Cultural Dynamics in a Globalized World – Budianta et al.

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Forms and types of Borobudur’s stupas

A. Revianur
Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia

ABSTRACT: Candi Borobudur (Borobudur Temple) is the world’s largest Mahayana-

Vajrayana Buddhist temple, which is located in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. It was
built by the Sailendra dynasty between the 8th and 9th centuries A.D. The temple was built
with 10-step pyramid terraces, which are decorated with 2,672 relief panels, 504 Buddha stat-
ues, and 1,537 stupas. In this study, we aim to examine the forms and types of the stupas of
Borobudur, which are composed of 1,536 secondary stupas and 1 primary stupa compared
to those of other stupas found in Java and Bali islands. The stupas at Borobudur located
from the second to ninth terraces are called the secondary stupas, whereas the one located
on the tenth terrace is called the primary stupa. They are symbolic stupas, which consist of a
base (Prasadha), a bell-shaped body (anda), a top support (harmika), and a top (yashti). The
stupas are divided into four types, namely plain stupas, hollow space-square stupas, hollow
space-diamond stupas containing the Dhyani Buddha Vairocana that represents the turn-
ing wheel of the dharma and the single main stupa that becomes the centre of Borobudur
Temple reflecting Sailedra art-style. Here, we use a qualitative method, which is based on field
observation and historical sources. The objective of this study is to provide a comprehensive
description of the stupas in Borobudur from the perspective of historical archaeology.

1 INTRODUCTION

Candi Borobudur (Borobudur Temple) is known as a Mahayana-Vajrayana Buddhist archae-

