THE MYSTERY OF THE 3

DR UDAY DOKRAS
temples OF KEDU PLAIN

Ruins of the Buddhist Temples in the Progo Valley, Borobudur, Mendut and
Pawon, Described by Isaac Groneman in his Book of 1912.
Discussin on the book entitled Ruins of Buddhistic Temples in Praga Talley: Tyandis
Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon (available at archive.org/details/
ruinsofbuddhisti00gronrich), written by Isaac Groneman and published by
H.A. Benjamins, Semarang, in 1912 by Amelia Carolina Sparavigna (Department of
Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino) Published in
enviro.philica.com

Isaac Groneman was a physician in the Dutch East Indies and Indonesia, who wrote
many publications on Javanese culture and antiquity. After the medical studies, in 1858
he left his homeland for the Dutch East Indies and became the sultan's physician. Once
in Java, Groneman was fascinated by the traditional Javanese culture, and by the Hindu-
Javanese monuments. He became the President of the Yogyakarta Archaeological
Society, and was involved directly in the excavation of the Prambanan temple near
Yogyakarta.

Isaac Groneman had a profound interest for the religious context of Candi Borobudur.
He considered Borobudur as a Buddhist sanctuary, obtaining support by King
Chulalongkorn, at that time on his way to Java heading to explore civilization
Groneman invited the king to Borobudur and this was "the beginning of friendship on
the way to understanding the ancient Javanese heritage" . And then, we find King
Chulalongkorn mentioned in Groneman's book of 1912, published by H.A. Benjamins,
Semarang. The book is entitled "Ruins of Buddhistic temples in Prägä valley: Tyandis
Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon" (available at archive.org/details/
ruinsofbuddhisti00gronrich). In the title we find the word "tyandi", that is "candi",
"temple".

The book is a remarkable discussion of the three temples, which are linked by a ritual
relationship and by an alignment of the sites. The temples of Mendut and Pawon are
thought to have been early purification temples for pilgrims going to Borobudur. On the
Vesak Day, a procession along the alignment of the temples goes from Mendut to
Borobudur. In his book, Groneman is following the same approach, and the first temple
he discusses is Candi Mendut.

Here we report only a few of the remarkable observations made by Groneman. The
reader finds them quoted in the following sections. I am reporting in particular the
discussions concerning the orientation of the temples, in reference to the path of the sun,
and the descriptions of the mudras of the statues of Buddha. Actually, as discussed in
[3-5], the Borobudur temple can be linked to the zenith passage of the sun, and to the

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 zenith is referring a mudra of some of the Buddha’s statues at Borobudur. To conclude
this introduction, let us stress that the Groneman’s book is an outstanding report about
the temples of Mendut, Pawon and Borobudur. This book is therefore essential for
anyone who is studying these temples, not only for the scholars but also for the
persons fascinated by the Javanese antiquity.

Tyandi Mendut

The description of Mendut starts from an observation. "The first striking thing we see is
that, in contravention to almost all other buddhistic buildings, the frontage of these ruins
have not been placed opposite to the East, the sunrise, but strange enough, opposite to
the Northwest”. This Groneman’s observation leads us to consider that the entrance of
the temple is facing the processional walkway to Borobudur. Probably, the walkway
started from a royal palace further east of Mendut.

The Mendut temple possesses two sculptures before the entrance. To the left, the
sculpture represents a princess in a garden of fruit-trees, with a baby at her breast, and
many children all round. To the right, we see “an Indian, — not buddhistic — prince
with much more children in such another garden”. The children have a crescent of the
moon on the hind part of their heads, but, as observed by Groneman, “both the children
and their parents miss everything that might have spoken of a buddhistic character”.
Groneman tells that there are Dutch scholars who suppose the prince to be the Buddha's
father and the woman to be the Buddha's mother. However, a different explanation of
the sculptures was provided by the “buddhistic king of Siam”, Chulalongkorn. Before
giving the king’s explanation, Groneman continues the description of the gigantic
images we can see in this temple.

Inside the temple we find an altar-shaped throne, and on the throne sits a colossal
Buddha statue, dressed in the manner of the southern Buddhists, having uncovered his
right shoulder and arm. The hands before his breast have the posture (mudra) of the
Mahayanists, that is, the followers of the "Big Carriage" (Great Vehicle). Groneman
explains that this is the posture that the followers “of the northern church, generally (not
always) give to the first of their five Dhyani-Buddhas”.

In the Mendut temple, to the right of Buddha, we see a buddhistic prince seated on a
throne, which is richly decorated with nagas, lions, and elephants. He wears the monk's
hood and a small Buddha image in his crown. This characterises him as a Buddhist. The
other prince that we see opposite him, to the left of the Buddha, seating on an equally
rich throne, doesn't wear a monk's hood. This characterises him as not buddhistic prince.
The two kings wear the prabha, or disk of light, on the back of their heads. The Siam's
king, who visited Mendut in 1896, interpreted the images as follow. One of the princes,
who is wearing, “like he does himself, a Buddha image in his crown,” was “perhaps the
king of the buddhistic empire, under whose reign the Barabudur was built”. Further the
King supposed the other images to represent the not-buddhistic father and predecessor.
The explanation of the king “became so comprehensible and logical to me – tells
Groneman - that I could not but accept and defend it against others, and so I came to the
hypothesis that the ashes of the two kings (but certainly the son's ashes) must have been
buried in this tyandi”.

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Shailendra dynasty

A description of Mendut is given in [6], where we find that the temple was built around
early ninth century AD. Mendut is the oldest of the three temples, so it was built before
Pawon and Borobudur [6]. From the Karangtengah inscription, we known that the
temple was built and finished during the reign of King Indra of Sailendra dynasty. The
inscription is dated 824 AD. It is telling that King Indra “built a sacred building named
Venuvana”. The name means "bamboo forest". Archaeologist JG de Casparis has
connected the temple mentioned in Karangtengah inscription with the Mendut.

The Shailendra dynasty was the name of an Indonesian dynasty that emerged in 8th
century Java, whose reign marked a cultural renaissance in the region. As told in [8],
Shailendras were active promoters of Mahayana Buddhism and covered the Kedu
Plain, also known as Probo Valley, of the Central Java, with several Buddhist
monuments. One is the colossal stupa of Borobudur. The Shailendras are considered to
be a thalassocracy, that ruled the maritime Southeast Asia [8]. But they have also
promoted intensive rice cultivation on the Kedu Plain.

In [8] we can find that it is suggested that Shailendra was a native Javanese dynasty,
and that the Sanjaya dynasty was a branch of the Shailendras. So the members of the
Shailendra family were initially the rulers of the Medang Kingdom. As we can read in
[8], the association of Shailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion
of Panaraban or Panangkaran to Buddhism. The Tale of Parahyangan tells that the King
Sanjaya ordered his son, Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran, to convert to Buddhism,
“because their faith in Shiva was feared by the people in favor of the pacifist Buddhist
faith” [8]. Actually, this is in agreement to the King Chulalongkorn’s observation.

Tyandi Pawon

After a detailed discussion of Mendut, Groneman continues describing Pawon. Leaving

Mendut behind us, we cross shortly after a small iron bridge built over the river Elo.
Then, after having been ferried over the Progo river, and moving westwards, we arrive
at the “little dukuh of Brajanala … where we see the very small tyandi Pawon before
our having turned into the broad kenari-avenue which leads” to Barabudur. Groneman
tells that in the past this tyandi had been pulled down and afterwards rebuilt again. Its
name, which means "kitchen", is “clear enough to make us understand how the
Javanese would have shown the striking contrast between this small temple and the
other more extensive one, as if it were a kitchen compared with a mansion or temple”.
Then Groneman explains why the temple was pulled down and then rebuilt.

The small ruin that Groneman sees has some conformity to the many grave temples,
which are surrounding the main temple of Candi Sewu, in Prambanan valley. “But this
conformity is not a perfect one”. At Pawon, we find a small square room with a small
porch, “we enter by means of some narrow treads flanked by the Garuda-Naga
ornament, but this room is empty and unadorned”. Shallow niches exist in each
sidewall, in correspondence of the place where “once may have stood a pedestal and
image”. Like in Candi Mendut, Groneman explains that the niches may have been used
to light the inner-part of the temple.

