1

Vaikuntam
If I was Devaraja or Lord Vishnu my abode - Angkor would
be Bhoologa Vaikuntam
(Home of Lord Vishnu on Earth) in CAMBODIA
Dr UDAY DOKRAS PhD STOCKHOLM

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 BOOKS ON CAMBODIA & South East ASIA by Dr UDAY DOKRAS

Temple Mountain

Book V on
The Lands of Ganesh Mandala of the DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo China-
Oriental Kingdoms Cambodia. Book I of a Trilogy of 3 books

Cosmology of lotus
Selected Essays on
some Celestial HINDU CAMBODIA
Mysteries

Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur

Temple
HYDROLOGY of
ANGKOR
Potpurri of Research
of Dr Uday Dokras,
Book

Hindu tempels of Bharat Cambodia and

Indonesia
Mathematics in
Temple Designs

New Essays on
ANGKOR

Marco Polos of Ancient Trade- The

The Great Tamilians
Civilizations of
South East Asia -
HINDU Era BOOK
THE BATTLES for II
Preah Pisnulok-

Srijijay the Kingdom of the Winds- booK

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 Devraja and Raj Scientific Borobudur
Newer Essays on
Dharma -God King
Khemer inspired by
and Kingly
Jayavarman II
Religion The
-
HINDU Era of
Great Civilizations
of Khemer
Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers
GRAPHIC
BUDDHIST-STUPA
- BOOK
Scientific Angkor I

ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT

VANISHED- Angkor
Suvarnabhoomi
Scientific Angkor II BOOK

Khemer Timeline

Prambanan
South East Asian Temple-BOOK
Architecture BOOK II

DEVRAJA BOOK III

South East Asian Complete Essays

Architecture BOOK I of Architect
SRISHIT DOKRAS
VOLUME II

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 BOROBUDUR
BOOKS and Research papers/ articles by Dr Uday Dokras

Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur Temple

Hindu tempel of India , Cambodia and Indonesia

MANDALA & ARCHITECTURE

Temple Mountain

Scientific Angkor and Borobudur Book II

South East Asian Architecture BOOK II

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GRAPHIC BUDDHIST-STUPA - BOOK

Scientific Borobudur

STUPA MANDALA- Book 6 of the Mandala Series-

PAPERS
The Concept of the Mountain Temple in Hinduism and comparison with the cambodian temple mountain
1. Southeast Asia had 3 great empires
2. Quintessential EGG Shape of the Buddhist Stupas
3. Bakong in Cambodia and Borobudur in Java-Mandala Comparison
4. " A form of Emptiness"-Stupa Design Elements of the Borobudur based on Sutras of the Buddha
5. Bakong in Cambodia and Borobudur in Java-Mandala Comparison
6. The striking similarity of the Bakong in Cambodia and Borobudur in Java
7. Did the Borobudur ships carry a African diaspora?
8. Comparison between Angkor Wat and Borobudur temple
9. Mandala in Borobudur
10. The blueprint for Borobudur
11. Comparison between Angkor Wat, Paharpur and Borobudur
12. DIFFERENT TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION TECH OF INDONESIAN TEMPLES
13. The Mysterious Malayu, Dharmasraya & the Candi Gumpung-a Buddhist temple, aligned with the temple Burobudur
14. Stepped pyramid
15. The Main Stupa of Borobudur as Gnomon and Its Relation With Pranotomongso Calendar System
16. Navel in Buddha
17. Balinese Nudes
18. Mysteries of the Borobodur Temple of Indonesia’
19. Lotus in Buddhism
20. Borobudur Temple of Indonesia
21. Reliefs in Borobudur Temple of Indonesia
22. Indian design in Borobudur Temple

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 C O N T E N T S

CHAPTER I Bhoologa Vaikuntam (Home of Lord Vishnu on Earth) in CAMBODIA-

Page 6
Vaikuntha Chaturmurti or Vaikuntha Vishnu is a four-headed aspect of the
Hindu god Vishnu page 31
VAIKUNTHAM Temples In Cambodia page 38
S H I V A TEMPLES in Cambodia page 40

CHAPTER II-ANTARALA- The space in Temple design page 43

CHAPTER III-ARCHITECTURE of PYRAMIDS page 53
CHAPTER IV-ASTROLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF ANGKOR page 78
CHAPTER V-Avalokiteśvara in Cambodian Temples page 108
CHAPTER VI-Jain Idoletry page 125
Chapter VII-JAIN ARTas representing Divinity- page 146
The Concept of Divinity in JainismDr. Kokila Shah page 162
The Concept of Divinity in Jainism: Where was God before the creation of the
Universe? page 172

CHAPTER VIII-BRAHMINS in ANGKOR page 174

CHAPTER IX- Cultivating Divinity in Temple Construction-PART I page 230
CHAPTER X-Amalgamating Art & Divinity in Temples PART II page 244
DIVINITY page 273
DIVINITY BY DESIGN page 281
CHAPTER XI-Ujjain, Crossroad of Space and Time page 291
CHAPTER XII- The Battles for the Preah Vihear Temple page 301

CHAPTER XIII- Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram page 322

Astronomical Association Of Natarāja’s Dance With Apasmara And Agastyanoage

378

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 INTRODUCTION
In recent times DR Uday Dokras ,my good friend, has cast new
light and given new perspectives not only to his favourite domain
of Hindu Temples but also to those In Indonesia and Cambodia.
His output is prolific, his writing is compulsive and his thoughts
never cease to think anew.
Therefore another BOOK another INTRODUCTION makes me
repeat ..
Myself. Go Read Enjoy
Ms. Kery Penny
Contemporary British Artist

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 CHAPTER- I

Bhoologa Vaikuntam (Home of Lord Vishnu on Earth) in CAMBODIA

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 Reclining Vishnu from Prasat Western Mebon, Angkor. Made of Bronze, statue is from 11th century and
currently on display at the National Museum of Cambodia.

Vaikuntham or Vaikuntha is not just a name it is a description of the home of Lord Vishnu the patron Saint
or Giod of Angkorean temples specifically Angkor Wat. Angkor Wat is one of the largest monuments in
the world in northern Cambodia. Angkor Wat's temple is located in the city of Karong CM Reap in
Cambodia. Ankorwat Temple used to be a temple of Hinduism, later it was made a place of pilgrimage for
Budhist religion. Angkor Wat, temple complex at Angkor, near Siĕmréab, Cambodia, that was built in the
12th century by King Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–c. 1150). The vast religious complex of Angkor Wat
comprises more than a thousand buildings, and it is one of the great cultural wonders of the world.

Vishnu Vaikuntha

Angkor Wat is an architectural masterpiece and the largest religious monument in the world – covering an
area four times the size of Vatican City. It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the first half of
the 12th century, around the year 1110-1150, making Angkor Wat almost 900 years old.

History of Angkor Wat Temple

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⦿ Talking about the History of Angkor Wat, tell us that between 1113 and 1150 AD an area of 500 acres
has been covered. Today, this monument is one of the most important religious monuments ever built in
Cambodia.

⦿ The Angkor Wat Temple Was Built During The First Half Of The L2th Century On The Orders Of The
Then Emperor Suryavarman II K

The main reason behind the construction of this temple was the greed for immortality. It is said that
King Suryavarman wanted to become immortal by worshiping Hindu deities. Therefore, he built a place of
worship for himself in this temple, in which only Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesh and all three were worshiped.
Which god is also called as Devraj?

In Sanskrit the Hindu origin term deva-raja could have different meanings such as "god-king" or "king of
the gods". In Hindu pantheon the title of king of gods is often attributed to Shiva, sometimes Vishnu, or
previously Indra. ... It is also from influences in Sanatana Dharma and separate local traditions.Hinduism
was one of the Khmer Empire's official religions. Angkor Wat, the largest temple complex in the world
(now Buddhist) was once a Hindu temple. The main religion adhered to in Khmer kingdom was Hinduism,
followed by Buddhism in popularity. Initially, the kingdom followed Hinduism as the main state religion.

Vishnu is the preserver and protector of the universe. His role is to return to the earth in troubled times and
restore the balance of good and evil. So far, he has been incarnated nine times, but Hindus believe that he
will be reincarnated one last time close to the end of this world. In their book Explorations in Early Southeast
Asian History: The Origins of Southeast Asian Statecraft, Kenneth R. Hall and John K. Whitmore state that the
adoption of the term DEVRAJA to describe himself was the beginning of a cult by Khemer Monarchs to denote
devine kingship with the king as a great god of ancient Cambodia.

Presently, the number of followers of Buddhism in Cambodia is very high, so statues of Bhagwan
Budha are found here and there. But Angkor Wat is the only place here where the statues of Brahma,
Vishnu and Mahesh three are together. Not only this, the specialty of Angkor Wat Temple is also that it is
the largest temple of Bhagwan Vishnu in the world . Stories related to the holy scriptures of Ramayana and
Mahabharata are carved on the huge walls of this temple.
After witnessing many rounds of rise and fall, this temple has become a center of faith and tourism for
crores of tourists and thousands of devotees of the country and the world.

Vaikuntha वैकुण्ठ
Vaikuntha वैकुण्ठ, Viṣṇuloka, is the abode of Vishnu, the supreme god in Vaishnavite Hinduismand his
consort goddess Lakshmi. Vaikuntha (Sanskrit: वैकुण्ठ, IAST: Vaikuṇṭha), also called Vishnuloka
(Viṣṇuloka), is the abode of Vishnu, the supreme god in Vaishnavite Hinduism and his consort goddess
Lakshmi. Vaikuntha is an abode presided over on high exclusively by him, accompanied always by his
feminine partner, consort and goddess Lakshmi.Bhoologa Vaikuntam (Home of Lord Vishnu on Earth) .

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However, the Vishnudharmottara Purana calls VISHNU Vishnu-Vaikuntha. The icon may be
called Chaturvyuha ("having four vyuhas"), when identified with the four manifestations or vyuhas of
Vishnu. Vaikuntha generally refers to Vishnu's abode, but in the Mahabharata and the Puranas, this term
is also used as an epithet of Vishnu. Though no clear etymology of vaikuntha exists, the term is believed to
be derived from vi-kuntha, literally meaning "not blunt". The earliest scriptures like
the Vedas, Upanishads and Brahmanas connect the epithet to Indra, the king of the gods and the Supreme
god of the era. By the time of the Mahabharata, Vishnu gained the role of Indra and the
epithet vaikuntha was transferred to him. The use of vaikuntha in the name also suggests that the form
represents the Para (Ultimate Reality) form of Vishnu.
Review of Sri Rangam Ranga Nathar Temple. Reviewed 6 December 2016. This is the largest functioning
Hindu temple (earlier it was Angkor Wat in Cambodia) in the world. Which is Bhooloka vaikuntam?
Located on the banks of river Cauvery, this temple hosts God Ranganathaswamy, Thayar Sannathi and it
has seven prakarams or enclosures. The main tower - first prakaram is a massive one.

"Bhooloka Vaikuntam" - Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple. Srirangam situated outskrit of Trichirappalli,

Tamilnadu is well connected by Rail,Road and Air.It is 330 km from state capital chennai. It is called
Boologa vaiguntam . ... Sky raising tower is unique and it is the biggest tower in Tamilnadu. Which is
called as the Vaikundam of the earth?

Bhoologa Vaikuntam (Home of Lord Vishnu on Earth) This is the largest functioning Hindu temple
(earlier it was Angkor Wat in Cambodia) in the world. ... This temple is called boologa vaikuntam (Home
of Lord Vishu on Earth).

Vaikuntha is an abode presided over on high exclusively by him, accompanied always by his feminine
partner, consort and goddess Lakshmi. According to Ramanuja, Parama padam or Nitya Vibhuti is an
eternal heavenly realm and is the divine imperishable world that is the God's abode. It is the highest state
beyond all worlds and nothing else beyond it. It is guarded by the twin deities, Jaya and Vijaya (guardians
of Vishnu's realm). The Vaikuntha planets are full of golden palaces and hanging gardens that grow
fragrant sweet scented fruits and flowers.
The Vaikuṇṭha planets begin 26,200,000 yojanas (209,600,000 miles) above SatyalokaIn most of the
extant Puranas and Vaishnava traditions, Vaikuntha is located in the direction of the Makara Rashi which
coincides with the constellation of Capricorn. One version of the cosmology states that Vishnu's eye is at
the South Celestial Pole from where he watches the cosmos.
The Rigveda states

tad viṣṇoḥ paramaṁ padaṁ sadā The gods are always looking towards
paśyanti sūrayaḥ the Supreme feet of Vishnu
—Rigveda (1.22.20)

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Picture of Vaikuntha - Garuda, the winged man folding his hands, is the vehicle of Vishnu
Vaikuntha and its characteristics are described in the Bhagavata Purana, a revered text in Vaishnavism,
which date of composition is probably between the eighth and the tenth century CE, but may be as early as
the 6th century CE. Edwin Bryant, in his book from 2003, comments about the verses describing
Vaikuntha in the text of Bhagavata Purana:
In the Bhagavata, the text speaks of Vaikuntha, adorable to all the worlds (X.12.26), as the highest realm
where Vishnu resides (XII.24.14). This, too, is the highest region (IV.12.26); beyond the world of darkness
and samsāra (the cycle of birth and death) (IV.24.29; X.88.25); the destination of those who have
transcended the three Gunas even while they are still alive (XI.25.22); and beyond which there is no higher
place (II.2.18, II.9.9). The peaceful ascetics who reach that place never return (IV.9.29; X.88.25-6). The
residents of Vaikuntha do not have material bodies, but have pure forms (VII.1.34). These forms are like
that of Vishnu (III.15.14ff.), also known as Narayana. Vishnu/Narayana resides in Vaikuntha
with Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune, in palaces with crystal walls. The parks there shine like final
liberation itself, and contain wish-fulfilling trees, which blossom all the year round. There are fragrant
winds, and creepers dripping with honey near bodies of water. Cries of exotic birds mingle with the
humming of bees, and magnificent flowers bloom everywhere. Devotees of Vishnu along with their
beautiful wives travel in aerial vehicles made of jewels, emeralds and gold, but the beautiful smiling
residents of this realm cannot distract the minds of the opposite sex, since everyone is absorbed
in Krishna (III.15.14-25).
Translation, of some verses in Canto 2, by Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada:
The Lord, being thus very much satisfied with the penance of Lord Brahma, was pleased to manifest His
personal abode, Vaikuntha, the supreme planet above all others. This transcendental abode of the Lord is
adored by all self-realized persons freed from all kinds of miseries and fear of illusory existence. (BP
2.9.9)
In that personal abode of the Lord, the material modes of ignorance and passion do not prevail, nor is there
any of their influence in goodness. There is no predominance of the influence of time, so what to speak of
the illusory, external energy; it cannot enter that region. Without discrimination, both the demigods and the
demons worship the Supreme Lord as devotees. (BP 2.9.10)
The inhabitants of the Vaikuntha planets are described as having a glowing sky-bluish complexion. Their
eyes resemble lotus flowers, their dress is of yellowish color, and their bodily features are very attractive.

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They are just the age of growing youths, they all have four hands, they are all nicely decorated with pearl
necklaces with ornamental medallions, and they all appear to be effulgent. (BP 2.9.11)
Some of them are effulgent like coral and diamonds in complexion and have garlands on their heads,
blooming like lotus flowers, and some wear earrings. (BP 2.9.12)
The Vaikuntha planets are also surrounded by various airplanes, all glowing and brilliantly situated. These
airplanes belong to the great mahatmas or devotees of the Lord. The ladies are as beautiful as lightning
because of their celestial complexions, and all these combined together appear just like the sky decorated
with both clouds and lightning. (BP 2.9.13)
The goddess of fortune, Lakshmi in her transcendental form is engaged in the loving service of the Lord's
lotus feet, and being moved by the black bees, followers of spring, she is not only engaged in variegated
pleasure—service to the Lord, along with her constant companions—but is also engaged in singing the
glories of the Lord's activities. (BP 2.9.14)
Lord Brahma saw in the Vaikuntha, Narayana, who is the Lord of the entire devotee community, the Lord
of the goddess of fortune, the Lord of all sacrifices, and the Lord of the universe, and who is served by the
foremost servitors like Nanda, Sunanda, Prabala and Arhana, His immediate associates. (BP 2.9.15)
The Lord, seen leaning favorably towards His loving servitors, His very sight intoxicating and attractive,
appeared to be very much satisfied. He had a smiling face decorated with an enchanting reddish hue. He
was dressed in yellow robes and wore earrings and a golden crown on his head. He had four hands, and
His chest was marked with the lines of the goddess of fortune. (BP 2.9.16)
The Lord was seated on His throne and was surrounded by different energies like the four, the sixteen, the
five, and the six natural opulence, along with other insignificant energies of the temporary character. But
He was the factual Supreme Lord, enjoying his own abode. (BP 2.9.17) it is also said that Vaikuntha is the
liberated world or the world after moksha

The ancient capital of the Khmer people at Angkorn was once the heart of a large sphere of influence that
extended over much of mainland Southeast Asia. The bronzes in this exhibition—masterworks from the
collection of the National Museum of Cambodia—represent the achievements of Khmer artists during the
Angkor period (the ninth through the 15th centuries).

Eleanor Mannikka explains in her book Angkor Wat: Time, Space and Kingship that the spatial
dimensions of Angkor Wat parallel the lengths of the four ages (Yuga) of classical Hindu thought. Thus
the visitor to Angkor Wat who walks the causeway to the main entrance and through the courtyards to the
final main tower, which once contained a statue of Vishnu, is metaphorically travelling back to the first
age of the creation of the universe.

Like the other temple-mountains of Angkor, Angkor Wat also replicates the spatial universe in miniature.
The central tower is Mount Meru, with its surrounding smaller peaks, bounded in turn by continents (the
lower courtyards) and the oceans (the moat). The seven-headed naga (mythical serpent) becomes a
symbolic rainbow bridge for humankind to reach the abode of the gods.

While Suryavarman II may have planned Angkor Wat as his funerary temple or mausoleum, he was never
buried there as he died in battle during a failed expedition to subdue the Dai Viet (Vietnamese).

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Bronze, a mixture of metals consisting primarily of copper and tin, was a preferred medium for giving
form to the Hindu and Buddhist divinities worshipped in Angkor and throughout the Khmer empire. The
Khmer have always viewed bronze as a noble material, connoting prosperity and success, and it has played
a deeply meaningful role in their culture over many centuries.

RIGHT-Figure of the Buddha, Cambodian, pre-Angkor period, 650–700,

bronze. National Museum of Cambodia, Phnom Penh

Early Cambodian Bronzes: The Pre-Angkor Period

Khmer sculptors produced figural images of divinities in response to the international
religions—Hinduism and Buddhism—that had arrived in mainland Southeast Asia by the
fifth century. Indian traders and traveling priests brought knowledge of Shiva, Vishnu,
and other Hindu gods. Buddhist texts and images carried by Chinese pilgrims who passed
through the region on their way to and from holy sites in India also had an influence on
the.Khmer.

In the pre-Angkor period (500–800), as Khmer metalworkers developed the skills to cast
sculptural figures, they experimented with transforming older, established representations
into new versions befitting local religious and aesthetic traditions. This process eventually
led to the distinctive sculptural styles associated with the Angkor period (ninth to 15th
centuries).

This Buddha was found together with six other figures in 2006 in Kampong Cham
province, about 50 miles northeast of Phnom Penh. The find was accidental, and the
sculptures did not appear to be connected to an ancient temple or other archaeological
structure. Nothing is known about why the figures were buried together, but they suggest
the international range of influences that varied styles of Buddhist images had on Khmer
artists and patrons as Buddhist religious practices reached Cambodia and became
established.

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The Angkor period began in the year 802. Khmer rulers established a sequence of capitals in the Angkor
region, culminating in the walled complex of Angkor Thom built by Jayavarman VII (ruled 1181–about
1218). Successive monarchs built temples and monasteries to honor their ancestors and their own reigns—
the monuments that visitors to Angkor see today.

The bronze images and ritual objects commissioned for the temples, royal palace, and private chapels of
the nobility convey a relatively consistent treatment of facial features, dress, and adornment that is
recognizably "Khmer." These objects were rendered through a mastery of lost-wax casting. The process
generally involves making a model out of wax, often over a core made of clay or plaster, and encasing it in
a fireproof mold. When baked, the wax runs out, and molten bronze is poured into the space left by the
melted wax.

A son of Shiva, Ganesha, with an elephant head on the body of a boy, is one of the most popular Hindu
gods, serving as an icon of protection and a remover of obstacles. In this representation, the snakes
forming his armbands and cord over his chest symbolize water and fertility, while a hoe and a broken tusk
(serving as a plow) in his hands symbolize agriculture. Ganesha was absorbed into the larger Buddhist
pantheon, a role he retains today in Cambodia and Thailand.