ological site located in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. Borobudur was built between the
8th and 9th centuries by the Sailendra dynasty and was re-discovered by Sir Thomas Stamford
Raffles in 1814 (Soekmono, 1976). Opinions of historians and archaeologists on the real name
of Borobudur differ greatly. Raffles (1830) named it Boro Bodo, which means ‘the name of the
district’ (Boro) and ‘ancient’ (Bodo). Thus, Boro Bodo can be interpreted as the ancient Boro
(Raffles, 1830). The manuscript Negarakrtagama canto 77 (LXXVII) written by Mpu Pra-
panca in the 14th century mentions the domain of a Vajradhara or Vajrayana-Buddhism sect
named Kabajradaran Akrama in Budur. This place is most likely the present-day Borobudur
(Pigeaud, 1962; Soekmono, 1976). De Casparis (1950), on the basis of Dasabhumika Sutra,
argued that Borobudur was built with 10 stages or dasa bhumi, and is named in relation to
Kamulan i Bhumisambharabhudhara, which is mentioned in the inscriptions of Sri Kahulunan,
dating back to the mid-8th century. Kamulan is a Sanskrit word, which means a root, origin,
sacred place or shrine to worship ancestors. Bhumisambhara is interpreted as a barrow, hill or
the level of the building that is identified with the temple called Borobudur. On the basis of
the statements of de Casparis, Kamulan i Bhumisambharabhudhara can be interpreted as the
temple of the Sailendra dynasty people located in Borobudur, which was built with 10 stages.
Nevertheless, the original name of Borobudur is still under debate among scholars.
Borobudur Temple was built on a hill surrounded by several mountains, such as the
Menoreh, Sumbing, Sindoro and Merbabu Mountains and Mount Merapi, and bordered by
the Progo and Elo rivers. Borobudur could be linked to Kunjarakunjadesa in South India. Sands
and andesite fractions lay the foundation of the hill where the Borobudur Temple is located
(Moertjipto and Prasetyo, 1993). The temple was built as a stepped pyramid or punden berudak
structure with six-square terraces and topped with three circular courtyards (Chihara, 1996).
577
 The structure and function of Bodobudur Temple have been described in the lit-
erature. Borobudur could be regarded as a Vajradhatu–mandala and is, in turn, related to
Mendut Temple, which is identified as a Garbhadhatu-mandala. The pair of mandalas is called
Dharmadhatu-mandala (Chihara, 1996, Prajudi, 2009). According to a study conducted by
Hoenig (as cited in Coomaraswamy, 1965), Borobudur was built as a temple. It was built with
a nine-stepped structure, which served as a place of worship. Parmentier (1924) proposed
that Borobudur was built as a monument crowned with a great stupa. However, because
the large stupa structure could not withstand the huge weight, it was disassembled to attain
the present-day structure of Borobudur (Chihara, 1996). Soekmono (1979) explained that
Borobudur probably was not built as a temple, but as a place of pilgrimage where ancient
Javanese Buddhists could gain knowledge. Magetsari (1997) argued that Borobudur was not
established for the commoners, but only for a Yogin. Borobudur has a special place in the
southwest area for the commoners and priests to accumulate a virtue. It could be seen that
the spirit of the Monastic movement in India was materialised in this structure, which is
influenced from the eastern school of India and the architecture of Bengal. Furthermore,
Borobudur represents not only the creativity of Javanese geniuses but also one of the world’s
greatest constructional and artistic masterpieces (Brown, 1959).
Borobudur Temple has three levels representing the three worlds in the universe, namely
kamadhatu or the world of desire, rupadhatu or the world of appearance and arupadhatu or
the world without visual existence. At the level of rupadhatu, a man has left his desires but
still has ego and resemblance. Arupadhatu is a world where ego and resemblance no longer
exist. At this level, a man has been released from samsara and decided to break his affiliation
with the mortal world. At Borobudur, kamadhatu is found at the foot of the structure, the
five steps above it are described as rupadhatu and the third round terraces are described as
arupadhatu (Stutterheim, 1956; Soekmono, 1974).
Similar to the Mahayana and the Tantric Buddhism, Vajrayana was practiced in Borobudur
during ancient times, whose evidence could be found in the statues of Pancatathagata at
Borobudur Temple, and it is related to Guhyasamaja-tantra. Another evidence is the teaching
of Paramita, which is embodied in the relief of Lalitavistara, Avadana and Jataka. The imple-
mentation of Yogācāra and Pramitayana with Tantric philosophy is depicted by the relief of
Gandavyuha and Bhadracari. The ability to integrate the philosophy of Tantric or Vajrayana
and Mahayana through reliefs and sculptures in the temple indicates the high intelligence of
Borobudur’s architect. This is a unique feature of Borobudur (Magetsari, 1997).
The main component of a Buddhist temple, including Borobudur, is the stupa. The stupa, in
the period before Buddha, would have served as a tomb and later became the symbol of Bud-
dha’s life. It was originally built to bury the relics of Buddha shortly after his body was cremated.
In its further development, a stupa was used to store not only the relics of Buddhist monks
but also Buddhist objects (Coomaraswamy, 1965; Soekmono, 1974). A stupa, which describes
the concept of Buddhism, has several sections, namely the basis of the stupa (Prasadha),
the parts of the ball (dagob) or bell (genta) and the top or crown (yashti) (Dehejia, 1972;
Moertjipto and Prasetyo, 1993). The stupa was also decorated with parasols (chattra) at the
top of the yashti (Fogelin, 2015). Kempers (as cited in Mentari, 2012) showed that Borobudur
Temple is covered by stupas on its terraces. The stupas in Borobudur have a form different
from that of other stupas in Indonesia. Borobudur, as the legacy of the Sailendra dynasty, has
1,537 stupas, which could be subdivided into 1,536 buffer stupas and 1 main stupa.
Many research studies on the stupas of Candi Borobudur have been carried out by various
scholars. Academic discussions on the meaning of the stupas at Borobudur are integrated
by Magetsari (1997), who stated that the stupas of Candi Borobudur represent the Parinir-
vana and emphasise the philosophy of Vajrayana and Mahayana Buddhism. The mini-thesis
research conducted by Mentari (2012) describes the classification of the forms and types of
Borobudur stupas. It intends to complement the research on the stupas of Borobudur by
expanding it with historical archaeology studies as the framework. The stupas of Borobudur
are compared to those of other Buddhist temples such as Mendut, Pawon, Ngawen, Kalasan,
Sari, Lumbung and Sewu Temples as well as the Ratu Boko archaeological site and Pura
Pegulingan in Bali.
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Figure 1. Stages of research on the stupas of Borobudur.