According to Groneman, this temple was a mausoleum built to receive an urn containing

3
 the ashes of a guru or monk. As in the case of Mendut, Groneman observes that “It is an
extraordinary thing that even the entrance of this incontestably true buddhistic temple
had not been made on the east side but to the west”. Again we find an observation on
the orientation of the temple. As we have already mentioned, this temple is on the
processional walkway to Borobudur.

2013

Candi Barabudur

“After having walked through the umbrageous kenari-avenue and the village of Bara …
we shall arrive within half an hour at the hill upon which we see stand the
pasanggrahan, and the colossal ruin”. It is an “enormous mass of stone gradually
developing itself in majestic lines and forms, in all the terraces, following each other in
a regular range of succession till we see rise in their centre the high cupola now covered
again by a cone with three sun- shades”.

It is a pilgrimage site and then “He who would approach this dagob to sacrifice his
flowers to the Buddha, … was obliged to mount all these terraces, and walk along these
sculptures”. During this walk, the pilgrim can find in the temple a “revival of the
Buddha and his doctrine”, which is showing how to reach the nirvana, the “infinite not-
to-be as the end purpose of all life, and the deliverance of all the miseries of a sensual
existence”. And then, let us follow, as Groneman did, “the way the pilgrim took, and
mount the hill which carries this heavy mass of stone”. So Groneman starts the
discussion of first terrace of the temple.

Doorways.

Four doorways are present in the structure, which are leading to stairs, that according to
Groneman are the weak points of the architecture. At the foot of the doorway, there are
naqa-heads, that “ended into outward turned mythical monster-heads which, at first

4
sight remind us of elephants rather than of snake-like animals”. Wilhelm von Humboldt
and other European examiners, like the Dutch scholar Leemans, considered these
monstrous figures as elephant's heads, “without perceiving however, that they changed
into serpent's bodies when seen on the side- posts of the doorways”. Also Groneman had
been misguided himself, and defended this error against the King of Siam. But the King
succeeded in convincing him, by logical argumentation, that the naga represents a power
inimical to Buddhism. The monster, according to the Siam opinion, is Rahu “who
also tries to devour the sun during every eclipse”. Very interesting this observation
linking the temple to astronomy.

As explained in [10], eclipses are battles between Rahu and the Sun, Surya. The myth
referring to these battles concerns the amrita, the nectar of immortality, produced by the
Churning of the Ocean of Milk. After this nectar has been prepared, it is distributed to
the gods, the devas. In [10], it is told that Rahu. an asura (semi-god), sitting among the
gods, was able to drink the amrita. But this fact was observed by Surya and Chandra, the
Moon, and Visnu was alerted. Visnu decapitated Rahu. Having drunk “just a bit of the
amrita”, only Rahu’s head was made immortal while his body died. It is the head of
Rahu that attacks the Sun during the eclipses. The head swallows it, but Rahu has no
body to digest the sun, and then the eclipse ends and the sun appears again [10].

After reporting the King’s observation on Rahu, Groneman continues describing the
first gallery. We see that the two walls of the gallery are decorated with imageries which
are richly framed. An “uninterrupted band of exquisite festoons has been affixed above
these sculptures under the cornice of the back-wall. … On the back wall we see similar
temple-groups, but all of them, even the small niche-temples, are crowned with dagobs
and cones”. Moreover we see rosettes and guirlandes with birds. On the five encircling
walls of Borobudur, “we see no less than 432 niches provided with Buddha-images …
We now turn to the left in order to begin our walk along the sculptures of the upper
series of the back-wall. This wall is … showing us a comparatively well explained row
of following events which give us an idea about the life of the Buddha Siddharta,
Gautama, the Shakyamuni, from beginning to end”.

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 Here we find a remarkable observation. “Let us begin our walk to the left of the eastern
staircase in order to return to our starting-point following the course of the sun of the
northern hemisphere (29), going through the South, West and North. This order of
succession regulated after this sun, we always find back on these and other Hindu ruins;
more or less a witness of the northern origin of Javanese Buddhism”. In the note (29),
Groneman tells that he was the first (in 1887) to observe this link to the apparent course
of the sun seen by the inhabitants of the northern hemisphere. “It is an important fact to
those who believe the Buddha a sun-god”. Let us stress that Candi Borobudur is placed
in the tropical zone and therefore the path of the sun during the year is different from
that observed in the northern hemisphere at latitudes above the Tropic of Cancer [3-5].
Therefore, the direction of the pilgrimage is honouring the northern origin of Buddha.
For moving to reach the top of the monument, also the King of Siam followed this
direction.

“For convenience' sake, and in order to assist the visitor in finding” the sculptures,
Groneman counts them “from the preceding staircase or from the first till the ninth wall-
angle, and begin with the eastern staircase”. And then Groneman starts discussing the
scenes related to Buddha’s life.

The discussion of all the other statues continues in the Chapters VIII and IX.

In Chapter X we arrive at the top of the monument, where we find three circular
terraces. On the first “we see stand 32 open worked dagobs or tyaityas; on the second
there are 24, -and on the third and highest 16, so altogether 72. And within this circle
rises the majestic middledagob as the only real dagob or stupa representing the leading
idea, the final purpose of the whole ruin”. We can also admire the surrounding
mountainous landscape. The valley of Progo river lies westward “at the foot of mount
Menoreh, … and, to the east, of the high twin volcanoes Merbabu and Merapi, and, to
the north, of the Sumbing, the highest volcano of this part of Central Java”.

Mudras of Buddha

I found the book of Groneman when searching for some discussion about the statues of
Buddha and the fact that they have different mudras, that is, positions of the hands,
linked to North, East, South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal
compass points according to Mahayana. As told by Wikipedia [11], at Borobudur, "the
first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which
the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra.
Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have
the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each
has its own symbolism". The reference given for this discussion is [12].

In the Chapter XI we find what Groneman tells about the statues representing Buddha.
We can see that all the statues are in a sitting posture with crossed legs, “almost in the
same posture the Javanese call sila, but upright”. The statues are dressed with a thin
mantle uncovering their right arms and shoulders. They have the tiara, the round hair-
knot, “on their heads all covered with short curls. Even the urna, the little tuft of hair on
their fronts is still to be seen on many a sculpture, and on the other ones, less accurately
hewn, they are forgotten”. For what concerns the posture of all the statues, Groneman

6
notes that it is showing resignation and peace, “and may speak of the later final
dissolving in the nirvana, the joy and painless not-to-be”.

About the mudras of the statues of Buddha we find a detailed discussion.

"Among the sculptures placed opposite the five zones of heaven, the East, South, West
and North and the Zenith, there is to be seen a slight difference in the posture of the
right hands, and something more difference in the posture of the two hands with regard
to those sculptures we see on the round terraces”.

All the sculptures on the five encircling walls have their left hands in their laps, with the
palm on the right foot. Then Groneman describes in details the corresponding
postures of the hands, the mudras. For what concerns the sculptures of the open
worked tyaityas on the three round terraces, the statues raise their two hands before the
epigastric region, “the left one with the palm and the bent finger-tips in an upward
direction, the right one with the palm to the left and the fingers bent over those of the
other hand”. Moreover, these statues “all miss the glory”.

Groneman tells that there is still another sculpture, unique of its kind. It had been found
in the middle-dagob. It is a Buddha image corresponding in size to all other sculptures,
but the posture of the hands “tallied with those on the eastern lower walls”. After a
discussion about this specific statue, Groneman distinguishes the statues into three
groups: 1. 432 Buddhas in the open temple- niches on the five encircling walls, which
are seated on lotus-thrones and crowned with glories. 2. 72 Buddhas in the open
worked tyaityas on the three round terraces, without any glory or lotus- throne. 3. The
only Buddha of the large dagob entirely sequestered, without glory or throne.

