Cinnamon Route & the Adi Buddha at Borobudur

In 1982, a 21-year-old Englishman named Phillip Beale (former British Royal Navy) was in
Indonesia to study traditional ships and marine traditions. When he climbed the Borobudur
Temple he found ten panels depicting sea vessels, indicating that the ships of the Borobudur
may have been a part of a famous shipping route that linked Indonesia to Africa many
centuries ago.

This was the Cinnamon-shipping route which took vessels carrying spices from Indonesian
waters across the Indian Ocean, past the Seychelles, Madagascar and South Africa to Ghana.
Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage; once a year, Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate “Vesak”
(the birth, enlightenment and passing away of Buddha) at the monument.

Restoration
Evidence suggests Borobudur was constructed in the 9th century and abandoned following
the 14th-century due to the decline of Hindu kingdoms in Java and the Javanese conversion
to Islam.

There is another theory stating that Borobudur was left to the ravages of nature in between
the 12th to 14th centuries when the power of Java shifted to the east of the island. The reason
for this shift is unknown but it is often speculated that there was a volcanic eruption and the
people moved away. There are manuscripts that relate stories of Javanese revisiting the site
in the 18th century. But it was the rediscovery by the British Sir Thomas Stanford Raffles
(the then British ruler of Java who was advised of its location by native Indonesians) in 1814
that led to greater recognition and also preservation efforts.

In 1815 Raffles commissioned an initial clean up where 200 labourers spent 45 days felling
trees and moving earth from the remains. Documentation and interpretation of the reliefs
revealed some Sanskrit instructions left for the carvers. Borobudur has since been preserved
through several restorations. The Indonesian Government and UNESCO undertook this
largest restoration project between 1975 and 1982. Following which, the monument was
listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The evidence for a belief in Adi-Buddha is also evidenced by the symbolism of Borobudur’s
final stupa. Inside that stupa once was an incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting
the Adi Buddha which is unimaginable by humans. This is seen as proof that theistic Buddhism
was present in Java since at least the 8th century.

Indonesian Buddhayana followers use the greeting Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. The
complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the books’ preface, letters, or
meetings is:
Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya
Namo Buddhaya, Bodhisatvaya Mahasatvaya

1
Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most
common of which is the stone Candi which are built as a symbol of Mount Meru. Others were
built in punden berundak (step pyramids) style — small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains
— and pertapaan, (‘places of austerities’ or hermitages) built on mountain slopes.

Buddha in an open stupa and the main stupa of Borobudur in the background.

A candi is a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesia, mostly built during the Zaman Hindu-
Buddha or "Hindu-Buddhist period" between circa the 4th and 15th centuries. The Great
Dictionary of the Indonesian Language of the Language Center defines a candi as an ancient
stone building used for worship, or for storing the ashes of cremated Hindu or Buddhist kings
and priests. Indonesian archaeologists describe candis as sacred structures of Hindu and

2
Buddhist heritage, used for religious rituals and ceremonies in Indonesia. However, ancient
secular structures such as gates, urban ruins, pools and bathing places are often called candi too,
while a shrine that specifically serves as a tomb is called a cungkup. In Hindu Balinese
architecture, the term candi refers to a stone or brick structure of single-celled shrine with
portico, entrance and stairs, topped with pyramidal roof and located within a pura. It is often
modeled after East Javanese temples, and functions as a shrine to a certain deity. To
the Balinese, a candi is not necessarily ancient, since candis continue to be (re-)built within these
puras, such as the reconstructed temple in Alas Purwo, Banyuwangi.
In contemporary Indonesian Buddhist perspective, candi also refers to a shrine, either ancient or
new. Several contemporary viharas in Indonesia for example, contain the actual-size replica or
reconstruction of famous Buddhist temples, such as the replica
of Pawon and Plaosan's perwara (small) temples. In Buddhism, the role of a candi as a shrine is
sometimes interchangeable with a stupa, a domed structure to store Buddhist relics or the ashes
of cremated Buddhist priests, patrons or benefactors. Borobudur, Muara Takus and Batujaya for
example are actually elaborate stupas.
In modern Indonesian language, the term candi can be translated as "temple" or similar structure,
especially of Hindu and Buddhist faiths. Thus temples of Cambodia (such as the Angkor
Wat), Champa (Central and Southern Vietnam), Thailand, Laos, Myanmar and India are also
called candi in Indonesian.
Terminology

Prambanan temple compound. The towering candi prasada (temple towers)[6] are believed to

represent the cosmic Mount Meru, the abode of gods.
Candi refers to a structure based on the Indian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal
tower above it, and a portico. The term Candi is given as a prefix to the many temple-mountains
in Indonesia, built as a representation of the Cosmic Mount Meru, an epitome of the universe.
However, the term also applied to many non-religious structures dated from the same period,
such as gapura (gates), petirtaan (pools) and some of habitation complexes. Examples of non-
temple candis are the Bajang Ratu and Wringin Lawang gates of Majapahit. The "Candi Tikus
bathing pool" in Trowulan and Jalatunda in Mount Penanggungan slopes, as well as the remnants
of non-religious habitation and urban structures such as Ratu Boko and some of Trowulan city
ruins, are also considered candi.
In ancient Java, a temple was probably originally called prāsāda (Sanskrit: प्रासाद), as
evidence in the Manjusrigrha inscription (dated from 792 CE), that mentioned "Prasada
Vajrasana Manjusrigrha" to refer to the Sewu temple. This term is in par with Cambodian and

