Dr Uday Dokras

Tushita heaven in Buddhist cosmology

Citation; Dr Uday Dokras, Tushita Heaven in Buddhist Cosmology, Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective, 2021

Borobudur contains more than a thousand exquisitely carved relief panels extending along its many terraces
for a total distance of more than a kilometer. These are arranged so as to take the visitor on a spiritual
journey to enlightenment, and one ascends the monument past scenes depicting the world of desire, the life
story of Buddha, and the heroic deeds of other enlightened beings—finally arriving at the great circular
terraces at the top of the structure that symbolizes the formless world of pure knowledge and perfection.
Borobudur: Golden Tales of the Buddhas-by John N. Miksic, Anita Tranchini (Photographer), Marcello Tranchini
(Photographer)
 

INTRODUCTION; Borobudur contains more than a thousand exquisitely carved relief panels
extending along its many terraces for a total distance of more than a kilometer. These are
arranged so as to take the visitor on a spiritual journey to enlightenment, and one ascends the
monument past scenes depicting the world of desire, the life story of Buddha, and the heroic
deeds of other enlightened beings—finally arriving at the great circular terraces at the top of the
structure that symbolizes the formless world of pure knowledge and perfection.THE TUSHITA
HEAVEN!
Tushita heaven in Buddhism cosmology ; In Buddhist temples, the panels of bas-reliefs usually
adorned with exquisite images of male figure of Bodhisattvas and female figure of Taras, along
with Gandarvas heavenly musicians, and sometimes the flock of Gana dwarfs. These are the
deities and divinities in Buddhist beliefs, which resides in the Tushita heaven in Buddhism
cosmology.
Tushita  (meaning "contented" or "joyous")is the fourth of the six deva or heavenly realms
of Kamadhatu in Buddhist tradition. It is located between the "Yāmā deva" realm and the
"Nirmanarati deva" realm in Buddhist cosmology. Like the other heavens (deva realms), Tusita
is said to be reachable through sādhanā, or advanced meditative attainments. It is the heaven
where the Bodhisattva Svetaketu or  "White Banner" resided before being reborn on Earth

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as Gautama Buddha, the historical Buddha;  it is the place where bodhisattvas, or future Buddhas
reside before their rebirth as a Buddha.
Like all heavenly realms in Buddhism, the Tusita Heaven is the residence of divine beings
or devas. According to the Visakhuposatha Sutta of the Pāli Canon, time there runs very
differently than on Earth:
That which among men is four hundred years, Visakha, is one night and day of the Tusita devas,
their month has thirty of those days, their year twelve of those months; the lifespan of the Tusita
devas is four thousand of those heavenly years...
Approximately, a deva month would be 12,000 years (four hundred times thirty), a deva year
would be 144,000 years (twelve thousand times twelve), and a deva lifespan would be
576,000,000 years (a hundred forty four thousand times four thousand).
According to the Dana Sutta, those who do meritorious deeds with the intention of helping others
would tend to be reborn in Tusita Heaven upon death.
The Infinite Life Sutra, a Mahayana text, states:
Each of these bodhisattvas, following the virtues of the Mahasattva Samantabhadra, is
endowed with the immeasurable practices and vows of the Bodhisattva Path, and firmly dwells
in all the meritorious deeds. He freely travels in all the ten quarters and employs skillful
means of emancipation. He enters the treasury of the Dharma of the Buddhas, and reaches
the Other Shore. Throughout the innumerable worlds he attains Enlightenment. First,
dwelling in the Tusita Heaven, he proclaims the true Dharma. Having left the heavenly
palace, he descends into his mother's womb.
Because Tusita Heaven is where all Bodhisattvas destined to reach full enlightenment in their
next life dwell, Tuṣita heaven is therefore closely associated with Maitreya, the next Buddha.
Many Buddhists vow to be reborn there so that they can hear the teachings of Maitreya and
ultimately be reborn with him when he becomes a Buddha. Other bodhisattvas also dwell in this
heavenly realm from time to time.
In Indonesian, ancient temples are referred to as candi; thus locals refer to "Borobudur Temple"
as Candi Borobudur. The term candi also loosely describes ancient structures, for example gates
and baths. The origins of the name Borobudur, is derived from Boro for big and Budur for
Buddha. The name Borobudur was first written in Raffles's book on Javan history.

ETYMOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Raffles wrote about a monument called Borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting
the same name. The only old Javanese manuscript that hints the monument called Budur as a
holy Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca, a Buddhist scholar
of Majapahit court, in 1365. Most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese
language conventions and was named after the nearby village of Bore, the monument should
have been named "BudurBoro".

Budur- Raffles thought that Budur might correspond to the modern Javanese

word Buda ("ancient")—i.e., "ancient Boro". He also suggested that the name might derive

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from boro, meaning "great" or "honourable" and Budur for Buddha.

However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name (Budur) comes from
Javanese term bhudhara ("mountain").

Biara Beduhur- Another possible etymology suggests that Borobudur is a corrupted simplified
local Javanese pronunciation of Biara Beduhur written in Sanskrit as Vihara Buddha Uhr. The
term Buddha-Uhr could mean "the city of Buddhas", while another possible term Beduhur is
probably an Old Javanese term, still survived today in Balinese vocabulary, which means "a high
place", constructed from the stem word dhuhur or luhur (high). This suggests that Borobudur
means vihara of Buddha located on a high place or on a hill.

Vihara- An early type of Buddhist monastery consisting of an open court surrounded by open

cells accessible through an entrance porch was known as vihara. Both Buddhist and also Jain
viharas in India were originally constructed to shelter the monks during the rainy season, when it
became difficult for them to lead the wanderer’s life. They took on a sacred character when small
stupas (housing sacred relics) and images of the Buddha were installed in the central court.

A clear idea of their plan can be obtained from examples in western India, where the viharas
were often excavated into the rock cliffs. This tradition of rock-cut structures spread along the
trade routes of Central Asia (as at Bamiyan, Afghanistan), leaving many splendid monuments
rich in sculpture and painting (the statues in Afghanistan were destroyed in 2001 by the
country’s ruling Taliban).BELOW PIC

As the communities of monks grew,

great monastic establishments
(mahaviharas, “great viharas”)
developed that consisted of clusters of
viharas and associated stupas and
temples. Renowned centres of learning,
or universities, grew up at Nalanda, in
present-day Bihar state, during the 5th
to 12th centuries and at
Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, in
the 3rd–4th centuries.

The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building—possibly a reference to

Borobudur—was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in Kedu, Temanggung
Regency. The Karangtengah inscription, dated 824, mentioned a sacred building named Jinalaya
(the realm of those who have conquered worldly desire and reached enlightenment), inaugurated
by Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga. The Tri Tepusan inscription, dated 842, is
mentioned in the sima, the (tax-free) lands awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to
ensure the funding and maintenance of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra.

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Kamūlān is from the word mula, which means "the place of origin", a sacred building to honor
the ancestors, probably those of the Sailendras. Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra
Bhudhāra, which in Sanskrit means "the mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of
Boddhisattvahood", was the original name of Borobudur.

Buddhist architecture was initially built using wood

later evolved into rock-cut temples like Ajanta and
Ellora caves. Chaitiyas were assemblies or halls where
prayers and discussions were usually done. They
contained Stupa. Stupas were originally built for the
conservation of Buddhist relics, over time when people
started praying and the need for assembly halls rise, the
idea of

Chaitiyas developed. Vihara meaning abode was

initially a temporary stay or rest space during the rainy
season for monks who were traveling. Later it turned
into a permanent lodging for monks to stay and pray.
Viharas don’t have stupas.

Karla Caves Chaitiya hall schematic plan

Chaitiya is a symmetric rectangular prayer hall with a

central nave and an apsidal rear end. The central nave is
separated from two aisles on both sides by colonnades. At
the far end of the central nave, we can find the stupa.
Parikrama is a ritual where people walk around the stupa
praying. Chaitiyas have polished interior walls enclosed by
semicircular roofs and horseshoe-shaped windows called the
Chaitiya windows. These semi-circular roofs have ribbed
ceiling that represented the original timber ceiling of
Chaitiyas. In earlier times Timber with wooden ribs was
added to the stone roofs for ornamentation. The entranceway
of the Chaitiya is highly decorated and has a relatively low
porch. Natural light flushes into the room through a large
horseshoe-shaped Chaitiya windows above the porch.