Groneman is then mentioning Wilhelm Von Humboldt, telling that he was the first who
considered five of the six Buddhas, to be the representations of the five Dhyani-
Buddhas. “Especially in the posture of the hands there is some conformity between five
of the six Barabudur-images and the five Dhyani-Buddhas such as we see them hewed
in Asia”. Moreover Groneman is mentioning Alfred Foucher.

According to Foucher, there are seven groups of mudras. They are: 1) the bhunisparsya
mudra (East); 2) the vara-mudra (South); 3) the dhyani-mudra (West); 4) the abhaya-
mudra (North); 5) in the 64 niches on the fifth and highest wall the vitarka-mudra (the
gesture of discussion); and among the 72 cupolae of the 3 circular terraces, 6) the
dharma-tyakra-mudra (mark of distinction). Finally, we find the only sculpture from the
wholly closed dagob, hewed in the bhumi-sparsya- mudra. After referring about these
mudras, Groneman stresses that a slight difference exists between Foucher's ideas and
his own ideas, which are supported by the observations of King Chulalongkorn.

Let us conclude our article on the Groneman’s book - a book essential for anyone who is
studying Borobudur - as he concluded his discussion on the mudras. He tells that in
Borobudur, we can find Buddha hewed as preacher, “preaching the doctrine to all
people, and consequently towards all the regions of heaven”. According to Groneman
the fact that this preaching preacher “has been placed upon the highest wall” of the
monument is easy to understand, because the preaching of the doctrine is the highest
expression of Buddhism, “and possibly referred to both the world of the four zones of
heaven and to the one of the celestials in the zenith”.

7
References
[1] http://borobudurpark.com/en/borobudur-colonial-period/ Retrieved 30
December 2012.

.
[2] Norbert C, Brockman. Encyclopedia of Sacred Places, 2nd Edition.
Pag.59.
.
[3] Sparavigna, A. C. (2017). A short note about the zenithal sun and the Sewu,
Prambanan and Borobudur temples in Java. PHILICA Article number 972.
Published on February, 2017.
[4] Sparavigna, A. C. (2017). The Zenith Passage of the Sun and the Architectures of
the Tropical Zone. Mechanics, Materials Science & Engineering MMSE Journal. Open
Access, 2017, 10 (May), pp.1-12. Also available at https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-
01519183v1
[5] Sparavigna, A. C. (2017). The Zenith Passage of the Sun at Candi Borobudur.
PHILICA Article number 1197. Published on 25th December, 2017.
.
[6] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendut Retrieved 30 December 2017.
[7] Daigoro Chihara (1996). Hindu-Buddhist architecture in Southeast Asia. p.
125. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
[8] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shailendra_dynasty Retrieved 30
December 2017.
[9] Zakharov, Anton O. (August 2012). The Sailendras Reconsidered (PDF). Institute of
Southeast Asian Studies. Singapore.
[10] Deepak Sarma, Contributor Huffintonpost. When Rahu Swallows the Sun: The
Eclipse According to One Hindu Myth, Published
17 August.2017.
.
[11] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borobudur Retrieved 30 December 2017.
.
[12] Roderick S. Bucknell & Martin Stuart-Fox (1995). The Twilight Language:
Explorations in Buddhist Meditation and Symbolism. UK: Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-
0234-2.

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Straight-line arrangement of Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut
Approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta and 86 kilometres (53 mi)
west of Surakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin
volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the
Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese "sacred"
place and has been dubbed "the garden of Java" due to its high agricultural fertility.
During the restoration in the early 20th century, it was discovered that three Buddhist
temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are positioned along a straight line.
A ritual relationship between the three temples must have existed, although the exact
ritual process is unknown.
Ancient lake hypothesis: Lake Borobudur
In 1931, a Dutch artist and scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J.
Nieuwenkamp, developed a hypothesis that the Kedu Plain was once a lake and
Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake. It has been claimed
that Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m
(49 ft) above the floor of a dried-out paleolake.
Speculation about a surrounding lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion
among archaeologists in the 20th century. Dumarçay together with
Professor Thanikaimoni took soil samples in 1974 and again in 1977 from trial trenches
that had been dug into the hill, as well as from the plain immediately to the south. These
samples were later analysed by Thanikaimoni, who examined their pollen and spore

9
content to identify the type of vegetation that had grown in the area around the time of
Borobudur's construction. They were unable to discover any pollen or spore samples that
were characteristic of any vegetation known to grow in an aquatic environment such as a
lake, pond or marsh.

The area surrounding Borobudur appears to have been surrounded by agricultural land
and palm trees at the time of the monument's construction, as is still the case today.
Caesar Voûte and the geomorphologist Dr J.J. Nossin in 1985–86 field studies re-
examined the Borobudur lake hypothesis and confirmed the absence of a lake around
Borobudur at the time of its construction and active use as a sanctuary. These findings A
New Perspective on Some Old Questions Pertaining to Borobudur were published in the
2005 UNESCO publication titled "The Restoration of Borobudur".
TRIAD

Straight-line arrangement of Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples

To explain the additions or extensions at Barabudur and Mendut by successive Shailendra

rulers, possibly without exception, which have come to light during restoration activities
at those temples, one needs to understand that religious merit of the royal zealot did
increase to a great extent from the building of a stupa. Indeed for every spectator the

10
sacred construction work would be an incentive to join the creed while it would help the
initiate in his meditations aiming at the attainment of the Bodhi. Furthermore, the
“accumulation of religious merit” which the monarch earned through the construction of a
magnificent temple would also benefit his realm — “the thriving State of the Shailendras”
as it is designated in the inscriptions of the period. This topographical relationship looks
hardly casual, as probably a processional way ran along the line in ancient times (the path
is still partly mimicked by the modern road from Borobodur to Pawon up to the river
Pogo).

Borobudur Temple (Biggest Buddha’s temple in the world)

Borobudur, is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist Temple in Magelang, Central Java,
Indonesia. The monument consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three
circular, topped by a central dome. The temple is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and
504 Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated
inside a perforated stupa. It is the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the
greatest Buddhist monuments in the world.
Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple was
designed in Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous cult
of ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The temple also
demonstrates the influences of Gupta art that reflects India’s influence on the region, yet
there are enough indigenous scenes and elements incorporated to make Borobudur
uniquely Indonesian. The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for
Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and
follows a path around the monument and ascends to the top through three levels symbolic
of Buddhist cosmology: Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of
forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness). The monument guides pilgrims
through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels
on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur has the largest and most complete ensemble
of Buddhist reliefs in the world.
Chandi MENDUT and Chandi PAVON supplement the temple complex. They were
built during the reign of King Indra (782–812 AD) of the Shailendra dynasty. The whole
temple complex symbolizes the way of a spiritual seeker from the mundane life to the
Divine life, to the state of Buddha. In old times a big road led from Borobudur eastern
entrance to Chandi Mendut, passing through Chandi Pavon. Along the entire road there
were walls with numerous towers, niches, and sculptures.
 Chandi Mendut,
 Chandi Pavon,
 the famous Borobudur temple complex.

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Pawon Temple
Pawon temple (known locally as Candi Pawon) is a Buddhist temple located between two
other Buddhist temples, approximately 1,150 metres away from Mendut and 1,750 metres
away from Borobudur.
, Pawon is connected with the other two temples, all of which were built during the
Sailendra dynasty (8th–9th centuries). Examines the detail and style of its carving this
temple is slightly older than Borobudur.
The three temples were located on a straight line, suggesting there was a symbolic
meaning that binds these temples.
“Between Mendut and Borobudur stands Pawon temple, a jewel of Javanese temple
architecture. Most probably, this temple served to purify the mind prior to ascending
Borobudur.”1
The original name of this Buddhist shrine is uncertain. Pawon literally means “kitchen” in
Javanese language, which is derived from the root word awu or dust. The connection to
the word “dust” also suggests that this temple was probably built as a tomb or mortuary
temple for a king. Pawon from the word Per-awu-an (place that contains dust), a temple
that houses the dust of cremated king. However who was the personage that entombed
here is still unknown. Local people name this temple as “Bajranalan” based on the name
of the village. Bajranalan is derived from the sanskrit word Vajra (thunder or also a
Buddhist ceremonial tool) and Anala (fire, flame). Due to its small size, Pavon resembles
a memorial monument. When the temple was found, it was in a very poor condition.
Themes of decorative reliefs in Pavon include the “heavenly tree”, vessels with gifts,
bearded dwarfs spilling necklaces, rings and jewels from boxes. Such themes are
explained by the fact that Chandi Pavon is dedicated to the deity of wealth Kubera, who
was usually depicted at entrances to temples.
Inner premises of the temple are trimmed with dark volcanic stone. Although no statues
have been preserved in Chandi Pavon, it is possible to ascertain by outer wall reliefs that
the temple once was dedicated to Kubera – the generous lord of luck and wealth. There
are also extant images of Kalpataru – the mythical tree of desires in Hindu and Buddhist
traditions. The desires ingrained in righteous thoughts and true faith will be fulfilled.