3
Thai term prasat which refer to the towering structure of a temple.But in Sanskrit it means
offering to the Gods. Therefore one can say that a Temple was looked upon as a offering
From Hindu perspective, the term candi itself is believed was derived from Candika, one of the
manifestations of the goddess Durga as the goddess of death. This suggests that in
ancient Indonesia the candi had mortuary functions as well as connections with the afterlife. The
association of the name candi, candika or durga with Hindu-Buddhist temples is unknown
in India and other parts of Southeast Asia outside of Indonesia, such as Cambodia, Thailand,
or Burma.
Another theory from Buddhist perspective, suggested that the term candi might be a localized
form of the Pali word cedi (Sanskrit: caitya) — which related to Thai word chedi which refer to
a stupa, or it might be related to the Bodhisattva Candī (also known as Cundī or Candā).
Historians suggest that the temples of ancient Java were also used to store the ashes of cremated
deceased kings or royalty. This is in line with Buddhist concept of stupas as structures to store
Buddhist relics, including the ashes and remains of holy Buddhist priests or the Buddhist king,
patrons of Buddhism. The statue of god stored inside the garbhagriha (main chamber) of the
temple is often modeled after the deceased king and considered to be the deified person of the
king portrayed as Vishnu or Shiva according to the concept of devaraja. The example is the
statue of king Airlangga from Belahan temple in Pasuruan portrayed as Vishnu riding Garuda.

M A N D A L A A R C H I T E C T U R E

Borobudur ground plan taking the form of a Mandala

The candi architecture follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu Shastra.
The temple layout, especially in Central Java period, incorporated mandala temple plan
arrangements and also the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples. The candi was
designed to mimic Meru, the holy mountain the abode of gods. The whole temple is a model
of Hindu universe according to Hindu cosmology and the layers of Loka.

4
Structure elements

The Shiva temple Candi Prambanan consist of three ascending realms, temple's base (Bhurloka),

body (Bhurvaloka) and roof (Svarloka).
The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the less holy
to the holiest realms. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of
arranging elements in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of
the temple follows the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as
foot (base), body (center), and head (roof). The three zones is arranged according to a sacred
hierarchy. Each Hindu and Buddhist concepts has their own terms, but the concept's essentials is
identical. Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically)
consists of three zones.

 Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans,

animals also demons. Where humans still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of life.
The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm
of bhurloka.
 Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, rishis, ascetics,
and lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and the
body of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhuvarloka.
 Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm of gods, also known
as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temples is symbolized the realm
of svarloka. The roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel)
or vajra, or in eastern Java period, crowned by cube structure. While stupa or dagoba
cylindrical structure served as the pinnacle of Buddhist ones.

The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the Borobudur
Temple and  two smaller temples situatued to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The two
temples are Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a formidable monolith
accompanied by two Bodhisattvas, and Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose inner space does
not reveal which deity might have been the object of worship. Those three monuments represent
phases in the attainment of Nirvana.

The temple was used as a Buddhist temple from its construction until sometime between the 10th
and 15th centuries when it was abandoned. Since its re-discovery in the 19th century and
restoration in the 20th century, it has been brought back into a Buddhist archaeological site.
Borobudur Temple Compounds is an outstanding example of Indonesia’s art and architecture
from between the early 8th and late 9th centuries that exerted considerable influence on an
architectural revival between the mid-13th and early 16th centuries.

Borobudur Temple Compounds with its stepped, unroofed pyramid consisting of ten
superimposing terraces, crowned by a large bell-shaped dome is a harmonious marriage of
stupas, temple and mountain that is a masterpiece of Buddhist architecture and monumental arts.
.

5
Laid out in the form of a lotus, the sacred flower of Buddha, Borobudur Temple Compounds is
an exceptional reflection of a blending of the very central idea of indigenous ancestor worship
and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The ten mounting terraces of the entire structure
correspond to the successive stages that the Bodhisattva has to achieve before attaining to
Buddhahood.
The main temple is a stupa built in three tiers around a hill which was a natural centre: a
pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular
platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. The walls and balustrades are decorated with fine
low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,520 m2. Around the circular platforms are 72
openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha.The walls and balustrades are decorated
with fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,500 m2.
Around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha.
The vertical division of Borobudur Temple into base, body, and superstructure perfectly accords
with the conception of the Universe in Buddhist cosmology.

The Unfinished Buddha is so-called because of its incomplete nature; the hands of the statue
are not fully carved, the right arm is longer than the left and one of the shoulders is bigger than
the other.

From Hindu perspective, the term "candi" itself is believed was derived from Candika, one of the
manifestations of the goddess Durga as the goddess of death. This suggests that in ancient
Indonesia the "candi" had mortuary functions as well as connections with the afterlife. The
association of the name "candi", candika or durga with Hindu-Buddhist temples is unknown
in India and other parts of Southeast Asia outside of Indonesia, such as Cambodia, Thailand,
or Burma.
Another theory from Buddhist perspective, suggested that the term "candi" might be a localized
form of the Pali word cedi (Sanskrit: caitya) — which related to Thai word chedi which refer to
a stupa, or it might be related to the bodhisattva Candī (also known as Cundī or Candā).[12]
Historians suggest that the temples of ancient Java were also used to store the ashes of cremated
deceased kings or royalty. This is in line with Buddhist concept of stupas as structures to store
Buddhist relics, including the ashes and remains of holy Buddhist priests or the Buddhist king,
patrons of Buddhism. The statue of god stored inside the garbhagriha (main chamber) of the
temple is often modeled after the deceased king and considered to be the deified person of the
king portrayed as Vishnu or Shiva according to the concept of devaraja. The example is the
statue of king Airlangga from Belahan temple portrayed as Vishnu riding Garuda.