2 METHOD

In this study, we focus on the stupas at Borobudur Temple and their comparison with stupas
in other archaeological sites such as Mendut, Pawon, Ngawen, Kalasan, Sari, Lumbung and
Sewu Temples as well as Ratu Baka archaeological site and Pura Pegulingan in Bali. We use
a qualitative method, which is based on archaeological research such as the stages of data
gathering, data processing, analysis and interpretation (Ashmore & Sharer, 2010).
The data were gathered from the sites in Borobudur, Mendut, Pawon, Ngawen, Kalasan,
Sari, Lumbung and Sewu Temples; the Ratu Boko archaeological site and Pura Pegulingan;
furthermore, and an archaeological survey approach was applied. This stage was followed
by data processing. In this stage, the stupas were observed, described, classified and assessed
by comparing them with others. The classification of stupas in Borobudur is based on the
research conducted by Mentari. In the third stage, the meaning and function of stupa were
analysed. In the final stage, the stupas at Borobudur Temple and in other archaeological sites
were interpreted on the basis of the comparison of each stupa.

3 DISCUSSION AND DATA ANALYSIS OF BOROBUDUR’S STUPAS

Borobudur has 1,537 stupas located from the second-level terrace to the tenth-level terrace.
The number of stupas on each terrace varies, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 shows that the number of stupas on each Borobudur terrace is different. The third
terrace has the most number of stupas (416). On the basis of this evidence, it can be con-
cluded that the number of stupas on each terrace is the multiples of 8, except on the second,
fifth and tenth terraces. The perforated stupas are erected from the seventh to the ninth ter-
race (Balai Konservasi Peninggalan Borobudur, 2004).
Mentari (2012) classified the stupas of Borobudur into four types. The author suggests
that there are two forms and four types of stupas in Borobudur. The forms are plain and per-
forated. The plain stupas can be found from the second to the sixth terrace and in the tenth
terrace, where the great stupa is located. The number of plain stupas is 1,465, whereas the

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 Table 1. Stupas of Borobudur on each terrace.

No. Terrace level Number of stupas

1 Second terrace 116

2 Third terrace 416
3 Fourth terrace 352
4 Fifth terrace 316
5 Sixth terrace 264
6 Seventh terrace 32
7 Eighth terrace 24
8 Ninth terrace 16
9 Tenth terrace 1
Total number of stupas 1,537

Source: Center for Borobudur Archaeology Conservation (2004).

number of perforated stupas is 72. The stupas of Borobudur can be classified into four types,
namely type A, type B, type C and type D. These four types are the plain stupas (type A),
the hollow space-diamond stupas containing the Dhyani Buddha Vairocana that symbolises
the turning wheel of dharma (type B), the hollow space-square stupas (type C) and the single
main stupa that becomes the centre of the Borobudur Temple (type D).
Mentari (2012) described that the plain stupas or type A have a Prasadha with ornate lotus
seams (dalla) and a semi-circle (kumuda), solid Anda, rectangular harmika and basic circle-
shaped yashti. This type of stupa is the smallest in Borobudur. There are 1,464 stupas of this
type, which are located from the second to the sixth terrace on the ledges, niches and roofed-
gates or paduraksa. The hollow space-diamond stupas or type B stupas are characterised by
a Prasadha with a flat seam (patta), lotus (gentha-side), ornate lotus (dalla) and semi-circle
(kumuda), and the hollow space-diamond stupas are characterised by an Anda, a rectangular
harmika and a basic circle-shaped yashti. There are 56 stupas of this type, which are located
on the seventh and eighth terraces. The type B stupas contain a statue of Dhyani Buddha
Vairocana with the mudra or hand gesture of Dharma Chakra Parvatana. The hollow space-
square stupas or type C stupas are characterised by a Prasadha with a flat seam (patta), lotus
(gentha-side), ornate lotus (dalla) and semi-circle (kumuda), and the hollow space-square
Anda, by an octagonal harmika and basic octagonal-shaped yashti. There are 16 stupas of
this type, which are located on the ninth terrace. This type of stupas contains no statues. The
main stupa or type D is characterised by a Prasadha with a flat seam (patta), a lotus (gentha-
side), an ornate lotus (dalla) and a semi-circle (kumuda). The Anda is a solid, rectangular and
octagonal harmika, with basic octagonal-shaped yashti.
The Yashti on the main stupa has not been fully restored since the discovery of the temple.
The reconstruction of the yashti was carried out on the basis of a picture showing that it
previously contained three parasols (Chatra). However, the reconstruction was disassembled
because there were many wrong interpretations, and the original stone of the Chatra was not
suitable for reconstruction (Soekmono, 1976). There is a main stupa, with a belt adorned
with vines, which is located on the tenth terrace. It has been suggested that the main stupa
should be stylised with a parasol. The types of stupas and their position on each terrace are
described in Table 2.
It has been found that the plain stupas (type A) are located from the second to the sixth
terrace. In the author’s opinion, the plain stupas on these terraces are probably used as the
boundary between the ledge (Vedika) and the floor (pradaksinapatha). The hollow space-
diamond stupas are located on the seventh and eighth terraces, and a statue of Vairocana
inside them holds a religious meaning. According to the text of the Vairocanabhisambodhi
Sutra (2005), Vairocana is placed in the centre of the mandala. It is suggested that the circular
structure of Borobudur, which contains Vairocana statues, is part of the centre of mandala.
Magetsari (1997) explained that Vairocana with Dharmacakra-mudra hand gesture medi-
tates in the Mayotama-samadhi position. It is suggested that Vairocana has reached Buddha.
580
Table 2. Forms and types of stupas and their position on each terrace.