Both are located on the same site- several viharas in one site
for every Chaitiya both monastic complexes. Viharas have
rectangular central hall opening into small cells or spaces for
monks to live and meditate with beds carved out of stone
too. Viharas often have a shrine at the center of the back
wall, containing a stupa which was replaced by Buddha
statues later.

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The story about the Karangtengah inscription (also known as Kayumwungan inscription) is
quiet interesting. This is the inscriptions written on five pieces of stones dated 746 Saka or 824
CE, discovered in Karangtengah hamlet, Temanggung Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The
inscription was written in ancient Javanese script in two languages; Old Javanese and Sanskrit.
The lines 1-24 was written in Sanskrit, the rest of the lines was written in old Javanese. The
inscription is linked with the temple Borobudur and Mendut.

The parts written in Sanskrit mentioned about a king named Samaratungga. His daughter
named Pramodhawardhani has inaugurated a Jinalaya (Sanskrit meaning:Jain temple and the
realm of those have conquer worldly desire and reach enlightenment called jina which is also a
common epithet of the Buddha which is most likely the intended meaning here ), a sacred Jina
sanctuary. The inscription also mentioned a sacred buddhist building called Venuvana (Sankirt:
bamboo forest) to place the cremated ashes of 'king of the cloud', the name for god Indra,
probably referred to King Indra of Sailendra dynasty. Jinalaya was identified
as Borobudur. Venuvana was identified as Mendut temple by Dutch archaeologist JG de
Casparis, while Soekmono identified it with Ngawen temple instead.
In the parts written in old Javanese, mentioned about an event, that in the 10th day of
Kresnapaksa in the month of Jyestha year 746 Saka (824 CE), Rakai Patapan pu Palar
inaugurated that rice fields in Kayumwungan to be the tax free land protected by royal edict.
Rakai Patapan pu Palar is identified as Rakai Garung, the king of Medang Kingdom. Indonesian
historian Slamet Muljana suggest Rakai Garung was another name of Samaratungga.

The other interesting inscription- Tri Tepusan inscription  discovered in Kedu

Plain, Temanggung Regency, Central Java, Indonesia, dated from 842 CE. This inscription is
linked with the Borobudur Buddhist monument.
The inscription mentioned about the sima (tax-free) lands in Tri Tepusan village awarded by Çrī
Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance of
a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra. Kamūlān itself from the word mula which means 'the place of
origin', a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably the ancestors of the Sailendras. Casparis
suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra which in Sanskrit means "The mountain of combined
virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood", was the original name of Borobudur
The inscription mentioned about the sima (tax-free) lands in Tri Tepusan village awarded by Çrī
Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance of
a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra. Kamūlān itself from the word mula which means 'the place
of origin', a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably the ancestors of the Sailendras.

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Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra which in Sanskrit means "The mountain of
combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood," was the original name of Borobudur.

There is uncertainty about Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The
Sailendras were known as ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions found at
Sojomerto also suggest they may have been Hindus.] It was during this time that many Hindu and
Buddhist monuments were built on the plains and mountains around the Kedu Plain. The
Buddhist monuments, including Borobudur, were erected around the same period as the
Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple compound. In 732 AD, the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned
a Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Wukir hill, only 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Borobudur.[31]
Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because
Sanjaya's immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist
followers to build such temples.In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village
of Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 AD. This
has led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion
in Java as it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist
monument; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise.

