The STRUCTURE of the Borobudur as a large base Stupa

Dr Uday Dokras

The evidence for a belief in Adi-Buddha is also evidenced by the symbolism of Borobudur’s
final stupa. Inside that stupa once was an incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting
the Adi Buddha which is unimaginable by humans. This is seen as proof that theistic Buddhism
was present in Java since at least the 8th century.
Indonesian Buddhayana followers use the greeting Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. The
complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the books’ preface, letters, or
meetings is:
Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya
Namo Buddhaya, Bodhisatvaya Mahasatvaya

Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most common of which is the
stone Candi which are built as a symbol of Mount Meru. Others were built in punden berundak (step pyramids) style
— small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains — and pertapaan, (‘places of austerities’ or hermitages) built on
mountain slopes.

Approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an

elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two
rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a
Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural
fertility. Besides Borobudur, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples in the area, including
the Prambanan temples compound. During the restoration in the early 1900s, it was discovered
that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are lined in one
straight line position.] It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with a

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native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut
with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar
architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual
relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have
existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown

Suroloyo Peak is the highest summit at the picturesque Menoreh Hills, which share the
neighbourhood with the renowned eco-tourism destination Kulon Progo. This peak is one of the
most popular spots to catch Yogyakarta’s most glorious sunrise that cast rays of light upon the
Borobudur Temple and Java’s big four mountains: Merapi, Merbabu, Sumbing, and Sindoro.
Other than the breathtaking view, this peak also holds some religious artefacts, including ascetic
pavilions and statues.

Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill,
265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake. The
lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the twentieth
century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even floated on a lake. In
1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp,
developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus
flower floating on the lake. Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often
serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests
a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly
found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east
Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to resent a lotus
leaf. Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists because the natural
environment surrounding the monument is a dry land.
Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments found
near the site.  A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports
the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur, which tends to confirm
Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that
Borobudur was near the lake shore circa thirteenth and fourteenth century. River flows
and volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most
active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of Borobudur and has been

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very active since the Pleistocene.

The overall structure of Borobudur is made up of a square foundation along with a total of
nine platforms. Of those nine platforms six of them are squared while the remaining three are
circular. The structure can be further divided into three main levels: a base, a body, and the top.
The architecture of Borobudur would also signify a gradual process as it starts off square in the
lower terraces, transitions to elliptical with the first two upper terraces and finally becomes circular
in the third upper terrace.

Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles

Bell-shaped perforated stupas of Borobudur.

The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from its
pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof, while
ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.
The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those
of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace
of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bell-
shaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika)[20] sits on top of the dome serves
as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti).[21]
Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or

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rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first
thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as
a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism.
A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.

Prambanan vajra pinnacle.

Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical,
completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams
(Javanese:pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia
asiatica fruit. It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Nevertheless,
it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle
is Sambisari and Ijo temple.
In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese
temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of Buddhist
stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved in Balinese Hindu temples of later period where the
multi-tiered meru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is actually a
familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple architecture, the
false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on top
of Buddhist counterparts.
By virtue of their spatial connection to the terrain and the necessity for secure foundations, works
of architecture differ from objects that can be inverted or carried away. The bottom edge, where
a building rests on the ground, requires a different treatment than all other edges and surfaces (>
tectonics). The base reveals the relationship between a building and the ground: it pushes into the
earth, rests on the ground, or is detached from it. Whether a building makes the impression of
standing upright, reclining or floating depends upon whether it has a base, and if so on its
formation. The connection between the building and the ground also determines the way in
which the building relates to the terrain of the exterior space and how the two join together to
form a spatial unity.

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 Depending upon its design, the base shows us how a building rests upon the ground. Solidity
and robustness produce a tectonic expression of load-bearing capacity. Particularly in historic
buildings, these qualities are achieved by means of rough rusticated masonry or the use of natural
stone in the pedestal zone, or by squat proportions and apertures smaller than those in upper
storeys. Bases also ensure that individual architectural elements, such as > columns and pillars,
neither sink into the earth optically nor seem detached from it. Although the base belongs to the
building, and not to the earth, it fulfils the task of creating a connection to the terrain, broadening
out by means of transitions, steps, pedestals or terraces. In ways comparable to the shoes we
wear on our feet, materials also convey distinctions between the fineness of the interior and the
coarseness of the exterior.

Along with the building, the base also brings its occupants down to earth, shaping direct contact
with the passersby and vehicles that move around the building. Through its palpable presence
and tactile qualities, the base constitutes the first zone of contact for approaching a building
within its immediate surroundings, and is its first distinctive identifying symbol. Essentially, it is
reminiscent of the role of the pedestal, which provided stability to ancient temples as the first
islands of civilization within inaccessible terrain. Under certain circumstances, the task of the

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base, namely to provide stability and an optical foundation, may be extended by its use as a
basement storey. With reduced apertures, the rooms contained in the base are partially inserted
into the ground. The unfortunately widespread bad habit, however, of digging out the base in
order to provide living space with improved illumination deprives a building of stable grounding.
The mental state of the inhabitant of a massive basement storey that serves a building as a base,
on the other hand, is shaped by a sense of the apartment’s anchoring into the ground.
Right from the 2 nd Century onwards, Kushans in order to house relics of the Buddha, which
may have been sourced from earlier monuments, and originally buried at the site around 78 CE.
Buddhist texts mention that frankincense was used during religious services at Dharmarajika,
while the complex was paved with colourful glass tiles. Though not Buddhists,he Kushans in
general were great patrons of Buddhism, and, starting with Emperor Kanishka, they also
employed elements of Zoroastrianism in their pantheon. They played an important role in the
spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and China.These have a Large square or circular plinth and
several diminishing terraces as mentioned before.

“Prambanan,” explains archeologist Manggar Sarl Ayuati, “is one of the largest Hindu temple
complexes in Asia with an enclosed area 390 meters on a side. It was built in 856 by King Rakai
Pikatan of the Sanjaya dynasty, which ruled the Mataram Kingdom, and was expanded by later
kings. It is dedicated to Siva.”

Prambanan has three concentric courtyards. The innermost contains 16 temples, including the
156-foot-high main temple to Siva and 108-foot temples to Vishnu and Brahma. Each is faced by
a smaller temple for the God’s vahana (mount): Nandi the bull for Siva, Hamsa the swan for
Brahma and Garuda the eagle (Indonesia’s national symbol) for Vishnu. Scenes from
the Ramayana and the life of Krishna are carved on the outer walls of the temples. The Siva
temple has multiple chambers - Siva in the center, Durga in the north, Rishi Agastya in the south
and Ganesha in the west.

The second courtyard originally contained 240 small temples; only 129 have undergone any
degree of restoration. The rest are just piles of rocks. No structures remain in the third courtyard,
and the historical use of that area is unknown. The complex also contains four Buddhist temples,
built by a Hindu king for his Buddhist wife.

Prambanan was abandoned in the 10th century, likely when the Mataram kingdom moved to East
Java following a huge eruption of nearby Mount Merapi that covered the entire area in volcanic
ash. A major earthquake in the 16th century collapsed the upper parts of the main structures. The
temple sustained additional damage in the 6.5-magnitude earthquake of 2006. Repairs were still
underway during our 2014 visit.
I was saddened to hear this spectacular place referred to as a dead monument and to see it
reduced to a picnic spot for tourists. Puja is performed here only once a year, but that brings
thousands of people from all over Indonesia to worship Siva, Brahma and Vishnu. With some
difficulty, puja can be arranged at other times of the year. Our guide, Pak Dewa Suratnaya, a
journalist with Media Hindu magazine, said strongly that these great temples should be brought
to life again through regular worship. I agreed with him wholeheartedly.