No. Terrace level Stupa form Number of stupas Stupa type

1 Second terrace Plain stupas 116 Plain stupas

2 Third terrace Plain stupas 416 Plain stupas
3 Fourth terrace Plain stupas 352 Plain stupas
4 Fifth terrace Plain stupas 316 Plain stupas
5 Sixth terrace Plain stupas 264 Plain stupas
6 Seventh terrace Perforated stupas 32 Hollow space-diamond stupas
7 Eighth terrace Perforated stupas 24 Hollow space-diamond stupas
8 Ninth terrace Perforated stupas 16 Hollow space-square stupas
9 Tenth terrace Plain stupas 1 Main stupa
Number of plain stupas 1,465
Number of perforated 72
stupas
Total number of stupas 1,537

Figure 2. Images of the four types of Borobudur’s stupas.

(Source: Aditya Revianur (2016)).

Thus, Buddha has carried out his activities through his body as an intermediary. This argu-
ment is visualised in the temple in the form of type C stupas or the hollow space-diamond
stupas. The Dhyani-Buddha Vairocana statues placed in this position show the ambiguity
between the being and nothingness or maya. Buddha was visualised in the arupadhatu stages,
but he is still able to carry out his activities. The activities presented in arupadhatu, which
teaches Dharma, finalise and liberate all beings. They are manifested from the seventh to the
ninth terraces. The Vairocana Buddha statue is placed in this stupa in order to demonstrate
his activity; Buddha teaches all beings and to all directions.
The hollow space-square stupas, which do not contain a Buddha statue, hold a higher
position than the hollow space-diamond stupas. They have become a symbol of the last level
arupadhatu, eventually reaching a Parinirvana stage, which is symbolised by the main stupa.
According to Parinirvana Sutra (as cited in Magetsari, 1997), Buddha of Kamadhatu went
to the top, and after passing through various levels in arupadhatu, he entered the level of
arupadhatu to eventually reach the level where feelings no longer exist. Then, Buddha went
down from the top to the lowest level of rupadhatu. Then, he again reached the highest level
of rupadhatu to finally enter Parinirvana.