1. The plan of the Borobudur temple complex in Java mirrors the three main levels of Buddhist cosmology. The highest
point in the center symbolizes Buddhahood.
2. Painting of Maitreya Bodhisattva on his throne. Sanskrit Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra manuscript written in the
Ranjana script. India, early 12th century.
3. Tibetan Chakra

The desire realm (Sanskrit: kāmadhātu) is one of the trailokya or three realms (Sanskrit: dhātu,

Tibetan: khams) in Buddhist cosmology into which a being wandering in saṃsāra may
be reborn. The other two are the form realm, (Sanskrit rūpadhātu) and the Formless

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Realm (S. ārūpadhātu).
Within the desire realm are either five or six domains (Sanskrit: gati, also sometimes translated
as "realm"). In Tibetan Buddhism, there are six domains (Wylie: rigs drug gi skye gnas) and
in Theravada Buddhism there are only five, because the domain of the Asuras is not regarded as
separate from that of the Nāgas. The five realms are also found in Taoism and Jainism.
The Śūraṅgama Sūtra in Mahayana Buddhism regarded the 10 kinds of Xian as separate
immortal realms between the Deva and human realms
The six domains of the desire realm are also known as the "six paths of suffering", the "six
planes", and the "six lower realms". In schools of thought that use the ten realms system, these
six domains are often contrasted negatively with the "four higher realms"
of Śrāvaka, Pratyekabuddha, Bodhisattva and full Buddha, which are considered to be the
spiritual goals of the different Buddhist traditions.
A being's karma (previous actions and thoughts) determines which of the six domains it will be
reborn into. A sentient being may also ascend to one of the higher realms beyond the six domains
of the desire realm by practicing various types of meditation, specifically the Eight Dhyānas.
The 8th century Buddhist monument Borobudur in Central Java incorporated the trailokya into
the architectural design with the plan of mandala that took the form of a stepped stone pyramid
crowned with stupas.
Saṃsāra (Buddhism) §  Realms of rebirth-The six domains of the desire realm are as follows:

1. the animal (S. tiryagyoni, P. tiracchānayoni) domain

2. the god / angel (Sanskrit, Pali: deva) domain
3. the hell (S: naraka, P. niraya) domain
4. the human (S. manuṣya, P. manussa) domain
5. the hungry ghost (S. preta, P. petta) domain
6. the jealous god / titan (S., P.: asura) domain
Deva Domain-Deva (Buddhism)
The Deva domain (also known as the God domain or Blissful State) is the domain of bliss. The
disadvantage of this domain is that things are so very comfortable there, that these beings
completely neglect to work towards enlightenment. Instead they gradually use up the good karma
they had previously accumulated, and so they subsequently fall to a lower rebirth.
The Deva domain is sometimes also referred to as the gods' domain, because its inhabitants are
so powerful within their own domain, that compared to humans, they resemble
the gods of Greek or Roman mythology. However, while the Devas may be referred to as gods,
they are not immortal, omniscient, nor omnipotent, and they do not act as creators or judges at
death, so they are notably very distinct from the monotheistic Western concept of God, although
they are very similar to the gods of most European polytheism.
Asura Domain
The Asura domain (also known as the Jealous God domain) is the domain of the Asuras
(demigods). They are here because of actions in past lives based on egotistic jealousy, envy,
insincerity, struggle, combat or rationalization of the world. They may be here because in human

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form they had good intentions but committed bad actions such as harming others. The Asuras of
some other domains, however, are fully malevolent (such as the corruptor Mara) and can be
more closely related to the translation of demon that is sometimes ascribed to them. These evil
Asuras can be alternatively referred to as Rakshasas.
The Asuras are said to experience a much more pleasurable life than humans, but they are
plagued by envy for the Devas, whom they can see just as animals can see humans.
Manussa Domain-Human beings in Buddhism
The Manuṣya domain (also known as the Human domain) is based on passion, desire, doubt,
and pride.
Buddhists see this domain as the realm of human existence. Although it may not be the most
pleasurable domain to live in, a human rebirth is in fact considered to be by far the most
advantageous of all possible rebirths in samsara, because a human rebirth is the only samsaric
domain from which one can directly attain Bodhi (enlightenment), either in the present rebirth
(for Buddhas and Arhats) or in a future rebirth in a Deva domain (for Anagamis). This is because
of the unique possibilities that a human rebirth offers: beings in higher domains just choose to
enjoy the pleasures of their realms and neglect working towards enlightenment, while beings in
lower domains are too busy trying to avoid the suffering and pain of their worlds to give a
second thought to liberation. Humans have just the right balance: enough suffering to motivate
them to achieve liberation, but not too much that every moment of their lives is consumed by it.
A human rebirth is considered to have tremendous potential when used correctly, however in
most cases humans waste their lifetimes in materialistic pursuits rather than working towards
enlightenment, and so end up reinforcing their unhelpful emotions, thoughts, and actions, rather
than letting go of them. Because of this, it is almost always the case that one descends to a lower
domain of rebirth after a human life, rather than immediately going on to another human birth, or
going up to a higher domain.
In the lower domains, such as the animal domain, it is a very slow and difficult process to
accumulate enough merit to achieve a human rebirth once again, so it may be countless lifetimes
before one has another chance.
Tiryagyoni Domain-Animals in Buddhism
The Tiryagyoni domain (alternately spelled Tiryag-yoni or tiracchānayoni) (also known as
the Animal domain) is based on strong mental states of stupidity and prejudice cultivated in a
previous life or lives.
Buddhists believe that this domain is the domain of existence of the nonhuman animals on the
Earth. Although humans and animals live in separate domains of existence, they can still see
each other because their domains are so close to each other in the vertical cosmology, just like
how the Devas and Asuras can see each other despite being in separate domains.
Preta Domain
The Preta domain (also known as the Hungry Ghost domain) is a rebirth based on strong
possessiveness and desire which were cultivated in a previous life or lives.
The sentient beings in this domain are known as "hungry ghosts". They are constantly extremely
hungry and thirsty, but they cannot satisfy these needs. In Tibetan versions of