In the contemporary era during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia
observe Vesak annual ritual by walking from Mendut passing through Pawon and ends at
Borobudur.

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As it has been mentioned above, between Chandi Mendut and Borobudur there is the
small Chandi Pavon,

Mendut Temple
Mendut temple is a ninth-century Buddhist temple, located in Mendut village, Mungkid
sub-district, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located about
three kilometres east from Borobudur. Mendut, Borobudur and Pawon, all of which are
Buddhist temples, are located in one straight line. There is a mutual religious relationship
between the three temples, although the exact ritual process is unknown.
Borobodur was once the center of religious rituals of Mahayana Buddhism, which was
corroborated by the existence of other temples with Mahayana Buddhism around it.
Studies conducted on the location of Borobudur and the other temples surrounding it
shows that the three temples are positioned along a single straight line, which was
organized during the construction of Mendut Temple. It is also shown that the imaginary
line connecting the three temples is linked to Mount Merapi.Studies on the temples
surrounding Borobudur show a similarity with regard to the period of construction, which
is the era of Mataram Kuno (Ancient Mataram), as well as their religious affiliation, that
is, Mahayana Buddhism, which excludes Banon Temple as it is filled with statues of
Hindu Gods . These studies led to an interpretation that Borobudur Temple is highly
associated with Pawon and Mendut Temples located in the east. The association between
Borobudur and the two surrounding temples also identifies that the three temples were the
centers for religious rituals in the past. Geographically, Ngawen Temple is located in the
east of Borobudur Temple. However, no study has been conducted revealing the
association between Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen Temples in the past. To
further observe the association between the four temples, this study will focus on their
location, religion, ornaments, and statues. The author believes that this research would
provide a new interpretation of Borobudur and the surrounding Buddhist temples as
monuments for sacred procession in the past and as a world heritage in the future.Field
observation of the four temples, namely Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen was
conducted.
The temple possesses several meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism.
Moreover, in the past, Borobudur had served as the center of other sacred buildings
surrounding it . Within a distance of 5 km around the temple, there are three other temples
affiliated with Mahayana Buddhism, among which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from

13
Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m). Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are located
in the west of Elo River, and Ngawen is, in fact, located in the east side of the river,which
is, in turn, 4 km away from Borobudur .According to previous studies, Borobudur,
Pawon, and Mendut Temples are positioned on a straight line and they form a triadic of
sacred buildings affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism. However the imaginary axis
connecting the three temples is not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the
centers of religious rituals and processions in the past. Furthermore, it is suggested that
the three temples were closely associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further
examination of the map shows an addition temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a
parallel imaginary axis can also be drawn, connecting it to the other three temples. Thus,
on the basis of this fact, it can be interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the
religious rituals might begin in Ngawen Temple and end in Borobudur.

The layout of Chandi Mendut is traditional. It is a temple with a deity figure placed on a
pedestal, intended for ritual processions. The walls contain thematic reliefs with scenes
from Buddhist parables. The reliefs contain well-preserved images of Bodhisattvas. Inside
Chandi Mendut itself there are three statues: Gautama Buddha in the middle, Bodhisattva
Avalokiteśvara on the left, and a non-identified Bodhisattva on the right (there is an
assumption that it is a statue of Vajrapani).

14
The most unusual thing is that Shakyamuni Buddha is sitting in a “European” or “royal”
pose with his both feet put on the lotus pedestal and his knees widely parted, without any
traces of clothes. Bodhisattvas are sitting in traditional poses with one foot under their
body and the other foot lowered.In traditional Buddhist iconography the image of the
body part relating to genitals is always hidden by either a pose (asana) or pleats on the
clothes (when Buddha is standing or lying). Hence, for adherents of canonical Buddhism
the aforesaid depiction of Buddha is probably somewhat shocking.

Religious associations of Borobudur Temple with other nearby temples: Two major
schools, namely Mahayana and Hinayana (Theravada), are found in Buddhism.Mahayana
Buddhism is described as the “great vehicle”, in which a holy man stays on the Earth,

15
rather than going to heaven, in order to be able to help. Moreover, in Mahayana
Buddhism, it is believed that a savior visits the Earth in the future, whereas Hinayana
Buddhism or Theravada is described as a “small vehicle”, in which the Buddha is merely
the Buddha himself, without the presence of Bodhisattva. Discussions on structures built
during the Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with religious context. Revealing the
religious background of a structure requires an observation of the components of the
building. According to Soekmono (2005), temples in Indonesia can be classified in two
major groups, namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the main features of Buddhist
temples is the existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the shrine,
which is a unique feature of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more about the
religious affiliation of a specific structure, we need to focus on the statues, reliefs,
sketches, and other ornaments of structures.

The most important argument for the coherence of Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon in my
view is the fact — which Van Erp discovered by chance — that the three of them had
been lain out along one straight line: 15Pawon on the right shore of the Progo River,
1750 m East of Barabudur, and Mendut 1150 m further East, on the left shore of the Elo
River, just upstream from its junction with the Progo.16
Van Erp considered this fact and, as it were, the logically deducible.

a. for the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Barabudur;

b. for the Suryaloka, the bhavagra ― the top level of the Akanistha Heaven;
c. for the east, Candi Mendut; and
d. for the zenith, Candi Pawon.

16
TRIAD

Borobudur stands in the geographical center of the island of Java, fifteen miles from
Yogyakarta, on a plateau that is the caldera of an ancient volcano ringed by the Menoreh
mountains. Two sets of twin volcanoes – Merapi and Merbabu to the northeast, Sumbing
and Sindoro to the northwest – stand sentinel across the plains. Merapi, the "fire
mountain," is active. A legend is told of a heavenly architect who built Borobudur in a
single day and laid a curse on anyone who dared ascend his holy shrine. According to
Asian art historian, Jan Fontein: "There is a mountain south of Borobudur that when
viewed from the monument looks very much like the profile of a man; the nose, lips and
chin are clearly delineated. The story goes that the ridge depicts Gunadharma, the
architect of Borobudur, who is believed to keep watch over his creation through the
ages."

There were only two fleeting references to Borobudur in historical reports of the 18th
century. The first recorded visitor to Borobudur was a rebel who fled to the mountain
called Bara-Budur in 1709 after leading an attempt to usurp the throne from the Sultan of
Matara. The Sultan sent troops who surrounded the mountain, captured him and sent him
to be executed.
The next documented visitor to the monument was the heir apparent of Yogyakarta, a
defiant young prince who had a reputation for rebellious and depraved behavior. In 1758,
he set out to visit the "mountain of a thousand statues" against the advice of a prophecy
that royalty who climbed the mountain would die. When he did not return to court, the
king sent his men to bring back the wayward son. He was found vomiting blood and soon
after died.

But records revealed no consensus on the meaning of the name "Borobudur." Two

17
alternatives were proposed based on Javanese manuscripts from 842 AD: "the mountain
of the accumulation of virtue on the ten stages of the Bodhisattva," or "the mountain
which is terraced in successive stages." Sir Thomas Raffles, the British governor of
Indonesia responsible for the excavation of Borobudur in 1814, thought that "boro" might
mean "great" and "budur" might correspond to the more modern Javanese word "buda,"
interpreted as "The Great Buddha." One Javanese expert indicated that "boro" is related to
the word for "monastery," and "budur" is a place name. This would suggest that
Borobudur means "Monastery of Budur."Fortunately, because of the native tolerance of
religious diversity, many of the monuments of Java were simply abandoned rather than
destroyed or defaced, and a cloud of mystery and superstition descended on Borobudur.