3.1 Comparison between the stupas of Borobudur and other temples

Stupas are also found in other Mahayana-Vajrayana Buddhist temples, such as Mendut,
Pawon, Ngawen, Kalasan, Sari, Lumbung and Sewu Temples, as well as the Ratu Boko
archaeological sites and Pura Pegulingan. The form of plain stupas found in all of these sites
is similar to that of Borobudur. Meanwhile, the form of perforated stupas can only be found
581
in Borobudur. Table 3 shows a comparison of the form of plain stupas in Borobudur and in
other temples and sites.
Table 3 shows that plain stupas can be found in Mendut, Pawon, Ngawen, Kalasan, Sari,
Lumbung and Sewu Temples. It has been found that the plain stupas in Sewu Temple are sim-
ilar to those of Borobudur, which are placed on the ledge. They reinforce the opinion about
their function at Borobudur as a boundary between the ledge (Vedika) and floor (pradak-
sinapatha). The Sewu Temple was built in the late 8th century having Vajradhatu-mandala
structure, with a great number of Dhyani Buddha figures (Suleiman, 1981, Chihara, 1996).
However, there was limited information on the essence of Boddhisattva who was worshipped
in the temple because the inscription of Kelurak, which was found at Sewu Temple, provided
information only about a temple named Manjusri-grha or the house of Manjusri, and it
could be built to worship Manjusri (Magetsari, 1981). On the basis of the similarities found,
it can be suggested that Borobudur and Sewu Temples are most probably correlated and
were erected at the same time. Both temples also represent Sailendra art and Mahayana and
Vajrayana sects, such as stupas on the ledge and Vajradhatu-mandala structure.
The author found the main stupas or type A stupa at Pawon, Kalasan, Sari, Lumbung and
Sewu Temples, as well as at the Ratu Baka archaeological site and Pura Pegulingan. The main
stupas at Mendut and Ngawen Temples were built during the ancient times. The main stupas
in both temples have collapsed or been damaged and cannot be reconstructed, as well as the

Figure 3. Vairocana statues inside a hollow space-diamond stupa.

(Source: Aditya Revianur (2016)).

Table 3. Stupa forms of Borobudur and other Buddhist temples.

Stupa forms of Borobudur

and other Buddhist temples

No. Temples/sites Plain stupas Main stupa

1. Mendut Temple √
2. Pawon Temple √ √
3. Ngawen Temple √
4. Kalasan Temple √ √
5. Sari Temple √ √
6. Lumbung Temple √ √
7. Sewu Temple √ √
8. Ratu Baka archaeological site √
9. Pura Pegulingan √

582
main stupa at Kalasan Temple, but several parts of the Prasadha, the slotted-square Anda,
Harmika and parts of the damaged Yashti can still be seen. The main stupa at Pura Pegulin-
gan in Bali, which is similar to a miniature of stupa, can be found at these sites.
The miniature of stupa at Pegulingan is probably related to the statues of Pancatathagata,
which itself is related to the Vajrayana Buddhism doctrine, and it could be seen on the Dhyani
Buddha statues that are placed on the four corners of the stupa (Astawa, 1996). The Ratu
Boko Temple was built as a vihara and named Abhayagirivihara; it still preserves the legacy
of Buddhism (Magetsari, 1981). The author found the type of the main stupa at Ratu Boko,
but it has been reconstructed ever since its discovery. Meanwhile, Ngawen, Mendut, Pawon,
Kalasan, Sari, Lumbung and Sewu Temples have one main stupa surrounded by plain smaller
stupas. The main stupas at these temples are the symbols of Parinirvana. It has been found
that these main stupas in each temple were not decorated with parasols or chattra.

4 CONCLUSION

The stupas of Borobudur Temple have two forms and four types. The two forms are plain
and perforated stupas. The plain stupas are located from the second terrace to the sixth
terrace and serve as the boundary between Vedika and Pradaksinapatha. A similar func-
tion is also found at Sewu Temple. The perforated stupas and the main stupas of Borobu-
dur Temple are related to the teachings of both the Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism
sects. These stupas, which are located on the seventh and eighth terraces, serve as a prepa-
ration stage to enter the Parinirvana, which is symbolised by a single main stupa. The
Dhyani-Buddha Vairocana statues that are placed inside these stupas indicate the symbols
of the Vajrayana sect. According to Parinirvana Sutra, the hollow space-square stupas
symbolise the last level of arupadhatu, which eventually leads to the Parinirvana stage
that is manifested by the main stupa. The stupas of Borobudur Temple and those found
in other Buddhist sacred sites in Java represent the art of the Sailendra dynasty, which
dates back to the period between 7th and 10th centuries. No parasols of the stupas have
survived, and because of the limited archaeological evidence and references, it is impos-
sible to reconstruct the parasols of the stupas. Borobudur itself was erected in the late 8th
century on the basis of the comparison of its stupas with those at Candi Sewu. The stupas
of Sailendra are related to the development of the Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism
that were practiced not only at Borobudur but also in other Buddhist temples in Indonesia
between the 7th and the late 14th centuries, according to Negarakrtagama, which men-
tions Vajrayana temples in Java and Bali.

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