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Diagram of the main Siva temple; repairs underway shortly after the 2006 earthquake; (inset)
the partially collapsed central Siva temple around 1895, after its rediscovery by the British.

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taxila an illustrated account of archaeological excavations,By Marshall John, google books

One prime example of the large base and conical top design id the Dharmarajika Stupa also
referred to as the Great Stupa of Taxila which is a Buddhist stupa near Taxila, Pakistan.
It dates from as early as the 2nd century CE, and was built by the Kushans to house small bone
fragments of the Buddha. It has been claimed that that Dharmarajika Stupa was built over the
remains of an even older stupa that had been built by the Mauryan emperor King Ashoka in the
3rd century BCE,  though other archeologists alternatively suggest that this is unlikely. Indo-
Greek coins found at the site date from the 2nd century BCE, suggesting earliest possible
establishment of a religious monument at the site.

The stupa, along with the large monastic complex that later developed around it, forms part of
the Ruins of Taxila - which were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.

The Kushans were most probably one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation, an Indo-

European nomadic people of possible Tocharian origin, who migrated from northwestern China
(Xinjiang and Gansu) and settled in ancient Bactria. The founder of the dynasty, Kujula
Kadphises, followed Greek religious ideas and iconography after the Greco-Bactrian tradition,
and also followed traditions of Hinduism, being a devotee of the Hindu God Shiva.  Small stupas
that predate the main stupa are found throughout the Dharmarajika site, and surrounded an
earlier core stupa in an irregular layout. It is known that the earlier core stupa contained a
pathway for circumambulation that was made of plaster, and decorated with shell bangles in
geometric patterns. The earlier stupa likely had four gates in axial directions.

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The site came under control of Persian Sassanid rule, and suffered a period of stagnation. Large-
scale developments took place during the late Kushan and Kidarite era which added numerous
monasteries and stupas to the site.

Plan of the Dharmarajika Stupa.

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The site was devastated by the White Huns in the 5th century CE, and then abandoned.
The location of the stupa and its monastic community about 1 kilometre outside of Sirkap aligns
with ancient Gandharan beliefs that the Buddha recommended monasteries should be neither
"too far" nor "too close" to adjacent towns. Three distinctive types of masonry in the buildings
around the main stupa suggest the contributions of different periods to the building activity.

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Core stupa

The passageway between the main stupa and several smaller stupas was used for the practice of pradakshina.

Dharmarajika Stupa is the largest of all stupas in the Taxila region, Surrounding the main
mound is a passageway for pradakshina — the ancient practice of walking around a holy site.
The stupa's large anda, or hemispherical mound, is damaged − though the plinth of the mound,
known as the medhi, is still largely intact. The anda mound was made of ashlar stone. The
stupa's harmika, or fence like structure built atop the anda mound, has been lost.
The stupa's southern gateway was initially considered the most important, though the
construction of four smaller stupas (termed G7, G8, S7, Q1) to the west of the stupa indicate that
this then likely became the preferred entrance for those performing circambulation. Later
constructions around the "Eastern Avenue" then shifted the preferred route for circambulation to
the eastern side of the stupa.

Before entering the main sacred areas, visitors to the shrine from Sirkap would pass through a
large building, now termed building H, that would openly display relics.  Visitors likely
venerated the relics at building H before entering the main stupa area.

It is both a temple and a complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and completed
as it was designed, with only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a pattern for
Hindu temple mountains at Angkor and in its own day it must have been one of the wonders of
the Asian world.

Built about 800, it probably fell into neglect by c. 1000 and was overgrown. It was excavated and
restored by the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. It now appears as a large square plinth (the
processional path) upon which stand five terraces gradually diminishing in size. The plans of the
squares are stepped out twice to a central projection. Above the fifth terrace stands a series of
three diminishing circular terraces carrying small stupas, crowned at the centre of the summit by
a large circular bell-shaped stupa. Running up the centre of each face is a long staircase; all four
are given equal importance.

SOLID STRUCTURE
There are no internal cell shrines, and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist
stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions
and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing into
any of the other levels. All of these terraces are lined with relief sculptures, and the niches
contain Buddha figures. The top three circular terraces are open and unwalled, and the 72 lesser
bell-shaped stupas they support are of open stone latticework; inside each was a huge stone

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Buddha figure. The convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the ground,
flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the major
afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up against the original bottom story
of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of which have been
uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold together the bottom story, which
began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of earth and stone accumulated above.

The Borobodur complex is an open monument; there are no chambers ; it has no roof and no
vaults, (like Candi Sewu). The complex is built in the form of a giant pyramid shaped mandala
with 10 ascending layers: the 10 Buddhist worlds represented by the 10 layers. Ascending from
the base, there are six square terraces and a courtyard and then, at the top 3 round terraces and at
the top, a central main stupa measuring 35 meters from the base or 42 meters tall.

A complex of stupas – a gigantic Buddhist monument – at 42 meters or 100 feet tall and a total
of 504 stupas in its 123 square meter grounds, it is the largest Buddhist monument in the world.
The hundreds of stupas are not just a mass of stones ( laval andesite rocks ) but carved and built (
and all laid without mortar ) on top of a natural hillock, where using the terraces of the natural
hills, the builders stacked stones to make these monumental stupas in perfect symmetry and total
harmony.

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A map of India in the 2nd century AD showing the extent of the Kushan Empire (in yellow) during the reign of
Kanishka. Most historians consider the empire to have variously extended as far east as the middle Ganges plain,
to Varanasi on the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna, or probably even Pataliputra.

The mandala is a diagram representing a spiritual practice of attainment in the Tibetan school of
Vajrayana and also in the Sri Vijayan school as well. What type of mandala is Borobodur ? This
is difficult to say. There are as many as 3,500 types of mandalas and we cannot precisely fix
Borobodur as a particular type of mandala.

Each side of the Borobodur complex is 120 feet long and decreases as it goes up. If we were to
circumambulate each level, it would encompass a total of 5 km.The entrance to Borobodur is
at the east and the Buddhas face east.

Borobodur took about 70 years to be built by the architect Gunadharma .There is a small hill
directly facing Borobodur and folklore says that this hill is said to represent the sleeping body
profile of Gunadvara.

There are a total of 504 stupas in the entire complex, each stupa enclosing a life size stone
Buddha. However, many are now empty due to pillage. Remarkably, no Buddha image is the
same, each Buddha image faces all various directions and with various hand mudras with all the

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6 types of mudras all represented. The 3 upper terraces have 72 Buddhas; the lower terraces have
432 with total of 504. All the numbers add up to the number 9 ( the largest single digit indiger ).
All the stupas have the stocky bulbous Central Java shape. Each stupa consists of the top or
harmuca which holds holy relics relic holding top and the main body or anda sitting on a lotus
base. But, not all stupas in Borobodur look the same. The stupas in the upper and lower terraces
are differentiated by the harmuca and the anda. The stupas of the lower terraces have octogonal
shaped harmuca and the anda enclosing the Buddha have many tiny square shaped openings or
holes. However, the stupas of the upper terraces have a square shaped harmuca and diamond
shaped openings in the anda.

PERFECT SYMMETRY

The base of each stupa equals the height of the stupa. Absolutely perfect symmetry! In fact, all
measurements from every corner and the height of all stupas of Borobodur are governed by this
perfect symmetry.