The first study on Borobudur was conducted during the Dutch East Indies era by Van Erp
and N. J. Kroom,2 which coincided with the temple’s restoration project. Based on the
similarities with regard to the architectural style and ornamentation of the three temples it
indicated an association between Borobudur Temple and two other temples located
nearby, namely Pawon Temple and Mendut Temple. They seem to have been built in the
same period, that is, the Sailendra dynasty era. The next study was conducted by J. L.
Moens in the 1950s 3 connected the three temples with Banon Temple, a Hindu temple
located near Pawon Temple. Furthermore, it shows that Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut
Temples were all ritual centers of Mahayana Buddhism, whereas Banon Temple was a
place for the followers of Siwa-Siddhanta. Another study conducted by IGN Anom
imaginarily connected Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples,showing that the three
temples were built along a straight line

Association of the positioning of Borobudur Temple with the four nearby temples
Borobudur Temple is located in the west of Elo River. The temple possesses several
meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism. Moreover, in the past, Borobudur
had served as the center of other sacred buildings surrounding it.. Within a distance of 5
km around the temple, there are three other temples affiliated with Mahayana Buddhism,
among which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m) .
Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut Temples are located in the west of Elo River, and
Ngawen is, in fact, located in the east side of the river, which is, in turn, 4 km away from
Borobudur . According to previous studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are
positioned on a straight line and they form a triadic (a group of three) of sacred buildings
affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism.

However, according to Totok Roesmanto , the imaginary axis connecting the three
temples is not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the centers of religious
rituals and processions in the past. Furthermore, it is suggested that the three temples
were closely associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further examination of the map
shows an addition temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary axis
can also be drawn, connecting it to the other three temples.Thus, on the basis of this fact,
it can be interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the religious rituals might begin in
Ngawen Temple and end in Borobudur.

Discussions on structures built during the Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with
religious context. Revealing the religious background of a structure requires an
observation of the components of the building. Temples in Indonesia can be classified in
two major groups, namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the mainfeatures of
Buddhist temples is the existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the

18
shrine, which is a unique feature of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more
about the religious affiliation of a specific structure, we need to focus on the statues,
reliefs, sketches, and other ornaments of structures.
Bodobodur and Merapi Volcano: Borobudur was mysteriously abandoned by the
1500s, when the center of Javan life shifted to the East and Islam arrived on the island in
the 13th and 14th centuries. Perhaps Mount Merapi had erupted, choking the rice lands
with layers of volcanic ash. Whatever the cause, the population moved to East Java in a
mass exodus, and Borobudur was left behind, its meaning lost in time. Some scholars
believe that famine caused by an eruption of Mount Merapi forced the inhabitants of
Central Java to leave their lands behind in search of a new place to live. When people
once again inhabited this area, the glory of Borobudur was buried by ash from Mount
Merapi.
Mountain peaks, according to Buddhist thought, are the place where contact with divine
truth may take place. There are 129 volcanoes in Indonesia and smoke can be seen
emerging from the mountaintop at least 300 days a year. Mount Merapi, which stands at
about 9,551 feet (2,911 meters) tall, lies in one of the world's most densely populated
areas and dominates the landscape immediately north of the major city of Yogyakarta,
on the island of Java.It is a stratovolcano being the youngest and southernmost of a
volcanic chain extending north and northwest, to the Mount Ungaran volcano. The name
Merapi could be loosely translated as "Mountain of Fire" from the Javanese combined
words "Meru," meaning "mountain," and "api," meaning "fire."Tectonically, Merapi is
situated at the subduction zone where the Indo-Australian Plate is sliding beneath the
Eurasian Plate. It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire – a section of fault lines and
volcanoes stretching from the western coast of South America, Alaska through Japan
and Southeast Asia.

Merapi has been active for about 10,000 years. The volcano's biggest and most
devastating eruptions occurred in 1006 and 1930. The eruption of 1006 was so bad that
many believe the existing Hindu kingdom in the area was destroyed, as it spread ash over
all of central Java. During the 1930 eruption more than 1,300 people were killed."The
material has to travel 30 miles [48 km] to get to the surface; there has to be enough
propellant force to push them all that way and out.Merapi is the poster child for unstable
lava domes," Wunderman said. "The dome on Merapi rests on a steep, unstable
environment, and it is easy for pieces to break off and do damage; for example, hot gases
can be released and form a superheated, high speed cloud that rolls down the mountain.
The volcano is considered sacred by some local people who believe a supernatural
kingdom exists atop Merapi, according to Indhanesia.com, an informational website
about Indonesia. Every year a priest climbs to the top to make an offering.
Creation
Merapi is very important to Javanese, especially those living around its crater. As such,
there are many myths and beliefs attached to Merapi. Although most nearby villages have
their own myths about the creation of Mount Merapi, they have numerous commonalities.
It is believed that when the gods had just created the Earth, Java was unbalanced because
of the placement of Mount Jamurdipo on the west end of the island. In order to assure
balance, the gods (generally represented by Batara Guru) ordered the mountain to be
moved to the centre of Java. However, two armourers, Empu Rama and Empu Permadi,
were already forging a sacred keris at the site where Mount Jamurdipo was to be moved.
The gods warned them that they would be moving a mountain there, and that they should
leave; Empu Rama and Empu Permadi ignored that warning. In anger, the gods buried
Empu Rama and Empu Permadi under Mount Jamurdipo; their spirits later became the

19
rulers of all mystical beings in the area. In memory of them, Mount Jamurdipo was later
renamed Mount Merapi, which means "fire of Rama and Permadi."
Spirit Kraton of Merapi
The Javanese believe that the Earth is not only populated by human beings, but also by
spirits (makhluk halus). Villages near Merapi believe that one of the palaces
(in Javanese kraton) used by the rulers of the spirit kingdom lies inside Merapi, ruled by
Empu Rama and Empu Permadi. This palace is said to be a spiritual counterpart to
the Yogyakarta Sultanate, complete with roads, soldiers, princes, vehicles, and
domesticated animals. Besides the rulers, the palace is said to also be populated by the
spirits of ancestors who died as righteous people. The spirits of these ancestors are said to
live in the palace as royal servants (abdi dalem), occasionally visiting their descendants in
dreams to give prophecies or warnings.

Spirits of Merapi
To keep the volcano quiet and to appease the spirits of the mountain, the Javanese
regularly bring offerings on the anniversary of the sultan of Yogyakarta's
coronation. For Yogyakarta Sultanate, Merapi holds a significant cosmological
symbolism, because it forms a sacred north-south axis line between Merapi peak and
Southern Ocean (Indian Ocean). The sacred axis is signified by Merapi peak in the north,
the Tugu Yogyakarta monument near Yogyakarta main train station, the axis runs
along Malioboro street to Northern Alun-alun (square) across Keraton Yogyakarta (sultan
palace), Southern Alun-alun, all the way to Bantul and finally reach Samas and
Parangkusumo beach on the estuary of Opak river and Southern Ocean. This sacred axis
connected the hyangs or spirits of mountain revered since ancient times—often identified
as "Mbah Petruk" by Javanese people—The Sultan of Yogyakarta as the leader of the
Javanese kingdom, and Nyi Roro Kidul as the queen of the Southern Ocean, the female
ocean deity revered by Javanese people and also mythical consort of Javanese kings.