Bronze Ganesg 1200

Religious and historical significance of Vaikunth Ekadashi

‘Vaikunth’ is comprised of two words: - ‘Vai’ and ‘Kunth’. The Hindi word ‘Kuntha’ means shortage and
‘Vaikunth’ means a place lacking any shortage; a place full of prosperity. In Indian mythology, Vaikunth
is the adobe of Lord Vishnu, considered even better than the Swarga (heaven). ‘Ekadashi’ is a spiritual day
in Hinduism occurring twice in each lunar month on the 11th day of each lunar phases. ‘Ekadashi’ in
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Sanskrit stands for 11. It is considered holy to fast on Ekadashi than any other religious event. People
diligently observe fast on Ekadashis a day of fasting in praise of LORD SHIVA. It is an old tradition
followed by many all families- worldwide! Ekadashi occurs 3 days before the full moon. Thus, fasting on
Ekadashi is considered the best time to clean the bowel system.It is almost certain that the Kings as well as
commoners of Angkor( Vaikuntham) practiced this each year. This particular mythology has been
popular in Hindusim. If there are millions of Hindus in India then each and every one has
done a Pooja of the 9 planest at least one in his or her lifetime and many like me do it several
times a year.See my paper on
1. 9 GRAHA or 9 Planets in ANGKOR Frescos.
2. Further in my paper on Paper 9 Graha Puja performed at Bantey Sarai( near Angkor Wat)
1200 years ago I have tried to prove the possibility that a Satyanarayan or 9 graha puja was
performed 1000 years ago at the consecration of the temple of

In Planetary clustering and navagraha at Banteay Srei , Asger Mollerup found that an inscription at Prasat
Banteay Srey, 15 km north of Angkor Wat in Cambodia, dates the inauguration of this Shivaite sanctuary
to coincide with a planetary alignment. A planetary clustering or planetary alignment is when the five
planets visible to the naked eye are observable at dawn or dusk above the eastern or western horizon. The
five planets form together with the sun, the moon, Rahu and Ketu the Indian concept the Navagraha. A
close gathering of the five planets is an impressive celestial event and has been described in ancient Indian
and Chinese records and calculations.3

3 https://www.academia.edu/41864223/Planetary_clustering_and_navagraha_at_Banteay_Srei

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Discovery that a Satyanarayan (9 Graha) Puja was performed on 22nd of April 967 AD at largest
Temple in the world- Angkor Vat
Angkor Wat UNESCO world heritage site is an enormous temple complex located in northern part of the
country Cambodia in South East Asia. It was originally built in the first half of the 12th century as a Hindu
temple in the form of a mandala dedicated to God Vishnu on a site 400 sq acres. In those ancient days, to
commemorate the inauguration of the largest Hindu temple in the world to Lord Śrī Tribhuvanamaheśvara-
a Satyanarayan (9 Graha) Puja was performed when the 9 planets were actually visible to the eye. An
inscription presenting the astronomical setting when the main deity of the shrine was consecrated, has been
discovered 15 km north of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
Dr Uday Dokras, Nagpur’s erudite Hindulogist and Vastu Purusha mandala (Astrology) expert believes
that Venus-Jupiter conjunctions are not rare; but beautiful. Two examples occured in 2019- 24 January
and 24th of November at dusk. A very close encounter between Venus and Jupiter will also occur on 2 nd
May 2022 when the two planets will rise at 03:23 (local time). In the end of May, 2022, four of the five-
planets of the navagraha will be visible on the night sky every night, culminating on 29 th May when
Mercury and the moon joins the celestial show before dawn.
The most magnificent cecelestial show of this century will take place after dawn the 8th of September
2040, when the moon will resemble that on the matted hair of God Shiva and all 9 planets grouped
together with the Planetary clustering of a navagraha.

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The waning crescent adorning the hair of Lord Shiva
ARTICLE FROM NEWSPAPER HITAVADA, Nagpur India featuring my research on 9 Graha Pooja.

Also full moon has a strong affect on the ocean and since the human body is made up of 60% water it affects the
human body and thus the brain too. Fasting 3-4 days before full moon is believed to keep one away from the
problems.

Vaikunth Ekadashi is marked by the killing of the demon Muran by Vishnu in the form of ‘Ekadashi’. Like other
Ekadashi, devotees fast and stay awake the whole night. This is sometimes accompanied by meditation, jap or
singing Hari Kirtan.

It is believed that by worshiping Lord Vishnu on this day, a person attains Vaikunth after
death. According to mythology, Lord Shiva gave Sudarshan Chakra to Lord Vishnu on Kartik Shukla
Chaturdashi. On this day, along with Lord Vishnu, there is a law to worship Lord Mahadev, the god of
gods. Let us know that the auspicious time of Vaikuntha Chaturdashi, worship method, mantra and its
importance. Vaikuntha ekadashi- When gates to heaven open for all- vaikunth Ekadashi is celebrated by
millions of Hindus all over the world in the Dhanu/Marghazhi month of the Hindu Calendar.It has been
done for thousands of Years.I am sure that the Cambodian Hindu Kings also did the same many years ago.
It is considered one of the most auspicious day dedicated to worshiping Lord Vishnu. Out of all the 24
Ekadashi’s in a year, this Ekadashi is deemed to be the most important. It is believed that on the special
day of Vaikunth Ekadashi the gates of Vaikunth open to all, making it easier for the devotees to reach the
Land of their supreme god, Lord Vishnu.

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Na Gaayathrya para manthra, Na maathu para dhaivatham, Na kaasya paramam theertham, Na ekadasya
samam vratham

(There is no manthra superior to Gayatri mantra, there is no dhaivam superior to one’s mother, there is no
sanctifying teerth better than kaashi and there is no vrath more sacred than Ekadashi)

In the legend, the demon Muran stands for the qualities of the two gunas – Rajas and Tamas which
comprise of lust, passion, chaos etc. When one is able to conquer these tendencies and is able to dispel
them at his own will he is able to attain the third guna – Satva which comprises of goodness, productivity
and harmony. This is achieved through fasting and keeping vigil. By fasting and avoiding certain foods, it
becomes easy to keep the tendencies of the Rajas and Tamas gunas at bay. This breaks the repetitive
regime of life and leads to the purification of the body as well as the mind and establishes a harmonious
relationship between them. It is a sacrifice made to the self, by the self.

By keeping vigil at night, the system slows down naturally, and one tunes in to the awareness of his mind
and its content. By watching at the mind, the mind becomes still, and one enters a state of meditativeness,
attaining freedom or peace, which is acquired through merging of mind with self.

The tradition also restricts the consumption of rice, as it is said that Muran resides in it and will find the
way to Vaikunth if consumed. This signifies that one should abstain from involving tendencies that can
hamper one’s progress towards attaining Satva.

In relation to Mahabharat, Bhagvad Gita the conversation between and Arjun and Krishna is said to be
developed on this day. And on this day, it is believed Arjun reached his height of knowledge and wisdom.

What does the legend say?

20
According to the Padma Purana, the devas were unable to bear the tyranny of the Demon Muran
approached Lord Shiva to seek his help. Lord Shiva, then directed them to Lord Vishnu. When Vishnu
went to battle with the demon a realization dawned upon him that he needed a stronger weapon to finish
Muran. Lord Vishnu retired to a cave to make the weapon. On the 11th day of the lunar phase the demon
attacked Lord Vishnu while he was sleeping but a was saved by the female energy of Lord Vishnu.
Impressed by her valor and dedication, Lord Vishnu gave her the name ‘Ekadashi’ and granted her a boon.
Ekadashi asked for people to fast on this day and get rid of all their evils and sins. Lord Vishnu granted her
the boon and declared this day to be celebrated as Vaikunth Ekadashi, when sincere devotees would attain
Moksha.

Another parallel story runs that Vishnu had opened the gate of his adobe (Vaikunth dwar) for two demons
even when they were against them. The two demons asked for a wish where anyone who sees Vishnu
coming out of the doors of Vaikunth, will reach Vaikunth as well. Thus, temples of Vishnu in South
India have made a door-like structure called Vaikunth Dwar, which open once a year on Vaikunth
Ekadashi.

A Divya Desam or Vaishnava Divya Desam is one of the 108 Vishnu temples that are mentioned in
the works of the Alvars (saints). ”Divya” means “divine” and “Desam” indicates “place of abode”
(temple). Of the 108 temples, 105 are in India, one is in Nepal, and the last two are believed to be outside
the Earthly realms. In India, they are spread over states of Tamil
Nadu (84), Kerala (11), Andhra.Pradesh (2), Gujarat (1), Uttar Pradesh (4), Uttarakhand (3). Muktinath,
Saligramam is the only Divya Desam in Nepal. The Divya Desams are revered by the 12 Alvars in
the Divya Prabandha, a collection of 4,000 Tamil verses. Divya Desams follow Thenkalai or Vadakalai
modes of worship.

21
The poet Jayadeva bows to Vishnu. The very picture of devotion, bare-bodied, head bowed, legs
crossed and hands folded, Jayadeva stands at left, with the implements of worship placed before the
lotus-seat of Vishnu who sits there, blessing the poet. Gouache on paper.1703

In Divya desam, Divya means "premium" or "divine" and Desam indicates "place" (temple).[

Image of Rangamannar-Andal temple in Srivilliputhur

Around 1300 years ago, during what is known as the Bhakti movement, the Alwar saint poets of
Tamilnadu, sang verses in praise of Vishnu, glorifying the deity enshrined in temples all over India. These
verses as well as these temples are still a part of the cultural fabric of the region. 108 of these shrines and
mythological abodes are collectively known as the Divya Desam shrines in the Vaishnava tradition. The
word azhwar in Tamil, means one who immerses oneself into the ocean of the countless attributes of
god. Azhwars are considered the twelve supreme devotees of Vishnu, who were instrumental in
popularising Vaishnavism during the 5th-8th centuries CE. The religious works of these saints in Tamil,
22
songs of love and devotion, are compiled as Nalayira Divya Prabandham containing 4000 verses and the
108 temples revered in their songs are classified as Divya desam. The saints had different origins and
belonged to different castes. As per tradition, the first three azhwars(mudhal azhwargal
), Poigai, Bhuthathalvar, Peyalvar ans Andal were said to be born out of divinity. According to
tradition, Tirumazhisai was the son of a sage, Thondaradi, Mathurakavi, Periyalvar were
from brahmin community, Kulasekhara from Kshatria community, Nammalvar was from a cultivator
family, Tirupanalvar from panar /farmer-weaver community and Tirumangai from kalvar community.
Divya Suri Saritra by Garuda-Vahana Pandita (11th century CE), Guruparamparaprabhavam by
Pinbaragiya Perumal Jeeyar, Periya tiru mudi adaivu by Anbillai Kandadiappan, Yatindra Pranava
Prabavam by Pillai Lokam Jeeyar, commentaries on Divya Prabandam, Guru Parampara (lineage of
Gurus) texts, temple records and inscriptions give a detailed account of the azhwars and their works.
According to these texts, the saints were considered incarnations of some form of Vishnu. Poigai is
considered an incarnation of Panchajanya (Krishna's conch), Bhoothath of Kaumodakee (Vishnu's
Mace/Club), Pey of Nandaka (Vishnu's sword), Thirumalisai of Sudarshanam (Vishnu's discus), Namm
of Vishvaksena (Vishnu's commander), Madhurakavi of Vainatheya (Vishnu's eagle, Garuda), Kulasekhara
of Kaustubha (Vishnu's necklace), Periy of Garuda (Vishnu's eagle), Andal of Bhoodevi (Vishnu's wife,
Lakshmi, in her form as Bhudevi), Thondaradippodi of Vanamaalai (Vishnu's garland), Thiruppaan
of Srivatsa (An auspicious mark on Vishnu's chest) and Thirumangai of Sarangam (Krishna's bow). The
songs of Prabandam are regularly sung in all the Vishnu temples of South India daily and also during
festivals.
In Hindu texts, these temples are often referred to as Bhooloka Vaikuntam, which
in Tamil means Heaven on earth. Each of the Divya Desam has its own significance related to Shri
Vaishnava legend. Each of these Temples had separate shrines for Maha Vishnu and Maha Lakshmi.
The 106 earthly Divya Desam temples are spread over the Indian states of Tamil
Nadu (84), Kerala (11), Uttar Pradesh (4), Uttarakhand (3), Andhra Pradesh (2) and Gujarat (1), and
Country of Nepal (1) (Muktinath). The last two are believed to be outside earthly realms.

23
Abodes of Vishnu: All about the A region wise index pointing to the divya desam
Alwars, the works of the Alwars, shrines all over India with details on historical
historical background, the shrines, their background, temple layout, architecture,
geographical distribution and more. iconography, festivals etc.
The Venkat
eswara tem
ple
at Tirumala
The Ranganathar temple
-Tirupati in The Parthasarathy temple at Tiruvallikkeni is
at Srirangam in Tamilnadu is the
Andhra a historic monument coexisting with the hustle
foremost of the 108 Divya Desams and
Pradesh is and bustle of Chennai.
is a repository of history and art.
the most
visited
temple in
India.
Badrinath i
n the lofty
Himalayas
The Padmanabha swami temple
was visited Dwarka in Gujarat, enshrining Krishna is an
at Tiruvanandapuram in Kerala is a
by Adi integral part of Indian mythology related
vast temple complex steeped in
Sankara to Krishna.
tradition.
several
centuries
ago.
The
massive Var
adaraja
Perumaal
temple
The five Krishnaranya shrines of
complex is Shrines associated with the Pancha
Tamilnadu
the foremost Pandavas in Kerala are Chengannur , Tiruppu
are Tiruvazhundur, Tirukkannankudi
of the 14 liyur , Aranmula , Tiruvamundur and Tirukk
, Kapistalam, Kannapuram and Kann
Divya adittanam
amangai
Desam
shrines
in Kanchip
uram,
Tamilnadu.
Ahobilam i
n Andhra
The Trivikrama avataram of Vishnu is
Pradesh, Sh
Tiruchherai near Kumbhakonam hosts enshrined at Tiruoorakam at
olingur near
a spectacular chariot procession in the Kanchi, Trikakkara in
Chennai are
month of January. Kerala, Tirukkovalur near Tiruvannamalai,
home to
& Sirkazhi near Chidambaram.
ancient hill
temples
24
 enshrining
Narasimha.
Srivilliputtur is the birthplace
Ayodhya and Mathura are an integral part of
of Andal, whose hymns are sung
Indian mythology and have been revered by the
through the morning hours of the month
hymns of the Alwars.
of Margazhi in Tamilnadu.
The Koodal
azhagar te
mple within
the city and
the Kallazh
agar temple
The presiding deity at Nachiyaar
in the The Tirukkurunkudi temple
Koyil near Kumbhakonam in
suburbs are near Tirunelveli enshrining Azhagiya Nambi is
Tamilnadu is taken out in procession on
the well of great sculptural splendour.
a stone Garuda mount (Kal Garudan).
known
Divya
Desam
shrines in
the Madura
i area.
Tirukkottiy
ur near
Madurai is
SriVaikuntham and Alwar closely
Tirunagari are the foremost of 9 associated At Tiruvattar and Tirupatisaram in
shrines in the Tirunelveli region with Kanyakumari district, worship is carried out as
addressed by the saint Nammalwar in incidents per the Kerala Tantram protocol.
his hymns. from the life
of
Ramanujach
arya.

25
The Indian twin of Angkor Wat Cambodia, world's largest religious monument: Very few people
know that Angkor Wat, the intriguing temple complex of Cambodia was inspired by Mahabalipuram
sculptures? Some call these places Vaikuntha, an abode of the preserver of the universe. When you look at
the sculptures of Angkor Wat and the ancient temples of Mahabalipuram, you’ll find a number of
similarities, sounds interesting right?

In olden times, Indian traders sailed to the South-East Asian countries from the seaport of Mahabalipuram.
Khmer King Suryavarman II built this huge complex in the 12th century who was a descendant of Cholas,
the rulers of Tamil Nadu. You will find Tamil-Brahmi Inscription and sacred prayers in Sanskrit on the
walls of these unique temples. Towards the end of the 12th century, it was transformed into a Buddhist
temple. Scroll down to embrace our Indian arts on the Group of monuments at Mahabalipuram, the
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
1. Sailors named this Shore Temple as Seven Pagodas due to its tall structure

26
2. A miniature shrine with the Bhu Varaha (Vishnu) image in a well type enclosure of the Shore Temple
3. Durga on a lion with small carved shrine in the Shore Temple
4. Sivalinga with Shiva, Uma and their son Skanda in the Shore Temple complex
5. Pancha Rathas (Pandava Rathas) which is popular for its rock-cut architecture
6. Architectural feature on the Arjuna Ratha in the Pancha Rathas complex
7. Carvings on the Bhima Ratha, Pancha Rathas
8. Olakkannesvara Temple above the Mahishasuramardhini Cave Temple and view of the lighthouse from
there

27
9. Krishna Cave Temple is a testimony to the ancient art of Vishwakarma Sthapathis (wooden sculpture)
10. Pictorial description of the descent of the Ganges and Arjuna's Penance, Krishna Cave Temple
11. Lord Krishna lifting Govardhan Hill in the Krishna Cave Temple

12. Re-incarnation of Lord Vishnu, Varaha (boar) lifting Bhudevi, the mother earth from the sea, Varaha
Cave Temple

Ij her article The Majestic Vaikunth Perumal temple: Kanchipuram

The magnificent ancient Vishnu temple from the rich Pallava heritage is a sight to behold.
AUTHOR RUCHI PRITAM stated that this temple is one of the few majestic temples actually called as
VAIKUNTHAM.

28
Vaikunth is the celestial abode of Lord Vishnu (Perumal). According to Hindu tradition, it is situated at the
highest realm in the cosmic arrangement, beyond which there is no other place. Nandivarman II, also
known as Pallavamalla, reigned as the ruler of the Pallava Empire with its capital at Kanchipuram from
731-796 CE. He was a devout worshipper of Lord Vishnu and the Vaikunth Perumal Temple was built as a
royal temple under his patronage. It is built in the Dravidian style but its uniqueness is in the bas reliefs on
the corridor walls that trace the Pallava history and the Vimana built with three levels of sanctum
sanctorum displaying Lord Vishnu in three different forms. This is also one of the 108 Divya Desams or
abodes of Vishnu spread across the Indian subcontinent.

The original name of this temple is “Parameccuravinnagaram”, which translates to Parameshwara’s

(Supreme God’s) Home. Nandivarman II’s original name before his coronation was Parameswara. The
poems of the famous saint-poet Thirumangai Alwar, who was a contemporary of Nandivarman II, uses this
name for this temple and so do other Alwars (prolific song writers) of the 8-9th Century CE. In a way,
Nandivarman II had named this Vishnu temple after himself.

The devotees come to this temple in huge numbers on Vaikunth Ekadashi day, therefore the name
Vaikunth Perumal has become more popular in recent times.

A remarkable feature of the Pallava dynasty was their sense of history. Pallava inscriptions on the pillars
and the walls of the constructs along with copper plate inscriptions have helped understand and
corroborate the history of Pallava rule in South India. Six sets of copper plate inscriptions are housed in the
Chennai Museum. Two sets of copper plates can be dated to the beginning of the 4th Century CE that have
records of grants given by Pallava King Sivaskandavarman to Brahmanas for the upkeep of temples. The
language is Prakrit and the script is old Pallava. The language is important as it goes to show that Prakrit
was the court language even in this southern region. The plates from the 5th and 6th centuries have
inscriptions in sanskrit language and script is Pallava. A few of the plates dated to the 7th Century of the
time of Parameshwaravarman are part Sanskrit and part Tamil language. The sixth set of copper plates
reveals the grants made by Nandivarman III, who ruled during the mid-9th century CE. All these sets of
plates are ringed with a seal. These seals are intriguing and reveal the royal insignias for the grants. The
29
common motif is that of a bull. One seal has the bull with a moon and other worn-out emblems; one has a

bull with lamp stands on both sides along with Goddess Lakshmi
This temple is a west facing temple with a temple tank to the right of the temple entrance. It is a reminder
of the importance given to water and the requirement of a ritual bath before the darshan of the Lord. The
entrance gopuram seems to be a later structure with the upper portion missing.

A precursor to Southeast Asia

The gallery with extensive bas-relief wall panels of the Vaikuntha Perumal Temple appears to have
inspired the bas-relief sculptures of the Angkor Wat and Bayon (at Angkor Thom) temples at Siem Reap,
Cambodia that were built 4-5 centuries later. The relief work on the walls of these Khmer temples are not
as deeply cut as the work in Vaikunth Perumal temple, but the sheer scale and size of the Angkor bas-relief
panels are much more massive. A single Samudra Manthan depiction on one wall of Angkor Wat temple
(the main deity of which used to be the Ashthbhuja Perumal) is more than 100 metres long and the total
length of the gallery is more than 2.4 Km. The Pallavas have had an immense impact on the culture and
religion of South-East Asia, especially the Khmer area (Angkor civilisation) that is visible till this day.