6
Style
Soekmono, an Indonesian archaeologist, has classified the candi styles into two main groups:
a central Java style, which predominantly date from before 1,000 CE, and an eastern Java style,
which date from after 1,000 CE. He groups the temples of Sumatra and Bali into the eastern
Java style.

Central Java style-Bubrah temple (RIGHT) Eastern Java style-Bajang Ratu gate

Bubrah temple near Prambanan, an example of Central Javanese style, while Bajang Ratu gate
in Trowulan is an example of Eastern Javanese style.

Parts
of the Central Java
Eastern Java Style
templ Style
e

Shape of
Tends to be slender and
the Tends to be bulky
tall
structure

The multiple parts of

Clearly shows stepped
stepped sections formed
Roof roof sections, usually
a combined roof
consist of 3 parts
structure smoothly

Pinnacle Stupa (Buddhist Cube (mostly Hindu

temples), Ratna or temples), sometimes
Vajra (Hindu temples) Dagoba cylindrical
structures (Buddhist

7
Parts
of the Central Java
Eastern Java Style
templ Style
e

temples)

Kala-Makara style;
Kala head without
Portal Only Kala head sneering
lower jaw opening its
and with the mouth complete
mouth located on top
niches with lower jaw located
of the portal,
adornmen on top of the portal,
connected with double
t Makara is absent
Makara on each side
of the portal

Projected rather flat

Projected rather high
from the background,
from the background,
Relief the images was done in
the images was done
stylized style similar to
in naturalistic style
Balinese wayang image

Linear, asymmetric,
followed topography of
Concentric mandala,
the site; with main
Layout symmetric, formal;
temple located in the
and with main temple
back or furthermost
location located in the center of
from the entrance, often
of the the complex
located in the highest
main surrounded by
ground of the
temple smaller perwara templ
complex, perwara templ
es in regular rows
es is located in front of
the main temple

Direction Mostly faced east Mostly faced west

Materials Mostly andesite stone Mostly red brick

8
Bima temple, one of Dieng temples. It was one of the earliest temples in Java.
There are material, form, and location exceptions to these general design traits. While
the Penataran, Jawi, Jago, Kidal and Singhasari temples, for example, belong to the eastern Java
group, they use andesite stone similar to the Central Java temple material. Temple ruins
in Trowulan, such as Brahu, Jabung and Pari temples use red brick. Also the Prambanan temple
is tall and slender similar to the east Java style, yet the roof design is Central Javan in style. The
location also do not always correlate with the temple styles, for example Candi Badut is located
in Malang, East Java, yet the period and style belongs to older 8th century central Javanese style.
The earlier northern central Java complexes, such as the Dieng temples, are smaller and contain
only several temples which exhibit simpler carving, whereas the later southern complexes, such
as Sewu temple, are grander, with a richer elaboration of carving, and concentric layout of the
temple complex.
The Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian megalithic design elements, such stepped
pyramids (punden berundak). These design cues are seen in the Sukuh and Cetho temples
in Mount Lawu in eastern Central Java, and in stepped sanctuary structures on the Mount
Penanggungan slopes that are similar to meso-American stepped pyramids.

Interlocking andesite stone blocks forming a corbeling arch in Borobudur.

9
 M A T E R I A L S

Most of well-preserved candi in Indonesia are made from andesite stone. This is mainly owed to

the stone's durability, compared to bricks, against tropical weathers and torrential rains.
Nevertheless, certain periods, especially the Majapahit era, saw the extensive use of red brick as
temple and building materials. The materials commonly used in temple construction in Indonesia
are:
I. Andesite  is an extrusive volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is
the intermediate type between basalt and rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in
texture, and is composed predominantly of sodium-rich plagioclase plus pyroxene or hornblende.
It is the extrusive equivalent of plutonic diorite. Characteristic of subduction zones, andesite
represents the dominant rock type in island arcs. The average composition of the continental
crust is andesitic. Along with basalts, they are a major component of the Martian crust.
The name andesite is derived from the Andes mountain range, where this rock type is found in
abundance.

QAPF diagram with basalt/andesite field highlighted in yellow. Andesite is distinguished from

basalt by SiO2 > 52%.

10
Andesite is field O2 in the TAS classification.

Photomicrograph of andesite in thin section (between crossed polars)

Andesite is an aphanitic (fine-grained) igneous rock that is intermediate in its content

of silica and low in alkali metals. It has less than 20% quartz and 10% feldspathoid by volume,
with at least 65% of the feldspar in the rock consisting of plagioclase. This places andesite in
the basalt/andesite field of the QAPF diagram. Andesite is further distinguished from basalt by
its silica content of over 52%.However, it is often not possible to determine the mineral
composition of volcanic rocks, due to their very fine grain size, and andesite is then defined
chemically as volcanic rock with a content of 57% to 63% silica and not more than about 6%
alkali metal oxides. This places andesite in the O2 field of the TAS classification. Basaltic
andesite, with a content of 52% to 57% silica, is represented by the O1 field of the TAS
classification but is not a recognized type in the QAPF classification.
Andesite is usually light to dark gray in colour, due to its content
of hornblende or pyroxene minerals. but can exhibit a wide range of shading. Darker andesite
can be difficult to distinguish from basalt, but a common rule of thumb, used away from the
laboratory, is that andesite has a color index less than 35.