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The main central stupa at the top which measures 42 meters is still in the process of restoration –
the top has not yet been restored – and is missing the 3 layers of the parasol or ‘chatra’ as can be
seen at the Sarnath temple in India.Mahayana bas relief panels cover each of the 10 layers of
terraced carvings. Each gallery is a masterpieces of Sri Vijayan or Gandaran art. No one panel is
the same, each gallery in each layer representing different Jataka stories and as one goes further
up the galleries, the Jataka stories brought to life by the panels get from the ordinary to the more
conceptual.and.spiritual. As the Borobodur complex was being built from 830 CE to 938CE, it
was archaeologists discovered that it could have been revised by as much as three times from
the original plan. In any event, there were no blueprints then and restorers can only surmise by
taking apart the stones and putting them back again. It was abandoned in 938 CE. No one quite
knows why except that, the champions of Buddhism, the Shailendra dynasty were chased out of
Java in 825 CE and this meant that for the next 30 to 40 years thereafter, the royal patronage for
Buddhist temples in java was lost. After the Shailendras were removed, the Sanjayan family
which was a Hindu princely family still continued to support Buddhism but it began to wane.

The whole building symbolizes a Buddhist transition from the lowest manifestations of reality at
the base, through a series of regions representing psychological states, toward the ultimate
condition of spiritual enlightenment at the summit. The unity of the monument effectively
proclaims the unity of the cosmos permeated by the light of truth. The visitor was meant to be
transformed while climbing through the levels of Borobudur, encountering illustrations of
progressively more profound doctrines nearer to the summit. The topmost terrace, whose main
stupa contained an unfinished image of Buddha that was hidden from the spectator’s view,
symbolized the indefinable ultimate spiritual state. The 72 openwork stupas on the circular
terraces, with their barely visible internal Buddhas, symbolize incomplete states of
enlightenment on the borders of manifestation. The usual way for a pilgrim to pay reverence to a
Buddhist stupa is to walk around it, keeping it on his right hand. The vast series of reliefs about
three feet (one metre) high on the exterior walls of the terraces would thus be read by the visitor
in series from right to left. Between the reliefs are decorative scroll panels, and a hundred
monster-head waterspouts carry off the tropical rainwater. The gates on the stairways between
terraces are of the standard Indonesian type, with the face of the Kala monster at the apex
spouting his scrolls.

IMPACT OF THE TRADITIONAL INDONESIAN STEP PYRAMID

DESIGN
Punden terraces or terraces are a building layout structure in the form of multiple terraces or
traps that lead to one point with each terrace getting higher in position. This structure is often
found on archaeological sites in the archipelago , so it is considered one of the characteristics of
the original culture of the archipelago.

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Ceto Temple, a Hindu-style temple with a staircase punden structure.

The basic structure of the terraced punden is found in archaeological sites from the pre-Hindu-
Buddhist Megalithic - Neolithic culture of the Austronesian people , although it was also used in
buildings from the later period, even until the Islamic period entered the archipelago. Its
distribution is recorded in the archipelago to Polynesia , [1] although in the Polynesian region it
is not always in the form of steps, in a structure known as marae by the Maori. The entry of
religions from outside could fade manufacturing practices punden at several places in the
archipelago, but there is a hint of the adoption of the original elements of this in the buildings of
the next period of history, as seen in Borobudur , Candi Ceto , and Complex Funeral Kings
Mataram in Imogiri .

The word "pundèn" (or pundian ) comes from the Javanese language . Said pepund è n which

means "cult objects" similar understanding with the concept kabuyutan the Sundanese people. In
punden terraces, the basic concept held is that the ancestors or those who are worshiped are in
high places (usually mountain peaks ). The term punden terraces emphasizes the function of
worshiping/respecting ancestors, not just the basic structure of the spatial layout.

Prasat Thom of Koh Ker temple site Cambodia

The archaeological site of Koh Ker in northern Cambodia contains a seven-tiered pyramid
called Prang which was probably the state temple of Jayavarman IV. Construction of the
sanctuary was started in 928 AD. At ground level one, side of the square building measures 62 m
(203 ft). The height is 36 m (118 ft). Originally on the top platform stood a huge lingam probably
more than 4 m (13 ft) high and having a weight of several tons. Inscriptions say that it was the
tallest and most beautiful Shiva-ling-am. The ling-am probably stood in a shrine which some
researchers say could have been about 15 m (49 ft) high. On the north side of the pyramid is a
steep staircase leading to the top. Concerning the seventh tier some scientists say, this was the
platform of the shrine because on its sides beautiful reliefs of Garudas were made.

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The main pyramid of Sukuh temple
As well as menhirs, stone tables, and stone statues Austronesian megalithic culture
in Indonesia also featured earth and stone step pyramid structure, referred to as punden
berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolok [n and in Cipari near Kuningan. The
construction of stone pyramids is based on the native beliefs that mountains and high places are
the abode for the spirit of the ancestors.
The step pyramid is the basic design of 8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument
in Central Java. However the later temples built in Java were influenced by Indian Hindu
architecture, as displayed by the towering spires of Prambanan temple. In the 15th century Java
during the late Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian indigenous elements as
displayed by Sukuh temple that somewhat resembles a Mesoamerican pyramid, and also stepped
pyramids of Mount Penanggungan.Borobudur carries with it elements of both the Pundan
terraces and Te Gupta architecture of the sanchi Type.

Post-Borobudur candis

Impact on Post-Borobudur candis illustrate the Buddhist doctrine in different ways. Kalasan,

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for example, built in the second half of the 8th century, was a large square shrine on a plinth,
with projecting porticoes at the centre of each face. The roof was surmounted by a high circular
stupa mounted on an octagonal drum, the faces of which bear reliefs of divinities. Topping each
portico was a group of five small stupas, and another large stupa stood at each disengaged corner
of the main shrine. The moldings were restrained and elegantly profiled. Each section of the
exterior wall contains a niche meant for a figure sculpture. The decorative scroll carving is
especially fine.

Another shrine from this period, Candi Sewu, consisted of a large cruciform shrine
surrounded by smaller temples, only one of which has been restored. All of the temples seem to
have had roofs in the form of tiered stupas, compressing the overall Borobudur scheme into the
scope of a storied shrine tower. From Candi Plaosan came many beautiful sculptures, donor
figures, and iconic images of bodhisattvasPerhaps the most interesting of the post-
Borobudur Buddhist shrines of the 9th century is Candi Sari. It is an outstanding architectural
invention. From the outside it appears as a large rectangular three-storied block, with the main
entrance piercing the centre of one of the longer sides. The third story stands above a substantial
architrave with horizontal moldings and antefixes. Two windows on each short side, three on
each long, open into each story, though at the rear they are blind. The windows are crowned by
large antefix-like cartouches of ornamental carving based on curvilinear pavilions hung with
strings of gems. The uppermost windows are hooded with the Kala-monster motif. The roof
bears rows of small stupas, and perhaps there was once a large central stupa. Inside, Candi Sari
contains a processional corridor around three interior shrines that were possibly intended for
images of the garbha-dhatu deities, as at Candi Mendut.

The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area, with
rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west. There is an
entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east side. Each of the

19
entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues have been better
preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249 buildings in the complex are
arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This configuration expresses the
Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller temples,
called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four rectangular
concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller temples, while
two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249 temples located in
the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by different statues and
orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on the current site are not
in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues of Borobudur and were
likely made of bronze.

Candi Sewu Layout

Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between the
second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple on each
cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after the main
temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These smaller
temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth row of
smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located around
300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins discovered around
the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too scarce for reconstruction.
These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound was completed with four
additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which is corresponds with the
mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.