This is a compact temple, like an atom that holds intense energy. I have visited many marvels of Indic art
and architecture and this temple along with the Kailashnatha temple of Pallava fame happen to be some of
my favourite temples. This temple clearly proves the fact that unity in diversity is not just an empty slogan
but it was a fact even in ancient India. There can be no better example of cultural unity and continuity than
this temple, which clearly displays that Pallavas adopted the pan Indian concept of kings having descended
from gods and proudly displayed the common Indic motifs in the form of these magnificent sculptures
created almost 1400 years ago. This temple is not the most renowned landmark even within Kanchipuram
(perhaps an unfortunate aftereffect of general ignorance of our magnificent heritage) and thus it is possible
that the so-called Doyens of Indian history, who propagated the claim of India being created as a country
by the British, never even knew about the existence of such a detailed history on stone.

30
31
Vaikuntha Chaturmurti or Vaikuntha Vishnu is a four-headed
aspect of the Hindu god Vishnu
32
 Vaikuntha Chaturmurti or Vaikuntha
Vishnu is a four-headed aspect of the Hindu god Vishnu in (northern part of the Indian subcontinent). The
icon represents Vishnu as the Supreme Being. He has a human head, a lion head, a boar head and a fierce
head. Sometimes, even three-headed but aspects of Vishnu where the fierce rear head is dropped are
considered to represent Vaikuntha Chaturmurti. Though iconographical treatises describe him to eight-
armed, he is often depicted with four. Generally, Vaikuntha Chaturmurti is shown standing but sometimes
he is depicted seated on his vahana (mount) Garuda.
The concept of a four-headed Vishnu first appears in the Hindu epic Mahabharata, but the complete
iconography was first found in a 5th-century Pancharatra text. The icon reflects influences from the Gupta
period and the Gandhara architectural tradition. While as per one interpretation, the animal heads represent
Vishnu's avatar Narasimha (lion-headed man) and Varaha (boar), another theory based on Pancharatra
texts relates the four heads to
the Chaturvyuha: Vāsudeva (Krishna), Saṃkarṣaṇa (Balarama), Pradyumna and Aniruddha – four vyuhas
(manifestations) of Vishnu. A cult centered on Vaikuntha Chaturmurti developed in Kashmir in the 8–12th
century, when the deity also enjoyed royal patronage in the region. The Lakshmana
Temple of Khajuraho suggests his worship in the Chandela kingdom (Central India) in the 10th
century.The icon is known by various names:
1. Vaikuntha,
2. Vaikunthanatha ("Lord of Vaikuntha"),
3. Chaturmurti ("four-fold representation"),
4. Chaturanana ("four-faced"),
5. Para Vasudeva Narayana,
33
 6. Vishnu Chaturmurti,
7. Vishnu Chaturanana and
8. Vaikuntha Chaturmukhi ("four-faced Vaikuntha").

The name Chaturmurti also appears in the Vishnu sahasranama (thousand names of Vishnu).

(left) The three front faces: (from left) lion, human and boar and (right) the demonic face
The Pancharatra text Jayakhya-Samhita mentions that Vaikuntha Chaturmurti has four faces: Vaikuntha,
Narasimha, Varaha and Kapila and four arms holding the usual attributes of
Vishnu: shankha (conch), chakra, gada (mace) and padma (lotus). In the Vishnudharmottara Purana,
Vaikuntha Chaturmurti is described as having eight arms and four faces, human (nara – human
or saumya – mild or purusha – man) facing the East (front), lion (Narasimha – the lion-headed avatar of
Vishnu) on the South (his right head, left), boar (Varaha – the boar avatar of Vishnu) on the North (his left
head, right) and demonic (kapila or raudra – fierce/wrathful or rakshasa – demon) facing the west (rear).
In one of earliest Vaikuntha Chaturmurti images dating from the Gupta era – c. 6th century (now housed in
Mathura Museum), the positions of the boar and lion heads are reversed, though this is a rare aberration.
The central front face may be smiling. Sometimes, the back face may be omitted. The fourth head may be
replaced by a horse (Hayagriva, another avatar of Vishnu) or a Chakrapurusha (the personified Sudarshana
Chakra – the discus weapon of Vishnu). The kapila head may have a moustache, bulging large eyes,
a third eye, grinning teeth, fangs, a short chin, broad eyebrows and a ferocious, grim or sad expression. His
hair are generally tied up in a large knot – a jata (matted hair) like a sage; rarely he may wear a crown.

34
Four-armed, four-headed Vishnu Vaikuntha Chaturmurti, Kashmir, 9th century CE
The name of the fourth head as Kapila is interpreted in two ways. Taking the literal meaning of kapila as
red, it is interpreted as meaning fierce or angry. The epithet kapila is associated with the fire god Agni and
the solar deity Surya in early canonical texts Another theory relates to Vishnu's sage avatar and founder
of Samkhya philosophy, Kapila, who is described as having a wrathful nature and cursing the sons
of Sagara to turn into ashes for insulting him. The head-dress jatajuta is typical of Brahmin sages like
Kapila. The Agni Purana also describes the icon having four heads, without describing the nature of each.
The iconographical treatises Aparajitapriccha and the Rupamandana mention that the fourth head
is Shri (Lakshmi – the wife of Vishnu) and Stri (female) respectively, however no sculptures with a fourth
female head have been discovered. The back face may be carved on the halo behind the central three heads
in low relief or in a space between the halo.
In the iconography of Kashmir, during the 8th and 9th centuries, the gods of Hindu Trimurti – Brahma,
Vishnu and Shiva – each are depicted with three heads. In a sculpture displayed in the Metropolitan Art
Museum of New York, the four-headed Brahma as well as Shiva are shown with three visible heads.
Vishnu is depicted as Vaikuntha Chaturmurti in this configuration, with three visible heads.

Lakshmi-Vaikuntha riding his vehicle (vahana) Garuda, 11th century Kashmir

Vaikuntha Chaturmurti is generally depicted standing. He wears rich clothes (generally in sculpture, only
a dhoti[14]) as well as various ornaments like a crown, armbands, necklaces etc., symbolic of royalty and
the yagnopavita (sacred thread). In his eight arms, he is prescribed in the texts to carry gada (mace), sword,
arrow and the Sudarshana Chakra in his left hands and shankha (conch), shield, bow and lotus in his right
hands. However, in sculpture, he is often four-armed and in two of his hands, he holds a lotus and a conch,
while his other hands rest on the heads of his personified weapons (ayudhapurusha) – Gadadevi or
Gadanari (gada as a female) on his right and Chakrapurusha on his left, who stand as small figures besides
his legs. They both look upwards towards him and hold fly whisks. A tiny figurine of the earth
goddess Prithvi (who associated with Varaha and Vishnu as his consort) rises from the pedestal in between
his feet, as though supporting the deity. A short dagger or sword may be tucked up in the waist belt of the
god near the right hip, a peculiar feature of Kashmir icons. Attendants or devotees may be also shown
besides or below Vishnu. Sometimes, Brahma and Shiva and the ten avatars of Vishnu may be depicted in
the background.
As prescribed in the Jayakhya-Samhita, Vaikuntha Chaturmurti may be depicted as riding his vehicle
(vahana) Garuda too, though these images are rarer. In this configuration, the god holds a sword, a lotus, a
mace or a conch and the chakra. Generally, on four feathers of Garuda sit four female figures, two on
35
either side of Vaikuntha Chaturmurti. The identity of the female figures is uncertain. They are interpreted
as two goddesses (possibly consorts of Vishnu – Lakshmi and Bhumi) and two female
attendants. The Jayakhya-Samhita mentions that four goddesses Lakshmi, Kirti, Jaya and Maya as the
female counterparts of Vaikuntha Chaturmurti. Rarely, Vaikuntha Chaturmurti is accompanied with his
consort Lakshmi, who sits on his left thigh. This form is called Lakshmi Vaikuntha in the Jayakhya-
Samhita.
In rare instances, true to the textual descriptions, Vaikuntha Chaturmurti is depicted as eight-armed.
Examples of these exist in Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho; Siddhanatha Mahadeva Temple,
Sandera, Gujarat and Jhalawar Museum. A ten-armed Vaikuntha Chaturmurti is found at Sasbahu
temple, Nagda. A twelve armed Vaikuntha image is categorized as a different form called Ananta by
iconographical treatises; an illustration of the same is found at Lakshana Devi temple, Brahmaur, Chamba.
This form is also identified with the Vishvarupa form of Vishnu. Another variant of Vaikuntha image is
sixteen-armed and is called Trailokyamohana.
There are some sculptures that synthesize Vaikuntha form with other forms of Vishnu. An 1170 CE
sculpture at Chamba depicts Seshasayi Vishnu (Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha) with the three
heads of Vaikuntha form. Another sculpture in Markula Devi
Temple, Udaipur combines Trivikrama (another avatar of Vishnu) with Vaikuntha's three heads

DEVELOPMENT & SYMBOLISM

Vaikuntha Chaturmurti in Mathura
5th century CE

Full figure of four-armed, three-faced Vishnu. 5th century CE. Brooklyn Museum.
Fragment of a statue of Vishnu with the three faces, mid-5th century. Boston Museum.
The God Vishnu in three incarnations (Chaturvyuha): Vishnu himself or Krishna in human
form, Varaha as a boar, Narasimha as a lion. Art of Mathura, Gupta period.
Vaikuntha Chaturmurti first appears in the Mahabharata, where he is known as Murtichatushtaya. Besides
the four faces, no details of his iconography are found though. The Jayakhya-Samhita, generally dated to
the Gupta period (c. 5th century CE), is the first iconographical reference to Vaikuntha Chaturmurti.

36
Though three-faced Vishnu images from the Mathura school exist from the Gupta period, not a single four-
faced Vaikuntha Chaturmurti from this era has been found until this day. It is suggested by scholars that
the three-faced Vishnu images should be considered as Vaikuntha Chaturmurti too, where the fourth head
was dropped by sculptors just for sake of convenience. An alternate theory dates Jayakhya-Samhita to c.
600–850 CE and suggests that the three-faced Vishnu images of Gupta era as well as Gupta icons
of Vishvarupa (another form of Vishnu) inspired the iconography of the Vaikuntha Chaturmurti, which
developed in Kashmir in the 8th century and attached the fourth head on the back of the older icon of a
three-faced Vishnu. Though popular in Kashmir, the four-headed icon is rarely seen outside of it.
The iconography of Vaikuntha Chaturmurti was influenced by Gandhara architectural tradition, which
impacted the iconographic depictions of sculptures of Northwest India, particularly those made in
Kashmir. Keeping with the Gandhara style, the body and legs are depicted as strong and sturdy. The
muscular body is considered to be inflated with prana (life-breath), an Indian concept. The bow arched
eyebrows and lotus shaped eyes are also characteristic of the Indian school of sculpture. The presence of
the earth goddess at the feet also reflects Central Asian influence. The ayudhapurushas in the icon may be
inspired by those in the Vishnu iconography of Gupta art. They and the earth goddess are also part of
traditional Vishnu iconography, even when he is depicted as one-headed.
The central Vishnu head and side heads of Varaha and Narasimha may be influenced by other
configurations in architecture. For example, Vishnu, Varaha and Narasimha may be depicted on back
(western) and side (northern/southern) walls of temples. Varaha (rescues the earth from the cosmic waters
at the beginning of an eon), Vishnu (as a human) and Narasimha (destroying a demon) may represent
creation, preservation and destruction – the three functions in the Hindu universe. Vaikuntha Chaturmurti
represents Vishnu as the Supreme Being, Creator of the Universe. Also, Varaha and Narasimha are oldest
in antiquity (avatars Matsya and Kurma which are described in sacred texts to be appearing before Varaha
and Narasimha were associated with Vishnu at a later date). Their presence in the iconography of
Vaikuntha Chaturmurti suggests that this form originated in the Gupta era, where their cults were at their
peak.
Many writers associate the boar and lion heads to the avatars Varaha and Narasimha, others associate with
the Chaturvyuhas, however the latter is heavily disputed. The Vishnudharmottara Purana describes
the Chaturvyuhas – Vāsudeva (Krishna), Samkarshana (Balarama), Pradyumna, Aniruddha – four
manifestations of Vishnu. Though the text does not explicitly equate the two forms. Many modern
indologists as well as Pancharatra followers associate both of them based on the association of
Chaturvyuhas with gunas (qualities) in the Vishnudharmottara Purana and the Pancharatra texts. The
gunas are in turn associated with Vaikuntha Chaturmurti. The human face is Vasudeva, who symbolizes
strength/power (bala); the lion is Samkarshana, who is knowledge/wisdom (jnana) personified; the
demonic form is Pradyumna, who is prosperity/sovereignty (aishvarya) and the boar is Aniruddha, the
Lord of energy (shakti).

37
Vaikuntha Chaturmurti as the central icon in Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho
The presence of Vaikuntha Chaturmurti found in Kashmir and north West India predating 10th century
suggests the worship of Vishnu in this form in the era. The form developed a cult between 8th to 10th
century CE. The 12th century chronicle Rajatarangini also mentions about the installation of this form of
Vishnu. The icon received royal patronage from King Avantivarman, the founder of Utpala dynasty (reign:
855–883 CE); temples built in his reign often depict Vaikuntha Chaturmurti Vaikuntha Chaturmurti
became the tutelary deity of the Karkotas and Utpala dynasties of Kashmir. It was also popular in the
regions adjoining Kashmir.
The Lakshmana Temple of Khajuraho is dedicated to Vaikuntha Chaturmurti. Though three-faced, an
inscription in the temple suggests that it should be considered four-faced. It also records a legend where
Kapila and other demons conjoined together in a single form and were blessed by Brahma that only
someone in the same form could slay them so Vishnu took the form of Vaikuntha Chaturmurti. The
presence of the Lakshamana Temple in Khajuraho suggests worship in the Chandela kingdom in the 10th
century.
The Trailokyamohana form of Vishnu was worshipped in Gujarat between 12th to 15th century CE.

VAIKUNTHAM Temples In Cambodia

Phimeanakas Temple

38
The Phimeanakas Temple, also known as Vimeanakas, is one of the Hindu Cambodia temples in the
Khleang style. The temple was built at the end of the 10th century, during the reign of Rajendravarman,
then completed by Suryavarman I and is located within the royal palace compound.This is the only temple
which is actually known as VAIKUNTHA abode of VISHNU.

The name 'Phimeanakas' derives from the Sanskrit words 'vimana' and 'akasha' which together mean
'celestial palace of the gods'. The temple is in the shape of a three-tier pyramid and is made mostly of
laterite through the upper gallery. Location: Royal Palace, Angkor Thom, Siem Reap, Cambodia.

Temples in Cambodia
Ancient Cambodia is famous for its beautiful temples which give a glimpse of Hinduism and Buddhism
religion. Every year, millions of people across the world travel to the country to take a look at the beautiful
architecture of the Cambodia temples built between 9th to 15th centuries. Some of these temples are
Angkor Thom, Phnom Krom, Koh Ker, and many more.

The most famous temples in Cambodia are the Angkorian temples. The star attraction is the Angkor Wat
complex which has 72 temples inside. The main temple is called Angkor Wat. Some of the other Angkor
temples are Pre Rup, Ta Prohm, Banteay Srei and many more.

The unique fusion of Buddhist and Hindu religious sites makes the temples like Preah Khan or Banteay
Samré more interesting. Moreover, some of them like Bayon, Beng Mealea etc. have been constructed in
the deep jungles that add to the attraction.These areRead More
Angkor Wat, Bayon, Banteay Srei, Angkor Thom, Preah Khan, Pre Rup, Phnom Krom, Beng Mealea, Koh
Ker, Ta Prohm, Preah Vihear Temple, Banteay Samré, Phimeanakas Temple, West Mebon, Baksei
Chamkrong.

S H I V A TEMPLES

39
001-Angkor Wat

This magnificent temple, dedicated to Vishnu, which is also the best-preserved temple in Angkor, has 5
concentric rectangular walls and also moats alongside. This symbolizes a cosmic chain of mountains and
ocean. The central tower, which is the main tower, represents the mountain Meru, which is said to be the
center of the Hindu and Buddhist universe.

While exploring the outer gallery, you will find a series of stone sculptures which has structural
illustrations from various episodes from Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. The beautiful ornate
pillars along with sheer precision of carving and the artistry will surely leave you in awe.

40
Location: Krong Siem Reap, Cambodia.

Best of
02-Pre Rup
Pre Rup is one of the Cambodia temples which was built in the 9th century to serve as the king’s state
temple. This Hindu temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is entirely made of brick and grey sandstone.

The temple is also associated with funerary rituals. Though a major part of the temple has been ruined over
the years, its extrinsic carvings can still be viewed on some of the towers, especially on the South-west
side. The temple attracts visitors especially during the sunrise or the sunset for its spectacular view.

Location: Angkor Archaeological Park, Krong Siem Reap 17000, Cambodia.

03-Phnom Krom
Prasat Phnom Krom is an Angkorian temple located on top of Phnom Krom in Siem Reap, Cambodia.
The temple was built at the end of the 9th century, during the reign of King Yasovarman (889 A.D.-910
A.D.) and is dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma.The temple ruins of Phnom Krom on top of a hill is
one of the temples in Cambodia. The temple dates back to the 9 century and is dedicated to Hindu gods
Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma.

The climb to the top of the hilltop can be steep but while climbing, the visitors are mesmerized with the
spectacular views of the surrounding villages on the way and are often rewarded with sights of mountain
goats and water buffalos. While on the top, visitors get the stunning view of nearby Tonle Sap Lake and
vicinity.

Location: On top of Phnom Krom mountain in Siem Reap, Cambodia.

Read Less
04 -Preah Vihear Temple

The Temple of Preah Vihear is located atop a 525-meter cliff in the Dângrêk Mountains and is dedicated to
the Hindu god Shiva. It has been called an “outstanding masterpiece of Khmer architecture” by UNESCO.
It is unusual among Khmer temples in being constructed along a long north–south axis, rather than having
the conventional rectangular plan with orientation toward the east. "religious offering of sacred shrine" An
inscription found at the temple provides a detailed account of Suryavarman II studying sacred rituals,

41
celebrating religious festivals and making gifts, including white parasols, golden bowls and elephants, to
his spiritual advisor, the aged Brahmin Divakarapandita. The Brahmin himself took an interest in the
temple, according to the inscription, donating to it a golden statue of a dancing Shiva known as Nataraja.
The construction of the temple took place between the 9th to 12th century. The unique architectural
complex is actually a series of sanctuaries. These sanctuaries are linked by a system of pavements and
staircases which are intended to represent Mt Meru. Location: Preah Vihear Province.Cambodia.

05--West Mebon

The West Mebon is a small temple in ruins which is located on the central Man-made island of the
reservoir West Baray. The temple can be accessed by motorboats from the southern dam of the Baray.

It was built by King Udai Adityavarman II in the eleventh century and had three tower-passages on each
side with stone carvings. The temple compound encompasses a large square pond with a sandstone
platform in the center. There was a gigantic bronze Vishnu statue which was excavated in 1936 to National
Museum in Phnom Penh.

Location: Krong Siem Reap, Ca

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06-Baksei Chamkrong

Baksei Chamkrong is a small Hindu temple located on the left side of the southern gate of Angkor
complex. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and initially had a golden image of him. The temple was
built by King Harshavarman I for his father Yasovarman. It is dedicated to Shiva and used to hold a golden
image of him. The temple can be seen on the left side when entering Angkor Thom at the southern gate. It
was dedicated to Yasovarman by his son, King Harshavarman I. The temple was completed
by Rajendravarman II (944–968)

The temple has an architecture of a very steep pyramidal temple topped with a single Prasat tower. In the
east of the temple, visitors can explore parts of the remains of a brick wall and a gopura with statues of
guardian lions, one of which remains.

Location: Angkor, Krong Siem Reap 17000, Cambodia.

07-Koh Ker a remote archaeological site in northern Cambodia about 120 kilometres (75 mi) away
from Siem Reap and the ancient site of Angkor. It is a jungle filled region that is sparsely populated. More
than 180 sanctuaries were found in a protected area of 81 square kilometres (31 sq mi). Koh Ker is the
modern name for an important city of the Khmer empire. In inscriptions the town is mentioned
as Lingapura (city of lingams) or Chok Gargyar  (translated

43
;;as city of glanc e, or as iron tree forest. Statue
of Brahma, Koh Ker style, 925-950 ca., Musée Guimet, Paris.

