
• Garbhagriha of the temple is directly
beneath the tallest shikhara.
towers clustered together and
eventually the tallest tower was
made at the center and the
garbhagriha was directly beneath it.
2. Phamsana:
• In this style the roofs are composed
of many slabs that gently rise to a
single point over the building's
centre.
• This is different from Latina type
because in this style the roofs do not
curve inwards like the latina, but
instead they slope upwards in a
straight incline.
• These structures- generally broader
and shorter than latina ones.
• In many temples, the latina type is
used to house the garbhagriha
whereas the mandapa has a
Phamsana style of architecture.
3. Valabhi:
• Rectangular buildings with a roof
that rises into a vaulted chamber.
• Also called wagon-vaulted
buildings.

ODSTU.COM

ODSTU.COM
Fig. Dashavtara Vishnu temple, Deogarh, fifth century
Fig. Sun temple, Konark

Nagara Style can be subdivided into the

following
1. Rekha-prasada/Latina:
• This style has a simple shikhara
with square base and its walls slope
inwards to a point on top. This
however is the most common type. ODSTU.COM

• In the later periods, latina type

Fig. Sheshashayana Vishnu, Dashavatara temple, Deogarh
became more complex with several

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 CHAPTER: 8 - SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
• In the seventh and eighth centuries CE,
Islam spread towards Spain and India.
Islam came to India, particularly, with
Muslim merchants, traders, holy men and
conquerors over a passage of six hundred
years. The religion spread in India over a
time period of 600 years.
• Muslims in Gujarat and Sind had begun
construction work in the 8th century itself.
• But it was only in that building activity on a
large scale began by the Turkish State after
the Turkish conquest of North India.
• Architecturally, a mix of many techniques,
stylised shapes and surface decorations
evolved through a continuous
amalgamation of architectural elements
from the various styles. Such architectural
entities that showcased multiple styles are
known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic
architecture.
• While the Hindus were allowed to portray
God in their art and were allowed to
conceive manifestations of the divine in any
form, the Muslims were forbidden by their
religion to replicate living forms on any
surface. So, their religious art and
architecture mainly consisted of arabesque,
calligraphy and geometrical patterns on
plaster and stone.
• Types of architectural buildings: mosques
for daily prayers, Jama Masjids, dargahs,
tombs, hammams, minars, gardens, sarais
or caravansarais, madrasas,
CATEGORIES OF STYLES
1. Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate)
2. Provincial Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal,
and Jaunpur)
3. Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra, and Lahore)
4. Deccani Style (Bijapur, Golconda)
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Intricate jali work, Amer Fort, Jaipur
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ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES
• The architecture of Jaunpur and Bengal is
distinct.
• Gujarat had more local influence than other
styles. Example: toranas (gateways) from
local temple traditions, carvings of bell and
chain motifs, lintels in mihrabs, and carved
panels depicting trees.
• Example of provincial style: Dargah of
Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej (in white
marble; 15th century).
DECORATIVE FORMS
• Designs were made on plaster through
incision or stucco.
• Designs were either left plain or filled with
colours.
• Motifs of varieties of flowers (both Indian
and foreign) were painted or carved.
• In the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, tiles
were used to surface the walls and domes.
Blue, green, yellow and turquoise were the
popular colours.
• In the wall panels, surface decoration was
done by the techniques of tessellation
(mosaic designs) and pietra dura (a
decorative art that is an inlay technique of
using cut and fitted, highly polished
coloured stones to create images)
• Other decorative forms: arabesque,
calligraphy, high and low relief carving and
a profuse use of jalis.
• The roof was generally a mix of the central
dome and other smaller domes, chatris and
tiny minarets.
• There was generally an inverted lotus
flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle
atop the central dome.
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Pietra dura work, Agra
MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION
• The walls were quite thick and made of
rubble masonry. They were then coated
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 with chunam or limestone plaster or dressed
stone.
• Stones used: sandstone, quartzite, buff,
Qutub Minar
marble, etc. Polychrome tiles were also
used.
• Bricks were used from the 17th century.
FORTS
• Symbolise the seat of power of a ruler.
Many large forts with embattlements were
built in the medieval times.
• When a fort was captured, it meant the ruler
who owned the fort had to surrender.
• E.g.: Chittor, Gwalior and Daulatabad,
Chittorgarh is the largest fort in Asia.
Chand Minar, Daulatalbad
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Aerial view, Daulatabad Fort
ODSTU.COM
Fig. Gwalior Fort
• Forts were constructed using great heights
Fig. Chand Minar, Daulataba
so that they were impregnable to enemy
TOMBS
forces. Inside there were places for offices
and residences.
• Many complex features were added in the
structure and design so as to making
breaching the walls of the forts challenging.
• Golconda Fort (Hyderabad) had concentric
circles of outer walls. Daulatabad. Fort had
staggered entrances so that even elephants
could not be used to open the gates.
MINARS
• Minar was a form of stambha or tower.
• Examples of medieval minars: Qutub Minar
in Delhi, Chand Minar at Daulatabad Fort.
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• Everyday use of the minar: azaan (call to
prayer).
• 13th century. Construction started by Qutub-
ud-din Aibak (Delhi Sultanate ruler) and
completed by his successor Iltutmish.
• UNESCO World Heritage Site, 234 feet
high.
• Tower is divided into five storeys. Mix of
polygonal and circular shapes.
• Material: red and buff sandstone with some
marble in the upper storeys.
• Highly decorated balconies. There are
inscriptions intertwined with foliated
designs
• It came to be associated with Khwaja
Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, a revered saint
of Delhi
• 15th century. 210 feet high, Tapering tower
has four storeys
• Work of architects from Delhi and Iran.
ODSTU.COM
• Tombs are monumental structures over the
graves of rulers and royalty.
• They were a common medieval feature in
India.Examples: tombs of Ghyasuddin
Tughlaq, Humayun, Akbar, Abdur Rahim
• Khan-i-Khanan, Itmaduddaula.
• Idea behind the tomb according to Anthony
Welch was "eternal paradise as a reward for
the true believer on the Day of Judgement."
• Walls had Quranic verses. Tombs were
generally placed within paradisiacal
elements like a garden or a water body or
both (as in the Taj Mahal).
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