20
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The ground
plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four cardinal points
of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its own stairs,
entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of the structures
are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms in
each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a central
roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways were added
later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden doors. Some
of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples together into one
main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger than
other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are empty. However
the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the temple once contained a
large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue of Manjusri), probably reaching a height
of four meters. The statue is missing, probably looted for scrap metal over the centuries.
However another theory suggested that the main statue was probably constructed from several
stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

Sewu
Layout

21
According to literary tradition, Nalanda, 10 kilometres north of Rajgir and a suburb of the
ancient city, was visited by Buddha and Mahavira. Ashoka is said to have worshipped at the
chaitya-niches of Sariputra, Buddha's disciple, and erected a temple. By the time of Harsha  A.D.
606-648, Nalanda had become the principal centre of Mahayana learning and a famed University
town with numerous shrines and monasteries which attracted scholars from far and near. The
Chinese Pilgrims Huien Tsang and Fa-hien studied at Nalanda and have left account of the
settlement and its life.
Temple 3 was more than 31 m. high and consisted of seven successive accumulations of which
the two latest belonged to the 11th and 12th centuries and the fifth one, dating from circa 6th
century, was notable for its sculptural wealth. The monasteries were imposing rectangular
buildings, each with an open courtyard, enclosed by a covered verandah which leads into cells,
arranged on the four sides. The cell facing the entrance served as a shrine. Nalanda was an
important centre of Pala sculptures and bronzes and has also yielded seals and sealings of great
historical significance.

Nalanda University; Conjectural Reconstruction from Excavated Remains of Temple no. 3 or 5th
Stupa (Sariputra Stupa), c. 6th century CE

Temple no. 3 (also termed Sariputta Stupa) is the most iconic of Nalanda's structures with its
multiple flights of stairs that lead all the way to the top. The temple was originally a small
structure which was built upon and enlarged by later constructions. Archaeological evidence
shows that the final structure was a result of at least seven successive such accumulations of
construction. The fifth of these layered temples is the most interesting and the best preserved
with four corner towers of which three have been exposed. The towers as well as the sides of the
stairs are decorated with exquisite panels of Gupta-era art depicting a variety of stucco figures

22
including Buddha and the Bodhisattvas, scenes from the Jataka tales. The temple is surrounded
by numerous votive stupas some of which have been built with bricks inscribed with passages
from sacred Buddhist texts. The apex of Temple no. 3 features a shrine chamber which now only
contains the pedestal upon which an immense statue of Buddha must have once rested.
According to Win Maung, the stupa was influenced by Gupta architecture, which itself had
Kushana era influences. In a shrine near the bottom of the staircase, a large image of
Avalotiteshvar was found which was eventually moved to the Museum.

Map of Nalanda by Alexander Cunningham, 1861-62

When a building is tapered, the exterior surface area where the wind load is applied is
reduced at higher levels, and increased at lower levels. The convex contour of the whole
monument is steepest near the ground, flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the

23
processional path, was the major afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up
against the original bottom story of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of
reliefs—a few of which have been uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold
together the bottom story, which began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of
earth and stone accumulated above.

The stupa complex at Borobudur in Java, Indonesia.

Robert Harding Picture Li

24
 Sanchi Stupa

25
Kalasan  also known as Candi Kalibening, is an 8th-century Buddhist temple
in Java, Indonesia. It is located 13 kilometers (8.1 mi) east of Yogyakarta on the way
to Prambanan temple, on the south side of the main road Jalan Solo between Yogyakarta
and Surakarta. Administratively, it is located in the Kalasan District (kapanewon) of Sleman
Regency.

According to the Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD, written in Sanskrit using Pranagari script,

the temple was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel
of Sailendra family) who succeeded in persuading Maharaja Tejapurnapana Panangkaran (in
another part of the inscription also called Kariyana Panangkaran) to construct Tarabhavanam, a
holy building for the goddess (boddhisattvadevi) Tara.
In addition, a vihara (monastery) was built for buddhist monks from the Sailendra family's realm.
Panangkaran awarded the Kalaça village to sangha (buddhist monastic community). According
to the date of this inscription, Kalasan temple is the oldest of the temples built in the Prambanan
Plain.

Despite being renovated and partially rebuilt during the Dutch colonial era, the temple currently
is in poor condition. Compared to other temples nearby such as Prambanan, Sewu,
and Sambisari the temple is not well maintained.
The temple stands on a square 14.20 meters sub-basement. The temple plan is cross-shaped, and
designed as a twelve-cornered polygon. Each of four cardinal points has stairs and gates adorned
with Kala-Makara and rooms measuring 3,5 square meters. No statue is to be found in the
smaller rooms facing north, west, and south; but the lotus pedestals suggest that the rooms once
contains statues of Bodhisattvas. The temple is richly decorated with buddhist figures such as the
Bodhisattva and gana. The Kala Face above the southern door has been photographed and used
by a number of foreign academics in their books to give an idea of the artistry in stone by Central
Javanese artists of a millennia ago. Niches where the statues would have been placed are found
inside and outside the temple. The niches adorned an outer wall intricately carved with Kala,
gods and divinities in scenes depicting the svargaloka, the celestial palace of the gods, apsaras,
and gandharvas.

26
 One of the niches on the wall of Kalasan temple
The giant Kala's head on the southern door/
adorned with carvings of Kala giant and scene of deities in svargaloka

The roof of the temple is designed in three sections. The lower one are still according to the
polygonal shape of the body and contains small niches with statues of boddhisatvas seated on
lotus. Each of this niches is crowned with stupas. The middle part of the roof is
in octagonal (eight-sided) shape. Each of this eight sides adorned with niches contains statue of
a Dhyani Buddha flanked by two standing boddhisatvas. The top part of the roof is almost
circular and also have 8 niches crowned with single large dagoba. The octagonal aspect of the
structure has led to speculation of non-buddhist elements in the temple, similar to some
interpretations of the early Borobudur structure.

The temple is facing east, with the eastern room also served as access to main central room. In
the larger main room there is lotus pedestal and throne carved with makara, lion, and elephant
figure, similar to the Buddha Vairocana throne founds in Mendut temple. According to the
Kalasan inscription, the temple once houses the large (probably reaching 4 meters tall) statue of
the Boddhisattvadevi Tara. By the design of the throne, most probably the statue of the goddess
was in seated position and made from bronze.[4] Now the statue is missing, probably the same
fate as bronze Buddha statue in Sewu temple, being looted for scrap metal over centuries.
On the outer wall of the temple found the traces of plaster called vajralepa (lit: diamond plaster).
The same substance also founds in nearby Sari temple. The white-yellowish plaster was applied
to protect the temple wall, but now the plaster has worn off.

The temple is located on archaeologically rich Prambanan plain. Just a few hundred meters north
east from Kalasan temple is located Sari temple. Candi Sari most probably was the monastery
mentioned in Kalasan inscription. Further east lies the Prambanan complex, Sewu temple,
and Plaosan temple.

27
Jordaan, R. E. (1998). The Tārā temple of Kalasan in Central Java. Bulletin de l’École Française
d’Extrême-Orient, 85, 163–183. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43733871

3 pre-Angkorean architectural styles :

1. Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): were built in rounded, plain colonettes with capitals that
include a bulb.
2. Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Colonettes are larger than those of previous styles. Buildings
were more heavily decorated but had general decline in standards.
3. Kompong Preah style (700–800): Having decorative rings on colonettes which remain
cylindrical. Brick constructions were being continued.
The following periods and styles may be distinguished
1. Kulen style (825–875): Tower is mainly square and relatively high as well as
brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds but square and octagonal
colonettes begin to appear.
2. Preah Ko style (877–886): small brick towers and for the great beauty and
delicacy of their lintels.
3. Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed in
the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap.
4. Koh Ker Style (921–944): Scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick still
main material but sandstone also used.
5. Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer
built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common style
is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup.
6. Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian temple
constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its small scale and
the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including several famous
narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian mythology.