08-Kbal Spien or Sajasralinga(1,000 Lingas) consists of a series of stone rock relief carvings in sandstone
formations of the river bed and banks. It is commonly known as the "Valley of a 1000 Lingas" or "The
River of a Thousand Lingas". The motifs for stone carvings are mainly myriads of lingams (phallic symbol
of Hindu god Shiva), depicted as neatly arranged bumps that cover the surface of a sandstone bed rock,
and lingam-yoni designs. There are also various Hindu mythological motifs, including depictions of the
gods Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, Lakshmi, Rama, and Hanuman. The common theme of these sculptures
emphasizes creation as defined in Hindu mythology in the form of Lord Vishnu lying on a serpent in a
reclining repose on the ocean of milk in meditation, the lotus flower emerging from Vishnu’s navel which
bears god Brahma, the creator. Following these sculptures seen carved on the banks of the river, the river
flows through several sculpted reliefs of Shiva the destroyer shown in the universal symbol of the Linga;
1000 such lingas have been carved in the bed of the river which gives the name to the river valley formed
by the river as "valley of 1000 lingas".Vishnu is also carved to match the contours of the river bed and
banks. A carving of Shiva with his consort Uma is also visible.

44
 CHAPTER II
ANTARALA- intermediate space in Hindu Temple design

In the temples of South India, the Garbagriha , generally, is followed by four types
of Mantapas or pavilions. Mantapa means any roofed, open or enclosed pavilion (hall) resting
on pillars, standing independently or connected to the sanctum of the temple.
The first of the Mantapas is the Antarala (sometimes called sukanas or sukanasi or Ardha-
mantapa), a narrow pavilion connecting the Garbha-griha and the Navaranga. It usually will
have niches in the north and south walls, occupied by a deity, with attendant divinities in
secondary niches flanking the central niche. In a few temples the Antarala serves as the
navaranga too.

The next Mantapa is Nrtta-mantapa or Navaranga, which is a big hall used for congregational
services like singing, dancing, recitation of mythological texts, religious discourses and so on.
The Navaranga will usually be on a raised platform and will have nine anganas (openings) and
sixteen pillars.

This is followed by Sanapana mantapa, a hall used for ceremonial purposes. This leads
to Mukha mantapa the opening pavilion.
Antarala (Sanskrit: अन्तराल, lit. intermediate space) is a small antechamber or foyer between
the garbhagriha (shrine) and the mandapa, more typical of north Indian temples.

45
Antarala are commonly seen in Chalukyan Style temples in which the 'Vimana' and the
'Mandapa' are connected through the 'Antarala'.
Antarala (Sanskrit: अन्तराल, lit. intermediate space) is a small antechamber or foyer between
the garbhagriha (shrine) and the mandapa, more typical of north Indian temples.
Antarala are commonly seen in Chalukyan Style temples in which the 'Vimana' and the
'Mandapa' are connected through the 'Antarala'.

Article Example

Antarala Antarala are commonly seen in Chalukyan Style temples in which the

'Vimana' and the 'Mandapa'

are connected through the 'Antarala'

Antarala Antarala (Sanskrit: अन्तराल, lit. "intermediate space") is a small

46
Article Example

antechamber or foyer between

the garbhagriha (shrine) and the mandapa, more typical of north Indian temples.

Manwal It consists of a Garbhgriha (sanctrum) and an Antarala with square Mandapa.

The walls of the Mandapa

have eight niches.

Hindu temple Antarala is a small antechamber or foyer between the garbhagriha/ garbha graha
architecture
(shrine) and the mandapa,

more typical of north Indian temples.

Mahadev The temple consists of garbhagriha, antarala and a pillared Nandi mandapa built
Temple,
Tambdi Surla of basalt. The four pillars,

embellished with intricate carvings of elephants and chains support a stone ceiling

decorated with finely

carved Ashtoken lotus flowers.

Lakkundi The second storey, as in the Jain temple at Pattadakal, is functional and has an antarala-mantapa

in front over the

vestibule of the lower storey. This raises the total height of the vimana considerably.

Gudimallam The floor of the sanctum is below the floor level of the Antarala and Mukhamantapa.

The figure of Siva carved

47
Article Example

on the linga resembles a vigorous hunter. These two names however are not mentioned

in the inscriptions.

The village is referred as Viprapita (Brahmana Agrahara).

Kanchi The temple complex is complete in all respects as it has "garbagriha" (sanctum sanctorum),
Kailasanathar
Temple antarala (inner enclosure), mandapa, a high compound wall, and an entrance gate, the gopuram.

The mandapa, which was initially detached, was made part of the main shrine by interposing

an "ardhamantapa"

(smaller hall). The pillars of the mandapa have the repetitive features of mythical lion mounts.

Bisaldeo The architectural plan of the temple measures . The building comprises a "garbhagriha" (sanctum),
temple
a "shikhara" (tower), an "antarala" (vestibule), a square "mandapa" (hall) with a hemispherical dome,

and a portico. It features a pancharatha projection. The sanctum houses a linga (a symbol of Shiva).

Example the Khandariya Mahadev temple at Khajuraho

The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, one of the best examples of temples preserved from the
medieval period in India, is the largest of the western group of temples in the Khajuraho
complex which was built by the Chandela rulers. Shiva is the chief deity in the temple
deified in the sanctum sanctorum.
The Kandariya Mahadeva temple was built during the reign of Vidyadhara (r. c. 1003-1035
CE).[9] At various periods of the reign of this dynasty many famous temples dedicated to
Vishnu, Shiva, Surya, Shakti of the Hindu religion and also for the Thirthankaras of Jain
religion were built. Vidhyadhara, also known as Bida in the recordings of
the Muslim historian Ibn-al-Athir was a powerful ruler who fought Mahmud of Ghazni in
the first offensive launched by the latter in 1019. This battle was not conclusive and
Mahmud had to return to Ghazni. Mahmud again waged war against Vidhyadhara in 1022.
He attacked the fort of Kalinjar. The siege of the fort was unsuccessful. It was lifted and
Mahmud and Vidhyadhara called a truce and parted by exchanging gifts. Vidhyadhara
celebrated his success over Mahmud and other rulers by building the Kaṇḍāriyā Mahādeva
48
Temple, dedicated to his family deity Shiva. Epigraphic inscriptions on a pilaster of
the mandapa in the temple mentions the name of the builder of the temple as Virimda,
which is interpreted as the pseudonym of Vidhyadhara. Its construction is dated to the
period from 1025 and 1050 AD

49
The advanced typical Hindu temple structure consists of five compartments:
Entrance porch ( ardh-mandapa ), Main assembly hall ( Mandapa ), Ambulatory passage
hall ( Maha-Mandapa ), Ante chamber between shrine and hall ( Antarala ), Sanctum
( Garbhagriha )
The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, 31 metres (102 ft) in height, is in the western complex,
which is the largest among the three groups of the Khajuraho complex of temples. This
western group of temples, consisting of the Kandariya, Matangeshwara
and Vishvanatha temples, is compared to a "cosmic design of a hexagon (a yantra or
Cosmo gram)" representing the three forms of Shiva. The temple architecture is an
assemblage of porches and towers which terminates in a shikhara or spire, a feature which
was common from the 10th century onwards in the temples of Central India.
The temple is founded on a massive plinth of 4 metres (13 ft) height.The temple structure
above the plinth is dexterously planned and pleasingly detailed. The superstructure is built
in a steep mountain shape or form, symbolic of Mount Meru which is said to be the
mythical source of creation of the world.[8] The superstructure has richly decorated roofs
which rise in a grand form terminating in the shikara, which has 84 miniature spires. The
temple is in layout of 6 square kilometres (2.3 sq mi), of which 22 are extant including the
Kaṇḍāriyā Mahādeva Temple. This temple is characteristically built over a plan of 31
metres (102 ft) in length and 20 metres (66 ft) in width with the main tower soaring to a
height of 31 metres (102 ft), and is called the "largest and grandest temple of Khajuraho. A
series of steep steps with high rise lead from the ground level to the entrance to the temple.
The layout of the temple is a five-part design, a commonality with the Lakshmana and
Vishvanatha temples in the Khajuraho complex. Right at the entrance there is torana, a
very intricately carved garland which is sculpted from a single stone; such entrances are
part of a Hindu wedding procession.[4] The carvings on the entrance gate shows the "tactile
quality of the stone and also the character of the symmetrical design" that is on view in the
entire temple which has high relief carvings of the figurines. Finely chiseled, the decorative
quality of the ornamentation with the sharp inscribed lines has "strong angular forms and
brilliant dark-light patterns". The carvings are of circles, undulations giving off spirals or

50
sprays, geometric patterns, masks of lions and other uniform designs which has created a
pleasant picture that is unique to this temple, among all others in the complex. [14]

The main temple tower with 84 mini spires/Erotic sculptures on the external walls of the temple

A section of the detailed sculptural decoration carved in the exterior walls of the Kandariya
Mahadeva Temple.
The interior of the temple was also provided with statues of divinities and very beautiful
ceilings, whose superimposed overhangs were used for decorative purposes by using
geometric compositions. The most beautiful temples of this type are, in Bhubaneshwar, the
Lingaraja temple (first half of the 11th century) -whose roof culminates about 50 m above the
ground- and, in Khajuraho, the Kandariya Mahadeva temple (of this same period).

51
A view of the inner roof of the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.

The Kandariya
Mahadeva Temple (meaning “the Great God of the Cave”), is the largest and most ornate
Hindu temple found at Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh, India). It is considered one of the best
examples of temples preserved from the medieval period in India.
Another floor plan from the same period is that exemplified by the temples at Khajuraho
(temples of Vishvanatha, Lakshmana, etc.): over a common rectangular terrace are arranged in
a staggered pattern (pañcayatana) the sanctuary in the center and four chapels at the angles.

In the interior space from the entrance there are three mandapas or halls, which
successively rise in height and width, which is inclusive of a small chamber dedicated to
Shiva, a chamber where the Shiva linga, the phallic emblem of Shiva is deified. The
sanctum sanctorum is surrounded by interlinked passages which also have side and front
balconies. Due to inadequate natural light in the balconies the sanctum has very little light
thus creating a "cave like atmosphere" which is in total contrast to the external parts of the
temple. In the interior halls of the temple and on its exterior faces there are elaborately
carved sculptures of gods and goddesses, musicians and apsaras or nymphs. The huge
pillars of the halls have architectural features of the "vine or scroll motif". In the corners of
the halls there are insets which are carved on the surface with incised patterns. There is a
main tower above the sanctum and there are two other towers above the other mantapas
also in the shape of "semi-rounded, stepped, pyramidal form with progressively greater
height". The main tower is encircled by a series of interlinked towers and spires of smaller
size. These are in the form of a repeated subset of miniature spires that abut a central core
which gives the temple an unevenly cut contour similar to the shape of a mountain range

52
of mount Kailasa of the Himalayas where god Shiva resides, which is appropriate to the
theme of the temples here.
The exterior surfaces of the temples are entirely covered with sculptures in three vertical
layers.[4] Here, there are horizontal ribbons carved with images, which shine bright in the
sun light, providing rhythmic architectural features. Among the images of gods and
heavenly beings, Agni, the god of fire is prominent.[14] They are niches where erotic
sculptures are fitted all round which are a major attraction among visitors. Some of these
erotic sculptures are very finely carved and are in mithuna (coitus) postures with maidens
flanking the couple, which is a frequently noted motif. There is also a "male figure
suspended upside" in coitus posture, a kind of yogic pose, down on his head. [4] The niches
also have sculptures of Saptamatrikas, the septad of mother goddesses along with the
gods Ganesha and Virabhadra. The seven fearful protector goddesses include: Brahmi
seated on a swan of Brahma; Maheshwari with three eyes seated on Shiva's bull Nandi;
Kumari; Vaishnavi mounted on Garuda; the boar-headed Varahi; the lion-
headed Narasimhi and Chamunda, the slayer of demons Chanda and Munda. The image[4]

of Sardula, a mythical creature with lion face and human limbs in lower panel is a unique
figure seen in the temple

The design and the architectural elements of the Nageshwar temple have a unique
symbolism and it’s interesting to know more about it. The Nageshwar temple has a lot
of spiritual significance that seeps in through its design elements.

Conceptual Design of Temple

The Nageshwar temple has a unique design that follows the ancient principles of Vastu
Shastra and is in complete affirmation with conservative Hindu temple design. The temple
follows the western style of temple architecture and it faces west. A devotee who prayers to
the divine Shiva Linga in Nageshwara temple also automatically faces the Sun God.
The temple is planned on the basis of the posture of Sayanam of the Human Body. The
Mahadwar, entrance and porch, prayer halls (Sabha Mandapa), Antarala (Nandi’s Place),

53
 Inner Sanctum (Garbha Griha) are the portions of the temple. Here the different structures
have the following significance.
 Mahadwar is the body’s feet: devotee enters through the feet
 Entrance Porch is between the two sacred idols of Hanuman and Ganesh: hands of the
human body
 Sabha Mandapa contain the payer seats: they are the abdomen and chest of the body
 Antaralaa is the worship place of Nandi
 Holy Shiva Linga in Garbha Griha i.e. the Body’s head
The total height of the temple is 110’ above Ground’s level and it has many beautiful
elements like arches, rounded flute shaped columns, lotus themed capitals, jails made of
pure marble etc., the whole structure is interspersed with swastika and Kalash which are
traditional Hindu worship signage.
The temple has three different levels. The Garbhagriha or the first level is 6 inches below
ground level while Rangamandapa is 2 inches above the ground level (second level). The
Antarala is situated somewhere in between and it guards the Shiva Linga in Garbha Griha.
The Antaral is believed to be the transition place between the God (Lingaa) and the
devotees in Mandapa. The Antaral is therefore called as the level of Pujari.

Architecture of the Temple

The temple is constructed according to the basic weather conditions of the area and it
gently slopes towards the Lake of Nageshwar. There is a retaining wall along the
Nageshwar Lake. The foundation of the temple is built in raft style as the size is huge and
there are no rock strata beneath. The whole temple is built out of RCC or Reinforced
Concrete Cement that have anti rust chemical coatings. Porbandar stone of light and
porous texture is cladded on the structure. Huge amount of labor force was called in from
Bombay to complete the temple.

54
 CHAPTER III
ARCHITECTURE of the
PYRAMIDS of the “LOS INDIOS”

Dr UDAY DOKRAS Ph D Stockholm &

Architect Srishti Dokras

55
When the Spanish arrived at the borders of the Inca Empire in 1528, it spanned a considerable area and
was by far the largest of the four grand pre-Columbian civilizations Extending southward from the
Ancomayo, which is now known as the Patía River, in southern present-day Colombia to the Maule
River in what would later be known as Chile, and eastward from the Pacific Ocean to the edge of the
Amazonian jungles, and covered some of the most mountainous terrains on Earth. In less than a century,
the Inca had expanded their empire from about 400,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi) in 1448 to
1,800,000 km2 (690,000 sq mi) in 1528, just before the arrival of the Spanish. This vast area of land varied
greatly in cultures and in climate. Because of the diverse cultures and geography, the Inca allowed many
areas of the empire to be governed under the control of local leaders, who were watched and monitored by
Inca officials. Under the administrative mechanisms established by the Inca, all parts of the empire
answered to, and were ultimately under the direct control of, the Emperor. Scholars estimate that the
population of the Inca Empire was more than 16,000,000

The Inca Empire, also known as Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, and at the time known as
the Realm of the Four Parts,[a] was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.[5] The administrative,
political and military center of the empire was in the city of Cusco. The Inca civilization arose from
the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century. The Spanish began the conquest of the Inca
Empire in 1532 and its last stronghold was conquered in 1572.

From 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on
the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. At its largest, the
empire joined Peru, western Ecuador, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, a large
portion of what is today Chile, and the southwesternmost tip of Colombia into a state comparable to the
historical empires of Eurasia.
Stanish, C. (2001). Regional Research on the Inca. Journal of Archaeological Research, 9(3), 213–241.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/41053176

Its official language was Quechua. The Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many of the features
associated with civilization in the Old World. Anthropologist Gordon McEwan wrote that the Incas were
able to construct "one of the greatest imperial states in human history" without the use of the wheel, draft
56
animals, knowledge of iron or steel, or even a system of writing. Notable features of the Inca Empire
included its monumental architecture, especially stonework, extensive road network reaching all corners of
the empire, finely-woven textiles, use of knotted strings (quipu) for record keeping and communication,
agricultural innovations and production in a difficult environment, and the organization and management
fostered or imposed on its people and their labor.

The ancient Egyptians in Africa and the ancient pre-Incas/Incas evolved on different sides of the globe,
and were never in contact…. They were separated by approximately 12,336 kilometers or 6661 nautical
miles spread over thousands of years!…Yet, both cultures possessed the same strikingly identical body of
ancient art, architecture, symbolism, mythology and religion, a mystery that has never been satisfactorily
resolved……
According to my Google sources: “The Inca Empire in South America existed at about the same time as
the Mayans to the north, and it too fell victim to the Spanish Conquistadors, in approximately 1533…..The
Spanish general Francisco Pizarro took the Inca Emperor Atahualpa prisoner, extorted millions in silver
and gold from him, then executed him..(His contemporary Montezuma, the Aztec ruler died in 1520 for
similar reasons when Hernando Cortez imprisoned him and looted and extorted millions in gold and silver
himself.).. .The Inca Empire at it’s height covered 3,000 miles of the western coast of South America and
included parts of the present day countries of Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile.

57
Despite the towering reputation of Egypt’s Great Pyramids at Giza, the Americas actually contain
more pyramid structures than the rest of the planet combined. Civilizations like the Olmec, Maya,
Aztec and Inca all built pyramids to house their deities, as well as to bury their kings. In many of their
great city-states, temple-pyramids formed the center of public life and were the site of holy rituals,
including human sacrifice. The best known Latin American pyramids include the Pyramid of the Sun and
the Pyramid of the Moon at Teotihuacán in central Mexico, the Castillo at Chichén Itzá in the Yucatan, the
Great Pyramid in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, the Pyramid at Cholula and the Inca’s great temple at Cuzco in
Peru.
Rise of the Pyramid-Builders.

58
Mesoamerican peoples built pyramids from around 1000 B.C. up until the time of the Spanish conquest in the early
16th century. (Egyptian pyramids are much older than American ones; the earliest Egyptian pyramid, the Pyramid of
Djoser, was built in the 27 century BC). The earliest known pyramid in the Americas stands at La Venta in Tabasco,
Mexico. Built by the Olmecs, the first major Mesoamerican civilization (a group famous for other firsts,
like chocolate and the use of for sports), the pyramid dates to between 1000 B.C. and 400 B.C. American pyramids
were generally built of earth and then faced with stone, typically in a stepped, or layered, shape topped by a platform
or temple structure. They are often referred to as “stepped pyramids.”
Did you know? In many cases, pyramids in Latin America were rebuilt again and again over already existing
structures, in order to glorify the current ruler. Rebuilding the pyramid, it was believed, was a crucial process that
renewed the king's relationship with the gods.
At one point, historians concluded that (in contrast with Egyptian pyramids), pre-Columbian pyramids were not
intended as burial chambers but as homes for deities. However, more recent excavations have unearthed evidence
that some pyramids did include tombs, and there is also evidence that city-states used the pyramids for military
defense.

Almost at the same time that the Aztecs extended their control over much of Mesoamerica, a great imperial state was
rising in the Andean highlands, and it eventually held sway over an empire some 3000 miles in extent. The Inca
Empire incorporated many aspects of previous Andean cultures but fused them together in new ways – and with a
genius for state organization and bureaucratic control over peoples of different cultures and languages, it achieved a
level of integration and domination previously unknown in the Americas.
What impelled the Inca conquest and expansion? The usual desire for economic gain and political power that we
have seen in other empires provides one suitable explanation, but there may be others more in keeping with Inca
culture and ideology. The cult of the ancestors was extremely important in Inca belief. Deceased rulers were
mummified and then treated as intermediaries with the gods, paraded in public during festivals, offered food and
gifts, and consulted on important matters by special oracles.

Like the Aztecs, the Incas held the sun to be the highest deity and considered the Inca to be the sun’s representative
on earth. The magnificent Temple of the Sun in Cuzco was the center of the state religion, and in its confines the
mummies of the past Incas resided. The cult of the sun was spread throughout the empire, but the Inca did not
prohibit the worship of local gods.”