11
The plagioclase in andesite varies widely in sodium content, from anorthite to oligoclase, but is
typically andesine. The pyroxene minerals that may be present include augite, pigeonite,
or orthopyroxene. Magnetite, zircon, apatite, ilmenite, biotite, and garnet are common accessory
minerals.[13] Alkali feldspar may be present in minor amounts. Classification of andesites may be
refined according to the most abundant phenocryst. Example: hornblende-phyric andesite, if
hornblende is the principal accessory mineral.
Andesite is usually porphyritic, containing larger crystals (phenocrysts) of plagioclase formed
prior to the extrusion that brought the magma to the surface, embedded in a finer-grained matrix.
Phenocrysts of pyroxene or hornblende are also common. These minerals have the highest
melting temperatures of the typical minerals that can crystallize from the melt [15] and are
therefore the first to form solid crystals.
Andesite is typically formed at convergent plate margins but may also occur in other tectonic
settings. Magmatism in island arc regions comes from the interplay of the subducting plate and
the mantle wedge, the wedge-shaped region between the subducting and overriding plates.
During subduction, the subducted oceanic crust is subjected to increasing pressure and
temperature, leading to metamorphism. Hydrous minerals such
as amphibole, zeolites, chlorite etc. (which are present in the oceanic lithosphere) dehydrate as
they change to more stable, anhydrous forms, releasing water and soluble elements into the
overlying wedge of mantle. Fluxing water into the wedge lowers the solidus of
the mantle material and causes partial melting. Due to the lower density of the partially molten
material, it rises through the wedge until it reaches the lower boundary of the overriding plate.
Melts generated in the mantle wedge are of basaltic composition, but they have a distinctive
enrichment of soluble elements (e.g. potassium (K), barium (Ba), and lead (Pb)) which are
contributed from sediment that lies at the top of the subducting plate. Although there is evidence
to suggest that the subducting oceanic crust may also melt during this process, the relative
contribution of the three components (crust, sediment, and wedge) to the generated basalts is still
a matter of debate
Basalt thus formed can contribute to the formation of andesite through fractional crystallization,
partial melting of crust, or magma mixing, all of which are discussed next.
II.GENESIS;
Intermediate volcanic rocks are created via several processes:

1. Fractional crystallization of a mafic parent magma.

2. Partial melting of crustal material.
3. Magma mixing between felsic rhyolitic and mafic basaltic magmas in a magma
reservoir
4. Partial melting of metasomatized mantle

Andesite is especially abundant in the volcanic island of Java, mined from a certain cliffs or
stone quarry with andesite deposit formed from compressed ancient magma chamber or cooled
down lava spill. Each andesite stone is custom made into blocks with interlocking technique, to
construct temple walls, floors and building. Andesite stones are easily formed and carved with
iron chisel, making it a suitable material for temple walls and decorations carved as bas-reliefs.
The walls of andesite was then carved with exquisite narrative bas-reliefs, which can be observed

12
in many temples, especially in Borobudur and Prambanan. Andesite rocks are also used as the
material for carved statues: the images of deities and Buddha.

Red brick Jabung temple, dated from Majapahit period.

Brick is also used to construct temples. The oldest brick temple structure is the Batujaya temple
compound in Karawang, West Java, dated from 2nd to 12th century CE. Although brick had
been used in the candi of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and
15th centuries who mastered it.[15] Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples
had a strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples are Brahu temple
in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in Probolinggo. Temples of Sumatra, such as Bahal
temple, Muaro Jambi, and Muara Takus are made from bricks. However, compared to lava
andesite stone, clay red bricks are less durable, especially if exposed to hot and humid tropical
elements and torrential monsoon rain. As a result, many red brick structures were crumbling
down over centuries, and reconstruction efforts require recasting and replacing the damaged
structure with new bricks.

III.Tuff is a type of rock made of volcanic ash ejected from a vent during a volcanic eruption.

Following ejection and deposition, the ash is lithified into a solid rock. Rock that contains greater
than 75% ash is considered tuff, while rock containing 25% to 75% ash is described
as tuffaceous (for example, tuffaceous sandstone). Tuff is a relatively soft rock, so it has been
used for construction since ancient times. Because it is common in Italy, the Romans used it
often for construction. The Rapa Nui people used it to make most of the moai statues on Easter
Island. Tuff can be classified as either igneous or sedimentary rock. It is usually studied in the
context of igneous petrology, although it is sometimes described using sedimentological terms.

Tuff  is quite abundant near Javanese volcanoes or limestone formations. In Indonesian and
Javanese languages, tuff is called batu putih (white stone), which corresponds to its light color.
The chalky characteristic of this stone, however, has made it unsuitable to be carved into bas-
reliefs of building ornaments. Compared to andesite, tuff is considered as an inferior quality
building material. In Javanese temples, tuff usually are used as stone fillings — forming the
inner structure of the temple — while the outer layer employed andesite that is more suitable to