28
 7. Khleang Style (968–1010): First to use galleries. Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal
colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A few temples that were built in this
style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas.
8. Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of
King Udayadityavarman II 
9. Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175: come to be known as the classical
style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style are Banteay
Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand.
10. Bayon Style (1181–1243) exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts
with the perfection of Angkor Wat.
11. Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction under
Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its decline.

1. In the past, the ancestors of the Indonesian people learned that carving techniques
indeed originated from India. This can be compared to the results of the two places that
show similarities, although on the other hand in Indonesia there has been a Megalithic
era which is closely related to stone processing and an older era namely Neolithic that is
closely related to metal processing.

2. Without the knowledge of metal processing, it is certain that it will be difficult to create
metal chisels to process hard stones like andesite.

3. Indonesia has a different technique from South India, especially in forming roof cavities,
with the technique of stacking rooms, while in India a flat ceiling was used as a
consequence of the post-and-lintel technique.
4. It was only in the 10th century that new cavity stacking techniques were used in South
India, which is identical to Java.

5. In Java itself this technique had already been known since the early 7th century or even
before that, in the Old Classical era. This technique then developed rapidly in the Middle
Classical era and reached its peak when Prambanan was built. Prambanan is the first
tallest building in Southeast Asia.

6. In addition, in the era of the Prambanan and Borobudur Temples, the construction
technique of the connection between the stone and certain keys that support the building
to be made larger and taller was known.

7. In South India there were no large and tall temples in this particular era, as it was not
until the 10th century that high buildings were recognized in the remains of the Chola.

8. By looking at the phenomena above it can be estimated that the architecture of large
temples in India cannot be ruled out to have been influenced by Javanese tradition,
especially starting in the 10th century considering that on the island of Java many large
temple buildings had been built at the end of the 8th-9th century.

9. This can indicate the existence of backflow from Indonesia to India. On the other hand,
relations with India were actually quite close, as demonstrated in the 9th century by
Balaputradewa, King of Sriwijaya in the Ancient Mataram Era.

29
A Reinterpretation of the Relationship between the Architecture of Ancient Mataram Era Temples in Indonesia and of
7th-10th century Temples in South India,Rahadhian Prajudi Herwindo',Basuki Dwisusanto,Indri A-International
Journal of Engineering Research and Technology. ISSN 0974-3154, Volume 13, Number 2 (2020), p

The Borobudur temple: the Buddhist architecture in Indonesia ,the author Katarzyna Kowal
presents the genesis of the temple, the facts concerning its rediscovery after centuries of oblivion,
and Buddhist cosmology embodied in the form of a three-dimensional mandala on which the
architectural form of Borobudur is based. The author studies Buddhist symbolism of the
architectural form, reliefs and sculptures created on the basis of regional patterns and local
Javanese culture of everyday life. This temple is one of the most perfect examples of translation
of Buddhist cosmology and symbolism into an architectural form. Being the oldest temple in
Indonesia, Borobudur Temple has survived over 1200 years of volcanic eruptions, terrorist
bombs and earthquakes. The Borobudur Temple has a base of 1200 square metre terrace topped
with 6 tiers and has the majority of this monument walls adorned with numerous Buddha statues.
Its’ foundation hints to hold more indigenous Javanese traits than Hindu or Buddhist.
The monument is large and given if one were to place the galleries end to end, it spans at least 5
kilometres. The monument also took the form of a step pyramid and followed a mandala plan. 
In 1885, a  group of buddha reliefs was found hidden at the back of the line stones at the base.
Words inscribed in ancient Javanese script were also found there describing how the earthly
world is dominated and led by greed. The real base is hidden by an encasement base which till
today no one knows why. 

However, a theory stands to say that it was built because the original footing goes against the
Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning. 

Buddhist Cosmology
After much research on the Borobudur Temple, there is no found evidence as to the purpose of
the construction of the temple. However, given a theory, it states that the monument represents
Buddhist cosmology and symbolises some sort of Buddhist mandala. Borobudur Temple pushes
to represent the 3 realms of Buddhist cosmology. The base represents the world of desire
followed by the world of form and lastly the world of formlessness which is the highest level of
enlightenment and located at the top of the temple.
The experience walking through the gallery and entering the world of form shows engraved
people that seem to be trying to achieve excellence over worldly desires. There is evidence of
women trying to seduce buddha where he is seen to be meditating and ignoring the seduction of
the women. 
COMPOSITION
Borobudur Temple is made with andesite stones taken from neighbouring stone quarries. The
stones were all cut to size and then brought over and stacked onto one another. Instead of using
mortar, knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to join the stones. As for the roof of stupas,
niches and arched gateways, they were all built with the corbelling method. 
The reliefs of the monument are all done on-site. The drainage system was also in mind when the
monument was built. Borobudur temple catered to its region’s high stormwater run-off by
installing 100 spouts each with a unique carved gargoyle that looks like a Makara. The spouts are
all installed at the corners of the monument.

30
As for the Borobudur Temple foundation, it was built on a natural hill and due to its pyramid
shape, it was first thought to be a stupa that was intended as a Buddha shrine, not a temple.
Stupas are typically constructed as a sign of devotion towards Buddhism whereas a temple is
made to be a place of worship towards a religion. After much study and excavation, Borobudur is
settled to be a temple due to its meticulous details and structure.

Interestingly, in the past, they did not use the metric or imperial system. Instead, they used tala, a
basic unit of measurement used during that time. Tala is the length of a human face, starting
from the forehead’s hairline to the tip of the chin or the length of the tip of the thumb to the tip of
the middle finger when the hand is fully stretched out. Tala is relative from one individual to
another. 

Furthermore, the Borobudur Temple also holds a 4:6:9 ratio around the monument. Gunadharma,

31
the architect, used the 4:6:9 ratio to layout the accurate and precise dimensions of the fractal and
self-similar geometry that the Borobudur Temple holds. This same ratio can also be found in
neighbouring Buddhist temples. 

To add on, the ratio also possesses calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance
which seems appropriate in the design of the Borobudur Temple.
All in all, the Borobudur Temple has attracted many tourists alike to visit and further indulge in
this 9th century-built temple. As much as research goes, the true meaning as to why it was built
is unknown, but this structure still stands to fascinate and allow anyone who visits to feel calm
and captivated by this form of architecture. 

Reference
Borobudur: Golden Tales of Buddhas by John N. Miksic and Marcello Tranchini. 

32
33
34
35
Buddhist Stupa Monograph

36
37
 Architecture

Borobudur ground plan took form of a Mandala

Borobudur is built as a single large stupa, and when viewed from above takes the form of a
giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the
nature of mind. The foundation is a square, approximately 118 meters (387 ft) on each side. It
has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The upper
platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is
bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the
pierced enclosures.

Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of stones were taken from neighbouring

rivers to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid
without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between
stones. Reliefs were created in-situ after the building had been completed. The monument is
equipped with a good drainage system to cater for the area's high stormwater run-off. To avoid
inundation, 100 spouts are provided at each corner with a unique carved gargoyles in the shape
of giants or makaras.

Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively.
Borobudur differs markedly with the general design of other structures built for this purpose.
Instead of building on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. The building technique
is, however, similar to other temples in Java. With no inner space as in other temples and its
general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have
served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Lord Buddha.
Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other
hand, is used as a house of deity and has inner spaces for worship. The complexity of the
monument's meticulous design suggests Borobudur is in fact a temple. Congregational worship
in Borobudur is performed by means of pilgrimage. Pilgrims were guided by the system of
staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage
of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed with the symbolism of sacred
knowledge according to the Buddhist cosmology.

38
A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall.

Lion gate guardian.

Little is known about the architect Gunadharma. His name is actually recounted from Javanese
legendary folk tales rather than written in old inscriptions. The basic unit measurement he used
during the construction was called tala, defined as the length of a human face from the forehead's
hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle
finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance.] The unit metrics is then
obviously relative between persons, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey
conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The
architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of Borobudur. The identical ratio
formula was further found in the nearby Buddhist temples of Pawon and Mendhut. Archeologists
conjectured the purpose of the ratio formula and the tala dimension has calendrical, astronomical
and cosmological themes, as of the case in other Hindu and Buddhist temple of Angkor
Wat in Cambodia.

A carved gargoyle-shaped water spout for water drainage.

The main vertical structure can be divided into three groups: base (or foot), body, and top, which
resembles the three major division of a human body. The base is a 123x123 m (403.5x403.5 ft)
square in size and 4 meters (13 ft) high of walls. The body is composed of five square platforms
each with diminishing heights. The first terrace is set back 7 meters (23 ft) from the edge of the
base. The other terraces are set back by 2 meters (7 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage.
The top consists of 3 circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of perforated stupas,
arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center; the top of which is the
highest point of the monument (35 meters (115 ft) above ground level). Access to the upper part
is through stairways at the centre of each 4 sides with a number of arched gates, watched by a
total of 32 lion statues. The gates is adorned with Kala's head carved on top center of each
portals with Makaras projecting from each sides. This Kala-Makara style is commonly found in
Javanese temples portal. The main entrance is at the eastern side, the location of the first

39
narrative reliefs. On the slopes of the hill, there are also stairways linking the monument to the
low-lying plain.

The monument's three divisions symbolize three stages of mental preparation towards the
ultimate goal according to the Buddhist cosmology, namely Kāmadhātu (the world of
desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless
world).] Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the
body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The
architectural features between three stages have metaphorical differences. For instance, square
and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in
the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms – where men are still attached with forms
and names – changes into the world of the formless.

In 1885, a hidden structure under the base

was accidentally discovered. The "hidden
foot" contains reliefs, 160 of which are
narrative describing the real Kāmadhātu. Narrative Panels Distribution
The remaining reliefs are panels with short
inscriptions that apparently describe section location story #panels
instruction for the sculptors, illustrating the
scene to be carved. The real base is hidden hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160
by an encasement base, the purpose of Lalitavistara 120
which remains a mystery. It was first main wall
Jataka/Avadana 120
thought that the real base had to be covered first gallery
to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the Jataka/Avadana 372
balustrade
monument through the hill. There is Jataka/Avadana 128
another theory that the encasement base balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100
was added because the original hidden foot second
gallery main wall Gandavyuha 128
was incorrectly designed, according
to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book main wall Gandavyuha 88
about architecture and town third gallery
balustrade Gandavyuha 88
planning. Regardless of its intention, the
encasement base was built with detailed fourth gallery main wall Gandavyuha 84
and meticulous design with aesthetics and balustrade Gandavyuha 72
religious compensation.Reliefs Total 1,460
Borobudur contains approximately 2,670
individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and
1,212 decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is
2,500 square meters (26,909.8 sq ft) and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and
the five square platforms (Rupadhatu).
The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara. are grouped into 11 series
encircled the monument with the total length of 3,000 meters (9,843 ft). The hidden foot contains
the first series with 160 narrative panels and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout
walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left.
Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while on the balustrade read from left to
right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who

40
move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right.

The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two
superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the biography
of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also balustrades in the first and the second
galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The remaining panels are devoted to
Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of the Perfect
Wisdom.

The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)

The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete
illustration of cause and effect. There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to
murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that
include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell
and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with the
full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death).
The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama.

The story starts from the glorious descent of the Lord Buddha from the Tushita heaven, and ends
with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares.[48] The relief shows the birth of the Buddha
as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in present-
day Nepal).

The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in heavens and on earth, to
welcome the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva.[48] Before descending from Tushita heaven,
the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He descended
on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen Maya's right womb.
Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that his son would become either a
sovereign or a Buddha.
While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the Lumbini park outside
the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right hand and
she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until the prince
becomes the Buddha.

41
Prince Siddhartha Gautama become an ascetic hermit.
Prince Siddhartha story (Jataka) and other legendary persons (Avadana)
Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Siddhartha. Avadanas are
similar to jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in
avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and
the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.
The first 20 lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the Sudhanakumaravadana or the
saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades are
devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala.[50] The remaining 237 panels depict stories from
other sources, as do for the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some jatakas stories
are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's forefather).
Sudhana's search for the Ultimate Truth (Gandavyuha)
Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's
tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and
fourth) and also half of the second gallery; comprising in total of 460 panels. The principal figure
of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th panel.
The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during Buddha's samadhi in
the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.

During his search, Sudhana visited no less than 30 teachers but none of them had satisfied him
completely. He was then instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, where he was given
the first doctrine. As his journey continues, Sudhana meets (in the following order) Supratisthita,
the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja,
the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa,

the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara,

the upasika Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva Mahadeva, Queen
Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri. Each meeting has given Sudhana a
specific doctrine, knowledge and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the third gallery.

After the last meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of
Bodhisattva Samantabhadra; depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth gallery
is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally end with Sudhana's
achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.
Buddha statues

42
A headless Buddha statue inside a stupa./ A Buddha statue with the hand position
of dharmachakra mudra (turning the Wheels of the Law).

Apart from the story of Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of
various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the
five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform
(the Arupadhatu level).

The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of
the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the
upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and
the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At
the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside
perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, that
add up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly headless)
and 43 are missing (since the monument's discovery, heads have been stolen as collector's items,
mostly by Western museums).

At glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them in
the mudras or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South,
West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana. The
first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which the
Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at
the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same mudra: Zenith.
Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism. They
are Abhaya mudra for Amoghasiddhi (north), Vara mudra for Ratnasambhava (south), Dhyana
mudra for Amitabha (west), Bhumisparsa mudra for Aksobhya (east) and Dharmachakra
mudra for Vairochana (zenith).

43
 BIOMIMICRY as a Inspiration for the Borobudur

Architects and painters of Borobudur before starting that new project, must have had an have an
empty canvas in front of them. The cleanness of the canvas or white parchment opened infinite
possibilities of design ideas for a future project.

But how should an architect start his/her projects? How do architects get inspired? Some
architects find inspiration by the historical context of the site, others prefer to retake materials’
qualities, and finally, some architects prefer to observe their surroundings and the environmental
typologies.

The latter design approach is what characterizes some projects that are the result of forms
inspired by nature. Architects have long been inspired by nature. ... New technologies are now
helping architects recreate complex structures found in the nature by using modern construction
methods and materials. Biomimetic architecture draws its influence from the Earth.