“Both the Inca and the Aztec empires were based on a long development of civilization that preceded
them; and while in some areas of artistic and intellectual achievement earlier peoples had surpassed their
accomplishments, both represented the success of imperial and military organization. Both empires were
based on intensive agriculture organized by a state that accumulated surplus production and then
controlled the circulation of goods and their redistribution to groups or social classes. In both areas this
nobility was also the personnel of the state, so that the state organization was almost an image of society…

59
Peru is a spiritual land where pyramids can be found. The pyramids of Peru had the same functions as
those found in other areas of the planet where once great civilizations existed. Most were used as places of
worship to the gods having rituals (at various equinoxes and solstices) – and ceremonial rites of various
kinds….Incas didn’t have any written record so that is their one undeveloped aspect but both civilizations
were very advanced compared to their time period and their limited supplies…

Investigation of the area around Tucume in northern Peru resulted in an incredible new archaeological
discovery of 26 pyramids. Forty tombs pre-dating the arrival of the Spaniards were opened, and enough
Inca and Chimu artifacts unearthed to justify the building of a museum at Tucume, Peru…. These Inca
pyramids, also called huacas are actually pyramid bases designed as residences for the various deities,
although some were used for administrative and religious purposes as well….These Inca pyramids were
also used by the king for administrative functions; official mandates were usually issued from these
symbolic centers of power.
The Incas also practiced human sacrifice, much like their Aztec contemporaries, but on a much smaller
scale…The human sacrifices took place in Inca times apparently only for the most momentous occasions,
such as famine, pestilence, earthquakes, the death of a ruler-god, or on a more “positive” side, the
accession of a ruler.

One mummy, named Juanita was very well preserved because she was an “ice mummy”found at an
elevation of 18,000 feet…Most of her hair, her skin, and her stomach remained intact as well as her
sumptuous clothing. DNA studies were conducted to track her ethnicity and the contents of her stomach
were sampled to learn more about the Inca diet. Other young girls who were sacrificed included the
“Chosen Women” or the “Virgins of the Sun”. These were beautiful young girls, between 8 and 10 years
old, chosen by the Inca officials throughout the vast empire. They were taken into a temple, for example in
Machu Picchu, (were several corpses of young women were found), and were forbidden to leave for six to
seven years…”

So we can see the amazing parallels between the pyramids as symbols of the religious beliefs of Egypt,
Meso (or Middle) American civilizations such as the Maya and the Aztecs, and there are some very
striking similarities between the religion and pyramids of the Egyptians and the Incas.. The pyramids of
the Americas were used more for ceremonial and religious functions as opposed to the Egyptian concept of
a final resting place for the Pharaoh, although there have been mummies discovered in the American
pyramids as well…..

60
This is why the pyramids of the Americas have flat tops and steps for easy access to allow these religious
ceremonies in front of thousands of onlookers…But the practice of mummification and the symbolic
similarities between the religious beliefs between these geographically isolated areas is striking! How the
Egyptian influence spread to the Americas is still unknown, it is “a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an
enigma”….The Incas left behind many beautiful artifacts as well…

As they say, truth is stranger than fiction, and perhaps we will never know exactly how this connection
was forged…But there is no doubt of it’s existence and it’s strength and power over the lives of the
inhabitants of Egypt, Mesoamerica and the Incas in South America at the time….All these mighty empires
had advanced knowledge of astronomy, built roads, developed trade, created stone architecture, made
beautifully worked gold art and jewelry, became skillful potters, and wove lovely fabrics….
And they ALL had pyramids as their largest, most significant religious and cultural edifices, structures
so mighty and awe inspiring that they dominated the landscape for miles around and were a symbol of
the might and power of the ruling classes…And were an integral part of the daily lifestyles of the people
they ruled…
For more articles by John Whye, click on johnwhye@wordpress.com

pyramid, in architecture, a monumental structure constructed of or faced with stone or brick and having a
rectangular base and four sloping triangular (or sometimes trapezoidal) sides meeting at an apex (or
truncated to form a platform). Pyramids have been built at various times in Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia,
western Asia, Greece, Cyprus, Italy, India, Thailand, Mexico, South America, and on some islands of
the Pacific Ocean. Those of Egypt and of Central and South America are the best known.

61
The pyramids of ancient Egypt were funerary edifices. They were built over a period of 2,700 years,
ranging from the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the close of the Ptolemaic period. But the time at which
pyramid building reached its acme, the pyramid age par excellence, was that commencing with the
3rd dynasty and ending at roughly the 6th (c. 2686–2325 BCE). During those years the pyramid was the
usual type of royal tomb. It was not, as such, an isolated structure but was always part of an architectural
complex. The essential components, at least during the Old Kingdom, were the pyramid itself, containing
or surmounting the grave proper and standing within an enclosure on high desert ground;
an adjacent mortuary temple; and a causeway leading down to a pavilion (usually called the valley
temple), situated at the edge of the cultivation and probably connected with the Nile by a canal. Scores of
royal pyramids have been found in Egypt, but many of them were reduced to mere mounds of debris and
long ago plundered of their treasures.

The prototype of the pyramid was the mastaba, a form of tomb known in Egypt from the beginning of the
dynastic era. It was characterized by a flat-topped rectangular superstructure of mud brick or stone with a
shaft descending to the burial chamber far below it. Djoser, the second king of the 3rd dynasty,
employing Imhotep as architect, undertook for the first time the construction of a mastaba entirely of
stone; it was 8 metres (26 feet) high and had a square ground plan with sides of about 63 metres (207 feet)
each. Once completed it was extended on the ground on all four sides, and its height was increased by
building rectangular additions of diminishing size superimposed upon its top. Thus Djoser’s original
mastaba became a terraced structure rising in six unequal stages to a height of 60 metres (197 feet), its
base measuring 120 metres (394 feet) by 108 metres (354 feet). This monument, which lies at Ṣaqqārah, is
known as the Step Pyramid; it is probably the earliest stone building of importance erected in Egypt. The
substructure has an intricate system of underground corridors and rooms, its main feature being a central
shaft 25 metres (82 feet) deep and 8 metres (26 feet) wide, at the bottom of which is the sepulchral
chamber built of granite from Aswān. The Step Pyramid rises within a vast walled court 544 metres (1,785
feet) long and 277 metres (909 feet) wide, in which are the remnants of several other stone edifices built to
supply the wants of the king in the hereafter.

62
Step Pyramid of Djoser

A structure of peculiar shape called the Bent, Blunted, False, or Rhomboidal Pyramid, which stands
at Dahshūr a short distance south of Ṣaqqārah, marks an advance in development toward the strictly
pyramidal tomb. Built by Snefru, of the 4th dynasty, it is 188 square metres (2,024 square feet) at the base
and approximately 98 metres (322 feet) high. Peculiar in that it has a double slope, it changes inclination
about halfway up, the lower portion being steeper than the upper. It comes nearer than Djoser’s terraced
tomb to being a true pyramid. A monumental structure at Maydūm, also ascribed to Snefru, was a true
pyramid, though not originally planned as such. The initial structure was gradually enlarged until it
became a gigantic eight-terraced mass of masonry; then the steps were filled in with a packing of stone to
form a continuous slope. The entire structure was eventually covered with a smooth facing of limestone; a
geometrically true pyramid was the final result. In its ruined condition, however, it has the appearance of a
three-stepped pyramid rising to a height of about 70 metres (230 feet). The earliest tomb known to have
been designed and executed throughout as a true pyramid is the Red Pyramid at Dahshūr, thought by some
to have also been erected by Snefru. It is about 220 metres (722 feet) wide at the base and 104 metres (341
feet) high. The greatest of the Egyptian pyramids are those of the pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, and Menkure at
Giza (see Pyramids of Giza).

Pyramids of Giza
Among American pyramids the best known include the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the
Moon at Teotihuacán in central Mexico, the Castillo at Chichén Itzá, and various Inca and Chimú
structures in Andean settlements. American pyramids were generally built of earth and then faced with
stone, and they are typically of stepped form and topped by a platform or temple structure. The Pyramid of
the Sun, with base dimensions of 220 by 230 metres (722 by 755 feet), rivals in size the Great Pyramid
of Khufu at Giza, which measures 230 square metres (2,476 square feet).

Some 80 years before the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro arrived in the Andes,
the Inca ruler Pachacuti Yupanqui (A.D. 1438 to 1471) began the construction of a great
temple-pyramid, Sascahuamán, in the capital city of Cuzco. It took 20,000 workers 50 years
to build the pyramid, constructed from huge stones fitted together without mortar. Th e

63
Incas, Latin America’s last great indigenous civilization to survive, used the same building
techniques to construct their marvelous stone city, Machu Picchu, high in the Andes.

It was made out of 186 stones weighing an average of 2.2 tons each. Twelve quarrymen carved 186 stones
in 22 days, and the structure was erected using 44 men. They used iron hammers, chisels and levers (this
is a modern shortcut, as the ancient Egyptians were limited to using copper and later bronze and wood).
It took 20,000 workers 50 years to build the pyramid, constructed from huge stones fitted together
without mortar. The Incas, Latin America's last great indigenous civilization to survive, used the same
building techniques to construct their marvelous stone city, Machu Picchu, high in the Andes.

Pyramids of Maya are perhaps most known for their many majestic pyramids. They built two kinds of
pyramids. Both types of pyramids were similar in many ways. They each had the familiar pyramid shape.
They each had steep steps up the side that would allow someone to climb to the top. They each were built
for religious purposes and for the gods. However, they had their differences as well. The first type of
pyramid had a temple on the top and was meant to be climbed by the priests to make sacrifices to the gods.
The stairs going up the sides of these pyramids were steep, but not too steep for the priests to climb. The
most important religious ceremonies were held at the top of these pyramids. The second type of pyramid
was a sacred pyramid built to a god. These pyramids were not to be climbed or touched by humans. There
were still steps going up the sides of these pyramids, but they were often too steep to climb without a lot of
effort. These pyramids were sometimes built with secret doors, tunnels, and traps. Famous Pyramids El
Castillo - This pyramid was built as a temple to the god Kukulcan in the city of Chichen Itza. The total
height of the pyramid is just under 100 feet. Each side of El Castillo has 91 steps. When you add up the
steps on all four sides and then add in the top platform as a step, you get 365 steps, one for each day of the
year. El Castillo by Lfyenrcnhan Temple IV at Tikal - Temple IV at Tikal is part of a number of very tall
pyramids in the city of Tikal. It is 230 feet tall and was built to mark the reign of King Yik'in Chan
K'awiil. La Danta - This pyramid is thought to be one of the largest pyramids in the world by total volume.
It is 250 feet tall and has a volume of 2.8 million cubic meters. Nohoch Mul - A temple pyramid in the city
of Coba, Nohoch Mul is one of the tallest pyramids on the Yucatan Peninsula at 138 feet high. The
Nohoch Mul Pyramid by Ken Thomas Palaces for the Kings Each Maya city-state would have a large
palace inside the city for their king and the royal family. These palaces were sometimes large monuments
to powerful kings. One of the most famous palaces is the palace at Palenque built by King Pakal. It was a
large complex of many buildings and courtyards including a tall tower that looked over the city. It was
covered with colorful hieroglyphics and carvings of the king and his family. Ball Courts The Maya also
built giant ball courts where they would play their game with a rubber ball. Some major cities had multiple
courts. Sometimes ball courts were attached to temples. The courts had two long stone walls, sometimes
built with sloped sides. Maya ball court by Ken Thomas Interesting Facts about Maya Pyramids and
Architecture Maya pyramids had a flat top. The pyramids of the Aztecs were very similar to those of the
Maya. The main difference was that the Aztec would sometimes build more than one temple on the top of
a pyramid. Many times new pyramids were built on top of old pyramids. Archeologists have found several
more pyramids inside and under existing pyramids. Some pyramids served as burial chambers for kings
similar to the ancient Egyptians. Many Maya buildings and temples were aligned with celestial events such
as the path of the sun. Activities

Mesoamerican peoples had built pyramids from around 1000 B.C. up until the time of the Spanish
conquest in the early 16th century. (Egyptian pyramids are much older than American ones; the
earliest Egyptian pyramid, the Pyramid of Djoser, was built in the 27 century BC). The earliest
known pyramid in the Americas stands at La Venta in Tabasco, Mexico. Built by the Olmecs, the
first major Mesoamerican civilization (a group famous for other firsts, like chocolate and the use of

64
for sports), the pyramid dates to between 1000 B.C. and 400 B.C. American pyramids were
generally built of earth and then faced with stone, typically in a stepped, or layered, shape topped
by a platform or temple structure. They are often referred t o as “stepped pyramids.”

Investigation of the area around Tucume in northern Peru resulted in an incredible new archaeological
discovery of 26 pyramids. Forty tombs pre-dating the arrival of the Spaniards were opened, and enough
Inca and Chimu artifacts unearthed to justify the building of a museum at Tucume, Peru. Civilizations like
the Olmec, Maya, Aztec and Inca all built pyramids to house their deities, as well as to bury their kings.

Maya pyramids had a flat top. The pyramids of the Aztecs were very similar to those of the Maya. The
main difference was that the Aztec would sometimes build more than one temple on the top of a
pyramid. ... Many Maya buildings and temples were aligned with celestial events such as the path of the
sun.

Pyramid of the Sun, large pyramid in the ancient city of Teotihuacán, Mexico, that was built about
100 CE and is one of the largest structures of its type in the Western Hemisphere. The pyramid rises 216
feet (66 metres) above ground level, and it measures approximately 720 by 760 feet (220 by 230 metres) at
its base.

65
Teotihuacán: Temple of the Sun

Pyramid of the Sun, dominating the ruined city of Teotihuacán, Mexico.

The Pyramid of the Sun dominates central Teotihuacán from the east side of the Avenue of the Dead, the
main north–south artery of the city. It was constructed of about 1,000,000 cubic yards (765,000 cubic
metres) of material, including hewed tezontle, a red coarse volcanic rock of the region. During hastily
organized restoration work in 1905–10, the architect Leopoldo Batres arbitrarily added a fifth terrace, and
many of the original facing stones were removed. On the pyramid’s west side, there are 248 uneven stair
steps that lead to the top of the structure.

66
The Pyramid of the Sun, in Teotihuacán (Mexico).

Little is known of the people who built Teotihuacán, and the purpose of the Pyramid of the Sun remains
largely a matter of conjecture. Archaeologists believe that there was once a temple atop the pyramid. In the
early 1970s exploration below the pyramid revealed a system of caves and tunnel chambers, and other
tunnels were later found throughout the city. Further discoveries were made in the ensuing decades. In
2011, archaeologists working under the pyramid’s centre reported finding a cache containing shards of
clay pots, pieces of obsidian, animal bones, three greenstone human figurines, and a greenstone mask. In
addition, walls of what appeared to be three earlier buildings were uncovered. It was announced in 2013
that workers had discovered a covered pit beneath the platform that forms the pyramid’s summit. Within
the pit were two pillars and what was described as a figure of the god Huehueteotl, a deity found in the
pantheons of several Mesoamerican civilizations.

Pyramid of the Sun

The best known include the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon at Teotihuacán in central
Mexico, the Castillo at Chichén Itzá, and various Inca and Chimú structures in Andean settlements.
American pyramids were generally built of earth and then faced with stone, and they are typically…

Teotihuacán

67
The Pyramid of the Sun is one of the largest structures of its type in the Western Hemisphere. It
dominates the central city from the east side of the Avenue of the Dead. The pyramid rises 216 feet (66
metres) above ground level, and it…

Pyramid Of Khafre

Architecture
pyramid, in architecture, a monumental structure constructed of or faced with stone or brick and having a
rectangular base and four sloping triangular (or sometimes trapezoidal) sides meeting at an apex (or
truncated to form a platform). Pyramids have been built at various times in Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia,
western Asia, Greece, Cyprus, Italy, India, Thailand, Mexico, South America, and on some islands of
the Pacific Ocean. Those of Egypt and of Central and South America are the best known. The pyramids
of ancient Egypt were funerary edifices. They were built over a period of 2,700 years, ranging from the
beginning of the Old Kingdom to the close of the Ptolemaic period. But the time at which
pyramid building reached its acme, the pyramid age par excellence, was that commencing with the
3rd dynasty and ending at roughly the 6th (c. 2686–2325 BCE). During those years the pyramid was the
usual type of royal tomb.

68
It was not, as such, an isolated structure but was always part of an architectural complex. The essential
components, at least during the Old Kingdom, were the pyramid itself, containing or surmounting the
grave proper and standing within an enclosure on high desert ground; an adjacent mortuary temple; and a
causeway leading down to a pavilion (usually called the valley temple), situated at the edge of the
cultivation and probably connected with the Nile by a canal. Scores of royal pyramids have been found in
Egypt, but many of them were reduced to mere mounds of debris and long ago plundered of their
treasures.

The prototype of the pyramid was the mastaba, a form of tomb known in Egypt from the beginning of
the dynastic era. It was characterized by a flat-topped rectangular superstructure of mud brick or stone with
a shaft descending to the burial chamber far below it. Djoser, the second king of the 3rd dynasty,
employing Imhotep as architect, undertook for the first time the construction of a mastaba entirely of
stone; it was 8 metres (26 feet) high and had a square ground plan with sides of about 63 metres (207 feet)
each. Once completed it was extended on the ground on all four sides, and its height was increased by
building rectangular additions of diminishing size superimposed upon its top. Thus Djoser’s original
mastaba became a terraced structure rising in six unequal stages to a height of 60 metres (197 feet), its
base measuring 120 metres (394 feet) by 108 metres (354 feet). This monument, which lies at Ṣaqqārah, is
known as the Step Pyramid; it is probably the earliest stone building of importance erected in Egypt. The
substructure has an intricate system of underground corridors and rooms, its main feature being a central
shaft 25 metres (82 feet) deep and 8 metres (26 feet) wide, at the bottom of which is the sepulchral
chamber built of granite from Aswān. The Step Pyramid rises within a vast walled court 544 metres (1,785
feet) long and 277 metres (909 feet) wide, in which are the remnants of several other stone edifices built to
supply the wants of the king in the hereafter.

69
Step Pyramid of Djoser

A structure of peculiar shape called the Bent, Blunted, False, or Rhomboidal Pyramid, which stands
at Dahshūr a short distance south of Ṣaqqārah, marks an advance in development toward the strictly
pyramidal tomb. Built by Snefru, of the 4th dynasty, it is 188 square metres (2,024 square feet) at the base
and approximately 98 metres (322 feet) high. Peculiar in that it has a double slope, it changes inclination
about halfway up, the lower portion being steeper than the upper. It comes nearer than Djoser’s terraced
tomb to being a true pyramid. A monumental structure at Maydūm, also ascribed to Snefru, was a true
pyramid, though not originally planned as such. The initial structure was gradually enlarged until it
became a gigantic eight-terraced mass of masonry; then the steps were filled in with a packing of stone to
form a continuous slope. The entire structure was eventually covered with a smooth facing of limestone; a
geometrically true pyramid was the final result. In its ruined condition, however, it has the appearance of a
three-stepped pyramid rising to a height of about 70 metres (230 feet). The earliest tomb known to have
been designed and executed throughout as a true pyramid is the Red Pyramid at Dahshūr, thought by some
to have also been erected by Snefru. It is about 220 metres (722 feet) wide at the base and 104 metres (341
feet) high. The greatest of the Egyptian pyramids are those of the pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, and Menkure at
Giza (see Pyramids of Giza).

70
The Blunted, Bent, False, or Rhomboidal Pyramid, so named because of its peculiar double slope, built by
Snefru in the 4th dynasty (c. 2575–c. 2465 BCE), Dahshūr, Egypt.
Ivrienen

Pyramids of Giza
Among American pyramids the best known include the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the
Moon at Teotihuacán in central Mexico, the Castillo at Chichén Itzá, and various Inca and Chimú
structures in Andean settlements. American pyramids were generally built of earth and then faced with
stone, and they are typically of stepped form and topped by a platform or temple structure. The Pyramid of
the Sun, with base dimensions of 220 by 230 metres (722 by 755 feet), rivals in size the Great Pyramid
of Khufu at Giza, which measures 230 square metres (2,476 square feet).

Pyramid of the Sun

The most famous single pyramid in Latin America is the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacán, Mexico. The
Teotihuacán was one of the most dominant societies in Mesoamerica; their namesake capital, located
northeast of today’s Mexico City, had a population of 100,000 to 200,000 during the fifth and sixth
centuries. According to Aztec tradition, the sun and the moon, as well as the rest of the universe, traced
their origins to Teotihuacán. More temples have been discovered there than in any other Mesoamerican
city.
The Teotihuacán built the Pyramids of the Sun and of the Moon between A.D. 1 and 250. Like many
Mesoamerican pyramids, each was constructed around a core of rubble held in place by retaining walls.
The walls were then faced with adobe bricks, and then covered with limestone. The base of the Pyramid of
the Sun measures 730 feet per side, with five stepped terraces reaching a height of some 200 feet. Its
massive size rivals that of the Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza. Within the current pyramid is another,
earlier pyramid structure of almost the same size. In 1971, archaeologists discovered a cave underneath the
Pyramid of the Sun, leading to a chamber in the shape of a four-leaf clover. Artifacts found in the cave
indicated the room’s use as a shrine, long before the pyramid itself was built.