13
be carved. The tuff quarries can be found in Sewu limestone ranges near Ratu Boko hill. The tuff
fillings in the temple can be examined in Ratu Boko crematorium temple. Tuff was used as
building material of outer walls of temple compound, such as te walls found buried around Sewu
and Sambisari temple.
IV.Stucco is materials similar to modern concrete, made from the mixture of sand, stone, water,
and sometimes ground clamshell. Stucco or render is a construction material made
of aggregates, a binder, and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a very dense solid. It is
used as a decorative coating for walls and ceilings, exterior walls, and as a sculptural and artistic
material in architecture. Stucco can be applied on construction materials such as metal, expanded
metal lath, concrete, cinder block, or clay brick and adobe for decorative and structural purposes.
In English, "stucco" sometimes refers to a coating for the outside of a building and "plaster" to a
coating for interiors; as described below, however the materials themselves often have little to no
differences. Other European languages, notably including Italian, do not have the same
distinction; stucco means plaster in Italian and serves for both
Stucco has also been used as a sculptural and artistic material. Stucco relief was used in the
architectural decoration schemes of many ancient cultures. Examples of Egyptian, Minoan,
and Etruscan stucco reliefs remain extant. In the art of Mesopotamia and ancient Persian art there
was a widespread tradition of figurative and ornamental internal stucco reliefs, which continued
into Islamic art, for example in Abbasid Samarra, now using geometrical and plant-based
ornament. As the arabesque reached its full maturity, carved stucco remained a very common
medium for decoration and calligraphic inscriptions. Indian architecture used stucco as a material
for sculpture in an architectural context. It is rare in the countryside.
In Roman art of the late Republic and early Empire, stucco was used extensively for the
decoration of vaults. Though marble was the preferred sculptural medium in most regards, stucco
was better for use in vaults because it was lighter and better suited to adapt to the curvature of
the ceiling. Baroque and Rococo architecture makes heavy use of stucco. Examples can be found
in churches and palaces, where stucco is mostly used to provide a smooth, decorative transition
from walls to ceiling, decorating and giving measure to ceiling surfaces. Stucco is an integral
part of the art of belcomposto, the Baroque concept that integrates the three classic
arts, architecture, sculpture, and painting.
The Greco-Buddhist art of modern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan made extensive use in
monasteries and temples of stucco for three-dimensional monumental sculpture as well as reliefs.
These were usually carved from a rough modelling over a framework and then painted. Similar
techniques are used for the life-size statues decorating the gopurams of Hindu temples in
modern South Asia.

The stucco as temple building material is observable in the Batujaya temple compound in West

Java.

14
Traces of worn off vajralepa plaster on Sari's relief. Statue of seated Buddha; c. 300s; overall:
36.9 cm; from Hadda (Afghanistan); Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, USA)

V.Plaster called vajralepa (Sanskrit: diamond plaster) is used to coat the temple walls. The

white-yellowish plaster is made from the mixture of ground limestone, tuff or white earth
(kaolin), with plant substances such as gums or resins as binder. The varjalepa white plaster was
applied upon the andesite walls, and then painted with bright colors, serving perhaps as a beacon
of Buddhist teaching. The traces of worn-off vajralepa plaster can be observed in
Borobudur, Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temple walls.

VI.Wood is believed to be used in some of candi construction or at least as parts of temple

building material. Sari and Plaosan temples, for example, are known to have traces of stone
indentions to support wooden beams and floors in its second floor, as well as traces of wooden
stairs. Ratu Boko compound has building bases and stone umpak column base, which suggests
that the wooden capitals once stood there to support wooden roof structure made of organic
materials. Traces of holes to install wooden window railings and wooden doors are observable in
many of the perwara (complementary smaller) temples. Of course, wooden materials are easily
decayed in a humid tropical climate, leaving no traces after centuries.

Motif and decoration

Kala-Makara

Kala-makara on the portal of Borobudur gates, Kala's head on top of the portal and makaras
flanking either sides.

15
The candis of ancient Java are notable with the application of kala-makara as both decorative and
symbolic elements of the temple architecture. Kala is the giant symbolizing time, by making
kala's head as temple portals element, it symbolizes that time consumes everything. Kala is also a
protective figure, with fierce giant face it scares away malevolent spirits. Makara is a mythical
sea monster, the vahana of sea-god Varuna. It has been depicted typically as half mammal and
half fish. In many temples the depiction is in the form of half fish or seal with the head of
an elephant. It is also shown with head and jaws of a crocodile, an elephant trunk, the tusks and
ears of a wild boar, the darting eyes of a monkey, the scales and the flexible body of a fish, and
the swirling tailing feathers of a peacock. Both kala and makara are applied as the protective
figures of the temple's entrance.
Kala is the giant head, often takes place on top of the entrance with makaras projected on either
sides of kala's head, flanking the portal or projecting on the top corner as antefixes. The kala-
makara theme also can be found on stair railings on either sides. On the upper part of stairs, the
mouth of kala's head projecting makara downward. The intricate stone carving of twin makaras
flanking the lower level of stairs, with its curved bodies forming the stair's railings. Other than
makaras, kala's head might also project its tongue as stair's railings. These types of stair-
decorations can be observed in Borobudur and Prambanan. Makara's trunks are often describes
as handling gold ornaments or spouting jewels, while in its mouth often projected Gana dwarf
figures or animals such as lions or parrots.
Deities- Kalpataru and Kinnaras

Kinnara (male), Kinnari (female), Apsara, and Devata guarding Kalpataru, the divine tree of

life. 8th century Pawon temple, Java, Indonesia.
The images of coupled Kinnara and Kinnari can be found in Borobudur, Mendut, Pawon, Sewu,
Sari, and Prambanan temples. Usually, they are depicted as birds with human heads, or humans
with lower limbs of birds. The pair of Kinnara and Kinnari usually is depicted
guarding Kalpataru (Kalpavriksha), the tree of life, and sometimes guarding a jar of treasure.
There are bas-relief in Borobudur depicting the story of the famous kinnari, Manohara.
The lower outer wall of Prambanan temples were adorned with row of small niche containing
image of simha (lion) flanked by two panels depicting bountiful kalpataru (kalpavriksha) tree.
These wish-fulfilling sacred trees according to Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, is flanked on either side
by kinnaras or animals, such as pairs of birds, deer, sheep, monkeys, horses, elephants etc. The
pattern of lion in niche flanked by kalpataru trees is typical in Prambanan temple compound, thus
it is called as "Prambanan panel".