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the Bhavacakra these beings are drawn with narrow necks and large bellies. This represents the
fact that their desires torment them, but they are completely unable to satisfy themselves.
Naraka Domain
The Naraka domain (also known as the Niraya domain or the Hell domain) is a rebirth based on
strong states of hatred cultivated in a previous life or lives.
The Buddhist view of Naraka differs significantly from the concept of Hell in
most monotheistic religions in that those being punished in Naraka are not trapped permanently,
but will eventually be released, in contrast to most monotheistic religions which say that Hell is
permanent. Exceptions include Judaism and Catholicism, which have a temporary hell domain
called purgatory, in which souls are punished and purified of their sins by fire and then continue
on their journey to paradise. In Buddhism beings remain in Naraka until their negative Karma is
used up, at which point they are reborn into another domain.
The Bhavachakra or "Wheel of Life" is a popular teaching tool often used in the Indo-Tibetan
tradition. It is a kind of diagram which portrays these realms and the mechanism that causes
these samsaric rebirths. In this depiction, the realm of the Devas is shown at the top, followed
clockwise by the realms of the Asuras, the Animals, Naraka, the Pretas, and the Humans. Close
examination will show that the Buddha is shown as being present in every one of these realms.
CHARACTERISTICS:In Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, there are some sayings
reflecting a tradition that the manner of a sentient being's death indicates the world in which it
will be reborn. A common one is in the Verses on the Structure of the Eight
Consciousnesses  reads: "to birth in saints the last body temperature in top of head, to deva in
eyes, to human in heart, to hungry ghosts in belly, to animals in knee cap, to the hells-realm in
sole of feet." The Tibetan Buddhist text Bardo Thodol describes further on the experiences to
these realms.
Taisen Deshimaru in his book Vrai Zen, Introduction au Shōbōgenzō (True Zen, Introduction
to Shōbōgenzō) explains:
"In Buddhism, both naraka (infernal states) and deva state (angelic states) have not the
same sense as in other religions. In Vedic religions which preceded Buddhism, for
example, these states had the same meaning as in Catholicism. Still retains this meaning
to some unenlightened Buddhists and can be seen even today buddhic images that
resemble the gruesome descriptions of hell and paradise. But a true understanding of
Buddhism gives to these states a mood status. Especially in Zen, these states [along with
the other four realms and the states
of Śrāvaka, Pratyekabuddha, Bodhisattva and Buddha - the ten spiritual realms] are
explained as different stages that are unfolded during the practice of zazen."
Deva refers to a class of beings or a path of the six paths of the incarnation cycle. It includes
some very different types of beings which can be ranked hierarchically according to the merits
they have accumulated over lifetimes. The lowest classes of these beings are closer in their
nature to human beings than to the higher classes of deva. Devas can be degraded to humans or
the beings in the three evil paths once they have consumed their merits.