The Pyramid of the Moon, though similar, was built on a smaller scale; it sits at the north end of the city’s
main axis, called the Avenue of the Dead. Teotihuacán also contains a smaller stepped, stone-covered
temple-pyramid called the Temple of the Feathered Serpent (an early form of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl).
It was dedicated around A.D. 200, and evidence has been found of some 200 individuals who were
sacrificed in the ceremony to honor it. Teotihuacán declined between the seventh and 10th centuries and
was eventually abandoned.
Recommended for you

Maya
71
The Maya, another dominant civilization of Mesoamerica, made temple-pyramids the glorious centers of
their great stone cities. One of the most famous, the magnificently carved Temple of the Inscriptions at
Palenque (Mexico), was a funerary monument to the seventh century king Hanab Pakal. The tallest Maya
pyramid, located in Tikal, Guatemala, dates to the eighth century A.D., before the civilization’s mysterious
decline. Another Maya monument, built in the ninth and 10th centuries A.D., is at the center of the city of
Uxmal in the Yucatan. Known as the Pyramid of the Magician or Sorcerer, it was (according to Maya
legend) built by the god of magic, Itzamná, as a training center for shamans, healers and priests.
The Maya city of Chichén Itzá contains the Castillo, or Temple of Kukulcan (“feathered serpent,” the
Maya equivalent of Quetzalcoatl). Constructed around A.D. 1100, the 180-square-foot Castillo was
constructed over another temple-pyramid built 100 years earlier. Its four stairways have 91 steps each,
which combined with the single step at the entrance to the temple adds up to 365 stairs exactly–the number
of days in the Mayan year. (The Maya had a complex astronomical and cosmological system, and often
angled their ceremonial buildings, like pyramids, so that they would face sunrise or sunset at particular
times of the year.)
Aztec Pyramids.

The Aztecs, who lived in the Mexican valley between the 12th and 16th centuries, also built pyramids in
order to house and honor their deities. The elaborate nature of Aztec pyramids and other architecture was
also connected to the Aztec’s warrior culture: The Aztec symbol for conquest was a burning pyramid, with
a conqueror destroying the temple at its top. Tenochtitlan, the great Aztec capital, housed the Great
Pyramid, a four-stepped structure some 60 meters high. At its top, two shrines honored Huitzilopochtli, the
Aztec god of sun and war, and Tlaloc, god of rain and fertility. The Great Pyramid was destroyed along
with the rest of the Aztec civilization by the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes and his army in 1521.
Underneath its ruins, the remains of six earlier pyramids were later found, evidence of the constant
rebuilding process common to the Mesoamerican pyramids.

Located in the plains surrounding the city of Puebla (founded by the Spanish colonists), the pyramid
complex of Cholula (named for the Mesoamerican people that built it) was the largest single structure in
pre-Columbian Mexico. Constructed from adobe in four stages of construction beginning around the
second century B.C., the Pyramid of Cholula measured 1,083 by 1,034 feet at the base and was about 82
feet high. The warrior Toltecs conquered the region around 1200 and rebuilt the pyramid as their
ceremonial center. The Aztecs later claimed it as their own, dedicating it to the god Quetzalcoatl. When
the Spaniards destroyed the holy city of Cholula in the 16th century, they built a church atop the ruins of
the huge pyramid complex in a conscious attempt to claim the New World for Christianity.

Pyramids to the South: Moche & Inca

More pyramids can be found in South America, which was home to indigenous populations like the
Moche, Chimú and Incas. The Moche, who lived along the northern coast of what is now Peru, built their
pyramids of adobe, or sun-dried mud-bricks. The Huaca del Sol (or Holy Place of the Sun) was almost 100
feet tall and built of more than 143 million bricks, while the Huaca de la Luna (dedicated to the moon) was
rebuilt multiple times over a 600-year period.
Some 80 years before the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro arrived in the Andes, the Inca ruler
Pachacuti Yupanqui (A.D. 1438 to 1471) began the construction of a great temple-pyramid, Sascahuamán,
in the capital city of Cuzco. It took 20,000 workers 50 years to build the pyramid, constructed from huge
stones fitted together without mortar. The Incas, Latin America’s last great indigenous civilization to
survive, used the same building techniques to construct their marvelous stone city, Machu Picchu, high in
the Andes. https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/pyramids-in-latin-america
https://johnwhye.com/2015/08/29/pyramids-and-the-incas/
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Mesoamerican pyramids form a prominent part of ancient Mesoamerican architecture. Although similar in
some ways to Egyptian pyramids, these New World structures have flat tops (many with temples on the
top) and stairs ascending their faces.[1][2] The largest pyramid in the world by volume is the Great Pyramid
of Cholula, in the east-central Mexican state of Puebla. The builders of certain classic Mesoamerican
pyramids have decorated them copiously with stories about the Hero Twins, the feathered
serpent Quetzalcoatl, Mesoamerican creation myths, ritualistic sacrifice, etc. written in the form of
hieroglyphs on the rises of the steps of the pyramids, on the walls, and on the sculptures contained within.

AZTEC PYRAMIDS
Santa Cecilia Acatitlan pyramid
The Aztecs, a people with a rich mythology and cultural heritage, dominated central Mexico in the 14th,
15th and 16th centuries.[4] Their capital was Tenochtitlan on the shore of Lake Texcoco – the site of
modern-day Mexico City. They were related to the preceding cultures in the basin of Mexico such as the
culture of Teotihuacan whose building style they adopted and adaptedSites involving Aztec pyramids
include:
 El Tepozteco
 Malinalco
 Santa Cecilia Acatitlan
 Templo Mayor
 Tenayuca
 Tenochtitlan

MAYAN PYRAMIDS
Edzna
The Maya are a people of southern Mexico and northern Central America (Guatemala, Belize,
western Honduras, and El Salvador).[6] Archaeological evidence shows that by the Preclassic Maya (1000
B.C., approximately 3,000 years ago) they were building pyramidal-plaza ceremonial architecture. The
earliest monuments consisted of simple burial mounds, the precursors to the spectacular stepped pyramids
from the Terminal Pre-classic period and beyond.

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These pyramids relied on intricate carved stone in order to create a stair-stepped design. Many of these
structures featured a top platform upon which a smaller dedicatory building was constructed, associated
with a particular Maya deity. Maya pyramid-like structures were also erected to serve as a place of
interment for powerful rulers. Maya pyramidal structures occur in a great variety of forms and functions,
bounded by regional and periodical differences.
 Aguateca
 Altun Ha
 Bonampak
 Calakmul
 Caracol
 Chichen Itza
 Cholula
 Coba
 Comalcalco
 Copan
 Dos Pilas
 Edzna
 El Mirador
 El Tigre
 La Danta
 Kaminaljuyu
 Lamanai
 La Venta
 Los Monos
 Lubaantun
 Mayapan
 Mixco Viejo
 Moral Reforma
 Nim Li Punit
 Palenque: Temple of the Inscriptions
 San Andrés, El Salvador
 Tazumal
 Tikal: Tikal Temple I; Tikal Temple II; Tikal Temple III; Tikal Temple IV; Tikal Temple V; Lost
World Pyramid; Talud-Tablero Temple
 Tonina
 Uxmal
 Yaxchilan
 Yaxha
 Xunantunich

Purépechan architecture
The Tarascan state was a precolumbian culture located in the modern day Mexican state of Michoacán.
The region is currently inhabited by the modern descendants of the Purépecha. Purépechan architecture is
noted for "T"-shaped step pyramids known as yácatas.
 Tzintzuntzan

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El Tajín

Pyramid of the Sun

The Teotihuacan civilization, which flourished from around 300 BCE to 500 CE, at its greatest extent
included most of Mesoamerica. Teotihuacano culture collapsed around 550 and was followed by several
large city-states such as Xochicalco (whose inhabitants were probably of Matlatzinca ethnicity), Cholula
(whose inhabitants were probably Oto-Manguean), and later the ceremonial site of Tula (which has
traditionally been claimed to have been built by Toltecs but which now is thought to have been founded by
the Huastec culture).
 El Castillo & High Priest's Temple in Chichen Itza
 Pyramids of the Sun, the Moon and Temple of the Feathered Serpent in Teotihuacan
 Xochicalco
 Talud-tablero

The site called Tula, the Toltec capital, in the state of Mexico is one of the best preserved five-tier
pyramids in Mesoamerican civilization. The ground plan of the site has two pyramids, Pyramid B and
Pyramid C.
The Toltec empire lasted from around 700 to 1100. Although the origin of the Toltec Empire is a mystery,
they are said to have migrated Mexico's northern plateau until they set up their empire’s capital in central
Mexico, called Tula, which is 70 km/40 mi northwest of modern day Mexico City. When the city of Tula
was in its prime it had around 40,000 people living in it and the city flourished from 900 to 1100. The city
of Tula had a main plaza surrounded by 2 pyramids and a ritual ball courtThe most popular pyramid on
this site (pyramid b) is the pyramid of Quetzalcoatl which is a five-tiered pyramid with four giant carved
pillars on top. The pyramid of Quetzalcoatl was named after a story of a legendary priest, also named
Quetzalcoatl who was exiled from Tula around the year 1000. He is said to have ended warfare between
Mayan city states and after that the Toltecs started worshiping Quetzalcoatl.

The best known Classic Veracruz pyramid, the Pyramid of Niches in El Tajín, is smaller than those of
their neighbours and successors but more intricate.
 El Tajín

The Zapotecs were one of the earliest Mesoamerican cultures and held sway over the Valley of
Oaxaca region from the early first millennium BCE to about the 14th century.[18]
 Monte Albán
 Mitla

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The following sites are from northern Mesoamerica, built by cultures whose ethnic affiliations are
unknown:
Altavista[edit]

Votive Pyramid at La Quemada

This astronomical and also ceremonial center was the product of the Chalchihuite culture. Its occupation
and development had a period of approximately 800 years (ca. 200—1000). This zone is considered an
important archaeological center because of the astonishing, accurate functions of the edifications. The ones
that stand out the most are: The Moon Plaza, The Votive Pyramid, the Ladder of Gamio and The labyrinth.
In The Labyrinth you can appreciate with precision and accuracy, the respective equinoxes and the
seasons.

La Quemada
A great quantity of buildings were constructed on artificial terraces upon the slopes of a hill. The materials
used here include stone slab and clay. The most important structures are: The Hall of Columns, The Ball
Court, The Votive Pyramid, and The Palace and the Barracks. On the most elevated part of the hill is The
Fortress. This is composed of a small pyramid and a platform, encircled by a wall that is more than 800m
long and up to six feet high. La Quemada was occupied from 800 to 1200. Their founders and occupants
have not been identified with certainty but probably belonged to either the Chalchihuites culture or that of
the neighbouring Malpaso culture.

Inca architecture
Inca architecture is the most significant pre-Columbian architecture in South America. The Incas inherited
an architectural legacy from Tiwanaku, founded in the 2nd century B.C.E. in present-day Bolivia. A core
characteristic of the architectural style was to use the topography and existing materials of the land as part
of the design. The capital of the Inca empire, Cuzco, still contains many fine examples of Inca architecture,
although many walls of Inca masonry have been incorporated into Spanish Colonial structures. The
famous royal estate of Machu Picchu (Machu Pikchu) is a surviving example of Inca architecture. Other
significant sites include Sacsayhuamán and Ollantaytambo. The Incas also developed an extensive road
system spanning most of the western length of the continent and placed their distinctive architecture along
the way, thereby visually asserting their imperial rule along the frontier.
distinctiveness: Inca buildings were made out of fieldstones or semi-worked stone blocks and dirt set
in mortar; adobe walls were also quite common, usually laid over stone foundations.[2] The material used
in the Inca buildings depended on the region, for instance, in the coast they used large rectangular adobe
blocks while in the Andes they used local stones. The most common shape in Inca architecture was the
rectangular building without any internal walls and roofed with wooden beams and thatch. There were
several variations of this basic design, including gabled roofs, rooms with one or two of the long sides
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opened and rooms that shared a long wall.[5] Rectangular buildings were used for quite different functions
in almost all Inca buildings, from humble houses to palaces and temples.[6] Even so, there are some
examples of curved walls on Inca buildings, mostly in regions outside the central area of Peru.[7] Two-
story buildings were infrequent; when they were built the second floor was accessed from the outside via a
stairway or high terrain rather than from the first floor. Wall apertures, including doors, niches and
windows, usually had a trapezoidal shape; they could be fitted with double or triple jambs as a form of
ornamentation. Other kinds of decoration were scarce; some walls were painted or adorned with metal
plaques, in rare cases walls were sculpted with small animals or geometric patterns.

Twelve-angled stone in the Hatun Rumiyoc street of Cusco, is an example of Inca masonry
The most common composite form in Inca architecture was the kancha, a rectangular enclosure housing
three or more rectangular buildings placed symmetrically around a central courtyard.[11] Kancha units
served widely different purposes as they formed the basis of simple dwellings as well as of temples and
palaces; furthermore, several kancha could be grouped together to form blocks in Inca settlements. A
testimony of the importance of these compounds in Inca architecture is that the central part of the Inca
capital of Cusco consisted of large kancha, including Qurikancha and the Inca palaces. The best preserved
examples of kancha are found at Ollantaytambo, an Inca settlement located along the Urubamba River.
Inca architecture is widely known for its fine masonry, which features precisely cut and shaped stones
closely fitted without mortar ("dry").However, despite this fame, most Inca buildings were actually made
out of fieldstone and adobe as described above. In the 1940s, American archaeologist John H.
Rowe classified Inca fine masonry in two types: coursed, which features rectangular shaped stones, and
polygonal, which features blocks of irregular shape. Forty years later, Peruvian architect Santiago Agurto
established four subtypes by dividing the categories identified by Rowe:

 Cellular polygonal masonry: with small blocks

 Ashlar polygonal masonry: with very large stones
 Encased coursed masonry: in which stone blocks are not aligned
 Sedimentary coursed masonry: in which stones are laid out in horizontal rows (i.e., ashlars)
The first two types were used on important buildings or perimeter walls while the last two were employed
mostly on terrace walls and river canalization.

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Ashlar polygonal masonry at Sacsayhuamán
According to Graziano Gasparini and Luise Margolies, Inca stonemasonry was inspired by the architecture
of Tiwanaku, an archaeological site in modern Bolivia built several centuries before the Inca Empire. They
argue that according to ethnohistorical accounts the Incas were impressed by these monuments and
employed large numbers of stoneworkers from nearby regions in the construction of their own
buildings. In addition to these references, they also identified some formal similarities between Tiwanaku
and Inca architecture including the use of cut and polished stone blocks, as well as of double jambs. A
problem with this hypothesis is the question of how expertise was preserved in the three hundred years
between the collapse of Tiwanaku and the appearance of the Inca Empire and its architecture. As a
solution, John Hyslop has argued that the Tiahuanaco stonemasonry tradition was preserved in the Lake
Titicaca region in sites such as Tanka Tanka, which features walls resembling Inca polygonal masonry.
A second major influence on Inca architecture came from the Wari culture, a civilization contemporary to
Tiwanaku. According to Ann Kendall, the Huari introduced their tradition of building rectangular
enclosures in the Cusco region, which formed a model for the development of the Inca kancha. There is
evidence that such traditions were preserved in the Cusco region after the decline of the Wari as is attested
by the enclosures found at sites such as Choquequirao (Chuqi K'iraw), 28 kilometers southeast of the Inca
capital.
MASONARY and METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

Inca wall in Cuzco

Digital reconstruction of original Inca painting on Room 42 wall, Tambo Colorado; this late Inca period
fortress/palace is still largely intact despite being constructed of adobe and located in an earthquake-prone
area of Peru. Remaining traces of the original paint guided this 2005 reconstruction. Laser scan data taken
from a CyArk/University of California research partnership
Water engineer Ken Wright estimates that 60 percent of the Inca construction effort was underground. The
Inca built their cities with locally available materials, usually including limestone or granite. To cut these
hard rocks the Inca used stone, bronze or copper tools, usually splitting the stones along the natural
fracture lines. Without the wheel the stones were rolled up with wood beams on earth ramps.
Extraordinary manpower would have been necessary. The Inca Empire employed a system of tribute to the
Inca government in the form of labor, called Mit'a that required all males between 15-50 to work on large
public construction projects.

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Wall of the Coricancha temple, at Cuzco, the capital city of the Inca Empire.// Palace of Diego Sayri
Túpac, Yucay

Hyslop comments that the 'secret' to the production of fine Inca masonry “…was the social organization
necessary to maintain the great numbers of people creating such energy-consuming monuments.” It is
speculated that the stones were swung into place using friction to create perfectly convex and concave
sides. Visible marks of facture like stone bosses were made using rope; these elements demonstrated the
artistic value of labor and the power of Inca rule.
Usually the walls of Incan buildings were slightly inclined inside and the corners were rounded. This, in
combination with masonry thoroughness, led Incan buildings to have a peerless seismic resistance,] thanks
to high static and dynamic steadiness, absence of resonant frequencies and stress concentration points.
During an earthquake with a small or moderate magnitude, masonry was stable, and during a strong
earthquake stone blocks were “ dancing ” near their normal positions and lay down exactly in right order
after an earthquake.
Another building method was called "pillow-faced" architecture. The Incas would sand large, finely
shaped stones which they would fit together in jigsaw like patterns. Pillow-faced architecture was typically
used for temples and royal places like Machu Picchu.
Ashlar masonry was used in the most sacred, elite Inca structure; for example, the Acllawasi ("House of
the Chosen Woman"), the Coricancha ("Golden Enclosure") in Cuzco, and the Sun Temple at Machu
Picchu. Thus it seems that ashlar may have been more greatly valued by the Inca, perhaps considered more
difficult than polygonal ("pillow-faced") masonry. Though polygonal masonry may be aesthetically more
impressive, the facture of ashlar masonry tends to be unforgiving to mistakes; if a corner is broken in the
process it can be reshaped to fit into the mosaic of polygonal masonry whereas you cannot recover a
damaged rock in ashlar masonry.
Aesthetics: Combining the Built and Natural Environments
Inca architecture is strongly characterized by its use of the natural environmentThe Inca managed to
seamlessly merge their architecture into the surrounding land and its specificities. At its peak, the Inca
Empire spanned from Ecuador to Chile. Yet despite geographic variances, Inca architecture remained
consistent in its ability to visually blend the built and natural environment.
In particular, Inca walls practiced mortarless masonry and used partially worked, irregularly shaped rocks
to complement the organic qualities and diversity of the natural environment. Through the dry fitted
masonry techniques of caninacukpirca, the Incas shaped their stone to conceal natural outcrops, fit tight
crevices, and ultimately incorporate the landscape into their infrastructure.
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The Inca also used natural bedrock as their structural foundations (to help keep the buildings stable). This
pragmatically stabilized their structures built in the Andes mountain range of South America, while
aesthetically disguising the boundaries between mountain and edifice. In combination, the diversity of
stone shape, materiality, and facture all furthered the naturalistic illusion of the Inca's built environment.
Politics: Expansionist and Subservient Ideologies
Inca employment and integration of the natural environment into their architecture played an essential role
in their program of civilizational expansion and cultural imperialism. Patronage of powerful elites and
rulers of the Inca empire was a major impetus behind the construction of Inca structures, and much of the
remaining architecture we see today was most likely royal estates or mobile capitals for Sapa Inca to
inhabit. The Sapa Inca naturalized and asserted their political rule through their palaces' aesthetic appeal to
a reciprocal relationship between their imperialism and the earth itself. The blended, architectural aesthetic
colored their political expansion in a sense of inseparable, timeless, and spiritual authority. For example,
in the royal estate of Chinchero, the Incas adapted their large-scale earthwork and massive stone
construction to the land's dramatically steep valley in order to create intense, visual drama Similarly to the
architecture of other mountainous Inca citadels, such as Machu Picchu, the Chinchero estate's dynamic
construction into the severe landscape demonstrated the raw, physical power of the Incas, and projected an
authoritative aura for those who approached

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 CHAPTER IV
ASTROLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF ANGKOR WAT
Based on-Libra and Gemini – the Temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia-Georg Stockhorst

Apsara relief at
Angkor Wat. Apsaras are engalic beings Photo: Dharma, ccbysa2.0

How to consult astrology for property purchase

A number of astrological scholars have given some valuable viewpoints on how to take property related
decisions based on the position of planets in the horoscope.
Property purchase is a very critical decision involving a huge financial investment. Therefore this topic
must be considered along with money yoga (financial prospects) by studying the horoscope closely. For
example, if the property has to be financed by the bank, then the role of 5th house and 6th house are very
important.
Since Mars denotes land and property, how it influences the 4th house is very important. In the same
manner, it is said the roles of Venus and Jupiter are also important as they are also benefic planets that can
help in owning property.