Abandonment Borobodur lies 28 KM away from the mountain. No one knows what
happened to the culture that built the monument. Perhaps Merapi had erupted, choking
the rice lands with layers of volcanic ash. Whatever the cause, the population moved to
East Java in a mass exodus, and Borobudur was left behind, its meaning lost in time.
Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The
facts behind its abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known when active use of the
monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. Sometime between 928 and 1006,
King Mpu Sindok moved the capital of the Medang Kingdom to the region of East
Java after a series of volcanic eruptions; it is not certain whether this influenced the
abandonment, but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment.
The monument is mentioned vaguely as late as c. 1365, in Mpu
Prapanca's Nagarakretagama, written during the Majapahit era and mentioning "the vihara
in Budur".Soekmono (1976) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were
disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the 15th century.

The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from
its past glory into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two old
Javanese chronicles (babad) from the 18th century mention cases of bad luck associated
with the monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the
monument was a fatal factor for Mas Dana, a rebel who revolted against Pakubuwono I,
the king of Mataram in 1709. It was mentioned that the "Redi Borobudur" hill was
besieged and the insurgents were defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In

20
the Babad Mataram (or the History of the Mataram Kingdom)4 , the monument was
associated with the misfortune of Prince Monconagoro, the crown prince of
the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757. In spite of a taboo against visiting the monument, "he
took what is written as the knight who was captured in a cage (a statue in one of the
perforated stupas)". Upon returning to his palace, he fell ill and died one day later.

During the Britiash administration from 1811 to 1816, Lieutenant Governor-

General Thomas Stamford Raffles was appointed governor who took great interest in the
history of Java. On an inspection tour to Semarang in 1814, he was informed about a big
monument deep in a jungle near the village of Bumisegoro. He was not able to see the site
himself, but sent Hermann Cornelius , a Dutch engineer who, among other antiquity
explorations had uncovered the Sewu complex in 1806–07, to investigate. In two months,
Cornelius and his 200 men cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the
earth to reveal the monument. Due to the danger of collapse, he could not unearth all
galleries. He reported his findings to Raffles, including various drawings. Although
Raffles mentioned the discovery and hard work by Cornelius and his men in only a few
sentences, he has been credited with the monument's rediscovery, as the one who had
brought it to the world's attention.

Christiaan Lodewijk Hartmann, the Resident of the Kedu region, continued Cornelius's
work, and in 1835, the whole complex was finally unearthed. His interest in Borobudur
was more personal than official. Hartmann did not write any reports of his activities, in
particular, the alleged story that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in the main
stupa. In 1842, Hartmann investigated the main dome, although what he discovered is
unknown and the main stupa remains empty.

The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned Frans Carel Wilsen, a Dutch
engineering official, who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. Jan
Frederik Gerrit Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument,
which was completed in 1859. The government intended to publish an article based on
Brumund's study supplemented by Wilsen's drawings, but Brumund refused to cooperate.
The government then commissioned another scholar, Conradus Leemans, who compiled
a monograph based on Brumund's and Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the first monograph of
the detailed study of Borobudur was published, followed by its French translation a year
later. The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1872 by the Dutch-
Flemish engraver Isidore van Kinsbergen.

Appreciation of the site developed slowly, and it served for some time largely as a source
of souvenirs and income for "souvenir hunters" and thieves. In 1882, the chief inspector
of cultural artifacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the
relocation of reliefs into museums due to the unstable condition of the monument. As a
result, the government appointed Willem Pieter Groeneveldt, curator of the
archaeological collection of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences to undertake a
thorough investigation of the site and to assess the actual condition of the complex; his
report found that these fears were unjustified and recommended it be left intact.

Borobudur was considered as the source of souvenirs, and parts of its sculptures were
looted, some even with colonial-government consent. It is said that in 1896 King
Chulalongkorn of Siam visited Java and requested and was allowed to take home eight
cartloads of sculptures taken from Borobudur. These include thirty pieces taken from a

21
number of relief panels, five buddha images, two lions, one gargoyle, several kala motifs
from the stairs and gateways, and a guardian statue (dvarapala). Several of these artifacts,
most notably the lions, dvarapala, kala, makara and giant waterspouts are now on display
in the Java Art room in The National Museum in Bangkok.

Restoration
Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when the Dutch engineer Jan Willem
IJzerman Chairman of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, made a discovery about
the hidden foot. Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden foot were made in 1890–
1891. The discovery led the Dutch East Indies government to take steps to safeguard the
monument. In 1900, the government set up a commission consisting of three officials to
assess the monument: Jan Lourens Andries Brandes, an art historian, Theodoor van
Erp [nl], a Dutch army engineer officer, and Benjamin Willem van de Kamer, a
construction engineer from the Department of Public Works.
In 1902, the commission submitted a threefold plan of proposal to the government. First,
the immediate dangers should be avoided by resetting the corners, removing stones that
endangered the adjacent parts, strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several
niches, archways, stupas and the main dome. Second, after fencing off the courtyards,
proper maintenance should be provided and drainage should be improved by restoring
floors and spouts. Third, all loose stones should be removed, the monument cleared up to
the first balustrades, disfigured stones removed and the main dome restored. The total
cost was estimated at that time around 48,800 Dutch guilders.

The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and 1911, using the principles
of anastylosis and led by Theodor van Erp. The first seven months of restoration were
occupied with excavating the grounds around the monument to find missing Buddha
heads and panel stones. Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt the upper three circular platforms
and stupas. Along the way, Van Erp discovered more things he could do to improve the
monument; he submitted another proposal, which was approved with the additional cost
of 34,600 guilders. At first glance, Borobudur had been restored to its old glory. Van Erp
went further by carefully reconstructing the chattra (three-tiered parasol) pinnacle on top
of the main stupa. However, he later dismantled the chattra, citing that there were not
enough original stones used in reconstructing the pinnacle, which means that the original
design of Borobudur's pinnacle is actually unknown. The dismantled chattra now is
stored in Karmawibhangga Museum, a few hundred meters north from Borobudur.
Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the
sculptures, and Van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the
gallery walls were sagging, and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and
deterioration. Van Erp used concrete from which alkali salts and calcium
hydroxide leached and were transported into the rest of the construction. This caused
some problems, so that a further thorough renovation was urgently needed.

...nature takes a toll

But during the 19th century, as Borobudur's past became more clear, its future grew much
less certain. The climate of Java is particularly ruthless to man-made structures. In the
words of Professor Soekmono, former head of the Archeological Service of Indonesia:
"For over a thousand years, the rigours of the tropical climate have probed the latent
weaknesses of the edifice. Sudden changes of heat and cold between day and night,
where temperatures may vary by 40 degrees Fahrenheit in twenty-four hours, cause
stones to crack. But the worst havoc has been caused by the heavy rains, over eighty

22
inches a year on average, with torrential downpours of up to half an inch in five minutes.
They overwhelmed the inadequate drainage system, percolating down into the central
core where they washed away the earth and weakened the foundations."

"Moisture on the stones had also corroded many of the beautifully carved reliefs and
favored the growth of disfiguring patches of mosses and lichens. The terrace walls sagged
and tilted at crazy angles and the floors sloped inwards. Had the lower terrace walls
collapsed, the whole colossal structure would have come tumbling down in a great
slithering avalanche of earth and masonry."

Nature itself was destroying the monument, literally tearing Borobudur apart. Despite
repeated efforts at restoration throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, major decay
and structural disintegration plainly threatened Borobudur with inevitable and irreparable
collapse. Several interesting suggestions for protection of the monument were made
during that time. One of the preservationists suggested that Borobudur be covered by a
giant umbrella to keep the rain off. Another proposal was to demolish the entire edifice
and deposit the reliefs in a museum.

In 1907, Theodore Van Erp, a Dutch engineering officer, led a major restoration project.
He rebuilt the crumbling stupas and heaving floors of the upper terraces, cleaning the
sculptures of moss and lichen. But after four years, the limited funds were exhausted
before work could begin on the lower galleries, and the basic problem of drainage had not
been solved. Carvings were rapidly disintegrating; walls were crumbling. By 1948, when
the Republic of Indonesia came into existence, Borobudur was on the brink of ruin.
According to Soekmono, 5"Deterioration was so widespread all over the monument that
no partial restoration could effectively ensure its safeguard. Since the Indonesian people
were determined to pass on the best of their cultural heritage to forthcoming generations,
drastic but deliberate action was called for in the form of a gigantic project." But it would
be several decades before attention would again turn to Borobudur.
Little is known about the early history of Borobudur except that it was built some time
between AD 750 and 850, during the Sailendra Dynasty. A huge workforce must have
been required to hew, transport and carve the 60,000 cubic metres of stone in constructing
the temple, but the details remain as vague as the monument's name, which possibly
derives from the Sanskrit words ‘Vihara Buddha Uhr’, meaning Monastery on the Hill’.