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Deva and three devis in reverence. UPenn Ms. Coll. 990, Item 4 Page A40
The devas fall into three classes depending upon which of the three dhātus, or "realms" of the
universe they are born in.
1. The devas of the Ārūpyadhātu have no physical form or location, and they dwell in
meditation on formless subjects. They achieve this by attaining advanced meditational
levels in another life. They do not interact with the rest of the universe.
2. The devas of the Rūpadhātu have physical forms, but are genderless[and passionless.
They live in a large number of "heavens" or deva-worlds that rise, layer on layer, above
the earth. These can be divided into five main groups:
3. The Śuddhāvāsa devas are the rebirths of Anāgāmins, Buddhist religious practitioners
who died just short of attaining the state of Arhat (Brahma Sahampati, who appealed to
the newly enlightened Buddha to teach, was an Anagami from a previous Buddha[1]).
They guard and protect Buddhism on earth, and will pass into enlightenment
as Arhats when they pass away from the Śuddhāvāsa worlds. The highest of these worlds
is called Akaniṣṭha.
4. The Bṛhatphala devas remain in the tranquil state attained in the fourth dhyāna.
5. The Śubhakṛtsna devas rest in the bliss of the third dhyāna.
6. The Ābhāsvara devas enjoy the delights of the second dhyāna. They are also more
interested in and involved with the world below than any of the higher devas, and
sometimes intervene with advice and counsel.
Each of these groups of deva-worlds contains different grades of devas, but all of those within a
single group are able to interact and communicate with each other. On the other hand, the lower
groups have no direct knowledge of even the existence of the higher types of deva at all. For this
reason, some of the Brahmās have become proud, imagining themselves as the creators of their
own worlds and of all the worlds below them (because they came into existence before those
worlds began to exist).
The devas of the Kāmadhātu have physical forms similar to, but larger than, those of humans.
They lead the same sort of lives that humans do, though they are longer-lived and generally more
content; indeed sometimes they are immersed in pleasures. This is the realm that Māra has
greatest influence over.
The higher devas of the Kāmadhātu live in four heavens that float in the air, leaving them free
from contact with the strife of the lower world. They are:

 The Parinirmita-vaśavartin devas, luxurious devas to whom Māra belongs;

 The Nirmāṇarati devas;

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 The Tuṣita devas, among whom the future Maitreya lives (they are also referred to as the
Contented Devas);
 The Yāma devas (or Devas of the Hours);
The lower devas of the Kāmadhātu live on different parts of the mountain at the center of the
world, Sumeru. They are even more passionate than the higher devas, and do not simply enjoy
themselves but also engage in strife and fighting. They are:

4. The Trāyastriṃśa devas, who live on the peak of Sumeru and are something like
the Olympian gods. Their ruler is Śakra. Sakka, as he is called in pali, is a
Sotapanna and a devotee of the Buddha. (These are also known as the Devas of
the Thirty-Three.)
5. The Cāturmahārājikakāyika devas, who include the martial kings who guard the
four quarters of the Earth. The chief of these kings is Vaiśravaṇa, but all are
ultimately accountable to Śakra. They also include four types of earthly demigod
or nature-spirit: Kumbhāṇḍas, Gandharvas, Nāgas and Yakṣas, and probably also
the Garuḍas.
"Furthermore, you should recollect the devas: 'There are the devas of the Four Great Kings, the
devas of the Thirty-three,..." [196. Dh.] "Feeders of joy we shall be like the radiant gods
(devas)."
Sometimes included among the devas, and sometimes placed in a different category, are
the Asuras, the opponents of the preceding two groups of devas, whose nature is to be
continually engaged in war.

COMPOSITION OF BOROBUDUR

Borobudur Temple is made with andesite stones taken from neighbouring stone quarries. The
stones were all cut to size and then brought over and stacked onto one another. Instead of using
mortar, knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to join the stones. As for the roof of stupas,
niches and arched gateways, they were all built with the corbelling method. 
The reliefs of the monument are all done on-site. The drainage system was also in mind when the
monument was built. Borobudur temple catered to its region’s high stormwater run-off by
installing 100 spouts each with a unique carved gargoyle that looks like a Makara. The spouts are
all installed at the corners of the monument.