When are you most likely to lose your property?

The following astrological combinations shall result in property loss.

The 4th house ruler if found in the 3rd house with other favorable planetary positions shall cause property
loss.
If the ruler of the 4th house happens to be there in 6th, 8th or 12th houses affecting the ruler of the lagna,
then the candidate might lose property due to governmental action.
If the Lord of the 4th house sits in the 8th house in an afflicted condition, the subject shall lose his
property. If the ruler of the 4th house occurs with sun and is in a debilitated condition, the subject shall
lose his house due to the intervention of the government. When you consult astrology for property
purchase, you can gain some valuable insights on property matters.Libra and Gemini – the Temple of
Angkor Wat in Cambodia ph:Charles J Sharp,GNU/FDL

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Angkor Wat is the main temple of the huge temple complex of Angkor in Cambodia. It was constructed
in the first half of the 12th Century AD during the reign of King Suryavarman II. The central temple of
Angkor Wat has five towers in the form of lotus flowers – the highest of which is 65 m high forms the
center of the Angkor Wat.

Astrogeographical position of the temple for morphogenetic field level 3 (surrounding area) which
describes the energetical topics of the whole of the temple island and the area nearby and how they
are are embedded in the land: The site of the temple is located in the constellation of the two air
signs Libra and Gemini. The principle of Libra with the central motif of harmony can be observed here
through the extensive decoration, perfect symmetry, rectangular shape of the sanctuary and the overall
aesthetic concept of the building. Librans are extroverted, cosy, and friendly people. Librans, like the
Scales that symbolise the sign, are often concerned with attaining balance, harmony, peace, and justice in
the world. With their vast stores of charm, intelligence, frankness, persuasion, and seamless connectivity,
they are well-equipped to do so. They might be a little too easy-going and laid-back at times. Indeed, they
are typically dedicated workers and leaders in their areas. They excel in “peacekeeping” professions
because they have the rare ability to perceive all sides of an argument.
Libra is an air sign, and Libras are noted for their desire to be in the company of others. Libras are
extremely agreeable and honest people who believe strongly in the importance of social connections.
Libras are among the most fascinating and intelligent individuals on the planet, and they have a lot to give.
Libras are recognised for their charm, beauty, and well-balanced personalities. They enjoy putting things
in order and making them seem nice. They are also looking for a sense of balance, and they may be as self-
indulgent as they are kind. They carefully select their words in order to reach out to as many individuals as
possible. Libras have a strong sense of right and wrong. They are committed to ensuring that everyone is
heard and that things are balanced, particularly when it comes to group activities.
Libras' desire for harmony might get in the way. They'll spend hours evaluating the advantages and
disadvantages of even the most minor actions. They try to satisfy everyone and find it difficult to commit
to one thing or another, even if it appears little. One of the Libra's flaws is that they are a little self-
absorbed, so when things don't go their way, they feel as if the world is ending and everyone is conspiring
against them.
Libras will get into multiple attraction and enjoy the company of romantic partners but when it comes to
committed partnerships, they are quite serious. Libras are naturally born leaders. They succeed
professionally when given the opportunity to showcase their leadership abilities and inventiveness. Libras
thrive when they are left alone to work on initiatives. Because Libras aren't known for their follow-
through, it's essential that they're surrounded by balanced individuals who can take direction and get things
done.
As a Libra , you'll need to switch things up frequently, so channel that energy into fresh ideas to avoid
appearing unreliable.

Service orientated Libra the sign of peace in it`s role as the seventh astrological sign is to be regarded as
the principle of the angelic beings which can be found in Angkor Wat in the form of Apsaras or dancing
Devas (Angels) and Devatas (Guardian Angels). A further category of entities presented at Angkor Wat
are the Asuras (jealous beings), which would rather have to be related to the aspect of competition of the
sign of Gemini.

Both astrological principles Libra as well as Gemini indicate a meeting place and place of openness,
communication and contact. As the sign of education and learning Gemini is an indication here that the
temple might have had a function for the training of monks and priests, sculptors and architects as well as
the devotees, pilgrims and other visitors.

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 Tantric stone
carving at Lakshmana Temple in Khajuraho dedicated to Vaikuntha Vishnu. The temple is located
in Libra with Aries photo: Jean-Pierre Dalbéra, ccbysa2.0

Geminis are volatile beings that are inquisitive, intelligent, and great thinkers. They tend to remain in one
location. They are highly competent who can quickly persuade others to accept their own thoughts and
beliefs. The Geminins' reluctance to commit to one subject or one individual, on the other hand, might give
them the impression of crassness and a propensity to glide over essential aspects in life.
The Gemini personality is a lot of fun, but it does have flaws, just like any other sign. Geminis are flexible,
extroverted, and clever, and there's never a boring moment while they're around. Their flaws include
indecisiveness, impulsivity, unreliability, and nosiness, therefore don't disclose a Gemini your innermost
deepest fears. Geminis are constantly willing to try new things, which makes them great lovers. They're
highly enthusiastic and entertaining, making them great friends. However, because of their impatience,
individuals may be afraid or hesitant to engage. In relationships, Geminis seek open and loyal
communication. Geminis want a partner that is intellectually compatible and eager to have fun. Geminis
are highly loyal when they discover the proper mate. Geminis are highly sociable people who spend a lot
of time with their friends and relatives.
Geminis seek for efficient leadership in their business connections. If there is a lack of coordination,
Geminis are prone to losing contact with long-distance companions. Family is very important to Geminis,
yet it can also be a source of stress for them. Their urge to be carefree might be hampered by family
obligations. Because of their inquiring spirit, flexibility, and frankness, Geminis make excellent craftsmen,
authors, and broadcasters. Geminis are known for their inventive ideas and enthusiasm in the workplace.
Geminis like discovering and telling intriguing stories. All of the aforementioned Gemini characteristics
also make them excellent salesmen.
Geminis have excellent interpersonal skills and excel at clever wordplay, making it simple for them to win
others over. Geminis are excellent managers as a result of this. Their zeal motivates their colleagues, and
their intellect earns them the admiration of their co-workers. Geminis are not good at focusing on deep
tasks since they feel discouraged quickly due to their impulsive behaviour. Geminis aren't the best
financiers or economists. Geminis function best when they can move from task to task without losing
enthusiasm. Geminis might be too methodical because to their brilliance, which can lead to inexperience.
They may also feel worried or frightened while making critical decisions, such as relocating or changing
jobs.

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Statue of Vishnu at Angkor Wat ph: Marcin Konsek, ccbysa4.0
The main deity of Angkor Wat is Vishnu, the god of light and of the angelic quality (Satguna). Satguna the
quality of purity would be related to the position of the site in Libra.

Vishnu

In Hinduism every single god can be considered from two different perspectives: a god can be seen as the
all pervading essence of the universe or Para Brahman without form as in Nirguna Philosophy. Or it can
be seen as a the Para Brahman attached to a form and image in the shape of the famous indian demi-gods
as in the concept of Saguna Brahman.

Narayana is a form of Vishnu or in some versions Vishnu is a from of Narayana. Literally the word
Narayana means “eternal man”, “son of man” or “one who comes from the water”. Vishnu means “all
pervasive” or “one who is in everything”.

Here is the list of the 9 major incarnations of Vishnu as a living being and the correspondence with the
planets in traditional astrology; Matsya (Ketu) the one-horned fish: Kurma (Saturn) the mighty turtle;
Varaha (Rahu) the fierce boar; Narasimha (Mars), the man-lion Vamana (Jupiter), the clever dwarf
Parshuram (Venus), the vengeful, priest: Rama (Sun) the dutiful prince; Krishna (Moonn) the righteous
cowherd; Buddha (Mercury) the compassionate sage.

Frst I`ll be trying to examine astrogeographical data about the older Vishnu and Narayana temples. Of
course that data has to be analyzed and differentiation made between all kinds of factors at work. But I`m
hoping to get a clearer picture about the archetype this god actually represents.

Vishnu in Sagittarius

Sagittarius is the most frequent astrogeographical position of Vshnu Temples. This is a clear
hint that the cult is particularly related to the priest caste (Brahmins) the highest caste in the indian caste
system.

Compare: The Swaminarayana cult – an Astrogeographical Study of a modern Hindu Sect

As the ruler of Sagittarius Jupiter the greek Zeus would mark a less strict and to some extent humourous
god with more human features than for example a god in Sagittarius neighbour sign Capricorn. For the
hinduistic pantheon another god closely related to the symbolism of the lightning and thunder provider
Zeus is Indra who in later Hindiusm took over the role of the waether god.

Vaikuntha located in Capricorn

Vishnu`s celestial dwelling place is Vaikuntha (the Place of not Hindrance), Paramapadam, Vishnupada
(Vishnu’s feet), or Param Padam (the Supreme Abode). In most of the Puranas and Vaishnava
traditions, Vaikuntha is located in the direction of the Makara (Capricorn) Rashi (sidereal astrology),
which coincides with the Capricorn star constellation. Capricorn as the sign of governments marks the
symbolic place of the ruler of society or as in the case of Vishnu the ruler of the gods and the entrance into
heaven (the spiritual plane). Capricorn marks the exclusiveness of Vaikuntha. But the location of
Vaikuntha in Capricorn is not necessarily or not only an indication that Vishnu`s astrological indicator has
got to be Capricorn`s ruler Saturn. On the other hand Saturn should as well not be totally excluded as a

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plausible indicator for Vishnu. The works of exorcism through killing or setting free of demons as
practised by the incarnations of Vishnu are clear aspects of Saturn.

In another version Vaikuntha is located on the hills of the sacred Mount Meru.

Vaikuntha located in Libra

The Lakshmana Temple in Khajuraho is dedicated to Vaikuntha Vishnu – the paradise home of Vishnu.

Astrogeographic position for morphogenetic field level 4 which describes the atmosphere, function
and energetical quality of the temple: The temple is located in the combination of aristocratic female air
sign Libra sign of relationship. openness, love, harmony, harems, balance, beauty and decoration. the 2nd
coordinate lies in dynamic, male fire sign Aries sign of the phallus, erection, sports, action, ignition,
warfare and speed. Libra stands for the rich decoration, the attempt to depict a higher cultural ideal and the
depiction of making love. And as the sign of relationship, love, dancing, beauty and prostitution Libra is
relates to the ideal of a paradise for relationship and making love. Places located in Aries the first
astrological indicator for stimulation support erection and the fascination from erotic and pornographic
images.

Changu Narayan Temple

Changu Narayan Temple in काठमाड ,ौं Bhaktapur, Nepal is one of the oldest extant hindu temples. The
deity it is dedicated to is a local form of Narayana Vishnu. Construction of the first temple here is assumed
to have begun around 325 AD.

In the foundation myth for the temple Narayana in his form as Vishnu while fighting a demon king
named Chandh happened to kill a brahmin – which in hinduism is seen as one of the gratest possible sins.
The brahmin`s guru cursed Vishnu wishing him to be killed by a brahmin in return. Vishnu went to live in
a tree on the site of today`s Changu Narayan Temple in the form of a black boy until one day the tree was
cut down and the immortal Vishnu`s head was chopped off. Vishnu was so liberated from the spell and
decided to live at the temple site for all times in the form of Changu Narayan,

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Changu Narayan Temple, entrance at the west side located in Aries with Sagittarius photo: Maesi64,
ccnysa1.0

Astrogeographical position for morphogenetic field level 4 which describes the atmosphere, function
and energetical quality of the temple: the shrine itself lies in 2 fire signs – Sagittarius sign of style,
design, ornaments, shamanism, fire sacrifice, priests, the brahmin caste, success, philosophy, initations and
the colour black. Sagittarius as the sign of the brahmin caste is a possible and to some extent plausible
indicator for Narayana Vishnu but could also simply be a resonance of a place dedicated to a temple run by
brahmins. The black colour of the boy is a correspondence with Sagittarius. The 2nd coordinate lies in
dynamic male Aries sign of ignition, action, speed, warfare, fighting, waking up and fresh motivation.
Aries stands for the fighting, the head being chopped off and the blood spilled in the foundation myth.

Dasavatara Temple

The Dasavatara Temple in Deogarh dedicated to the 10 (das) incarnations (avatars) of Vishnu is one of
the oldest hindu temples that still exist. It has been dated around 500 CE

Dasavatara Temple in
Deogarh located in Scorpio with Virgo/ Depiction of Nara Narayana in Dasavatara Temple

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Astrogeographic position for morphogenetic field level 4 which describes the atmosphere, function
and energetical quality of the temple: the temple is located in the combination of solid, defensive, fixed
water sign Scorpio sign of sulpting, stone-masonry, imaging, fortresses with self.protective earth
sign Virgo sign of hindu religion and yoga culture, health, self-cleaning, celibacy, monkhood and
meditation.

Budhanilkantha Temple

Budhanilkantha Temple at sacredsitesdotcom

Budhanilkantha Temple, (literal: “Old Blue Throat”) is an ancient open air temple dedicated to
Lord Vishnu situated below Shivapuri Hill at the northern end of the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal.

Budhanilkantha open air shrine – Vishnu

floating in a water tank located in Aquarius with Pisces photo: जनक राज भट्ट, ccbysa3.0

Astrogeographic position for morphogenetic field level 4 which describes the atmosphere, function
and energetical quality of the temple: located in the “extraterrestrian constellation” of the two spiritual
signs: creative, innovative, eccentric, spiritual air sign Aquarius sign of the sky, heaven, paradise, flying,
self-finding, liberation, abstraction, outcasts, the spiritual quest and mystic spiritual water sign Pisces sign
of imagination, mystification, dreaming, legends, temples.

Badrinarayana Temple at Badrinath

According to legend Shankara discovered a black stone image of Lord Badrinarayan made
of Saligram stone in the Alaknanda River. He originally enshrined it in a cave near the Tapt Kund hot
springs. In the sixteenth century, the King of Garhwal moved the murti to the present temple.

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 Badrinath Temple
located in Sagittarius with Gemini photo: Naresh Balakrishnan, ccbysa4.0

Astrogeographical position of Bardrinath Narayana temple for morphogenetic field level 4 which
describes the atmosphere, function and energetical quality of the temple: Sri Badrinath temple is
located in the combination of fire sign Sagittarius with air sign Gemini. the sign of signpost, learning,
polarity, information, roads and bridges, technology and practical magic.

Venkateshwara Vishnu Temple

Venkateshwara Temple located in Virgo

with Sagittarius photo: Adityamadhav83, ccbysa3.0

Venkateshwara Temple, also called “Temple of the 7 Hills”, Tirumala Hills near Tirupati, Andhra
Pradesh. Venkateshwara is a form of Vishnu, Venkata means hill.
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Astrogeographic position for morphogenetic field level 4 which describes the atmosphere, function
and energetical quality of the temple: located in earth sign Virgo sign of health, reason, yoga culture,
celibacy, self-cleansing, Hindu culture. 2nd coordinate in mental fire sign Sagittarius sign of shamanism,
priest castes, brahmans, initiation, success, fire sactifice, philosophy.

Thirunelli Mahvishnu Temple

Titunelli Mahavishnu Temple in Leo with

Capricorn

Thirunelli Temple is an ancient temple for Maha Vishnu on Brahmagiri Hill in Kerala, South India.
Mahavishnu is an aspect of Vishnu as the absolute which is beyond human comprehension, beyond all
attributes and the supreme god. The term Mahavishnu is similar to Brahman and Almighty Absolute
Supreme Personality of Godhead. “This means that the Absolute truth is realized first as Brahman
(impersonal aspect) then as Paramatma (personal aspect) and finally as Bhagavan (incarnate perfection)”
(from the wikipedia article)

Astrogeographic position for morphogenetic field level 4 which describes the atmosphere, function
and energetical quality of the temple: located in highly magnetic,self-centered, royal fire sign Leo sign
of the sun, light and the all-pervading aspect of Vishnu as the supreme godhead and king of the gods from
which all other gods emanate. The 2nd coordinate falls in earth sign Capricorn, sign of control,
government, rules, hiearchies and restrictions.

Jagannath Temple

The 12th century Jagannath Temple at Puri, Orissa dedicated to Lord Jagannath is one of the most
sacred Hindu temples particularly for worshippers of Vishnu. Jagannath is considered a form
of Vishnu or his avatar Krishna. Jagannath means Lord of the Universe, The wooden icon worshipped
at Jagannath Temple makes the deity rather appear like a tribal native entity or a god of the place. The
Templelacks a clear vedic reference and is also not a member of the traditional Dashavatara concept or the
classical Hindu pantheon. The Jagannath Temple is strongly related with the saints that playes an
important role in the reformation and restoration of Hinduism such as Adi
Shankaracharya , Ramananda, Ramanuja & Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.

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 Jagannath Temple at Puri,
Orissa located in Pisces with Aquarius photo: Bernard Gagnon, GNU/FDL

Jagannath Temple is located in the same constellation as the Lying Vishnu at Budhanilkantha Temple. The
two spiritual signs Aquarius and Pisces apparently stand for spirituality as the main aspect worshipped at
Vishnu temples but not so much for the mainstream hinduistic culture.

Astrogeographic position for morphogenetic field level 3 which describes the atmosphere, function
and energetical quality of the temple and ist surrounding area: located in the “extraterrestrian
constellation” of the two spiritual signs: creative, innovative, eccentric, spiritual air sign Aquarius sign of
the sky, heaven, paradise, flying, self-finding, liberation, abstraction, outcasts, the spiritual quest and
mystic spiritual water sign Pisces sign of imagination, mystification, dreaming, legends, temples.

Thiruvallam Sree Parasurama Swami Temple

Parashurama Swami Temple at Thiruvallam, Kerala located in Libra with Scorpio photo: Edwin549,
ccbysa4.0

Thiruvallam Sree Parasurama Swami Temple is one of the most ancient temples of South India. It is
situated on the banks of Karamana River near Thiruvallam, Thiruvananthapuram

Astrogeographic position for morphogenetic field level 4 which describes the atmosphere, function
and energetical quality of the temple: located in the combunation of service-orientated air
sign Libra sign of angels, harmony, balance, beauty with highly alert, defensive water signb Scorpio sign
of giants, hammers, sculpting, stone masory and possible inidcator for Parasurama`s physical attributes.

Krishna Temples

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 Important Krishna Temples in Astrogeography. Positions for field level 4 (exact position –
energetical qualities of the shrines itself)
Copyright: Georg Stockhorst, 2019 www-astrologcalworldmap.com

architecture and astrologyart and astrologyAstrological World Mapastrology & historyFeng-

Shuigeomancylocational astrology

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Lakshmi Narayani Golden Temple of Vellore

Fo Guang Shan Buddha in Libra

The Hoba meteorite – a 45 tons piece of iron found in Aries

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The Sites of the 12 Jyotirlinga in Astrology
Georg Stockhorst February 25, 2016

The Sites of the 12 Jyotirlinga in Astrology. Astrologeography & Sacred Sites: on the astrogeographical
positions of the 12 ancient Jyotirlinga

The Sites of the 12 Jyotirlinga in Astrology

The 12 Jyotirlinga are important places of pilgrimage, mythology. prayer and reconnection with the
divine dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. Among other functions they mark important punctuations of the
morphogenetic field in various parts of India. The 12 Jyotirlinga and their shrines have been kept alive
and their energies recharged through rituals, worship, prayer and attention by the local priests, wandering
monks and pilgrims over long periods of time.

According to the Shivapurana the gospel book of the worship of Shiva the Jyotirlinga are supposed to
represent 12 different aspects of a column of light once manifested by Shiva during a controversy about
the supremacy of creation between the three major Hindu deities Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Shiva
“pierced the 3 worlds with an infinite column of light”. The other 2 gods decided to search for the source
of the column travelling over billions of years without finding its origin. That was the proof of the
supremacy of Shiva. The twelve Jyotirlinga shrines are temples all across the Indian peninsula where
Shiva is assumed to have manifested as a fiery column of light symbolizing the infinite nature of his
potentials.

Map of India with the positions of the

12 Jyiotirlinga

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I have been fascinated by the idea of analyzing the astrogeographic positions of the 12 Jyotirlinga for a
long time. Personally I visited only three of them but have often listened to the ever-changing variations of
oral traditions on the way along paths of pilgrimage in India.

The astrogeographical positions for morphogenetic field level 4: The Atmosphere of the Single Sites and
their Qualities

Whether the results of the astrogeographical calculations came as a big surprise I cannot say but there is
definitely a really strong tendency which could help us understand the worship of Shiva and his place in
Hindu religion and society, his role amongst the gods and/or demigods and find out more about the
energetical impact of such sacred sites and places of worship, prayer, healing and power.