Nature has been one of the most evident influences in architecture and in various forms over the
years. The humbleness and the beauty of nature have been one of the most inspirational idea for
the humans. Small dwellings and the pattern of their arrangement have been inspired by nature.
What is architecture inspired by nature called?
Organic architecture uses nature-inspired geometrical forms in design and seeks to reconnect the
human with his or her surroundings. These strategies, which are introduced in this paper as
'nature-inspired design strategies', provide pathways and principles aimed at developing designs
that are in natural balance with their environment. Common principles include the use of
materials in closed loops and using solar driven energy systems.

Why is nature important in design?

Nature has an endless palette to call on for inspiration, a library of textures, patterns, and
motifs. Nature informs the moods of interior spaces; their qualities of light, their warmth, their
tactility and their familiarity to human hands
Why are we inspired by nature?

Nature has a way of removing distractions, of commanding our deepest attention. ...
Following this kind of thinking, nature is full of lessons we can draw from, lessons which can
inform and inspire our daily lives.

44
Ancient as well as modern buildings have been inspired by nature. So, why not the Borobudur? It
is quiet possible that apart from the many design influences upon it due to Buddhism and/or its
predecessors in Stupa building, nature too may have had an effect.

45
46
Gaudí | Info-graphic - Design by nature | Basílica i Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada Família:

Detail of the roof in the nave. Gaudí designed the columns to mirror trees and branches.
SBA73 from Sabadell, Catalunya - Tot conflueix / All's conected
La Sagrada Família per fí té un interior acabat: és una meravella, el fruit del geni únic d'Antoni
Gaudí. Falten les paraules per descriure- This is the crossing and dome of the Sagrada Família
basilica, Barcelona, Catalonia. The catalan basilica of La Sagrada Família (The Holy Family) is a
major icon of Barcelona. After more than a century of construction, in 2011 the interior was
finished and consecrated by the pope Benedict XVI. Work began in 1882 and is scheduled to be
completed in 2026. 

47
 TITOBOWL is a vessel
specially designed for tasting different varieties and dressings olives with pit, although it
has been adapted for tasting pitted olives and other snacks because turning the top cap of
the container, it becomes a toothpick holder

48
BOROBUDUR resembles the structural concept and entity of Petronas Twin Towers

Petronas Twin Towers, pair of skyscraper office buildings in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, that are
among the world’s tallest buildings. What type of structure are the Petronas Towers?

The plan for each tower is identical: an eight-lobed circular structure that contains 88 stories of
occupiable space and a pyramid-shaped pinnacle surmounted by a slender steel spire. Both rise
to a height of 1,483 feet (451.9 metres), which includes 242 feet (73.6 metres) for pinnacle and
spire – much like the borobudur.It is the The 7th Tallest Building In The World Today. When it
was built in 1998, the 88-storey Petronas Towers held the top record for the tallest building in the
world at a staggering height of 1,483 feet! ... As such, the Petronas Towers still stands today as
the tallest twin towers in the world.Just like the Borobudur, the Petronas twin towers built to
represent Malaysia's increasing wealth and the nation's desire to feature more prominently on the
international stage, it was decided to build a pair of landmark 88-storey towers to house the
offices of the national oil and gas company, Petronas.

The Twin Towers, built to house the headquarters of Petronas, the national petroleum company
of Malaysia, were designed by the Argentine-born American architect Cesar Pelli; they were
completed in 1998. The plan for each tower is identical: an eight-lobed circular structure that
contains 88 stories of occupiable space and a pyramid-shaped pinnacle surmounted by a slender
steel spire. Both rise to a height of 1,483 feet (451.9 metres), which includes 242 feet (73.6
metres) for pinnacle and spire. Each building is supported by 16 large columns around its
perimeter, which, along with the rest of the frame, are made of high-strength, steel-reinforced

49
concrete rather than of structural steel; the exterior sheathing consists of stainless steel and glass.
A skybridge two stories tall links the two towers between the 41st and 42nd stories.1

In 1996, after the spires had been attached to the buildings (and each had thus reached its full
height), the Petronas Twin Towers were declared the world’s tallest buildings, eclipsing the
former record holder, the 110-story Sears (now Willis) Tower in Chicago. The roof of the Sears
Tower was actually more than 200 feet (60 metres) higher than those of the Twin Towers, but the
spires on the towers’ pinnacles were regarded as integral parts of the overall architectural
structure (see Researcher’s Note: Heights of buildings). The Twin Towers, in turn, lost their
preeminent status in 2003 after a spire was put in place atop the Taipei 101 (Taipei Financial
Center) building, in Taipei, Taiwan, and that structure reached a height of 1,667 feet (508
metres).

50
Development of the Petronas Towers Tower 1 level 43 floor plan from a Rub el Hizb symbol.

51
The cross section of the Petronas Towers is based on a Rub el Hizb, albeit with circular sectors
similar to the bottom part of the Qutub Minar.

Base of the Christ steeple under construction (2009)Etan J. Tal - Own work-Rebars of Sagrada
Familia roof in construction Note rust and corrosion of rebar and different materials used for the
rebar in different areas

____________________________________________________________________

Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, designed by Cesar Pelli & Associates.
J. Apicella/Cesar Pelli & Associates

52
Seashell Architectures,Kamon Jirapong,Robert J.
Krawczykhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/239537510_Seashell_Architectures/stats

The Borobudur as a seashell

A seashell or sea shell, also known simply as a shell, is a hard, protective outer layer usually
created by an animal that lives in the sea. The shell is part of the body of the animal. Empty
seashells are often found washed up on beaches by beachcombers. The shells are empty because
the animal has died and the soft parts have been eaten by another animal or have decomposed.
Why is a building like a seashell?

shell structure, in building construction, a thin, curved plate structure shaped to transmit applied
forces by compressive, tensile, and shear stresses that act in the plane of the surface. They are
usually constructed of concrete reinforced with steel mesh. Seashells are the exoskeletons of
mollusks such as snails, clams, oysters and many others. Such shells have three distinct layers
and are composed mostly of calcium carbonate with only a small quantity of protein--no more
than 2 percent. These shells, unlike typical animal structures, are not made up of cells. Shell
Structures are defined as structures that are capable of maintaining their shape and the support
loads without any help of the frame or the solid mass materials. The term shell is generally used
to describe structures that possess high strength and rigidity due to their thin form. Shells
are structures enclosing buildings with smooth continuous surfaces (such as vaults and domes).
There are shallow and deep shells. Typically, upper parts develop compression and the lower
parts develop tension.

The wholeness of natural form indicates that the form and forces are always in some sense of
equilibrium. In most of natural forms, the quality of equilibrium may be difficult to recognize.
However, seashells are one of the natural forms whose functions are simple enough to be
approximated by measurable mathematical relationships. The focus of this study was to
understand the seashell form as applicable to human architectures. Digital methods are the

53
language to analyze, create, and simulate seashell forms, as well as, suggest a variety of possible
architectural forms.

The structures in nature are great lessons for human study. Having been in development for
several billion years, only the most successful structural forms have survived. The
resourcefulness of material use, the underlying structural systems and the profound capacity to
respond to a variety of climatic and environmental forces make natural form tremendous
exemplars to human architectures.

Difference between solid frame and shell structures?

A frame structure is a very sturdy structure, often quite tall, which is typically made up of beams,
columns and slabs. ... Shell structures are typically curved, light-weight structures. Examples of
natural shell structures include coconut shells, tortoise shells, sea shells and nut shells.