The three temples at Borobodur belong to the Mahayana Buddhism. The details of the
cults practised are unsure, but a relationship certainly existed between the temples and the
proclaimed divine nature of the kings who ordered their construction. In this connection,
a possible, symbolic relationship between the three monuments was investigated in details
by Moens. In this controversial but anyhow scholarly work, the idea is that the temples
were connected by a “magical birth” ritual, in which the monarch’s consecration occurred
both as the Buddha and as King. Moens proposed a ritual based on an analogy with the
sun path in the sky in one day, and thus endowed with three main “stations”: east, zenith,
and west. To these steps corresponded for the west, the beginning of the western staircase
at Borobudur; for the east, Mendut; and for the zenith, Pawon.

Role of the moon: It is worth mentioning that the role of the moon is quite relevant in
Buddhism, since festivals and recurrences associated with Buddha's life are timed by the
full moon. As is well known, in the course of a 18,6 years cycle the maximal declination

23
of the Moon in her monthly cycle undergoes a slow variation from a minimum to a
maximum, equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic minus/plus the obliquity of the earth-
moon plane (=5° 9') with respect to the ecliptic. This leadas to a minor standstill at
declination and a maximal standstill at declination . In 800 AD the obliquity
of the ecliptic was about 9' greater than today so =23° 39' and the two standstills
correspond to declinations 28° 48' and to 18° 30' respectively. The last matches
impressively well the orientation of Pawon, while the first is not far (less than two
degrees in declination, corresponding to less than 2 degrees also in azimuth) from that of
Mendut (parallax corrections are negligible at these latitudes).

Since the minor standstill of the Moon is always mimicked by the sun two times a
year, it is impossible to distinguish it from a solar orientation in the case of a single
building. However, the coincidence of two buildings possibly related to the two
standstills is, to say the last, impressive. In this respect it is important to remember that
precise azimuths for the major standstills of the Moon are very difficult to individuate,
and major standstills lunar orientations should always be understood as aimed to the full
moon closest to the solstice, which always attains a declination close to the extremal one
in the years of the standstills. The choice of orientation to the extrema of the moon might
thus have arisen from calendrical reasons.6

Moens: Confirmed that the temple triad of Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon dates from the
period of the Shailendra dynasty, 1,3 which in close cooperation with the kings of the
Sanjaya dynasty dominated Central Java for nearly two centuries, is no longer liable to
doubt since the explorations of Van Erp and Krom. In his extensive Barabudur-
monograph, Van Erp called the three temples “...a triad that according to (their)
architecture and ornamentation derive from the same time period.” 7This observation of
course concerns the style of the temples as we are familiar with today, that is to say
following the renovations and extensions which must have been executed by the end of
the ninth century when Shailendra hegemony in Java came to an end.

REFERENCES
1. and 3. .J. L. Moens (1951). "Barabudur, Mendut en Pawon en hun onderlinge
samenhang (Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon and their mutual
relationship)" (PDF). Tijdschrift voor de Indische Taai-, Land- en Volkenkunde. Het
Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen: 326–386. Archived from the
original (PDF) on August 10, 2007. trans. by Mark Long
2. 1.Beschrijving van Barabudur,Krom (N.J.) & Van Erp (T.),Martinus Nijhoff, 1920-31.,
1920
4."Mataram, Historical kingdom, Indonesia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 1
January 2015.
See also The Role of Dutch Colonialism in the Political Life of Mataram Dynasty: A
Case Study of the Manuscript of Babad, Tanah Jawi, Asian Social
Science 10(15) · July 2014
5. Art of Indonesia: Pusaka, Haryati Soebadio, Bambang Sumadio, et al. | 1 March 1998

6.Archaeoastronomy of the “Sun path” at Borobudur,Giulio Magli,School of

Architecture, Urban Planning and Construction Engineering,Politecnico di Milano, Italy

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7. BESCHRIJVING VAN BARABUDUR. EERSTE DEEL. ARCHAEOLOGISCHE
BESCHRIJVING DOOR,

Krom, N.J.; Erp, T. van.,Published by 's-Gravenhage, 1920. (1920)

Borobudur temple
Borobudur temple was built during the reign of the Syailendra dynasty. This stupa -
shaped was erected by Mahayana Buddhists during the reign of the Syailendra dynasty.
History of the establishment of Borobudur Temple was built in the 8th century.

The origin of the Borobudur temple is still shrouded in mystery, regarding who the
founder of the Borobudur temple was and what was the initial purpose of building this
temple. Many stories and stories of the Borobudur temple are circulating which are now
known as local folk tales. Borobudur Temple is a Buddhist temple located in the city of
Magelang, Central Java province. Borobudur Temple is the largest Buddhist temple or
temple in the world, as well as one of the largest Buddhist monuments in the world.
Because of its splendor and majesty, the temple which was built in the 8th century has
been designated by UNESCO as one of the world’s cultural heritages (world heritage).

Mpu Prapanca, a Buddhist scholar of Majapahit court, in 1365 wrote about a monument
called Budur as a holy Buddhist sanctuary in a book called Nagarakretagama, written by
him and the only old Javanese manuscript that hints at the presence of Borobudur.
The Nagarakretagama or Nagarakṛtāgama, also known
as Desawarnana or Deśavarṇana, is an Old Javanese eulogy to Hayam Wuruk,
a Javanese king of the Majapahit Empire. It was written on lontar as a kakawin by Mpu
Prapanca in 1365 (1287 Saka year). The Nagarakretagama contains detailed descriptions
of the Majapahit Empire during its greatest extent. The poem affirms the importance
of Hindu–Buddhism in the Majapahit empire by describing temples and palaces and
several ceremonial observances.
History of Borobudur Temple
There is a long history in the founding of the Borobudur temple. Until now, no written
evidence has been found that explains who built Borobudur and what was the purpose of
building this temple. It is estimated that Borobudur temple was built in 800 AD.

The estimated time for the construction of the temple is based on a comparison between
the type of script written on the closed foot of Karmawibhangga with the type of script
commonly used in 8th and 9th century royal inscriptions. Borobudur temple was built
during the kingdom of the Syailendra dynasty in Central Java which coincided between
the period 760 to 830 AD.

The process of building the Borobudur temple is estimated to take more than 75 to 100
years. The new Borobudur Temple was completely completed 100% during the reign of
King Samaratungga in 825 AD. Also read : The History of Prambanan Temple.

Borobudur Temple Construction Process

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From the thesis entitled The Relation of the Meaning of Borobudur Temple Symbols with
Buddhist Teachings, the builder of the Borobudur temple named Gunadarma. This temple
was built in 5 stages:

1. The first stage (780 AD)

Initial construction was carried out on a hill. The hillside was leveled and the courtyard
expanded. Not all materials for the temple are made of andesite. The process of building a
hill uses compacted soil and covered with stone structures.

This rock structure resembles a shell and encloses a hill of earth. Meanwhile, the rest of
the hill is covered with stone structures layer by layer. The beginning of the construction
of the temple was arranged in stages like a stepped pyramid.

2. Second and third stages (792 AD)

The second level, there is the addition of two square -shaped steps. Part of the ledge fence
and a circular step on it. The stair section has a large single stupa.

The Plain from the stupa

The third part is a change in the design of the building. The top of the circle with a single
main stupa was dismantled. The stupa was replaced by three circular steps, while small
stupas were built in a circle on the courtyard of the steps. The large stupa is in the middle.

Archaeologists suspect, originally Borobudur was designed in the form of a single, very
large stupa. So that the stupa is like a crown in the middle. But the large stupa was too
heavy, pushing the structure of the building.