As for the Borobudur Temple foundation, it was built on a natural hill and due to its pyramid
shape, it was first thought to be a stupa that was intended as a Buddha shrine, not a temple.
Stupas are typically constructed as a sign of devotion towards Buddhism whereas a temple is
made to be a place of worship towards a religion. After much study and excavation, Borobudur is
settled to be a temple due to its meticulous details and structure.

Interestingly, in the past, they did not use the metric or imperial system. Instead, they used tala, a
basic unit of measurement used during that time. Tala is the length of a human face, starting
from the forehead’s hairline to the tip of the chin or the length of the tip of the thumb to the tip of
the middle finger when the hand is fully stretched out. Tala is relative from one individual to
another. 

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Furthermore, the Borobudur Temple also holds a 4:6:9 ratio around the monument.
Gunadharma, the architect, used the 4:6:9 ratio to layout the accurate and precise dimensions of
the fractal and self-similar geometry that the Borobudur Temple holds. This same ratio can also
be found in neighbouring Buddhist temples. 
To add on, the ratio also possesses calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance
which seems appropriate in the design of the Borobudur Temple.
All in all, the Borobudur Temple has attracted many tourists alike to visit and further indulge in
this 9th century-built temple. As much as research goes, the true meaning as to why it was built
is unknown, but this structure still stands to fascinate and allow anyone who visits to feel calm
and captivated by this form of architecture. 

Tantras ("doctrine" or "framework" or "system" ) refers to numerous and varied scriptures

pertaining to any of several esoteric traditions rooted in Hindu and Buddhist philosophy. The
religious culture of the Tantras is essentially Hindu, and Buddhist Tantric material can be shown
to have been derived from Hindu sources. And although Hindu and Buddhist Tantra have many
similarities from the outside, they do have some clear distinctions. [3] The rest of this article deals
with Hindu Tantra. Buddhist Tantras are described in the article on Buddhist Tantras.
The word tantra is made up by the joining (sandhi in Sanskrit) of two Sanskrit
words: tanoti (expansion) and rayati (liberation). Tantra means liberation of energy and
expansion of consciousness from its gross form.[4] It is a method to expand the mind and liberate
the dormant potential energy, and its principles form the basis of all yogic practices. Hence, the
Hindu Tantra scriptures refer to techniques for achieving a result.
The Hindu Tantras total ninety-two scriptures; of these, sixty-four are purely Abheda (literally
"without differentiation", or monistic), known as the Bhairava Tantras or Kashmir
Śaivite Tantras, eighteen are Bhedābheda (literally "with differentiation and without
differentiation" monistic or dualistic), known as the Rudra Tantras), and ten are
completely Bheda (literally "differentiated" or dualistic), known as the Śiva Tantras. The latter
two (Rudra Tantras and Śiva Tantras) are used by the Śaiva Siddhāntins, and thus are sometimes
referred to as Shaiva Siddhanta Tantras, or Śaiva Siddhānta Āgamas.
Tantra are mainly two types Agama and Nigama. Agamas are those texts in which Goddess
asked questions and the God replied. In Nigama texts God asked questions and Goddess replied.
This dialogue between God and Goddess is special feature of Hinduism Tantra. 1

Reference-Borobudur: Golden Tales of Buddhas by John N. Miksic and Marcello Tranchini. 