16
Boddhisattva and Tara

A Bodhisattva flanked by two Taras in Sewu temple.

In Buddhist temples, the panels of bas-reliefs usually adorned with exquisite images of male
figure of Bodhisattvas and female figure of Taras, along with Gandarvas heavenly musicians,
and sometimes the flock of Gana dwarfs. These are the deities and divinities in Buddhist beliefs,
which resides in the Tushita heaven in Buddhism cosmology.
Bodhisattvas are usually depicted as handsome man with peaceful and serene facial expression,
adorned with luxurious jewelry akin to a king or a deity. While the Taras are his female
counterparts, figures of beautiful celestial maidens. Both figures are depicted gracefully, usually
holding various kinds of lotus (red padma, blue utpala, or white kumuda), monk staff
(khakkhara) or fly whisk (chamara), and standing in tribhanga pose. The notable images
of boddhisattvas could be found adorning the outer walls of Plaosan, Sari, Kalasan, Sewu,
Pawon and of course Borobudur temple.
Devata and Apsara[edit]

A Devata flanked by two apsaras in Prambanan temple.

In Hindu temples, the celestial couple; male Devatas and female Apsaras are usually found
adorns the panels of temple's walls. They are the Hindu counterpart of Buddhist Bodhisattva-
Tara celestial beings. On the other side of narrative panels in Prambanan, the temple wall along
the gallery were adorned with the statues and reliefs of devatas and brahmin sages. The figure
of lokapalas, the celestial guardians of directions can be found in Shiva temple. The Brahmin
sage editors of veda were carved on Brahma temple wall, while in Vishnu temple the figures of a
male deities devatas flanked by two apsaras. The depiction of celestial beings of lesser gods and
goddesses — devatas and apsaras, describes the Hindu concept of sacred realm of Svargaloka.
This is corresponds to the concept of the towering Hindu temple as the epitome of Mount
Meru in Hindu cosmology.

17
Guardians-Dvarapala

One of dvarapala statues guarding Sewu temple.

Most of larger temple compound in ancient Java were guarded by a pair of dvarapala statues, as
gate guardians. The twin giants usually placed flanked the entrance in front of the temple, or in
four cardinal points. Dvarapala took form of two fierce giants or demons that ward off evil and
malevolent spirits from entering the sacred temple compounds. In Central Javanese art, dvarapala
is mostly portrayed as a stout and rather chubby giant, with fierce face of glaring round goggle
eyes, protruding fangs, curly hairs and moustaches, with fat and round belly. The giant usually
depicted as holding gada and sometimes knives as weapon.
In East Javanese art and Balinese version however, the dvarapala usually depicted rather well-
built and muscular, with a fine example taken from Adan-adan site near Kediri.[19] The exception
is a gigantic dvarapala of Singhasari near Malang, East Java that measures 3.7 metres tall. The
most notable dvarapala statues are those of candi Sewu, each pair guarding four cardinal points
of the grand temple complex, making them a total eight large dvarapala statues in perfect
condition. The dvarapalas of Sewu temple has become the prototype of Gupolo guardian in later
Javanese art, copied as guardians in Javanese keratons of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Another
fine example is two pairs of dvarapala guarding the twin temples of Plaosan.
Lion

Lion guardian of Borobudur.

The statues of a pair of lions (Sanskrit: Siṁha, Indonesian and Javanese: Singa) flanking the
portal, are often placed as the guardians of candi entrance. Lions were never native to Southeast

18
Asia in recorded history. As the result, the depiction of lions in ancient Southeast Asian art,
especially in ancient Java and Cambodia, is far from the naturalistic style as depicted in Greek or
Persian art counterparts, since the depictions were all based on perception and imagination. The
cultural depictions and the reverence of lions as the noble and powerful beasts in Southeast Asia
was influenced by Indian culture especially through Buddhist symbolism.
Statues of a pair of lions often founds in temples in Southeast Asia as the gate guardians.
In Borobudur Buddhist monument Central Java, Indonesia, andesite stone statues of lions guard
four main entrances of Borobudur. The thrones of Buddha and Boddhisattva found
in Kalasan and Mendut Buddhist temples of ancient Java depicted elephants, lions, and makara.
The statue of winged lion also found in Penataran temple East Java.
Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles

Bell-shaped perforated stupas of Borobudur.

The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from its
pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof, while
ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.
The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those
of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace
of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bell-
shaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika) sits on top of the dome serves
as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti).
Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or
rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first
thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as
a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism.
A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.

19
Prambanan vajra pinnacle.
Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical,
completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams
(Javanese:pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia
asiatica fruit.  It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Nevertheless,
it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle
is Sambisari and Ijo temple.
In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese
temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of Buddhist
stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved in Balinese Hindu temples of later period where the
multi-tiered meru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is actually a
familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple architecture, the
false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on top
of Buddhist counterparts.