Notable projects

54
 The world's first membrane roof and lattice steel shell in the Shukhov Rotunda, Nizhny
Novgorod, All-Russia exhibition, 1895.
 Geodesic shell of Nagoya Dome by Takenaka Corporation, Nagoya, Japan, 1997.
 Shell of Kresge Auditorium by Eero Saarinen, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1953.
ADVANTAGE OF THE SHELL IS THAT ITS CONCAVE SOFFIT REFELECTS AND
HELPS TO DISPERSE LIGHT OVER AREA BELOW. DISADVANTAGE IS THAT TOP
LIGHT MAY CAUSE OVER HEATING AND GLARE. ROOF COVERING: SHELLS MAY
BE COVERED WITH NON-FERROUS SHEET METAL, ASPHALT, BITUMEN FELT, A
PLASTIC MEMBRANE OR A LIQUID RUBBER BASE COATING.

Shell structure in technology?

A shell structure is one in which the strength reloads into the outer surface. They are usually
lighter than frame structures. For example, A turtle, an egg, an airplane, a boat, a lobster or a car
has a shell structure. The resistance of the structure depends on its form. A good example is an
egg.

Shell design and construction technologies have been developing over time

from stone masonry domes to brick, concrete, steel and then timber.
Shells are structures enclosing buildings with smooth continuous surfaces (such

55
as vaults and domes). There are shallow and deep shells. Typically, upper parts
develop compression and the lower parts develop tension.
Shells are usually built with increasing thickness from the crown towards the base. This is due to
the thrust force that becomes larger towards the base. However, there are internal stresses that
are created due to this increase in thickness.

Shell structures have a direct link to masonary. Borobudur is built from nearly two million stone
blocks ( others say 1.6 milliion)of andesite, a bluish-gray volcanic stone, Borobudur is shaped
like a stepped pyramid, the base of which is 402 feet long from north to south and 383 feet long
from east to west; the height is now 95 feet above ground level. It was built in three tiers: a
pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular
platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. These rocks were cut and joined in a method that
did not employ any mortar. Borobudur is made up of three different monuments: the main temple
at Borobudur and two smaller temples located to the east of the main temple. The two smaller
temples are the Pawon Temple and the Mendut Temple, the latter of which contains a
large sculpture of Buddha surrounded by two Bodhisattvas. Collectively, Borobudur, Pawon, and
Mendut symbolize the path the individual takes in attaining Nirvana. All three temples lie in a
straight line as well. Another Buddhist temple - Ngawen, which dates from the 8th century CE, is
located just 10 km (6 miles) from the main temple at Borobudur. A ruined Hindu temple, the
Banon Temple, lies just several meters north of Pawon.

The main temple structure at Borobudur is constructed on three levels with a pyramid-shaped
base replete with five square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular shaped platforms,
and on the upper level, a grand monumental stupa. Fine reliefs form part of the walls of the
temples and cover an area of approximately 2,520 m2 (27,125 square feet). 72 stupas each with a
statue of the Buddha inside are found around Borobudur's circular platforms. This allocation and
delineation of space conforms to the Buddhist conception of the universe. In Buddhist
cosmology, the universe is divided into three spheres known as arupadhatu, rupadhatu,
and kamadhatu. Arupadhatu is here represented by the three platforms and large stupa,
the rupadhatu is represented by the five terraces, and the kamadhatu is represented by the
temple's base.

The period in which the Javanese constructed Borobudur is shrouded in legend and mystery. No
records pertaining to its construction or purpose exist, and dating the temple is based on artistic
comparisons of reliefs and inscriptions found in Indonesia and elsewhere throughout Southeast
Asia. Strong cultural and religious influenced arrived in what is now present-day Indonesia from
the Indian subcontinent beginning around the 1st century CE. This influence grew rapidly from
c. 400 CE onwards. Hindu and Buddhist merchants and traders settled in the region, intermarried
with the local population, and facilitated long-distance trading relations between the indigenous
Javanese and ancient India. Over the centuries, the Javanese blended the culture and religions of
ancient India with their own. The name "Borobudur" itself is the subject of intense scholarly
debate and is a lingering mystery. Some scholars contend that the name stems from
the Sanskrit Vihara Buddha Uhr or the "Buddhist Monastery on a Hill," while others, in turn,
argue that Budur is nothing more than a Javanese place name. A stone tablet dating from 842 CE
makes mention of Bhumisambharabhudara or the "Mountain of Virtues of Ten Stages of the

56
Boddhisattva." It is probable that the name "Borobudur" could be related to "Bharabhudara."

Modern historians have all disagreed amongst each other as to the political and cultural events
that led to Borobudur's construction as well. It is possible that the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty
initially began construction of a Shivaite temple on the spot where Borobudur now sits around c.
775 CE and that they were unable to complete their temple as they were driven out of the area by
the Sailendra dynasty. (It should be noted, however, that other Javanese historians see the
Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties as one and the same family and that religious patronage simply
changed as a result of personal belief. The general consensus is that there were two rival
dynasties supporting different faiths.)

The principal components of masonry are
the masonry elements and mortar embedment. Masonry elements include naturally
available stones, dressed stones from quarries, made-up bricks of sun dried clay and
burnt bricks in kilns. Mortar in masonry has developed from primitive mud, natural bitumen to a
mixture of lime and sand and cement mortar.
Different structural and architectural forms have been developed from these simple building
materials. The combinations were used to bring about a variety of geometric forms and patterns.
From a structural point of view masonry is a homogenous material. The strength of
the masonry is limited by its weakest joints. Its load-carrying capacity largely depends on
the mortar strength. The allowed stresses in masonry are categorised into compressive axial,
compressive flexural, tensile flexural and shear.

Modern thin concrete shells derive from the ancestry Roman vaults. Concrete has some

advantages compared to masonry shells. Concrete is a manufactured material that acts well in
large scale works. It can bear compressive and shear forces many times greater
than brick and stone masonry. Concrete finds applications in thinner and larger structures. The
smoothness and homogeneity of concrete make it a monolithic material. Concrete can
carry tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion as compared to brick or stone masonry.
The development of cement, aggregate and reinforced concrete has made possible
the construction of thin shells.
Barrel shells
Barrel shells are one-way arched 'slabs' spanning between two parallel longitudinal supports.
There are long barrels and short barrels. Long barrels behave like a beam, while for short
barrel shells the top surfaces act like a series of adjacent arches.
Conoidal shells
Conoidal refers to a geometric shell formed by rotating a parabola, ellipse or hyperbola about
one axis. Conoids consist of two directrix and two straight line generatrices.
Cantilevered shells
These are shells that project outward from key points of support. Cantilevered thin shell
structures create a sense of an illusion of floating. Just like a cantilevered beam, a cross-
section of thin cantilevered shell displays zones with compression and tensile stresses which are
transferred to supports by reinforcements and concrete masses.

57
 Three huge sea shell sculptures
add whimsical delight to a north Jeddah roundabout intersection.

58
Santiago Calatrava About His Landmark Pavilion in Dubai(Above)
The soaring, bird-like confection for the United Arab Emirates offers stand-out flair for the Expo
2020 Host Nation pavilion
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

esan rahmani + mukul damle: bamboo pavilion-

solar access is the central focus of the communal living area. it is maximized by a radial funnel shaped
opening in the structure.

59
Dalian Shell Museum / The Design Institute of Civil Engineering & Architecture of DUT

Architects: The Design Institute of Civil Engineering & Architecture of DUT Location: Dalian, China Project

Area: 18,000 sqm Project Year: 2009 Photographs: Courtesy of Dalian Shell Museum

THERE ARE MANY POSSIBILITIES AND MUCH MYSTERY OVER THE

DESIGN.However, we must noyt forget that the site was built 1000 years ago
without any design or mechanical/civil engineering engagements.
That is the Miracle

60