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In the Nāth Tradition, legend ascribes the origin of Tantra to Dattatreya, a semi-mythological
yogi and the assumed author of the Jivanmukta Gita ("Song of the liberated
soul"). Matsyendranath is credited with authorship of the Kaulajñāna-nirnāya, a voluminous
ninth-century tantra dealing with a host of mystical and magical subjects. This work occupies an
important position in the Hindu tantric lineage, as well as in Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism.
FUNCTION; In contradistinction to the Vaidik ritual, which is traditionally performed out-of-
doors without any idols nor emblems, the Tantrik ritual is largely a matter of temples and idols.
The Tantras are largely descriptions and specifications for the construction and maintenance of
temple-structures together with their enclosed idols and lingas—an example of type of text is
the Ajita Māhātantra. Another function was the conservation as state-secrets of texts for use by
royalty to maintain their authority through rituals directed to deities controlling the political
affairs-of-state—an example of this is the Śārada-tilaka Tantra.
Tantric texts are usually associated with a particular tradition and deity. The different types of
Tantric literature are tantra, Āgama, saṃhitā, sūtra, upaniṣad, purāṇa, tīkā (commentaries),
prakaraṇa, paddhati texts, stotram, kavaca, nighaṇṭu, koṣa and hagiographical literature. They are
written in Sanskrit and in regional languages. There are 32 major textual Tantra traditions.
The 5th-century BCE scholar Pāṇini in his Sutra 1.4.54–55 of Sanskrit grammar, cryptically
explains tantra through the example of "Sva-tantra" (Sanskrit: स्वतन्त्र), which he states means
"independent" or a person who is his own "warp, cloth, weaver, promoter, karta (actor)".
Patanjali in his Mahābhāṣya quotes and accepts Panini's definition, then discusses or mentions it
at a greater length, in 18 instances, stating that its metaphorical definition of "warp (weaving),
extended cloth" is relevant to many contexts. The word tantra, states Patanjali, means "principal,
main".
He uses the same example of svatantra as a composite word of "sva" (self) and tantra, then
stating "svatantra" means "one who is self-dependent, one who is his own master, the principal
thing for whom is himself", thereby interpreting the definition of tantra. [27] Patanjali also offers a
semantic definition of Tantra, stating that it is structural rules, standard procedures, centralized
guide or knowledge in any field that applies to many elements.
The ancient Mimamsa school of Hinduism uses the term tantra extensively, and its scholars offer
various definitions. For example:
When an action or a thing, once complete, becomes beneficial in several matters to one person,
or to many people, that is known as Tantra. For example, a lamp placed amidst many priests. In
contrast, that which benefits by its repetition is called Āvāpa, such as massaging with oil. (...)

— Sabara, 6th century, 

Medieval texts present their own definitions of Tantra. Kāmikā-tantra, for example, gives the
following explanation of the term tantra:
Because it elaborates (tan) copious and profound matters, especially relating to the principles of
reality (tattva) and sacred mantras, and because it provides liberation (tra), it is called a tantra

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Buddhist devas differ from the western conception of gods and angels in several ways:

 Buddhist devas are not immortal. Their lives as devas began some time in the past when
they died and were reborn. They live for very long but finite periods of time, ranging from
thousands to (at least) billions of years. When they pass away, they are reborn as some other
sort of being, perhaps a different type of deva, perhaps a human or something beyond
comprehension. The Lamrim mentions that devas are often reborn into lower realms of
suffering like the Narakas and Pretas because their existence consumes a lot of good karma,
but they can also be reborn as humans and animals.
 Buddhist devas do not create or shape the world. They come into existence based upon
their past karmas and they are as much subject to the natural laws of cause and effect as any
other being in the universe. They also have no role in the periodic dissolutions of worlds.
 Buddhist devas are not incarnations of a few archetypal deities or manifestations of a
god. Nor are they merely symbols. They are considered to be, like humans, distinct
individuals with their own personalities and paths in life.
 Buddhist devas are not omniscient nor omnipotent. Their powers tend to be limited to
their own worlds, and they rarely intervene in human affairs. When they do, it is generally by
way of quiet advice rather than by physical intervention.
 Buddhist devas are not morally perfect. The devas of the worlds of the Rūpadhātu do lack
human passions and desires, but some of them are capable of ignorance, arrogance and pride.
The devas of the lower worlds of the Kāmadhātu experience the same kind of passions that
humans do, including (in the lowest of these worlds), lust, jealousy, and anger. It is, indeed,
their imperfections in the mental and moral realms that cause them to be reborn in these
worlds.

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 Buddhist devas are not to be considered as equal to a Buddhist refuge. While some

individuals among the devas may be beings of great moral authority and prestige and thus
deserving of a high degree of respect and veneration (in some cases, even being enlightened
practitioners of the Dharma), no deva can ultimately be taken as the way of escape
from saṃsāra or control one's rebirth. The highest honors are reserved to the Three Jewels of
Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha.

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