20
Map showing the location of the main sites of the so-called "Indonesian classical period" or
Hindu-Buddhist period. Black dots represent Hindu sites and red dots Buddhist sites.
The high concentration of candi can be found especially dense in Sleman
Regency in Yogyakarta, also Magelang and Klaten in Central Java; which corresponds to the
historical region of Kedu Plain (Progo River valley, Temanggung-Magelang-Muntilan area)
and Kewu Plain (Opak River valley, around Prambanan), the cradle of Javanese civilization.
Other important sites with notable temple compounds
includes Malang, Blitar and Trowulan areas in East Java. West Java also contains a small
number of temples such as Batujaya and Cangkuang. Outside of Java, the candi type of temple
can be found in Bali, Sumatra, and Southern Kalimantan, although they are quite scarce. In
Sumatra, two exceptional sites are notable for its temple density; the Muaro Jambi Temple
Compounds in Jambi and Padang Lawas or Bahal complex in North Sumatra.
The candis might be built on plain or uneven terrain. Prambanan and Sewu temples for example,
are built on even flat low-lying terrain, while the temples of Gedong Songo and Ijo are built on
hill terraces on higher grounds or mountain slopes. Borobudur on the other hand is built upon a
bedrock hill. The position, orientation and spatial organization of the temples within the
landscape, and also their architectural designs, were determined by socio-cultural, religious and
economic factors of the people, polity or the civilization that built and support them.
Borobudur and Kedu Plain

21
Borobudur
The Kedu Plain lies to the north west of Yogyakarta and west of Gunung Merapi and south west
of Magelang, in Central Java.

 Borobudur. 9th-century Buddhist monument, reportedly the world's largest. Seven

terraces to the top represent the steps from the earthly realm to Nirvana. Reliefs of the birth,
enlightenment and death of the Buddha. A UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Pawon. 8th-century Buddhist temple.
 Mendut. 8th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple.
 Ngawen. Five aligned sanctuaries, one decorated with finely sculpted lions. 8th-century
Buddhist temple located east from Mendut temple. The name linked to Venuvana, "the
temple of bamboo forest".
 Banon. 8th-century Hindu temple located north from Pawon temple. The few remains
make it impossible to reconstruct the temple. The Hindu god statue from this temple is now
located at the National Museum in Jakarta.
 Umbul, a 9th-century bathing complex in Grabag, Magelang
 Gunung Sari. Ruins of three secondary temples and the foot of the main temple remain.
 Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest inscriptions on Java, written in 732 CE, found here.
Only the bases remain of the main sanctuary and three secondary temples.
Slopes of Merapi

 Sengi complex. Three temples, Candi Asu, Candi Pendem and Candi Lumbung, Sengi,

on the side of Mount Merapi. 8th and 9th century. The base of the temple has a climbing
plant motif.
 Gebang
 Morangan
 Pustakasala
 Lawang

Structure of Borobudur
The monument is shaped like a mandala, forming a series of platforms — five square platforms
below, four circular platforms above — riddled with a pathway that takes pilgrims through three
levels of Buddhist cosmology.Visitors climb steep stairs to each level; the walkways are

22
decorated with 2,672 relief panels that tell stories from the Buddha's life and parables from
Buddhist texts.

To view the reliefs in their proper order, you should start from the east gate, circulating
clockwise then climbing one level up as you complete a circuit.

The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with
narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur has the largest and most
complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world. The monument consists of nine stacked
platforms, six square and three circulars, topped by a central dome. The temple is decorated
with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a
perforated Stupa surround the central dome.
From a bird’s eye view, the temple is in the shape of a traditional Buddhist Mandala. Central
to a great deal of Buddhist and Hindu art, the basic form of Mandala is a square with four
entry points and a circular centre point.Levels of Borobudur
The lowest level of Borobudur represent Kamadhatu (the world of desire), and is decorated
with 160 reliefs showing ugly scenes of human desire and their karmic consequences. The
illustrations are supposed to motivate the pilgrim to escape their earthly shackles for Nirvana.
The lowest platform actually shows only a fraction of the reliefs; much of the lowest part of
Borobudur was buttressed with additional stonework, covering some of the reliefs. Our guide
hinted that some of the more salacious reliefs were covered up, but there's no evidence to support
this.

As the visitor ascends towards Rupadhatu (the world of forms, comprising the next five levels
up), the reliefs begin to tell the miraculous story of the Buddha's conception and birth. The
reliefs also show heroic deeds and parables taken from Buddhist folklore.
Ascending towards Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness, the four top levels of Borobudur),
the visitor sees perforated stupas enclosing Buddha statues within. Where the first four platforms
are bordered on both sides with stone, the upper four levels are open, revealing expansive views
of the Magelang regency and Merapi volcano in the distance.
At the very top, a central stupa crowns Borobudur. Average visitors are not permitted to enter the
stupa, not that there's anything to see - the stupa is empty, as it symbolizes the escape to Nirvana
or nothingness that is the ultimate goal of Buddhism.

Buddha Statues at Borobudur and Six Mudras

Besides decorated with beautiful reliefs, Borobudur Temple also has 504 statues of Buddha
sitting all of which are carved on a round stone sabongkah. All the statues illustrating the
Dhyani Buddha or meditating Buddhist are spread to different levels, from the lower to the
top, rupadhatu and arupadhatu.

The Buddha Dhyani is different from the Buddha in history. They are not enlightened
earthly beings, but they are transcendental savers who sit on their lotuses in eternal
reverence, peace, and meditation with half-closed eyes.

23
 The most striking feature of this Buddha is his simplicity. He is illustrated with a Buddha
dressed in a monk’s suit in a suit with folds that fall down or almost tightly covering the
body like “wet clothes”. His cloak showed only his wrists, neck, and ankles. Another
physical feature is a point on his forehead, right between his eyebrows. This simplicity in
Buddhist portrayal is a combination of loyalty and tenderness that produces the beauty of
this statue.