Stupa that is too large can shift the building. The core of Borobudur is just a hill of earth,
so that the pressure on the top can spread downwards so that Borobudur is threatened
with landslides and collapses.

Finally, the main stupa was replaced with circular terraces decorated with small stupas.
The main stupa is only one which functions to support the temple walls and prevent
shifting.

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3. The Fourth Stage (824 AD) and the fifth 833 AD
The temple building underwent minor changes, such as the addition of the outermost
balustrade, improvement of the reliefs, changes to the stairs, widening of the toe, and the
arch of the gate.

In Indonesia temples are referred to as candi; thus locals refer to "Borobudur Temple"
as Candi Borobudur. The term candi also loosely describes ancient structures, for
example gates and baths. The origins of the name Borobudur, is derived from Boro for
big and Budur for Buddha.The name Borobudur was first written in Raffles's book on
Javan history. Raffles wrote about a monument called Borobudur, but there are no older
documents suggesting the same name. Most candi are named after a nearby village. If it
followed Javanese language conventions and was named after the nearby village of Bore,
the monument should have been named "BudurBoro". Raffles thought that Budur might
correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda ("ancient")—i.e., "ancient Boro". He also
suggested that the name might derive from boro, meaning "great" or "honourable"
and Budur for Buddha. However, another archaeologist suggests the second component
of the name (Budur) comes from Javanese term bhudhara ("mountain").
Another possible etymology by Dutch archaeologist A.J. Bernet Kempers suggests
that Borobudur is a corrupted simplified local Javanese pronunciation of Biara
Beduhur written in Sanskrit as Vihara Buddha Uhr. The term Buddha-Uhr could mean
"the city of Buddhas", while another possible term Beduhur is probably an Old
Javanese term, still survived today in Balinese vocabulary, which means "a high place",
constructed from the stem word dhuhur or luhur (high). This suggests that Borobudur
means vihara of Buddha located on a high place or on a hill.
The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building—possibly a reference to
Borobudur—was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in Kedu, Temanggung
Regency. The Karangtengah inscription, dated 824, mentioned a sacred building
named Jinalaya (the realm of those who have conquered worldly desire and reached
enlightenment), inaugurated by Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga. The Tri
Tepusan inscription, dated 842, is mentioned in the sima, the (tax-free) lands awarded by
Çrī Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance of
a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra.[18] Kamūlān is from the word mula, which means "the
place of origin", a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably those of
the Sailendras. Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra, which
in Sanskrit means "the mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages
of Boddhisattvahood", was the original name of Borobudur.
History of Prambanan Temple – Prambanan Temple is a Hindu-style temple complex
located in Sleman, Yogyakarta. This temple is also known as Roro Jonggrang
Temple. Prambanan Temple is the largest Hindu temple complex in Indonesia. The
history of this temple was first built in the 9th century AD during the Mataram or Medang
Kingdom.

According to the Siwagrha inscription, the original name of this temple is Siwagrha
Temple, which in Sanskrit means Shiva’s House. This temple was built as an offering to
the Trimurti, namely the 3 main Hindu gods, namely Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. But
indeed Lord Shiva is preferred in this temple. Prambanan Temple is located in Prambanan
District, Sleman Regency, Yogyakarta and Prambanan District, Klaten Regency, Central
Java. This temple is located between 2 sub-districts from 2 different provinces. This

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means that this temple is located on the border of Central Java and Yogyakarta provinces.
click here to see Prambanan temple on the maps.

Prambanan Temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This temple is claimed to be the
largest Hindu temple in Indonesia and one of the most beautiful temples in Southeast
Asia. As a cultural heritage, this temple is one of the tourist attractions visited by local
and foreign tourists every year.

History of Prambanan Temple

The following will explain in detail the history of Prambanan Temple, starting from the
origin and background of the temple, the development process, the legend that developed
in the community as well as the rediscovery and restoration of the damaged temple
building.

The Origin of Prambanan Temple

The history of this Prambanan temple began when the archipelago was still in the era of
the Hindu-Buddhist Kingdom. The construction of this temple was initiated by Rakai
Pikatan. He tried to build a magnificent Hindu-style temple to match the Buddhist-style
Borobudur Temple that had been built previously.

The construction of the Prambanan temple is also thought to be aimed at marking the
return of the Sanjaya family to power in Java. Indeed, there was a rivalry between the
Sanjaya dynasty who were Hindus and the Buddhist Sailenda dynasty regarding their
power in Java.

The construction of the temple became a transition from a Buddhist to a Hindu style in
the Mataram or Medang Kingdom. Prambanan Temple was also built to glorify Lord
Shiva. The original name of this building in Sanskrit is Siwagrha temple or Siwalaya
temple.

Prambanan Temple Construction Process

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The temple building was first built around 850 AD by Rakai Pikatan. Then the
development process was continued by the next kings such as King Lokapala and King
Balitung Mah Sambu. The process of building the temple is also accompanied by changes
in the water system and the areas around the temple so that the temple is more awake.

The temple complex was built periodically and continued by other kings such as King
Daksa and King Tulodong. Hundreds of additional temples were also built around the
main temple building as a companion temple.

After that, a very magnificent temple building was formed. The splendor of the
Prambanan temple also received wide acceptance from the people of that era. This temple
is dedicated to Trimurti, the three main Hindu gods, namely Brahma as the creator god,
Vishnu as the preserver god, and Shiva as the destroyer god.

Inside the Shiva temple as the main temple, there is a Shiva statue in the garbhagriha or
main room. Archaeologists believe that the statue is a statue of the embodiment of King
Balitung.

The splendor of this temple makes Prambanan the great temple of the Mataram Kingdom.
Prambanan Temple serves as a meeting place, rituals, and important royal ceremonies.
also read The History of Borobudur Temple and Its Origin Story

The Legend of Prambanan Temple

Prambanan Temple was abandoned around 930 AD. This is most likely caused by the
violent eruption of Mount Merapi in the north of the Prambanan temple. The capital of
the Mataram kingdom was moved to East Java by Mpu Sindok, who later founded the
Isyana dynasty.

Another possible cause for the transfer of the capital is a war or power struggle. As a
result, the Prambanan temple became neglected and neglected. The temple building began
to crumble and collapse. After an earthquake in the 16th century, the Prambanan temple
became increasingly damaged.

After the split of the Mataram Sultanate in 1755 AD, the ruins of this temple became the
boundary between the Yogyakarta Sultanate and the Surakarta Sunanate. At that time,
many local residents knew the existence of this temple, but did not know its history and
origin.

At that time, developed myths and fairy tales about the origin of the existence of the
temple. The fairy tale tells the story of thousands of temples that were built in one night
with the help of spirits at the request of Rara Jonggrang’s daughter, but then the princess
was cursed to become a statue for cheating.

The story became so famous that the temple is also known as Roro Jonggrang
Temple. Even today, the story of the construction of the temple in 1 night is still widely
told as part of the legend of the community

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Prambanan Temple

Discovery and Restoration of Prambanan Temple

Prambanan Temple was later discovered by CA. Lons from the Netherlands in 1733. This
temple also attracted the attention of many circles during the British occupation of
Java. Governor General Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles then ordered further investigation
of the ruins of this temple.

Then around 1855, a massive demolition was carried out to restore the temple
building. Even so, many statues and temple stones were taken carelessly by local
residents. The serious restoration of the Prambanan temple only began in the 1930s.

The renovation of the temple was carried out by Dutch archaeologists and then continued
by native Indonesians. Restoration efforts continue to be carried out even today. The
restoration of the Shiva temple, the main temple of the complex, was completed in 1953
and inaugurated by President Soekarno.

In 1991, Prambanan Temple was officially included in the World Heritage Site protected
by UNESCO. Some parts of the temple also continue to be maintained and restored,
especially after the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006 which had damaged several statues
and temple buildings.

So that’s a brief explanation of the history of the Prambanan temple and the origin of the
Prambanan temple in full. Currently Prambanan temple is also one of the tourist
attractions visited by many local and foreign tourists. So many references to the history of
Prambanan temple this time.

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