The Buddha statues on the lower four levels of Borobudur are positioned in several "attitudes"
or mudra, each referencing an event in the Buddha's life.
Bhumi Sparsa Mudra: the "seal of touching the earth", posed by the Buddha statues on the east
side - left hands laid open on their laps, right hand on right knee with fingers pointed downward.
This references the Buddha's fight against the demon Mara, where he calls upon Dewi Bumi the
earth goddess to witness his tribulations.
 Vara Mudra: representing "charity", posed by the Buddha statues on the south side -
right hand held palm up with fingers on right knee, left hand laid open on lap.
 Dhyana Mudra: representing "meditation", posed by the Buddha statues on the west
side - both hands placed on lap, right hand on top of left, both palms facing up, two thumbs
meeting.
 Abhaya Mudra: representing reassurance and the elimination of fear, posed by the
Buddha statues on the north side - left hand laid open on lap, right hand slightly raised above
knee with palm facing front.
 Vitarka Mudra: representing "preaching", posed by Buddhas on the balustrade of the
top square terrace - right hand held up, thumb and forefinger touching, signifying preaching.
The Buddha statues on the higher levels are enclosed in perforated stupas; one is purposely left
incomplete to reveal the Buddha inside. Another is supposed to give good luck if you can touch
its hand; it's harder than it looks, as once you stick your arm in, you have no way of seeing the
statue inside!
Waisak at Borobudur
Many Buddhists visit Borobudur during Waisak (the Buddhist day of enlightenment). On
Waisak, hundreds of Buddhist monks from Indonesia and further afield begin at 2am to make a
procession from nearby Candi Mendut, walking the 1.5 miles to Borobudur.
The procession goes slowly, with much chanting and praying, until they reach Borobudur at
about 4:00am. The monks will then circle the temple, ascending the levels in their proper order,
and await the appearance of the moon on the horizon (this marks the birth of the Buddha), which
they will greet with a song. The ceremonies end after sunrise.

24
A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra mudra

Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of
various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the
five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level), as well as on the top platform
(the Arupadhatu level).

The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of
the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the
upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and
the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level.[4] At
the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside
perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, which
adds up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly
headless), and 43 are missing. Since the monument's discovery, heads have been acquired as
collector's items, mostly by Western museums. Some of these Buddha heads are now displayed
in numbers of museums, such as the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, Musée Guimet in Paris,
and The British Museum in London. Germany has in 2014 returned its collection and funded
their reattachment and further conservation of the site.

1. Head from a Borobudur Buddha statue in Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam.

2. Headless Buddha statue in Borobudur. Since its discovery, numbers of heads have been
stolen and installed in museums abroad.
3. Lion gate guardian

25
At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between
them in the mudras, or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East,
South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according
to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West,
of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra.
Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the
same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own
symbolism

Following the order of Pradakshina (clockwise circumumbulation) starting from the East,

the mudras of the Borobudur buddha statues are:

Dhya Car
Symbolic ni dinal
Statue Mudra Location of the Statue
meaning Budd Poin
ha t

Calling the
Bhumispar Rupadhatu niches on the first four
Earth to Aksobhya East
sa mudra eastern balustrades
witness

Vara Benevolence, Ratnasam Rupadhatu niches on the first four

South
mudra alms giving bhava southern balustrades

Concentratio
Dhyana Rupadhatu niches on the first four
n and Amitabha West
mudra western balustrades
meditation
Abhaya Courage, Amoghas Rupadhatu niches on the first four
North
mudra fearlessness iddhi northern balustrades
Vitarka Reasoning Vairocha Rupadhatu niches in all directions on
Zenith
mudra and virtue na the fifth (uppermost) balustrade

Turning the
Dharmach Arupadhatu in 72 perforated stupas
Wheel Vairocha
akra Zenith on three rounded platforms
of dharma (la na
mudra
w)

26
Although there are similarities between them, each statue has its own personality. And in
addition to his obvious personality, each statue reveals the same thing.
Sculptures at the box level are placed in a niche equipped with various ornaments. The
statue is arranged in the line at the top of the outer side of the ledge. Because the higher the
level has the smaller the size, the first ledge has space for 104 niches, the second is also
104 niches, the third 88 niches, the fourth 72 niches, and the fifth 64 niches. So there are
432 niches in the rupadhatu section.

Statues that are in the level of a circle placed in a hollow stupa arranged in three levels of
concentric circles. The first level of the circle has 32 stupas, the second has 24 stupas, and
the third has 16 stupas. Thus, there are 72 stupas which correspond to the Javanese
tradition which says “72 guarded principles in a cage” in Borobudur.
Research shows significant position differences at the hands of Buddha statues in
Borobudur. The left hand of the Buddha statue is generally placed in the lap with the palm
facing upward, while the right-hand shows a certain gesture (mudra) associated with certain
historical events of the Buddha’s life.

The Buddhas of the first 4 balustrades have different mudras, each of which has distinctive
features on each side of Borobudur. The east-facing sculpture has the same mudra, and so
is the patent facing west, north, and south. The Buddha at the very top, or the fifth
balustrade, has the same mudra regardless of which direction they are facing. It is also the
same as 72 Buddhas at the level of the circle, they all show the same hand position but are
different from the mudra at the lower levels.

There are six mudras in the statue in Borobudur. The six mudras include
Bhumisparcamudra (calling the earth to witness), Abhayamudra (frightening the fear),
Varamudra (charity), Vitarkamudra (gesture of judgment), and Dharmacakramudra (law
wheel movement).

27