The 12 Jyotirlinga in astrogeography

The role of water sign Cancer as the most frequent position of a Jyotirlinga

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Śiva and Pārvatī seated on a terrace. Jaipur, 1800 (circa) British Museum

It is really fascinating to see that the role of water sign Cancer as the most important indicator for Shiva is
clearly reflected in the statistical analysis as the most frequent astrogeographical position of the 12
Jyotirlinga (and of the 18 Maha Shakti Peetha Shrines as well). Lingams as representations of the male
form are thus placed at sites of a female energy, springs or wells of water, underground rivers and
sites in resonance with the stimulation of aspects of deeper emotions, fertility and emotional
individuality. This also means that these columns of light are not focused on aspects of outwardly,
physical or mental strength, domination or power in the first place as is sometimes assumed but rather on
emotional authenticity. life itself, fertility and the nourishment of the living beings. Through Cancer`s role
as the sign of emotionality and the Moon its stimulation does not only affect humans but animals and
plants as well and in the same way!

Kedarnath

Kedarnath Temple in Uttarkand has both

coordinates for morphogenetic field level 4 in Cancer

There are 2 of the 12 Jyotirlinga shrines that have both coordinates in water sign Cancer. One is
the Kedarnath Temple located at 3553 m altitude on the foot of Mount Kedarnath (6940 m) and 223 km
north east of Rishikesh in the Mountain State of Uttarkhand.

The five Pandava brothers (see: Mahabharata) are assumed to have founded the first temple at Kedarnath.
After the Battle of Kurukshetra they performed penance and meditation here praying to Lord Shiva in
order to seek forgiveness for their sins . But Shiva did only appear in the form of a bull before them,
hiding his true face. Bhima, one of the brothers managed to get hold of the tail of the buffalo, Finally
Shiva manifested as a column of light at the place of the ancient Kedarnath shrine adjacent to the current
site promising help for all those seeking help at this place.

Omkareshwar

The second Jyotirlinga Shrine with both coordinates in Cancer is in the Omkareshwar Mahadev
Temple on a small island in the sacred Narmada River in the State of Madhya Pradesh. The island is
called Mandhata or Omkareshwar because it is said to have the shape of the Devnagari Letter for the
word OM – ॐ.

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 Omkareshwar Temple has
both coordinates in Cancer. photo: Bernard Gagnon, GNU/FDL

The astrogeographical position in Cancer relates the energetical topic of the site to a central place of
resonance of both the nearby river bed and the topic of an island in the river. This is because Cancer is the
sign of river banks as the natural habitat of crabs and also the natural indicator and resonator for the
topic of islands

Only 100 m away from the site of Omkareshwar Jyiotirlinga is the site of a very ancient shrine called
Mamaleshwar located in the combination of Cancer with fire sign Sagittarius.

Ujjain: Leo as the sign of light and power

Columns of light would in principle have to be astrologically categorized under the three fire signs, but
especially of course under Leo as the sign of our Sun and of light in general. In this role Leo represents the
sign of light and of the energy of life that all living beings on our planet receive from the Sun. Sites with
an astrogeographical position in Leo have a comparatively vivid, vitalizing energy, intense magnetism
and a tendency of being energetically more attractive for living beings than sites in most other places. The
fact that only 2 of the Jyiotirlinga sites are located in Leo the sign of energetical intensity can be concluded
to indicate that they are not generally focused on the function of intensifying the energy of the sites where
they stand.

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 Mahakaleshwar Temple at Ujain, Madhya Pradesh located in Leo
with Cancer, photo: LRBurdak, GNU/FDL

The Mahakaleshwar Temple in Ujjain represents one of the 2 Jyotirlinga shrines located in highly,
energetic, magnetic, royal fire sign Leo the sign of the Sun the giver of life. There are several aspects of
the Mahakaleshwar Shrine to be examined which could relate the site to the astrological significance of
fire sign Leo.

First of all: different from all other Jyiotirlinga Shrines in the Mahakaleshwar temple the worshipped
“face” of the lingam is facing south the direction of the Sun and therefore of Leo.

Secondly: the Mahakaleshwar Temple is a Jyotirlinga ( male) and Shaktipeetha (female) at the same time.
astrogeographically the combination of this duality is reflected in the position in female sign Cancer the
sign of the moon and motherhood plus in male fire sign Leo the sign of the sun and light, power stations
and the heart. Mahakaleshwar Temple combines two consecutive signs or stages in the zodiac. The
hierarchy of these two signs reflects Cancer as the stage of concepetion, pregnancy, the uterus and Leo as
the stage of birth and entering into life. Places that combine these two topics resonate with aspects that are
beyond the limitations of duality and so support a supra-regional resonance and influence of such places.

Rameshwaram: Aries as the sign of erection, towers and the phallus

Male phallic sign fire sign Aries the sign of erection could of course be seen as the natural astrological
equivalent of a lingam at least in regard to it`s most basic element of form. But the astrogeographical
analysis reveals that this does not mean that sites in Aries attract or are symptomatic of the really
important places of worship of Lord Shiva. This means that astrogeographical data from my field study
could well be seen in relationship to the conclusion made by Swami Sivananda who expressed
that “the view that the Shiva lingam represents the phallus is a mistake.” (Sivananda, Swami (1996).
“Worship of Siva Linga”. Lord Siva and His Worship. The Divine Life Trust Society.)

Nevertheless Aries plays an important role for temple sites just like any of the other 11 astrological
structural elements. Aries stands for sites of warfare used for prayer and worship before going to war,
worship of the aspects of a god as a protector during warfare, giver of strength, motivation, decisiveness,
clear attitudes and victory. Aries stand for the gathering place of armies or warriors before the start of a
war and important the sites of important oracles that were consulted before beginning a war. Compare:
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 (The oracle of Delphi in Aries with Libra, The Bighorn Medicine Wheel in Capricorn and Aries). And
interesting enough the legend of the only Jyotirlinga in Aries the Ramanathaswamy shrine in
Rameshwaram is in fact a site directly related to a war. During the war of Rama the seventh incarnation of
god Vishnu against the demon king Ravana Rama`s army built a bridge from Rameshwaram to the island
of Sri Lanka to prepare the attack. Rameshwaram thus represented the site of the gathering of
Rama`s armies and the starting point of the attack on Sri Lanka.

Ramamantha Swami Temple and

Jyotirlinga shrine in Rameshwaram is located in Aries with Sagittarius photo: Vinayaraj, ccbysa3.0

In the legend of the Jyiotirlinga itself it is explained that Rama, prayed to Shiva at this site to absolve
the sin of killing a brahmin (representative of the highest caste in Hindu religion). This is beacause
Ravana the demon king was also a brahmin. Rama wanted to have the largest lingam and instructed his
friend Hanuman to bring the lingam from Himalayas. Since it took longer to bring the lingam, Sita, the
wife of Rama, built a small lingam out of the sand of the nearby sea shore, which is believed to be the
lingam in the sanctum. Hanuman`s íntense astrogeographical resonance with the sign of Aries is reflected
by the astrogeographical position of the site of the Hanuman Swami statue in Paritala, Andhra Pradesh in
Aries.

No Jyotirlingams in female air sign Libra

The fact that none of the 12 Jyotirlinga are located in service orientated female air sign Libra the sign of
harmony, balance, beauty, angels, relationship, love and beauty could lead to various different conclusions.

My first consideration here is that the missing of a Jyotirlinga in Libra can of course be explained as an
indication that Libra simply does not fully support the presence of a lingam at a place. This would be
because Libra represents the female counterpart, momentum of differentiation and focus on polarity of the
one-dimensional aspect of Aries the sign of unicellular structures, undividedness, mono causal thinking
and male or phallic forms such as towers of light (lingams).

Water sign Scorpio which in classical hindu astrology is the sign of intoxication, alchemy, death and of
demonic quality (tamoguna) only appears once on the list of the Jyiotirlinga. This indicates that
this classical astrological classification of Shiva which relates him to Scorpio are not the central topic of
the worship of Shiva at the sites of the Jyotirlinga shrines.

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One of the implications brought up by the implications of the astrogeographical data here is: in how far is
the classification of the astrological signs through the 3 gunas a mere judgement from the point of view of
a profit orientated hierarchy or else the caste system in society which tends to ban Shiva and the signs of
Scorpio, Capricorn and Aquarius into the realms of ignorance while relating Sagittarius the sign
of darkness and Pisces the sign of hidden action to the realms of purity. The reflexes of the logic of
ignorance can be studied in the following video where the astrology teacher himself enjoys the tamoguna
perspective while explaining the tamoguna version of definitions. Saturn the planet of the preservation of
dharma is described as a natural indicator of fear although fear from dharma is a mark of fear of one´s
hidden guilt and as such the clearest trait of ignorance.

Aundha Nagnath in the Hingoli District of Maharastra located in Scorpio with Cancer is the eighth
of the twelve Jyotirlinga photo: vijay chennupati, ccbysa2.0

The first temple at Aundha Nagnath is said to have been constructed by King Yudhishthira the eldest of
five Pandava brothers during their 14 years of exile from Hastinapur. Aundha Nagnath is the eighth of the
twelve Jyotirlingas. In astrological numerology the classification as the eighth shrine relates the temple to
the eighth astrological sign Scorpio. The present temple is supposed to have been built during the 13th
century.

In regard to the deeper psychological understanding of the role of Scorpio important clues to it
are reflected in a legend about how the Maharashtran poet saint Namdev found his guru and master at the
Jyotirlinga shrine of Aundha Nagnath. In modern german astrology Scorpio is seen as the sign of visual
mental perception: the capacity of the human brain to visualize perception and store the image of the
perceived objects along with the memories from the other sensual organs in order to create a
multidimensional image of the moments in time that we experience. Therefore Scorpio has a natural
tendency to judge perceived things by the already existing given standards of perceived and stored mental
99
knowledge and patterns of habitual role conduct and morality. Learning by watching, copying the example
of one´s teachers and gurus and adapting to a given hierarchy is therefore typical for Scorpio`s approach to
learning. Following this understanding of the reflexes active in Scorpio what Namdev was taught during
his visit to Aundha Nagnath was the perfect lesson about outwardly and superficial judgement in relation
to the deeper knowledge and understanding of the spiritual plane.

From my astrogeographical field study I have concluded that the combination of Scorpio with Cancer
seems to represent the archetypal astrological sign constellation – as the source of River Ganga as well as
the Devprayag of Alekhnanda and Baghirati, the City of Varanasi, the birth place of Mahavatar Babaji,
Lok Sabha and even the largest Shiva statue are located in that sign combination.

Namdev at Aundha Nagnath Temple

Namdev was adviced to visit Aundha Nagnath Temple by a saint named Jñāneśvar to find a proper
guru. When he first entered the temple he found Visoba Khechara resting with his feet on the lingam, the
symbol of Shiva. In Hindu culture as in most other religions such a behavour is seen as a severe
disrespect to a holy shrine and an insult to the temple deity. Seeing this Namdev reproached Visoba for
having insulted Shiva. Visoba asked Namdev to take his feet and place them elsewhere and wherever
Namdev placed Visoba’s feet a lingam sprang up from the ground. Thus, through his yogic powers, Visoba
filled the whole temple with Shiva-lingams giving Namdev an example (darshan) of the omnipresence of
god.

Another story related to the negativity and falsity of formal judgement, morality and regulations in regard
to the Aundha Nagnath records the following incident: one day Namdev was singing spiritual songs in
front of the temple. One of the brahmins working as temple keepers came out and told him to go
away because he would be disturbing the worship at the temple. So Namdev went away from the front of
the temple to a place on the side of it where he himself felt undisturbed and started singing his spiritual
songs. But as the temple god wanted to listen to his singing he decided to lift the whole temple and turned
it around. Wether actually true or not this story reveals the transformational powers of Scorpio which lie
in the intense focus on the perceived reality. From the wiki article: “It is testimonial to that miracle
why Nandi (Shiva`s guardian bull which is usually placed in front of the temple) is located on back side of
temple.”

Capricorn

Capricorn the sign of asceticism (tapasya), living in solitude and also the sign of mountains is a
comparatively expectable resonator for Shiva because he is supposed to spend his time in meditation on
the highest mountains. As a main factor for grounding the spiritual world on the plane of the material,
stability of social institutions and thus of religion and dharma, the preservation of traditions and simply the
state cult that accompanies the stable rule over society Capricorn is also a natural indicator for the
resonance of supra-regional matters at places.

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 Ghrishneshwar
Temple near Ellora Caves, Maharashtra has both coordinates in Capricorn photo: Rashmi.parab,
ccbysa3.0

The shrine of the Grishneshwar Jyiotirlinga located near the famous Ellora cave temples has both
astrogeographical coordinates in earth sign Capricorn. And this is why the legend about how and why the
Grishneshwar Jyiotirlinga was installed in the place can serve as an archetypal allegory of that sign. It is a
story about complete trust in the laws of the eternal manifestations of god and surrendering one`s own
personal views, fears and limitations to the plane of divine knowledge and the service to god, one´s duties,
obligations and the laws of fate, dharma, physics and higher knowledge.

The legend talks about a childless wife named Sudeha who in order to have a baby decided to marry her
younger sister named Ghushma to her husband named Sudharm, all three of them of the Brahmin (priest)
caste. Sudeha advised her sister to make 101 lingas worship them and discharge them in a nearby lake.
With the blessings of Lord Shiva, Ghushma gave birth to a baby boy. Ghushma developed pride about her
motherhood and made her elder sister jealous. One night out of jeaulousy Ghushma killed her sister`s son
and threw him in the lake. Next morning, Ghushmas and Sudharm got involved in their daily prayers and
worship. Sudeha too started her worship. Yet another family member Ghushma’s daughter-in-law found
blood stains on bed and found parts of the dead body. horrified she ran to Ghushma and Sudharma to
infoem them of the murder but they did not react but stayed absorbed in their meditation. Even later when
coming home and seeing the blood Ghushma wasn`t moved at all by the finding and declared that Shiva
who had created her son would protect him and so started reciting the name of Shiva. Later when she went
to discharge the Shiva lingas at the lake she saw her son appearing again. Seeing her son Ghushma was
neither happy nor sad, a trace of complete surrender to the knowledge of the divine and the higher laws of
fate. So Shiva appeared before her highly pleased by her devotion. Ghushma asked Lord Shiva to forgive
her sister Sudeh and free her. Pleased with her purity, Lord Shiva granted her another boon. Ghushma
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saShiva to reside at the lake eternally for the benefit of the multitudes in form of a Jyotirling and “may you
be known by my name”. On her request Shiva manifested himself in the form of a Jyotirlinga assumed the
name and form of Ghushmeshwar (or Grishneshwar).

Malikarjuna Swami and the combination of Capricorn with Aquarius

Srisailam Gopuram near the Malikarjuna Swami

Jyotirlinga at Srisailam. photo: Vedamurthy.j, ccbysa3.0

The Jyiotirlinga Shrine of Malikarjuna Swami at Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh is located right
in between earth sign Capricorn and air sign Aquarius. The second coordinate here lies in water
sign Cancer.

The position in between earth sign Capricorn the sign of mountains and air sign Aquarius the sign of the
sky and heaven stands for the realms where the highest places on earth meet with the sky above. Places
within +/- 5° near the astrogeographic position of 30°Capricorn/0° Aquarius relate to that topic and are of
particular importance for fullfillment of ascetic practises in regard to individuals and for the world
government in regard to humanity.

Bhimashankar Jyotirlinga Temples in Maharashtra and Assam

I cannot solve the dispute whether the Bhimashankar temple north of Pune in Maharastra or one of the two
proposed sites in Assam should be considered as the actual “true” Jyotirlinga.

But what I can do is describe the locations:

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Aquarius the sign of self-finding

Bhimashankar
Temple in Maharashtra is located in Aquarius with Sagittarius photo: ସୁରଥ କୁମାର ପାଢ଼ୀ, ccbysa3.0

Spiritual air sign Aquarius which together with Scorpio represents the most important astrological
resonator for outcasts such as Shiva at least appears 2 times on the list of the Jyotirlinga.

Aquarius reflects Shiva`s attitude of seeking purification, simplicity, abstraction and a holistic view on
life, leading a life without luxury, self-finding and self-liberation and leaving society behind. Aquarius
stands for the non-dualistic, spiritual or anti-materialistic point of view. In relation to any caste system it
stands for castelessness and as such for the Sannyasis and Saddhus.

The Bhimashankar Temple is named after the asura Bheema a son of the giant demon Kumbhakarna.
Shiva is said to have destroyed the demon Bhima at the temple site because Bhima had attacked and
defeated one of Shivas devotees at the Jyotirlinga.

Sri Bhimeswar Dwadas Jyotirlinga Panchadhara Shiva Dham at Pamohi, Dakini Hills, Guwahati, Assam

For a closer description see this article from brahmonsobha.blogspot.com : “The Shiva Purana and the
Koti Rudra Samhita refer to Bhimashankar Jyotirlingam in Dakini. Daini Bama at Pamohi is interpreted
by the devotees to be one of the Dwadas Jyotirlinga. It is said that Lord Shiva destroyed the demon Bhima
here when he was about to strike the Lingam with a sword. The Lingam was worshipped by His devotee
Kamarupeshwar {Priyadharma was the king of Kamrupa- Shiva Puran Astam Khanda 28-31 Adyaya
(Hindi & Bengali- Durga Pustak Bhandar, Allahabad)} who was imprisoned by Bhima. Bhima, the son of
Kumbhakarna and Karkati did severe penance and became very powerful by a boon of Sri Brahma. The
sweat from his body forms the river. On the request of his devotees Sri Shiva stayed there as the
Bhimashankar Jyotirlingam.”
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 Bhimeswar Dwadas Jyotirlinga
Dham located in the combination of Scorpio with Sagittarius ph: Luitboy, GNU/FDL

Bhimeswar Dwadas Jyotirlinga Dham is located at Dakini hill near Pamohi in Guwahati, Assam. It is
located inside of the river bed in the combination of highly defensive, solid fixed water sign Scorpio sign
of the underworld, demons, death, trauma, pain, outcasts and dynamic fire sign Sagittarius sign of
understanding, success, shamanism, healing, initiations, the priest caste and fire sacrifice.

Vaidyanath Temple: Virgo and Shiva as a doctor

Vaidyanath Temple
located in Virgo sign of doctors with its opposite sign Pisces photo: Ravishekharojha, ccbysa4.0

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One of the 2 Jyiotirlinga shrines located in Virgo the sign of health, yoga culture, healing and doctors
is Vaidyanath Temple in the City of Deoghar in Jharkhand. The second coordinate of the Vaidyanath
Shrine lies in Virgo`s opposite sign spiritual water sign Pisces the sign of imagination, fairy tales, music,
mystification, the dream world, spiritualy and the subtle plain itself, communion with the divine and the
most important indicator for temples.

The legend of the origin of the Vaidiyanath Jyiotirlinga shrine claims that the demon king Ravana offered
his ten heads one after another in sacrifice here to worship Shiva forcing him to descended and
heal Ravana`s wounds. As Shiva acted as a doctor (healer) he is referred to as Vaidhya (“doctor”) at
the Vaidhyanath Shrine.

Gemini and Virgo at Kashi Vishwanath Temple

Kashi Vishvanath Temple in Varanasi is dedicated to Shiva Vishvanatha or Vishveshvara the Ruler of
The Universe.The Temple has been referred to in Hindu Scriptures for a very long time and as a central
part of worship in the Shaiva philosophy. It has been destroyed and re-constructed a number of times in
history. The last structure was destroyed by Aurangzeb, the sixth Mughal emperor who constructed
the Gyanvapi Mosque on its site in 1644. The current structure was built on an adjacent site by the
Maratha monarch, Ahilya Bai Holkar of Indore in 1780.

Kashi Vishwanatha located in Virgo with Gemini

around 1915

Today`s temple is not located on its original position. This could explain the – for the site of an important
place of worship of Shiva – relatively unexpected and not easily explainable astrogeographical
constellation of its construction site. The combination of the two “Mercury signs” earth sign Virgo sign of
yoga culture, healing, self cleaning and air sign Gemini the sign of sign posts, learning, road
crossings,communication brings together the two major indicators for spiritual entities of plants,
often marking the topic of a place of the protection of nature. Especially movable air sign Gemini is to be

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seen as an indication of the provisional, temporary character of the position of the temple building on this
site. Anyway Gemini`s quality as the sign of neutrality and a technical mental approach to thinking
does not provide a highly supportive energetical stimulation for temples.

The original place of Kashi Vishwanath where the Gyanvapi Mosque is located since 1644 is located in the
combination of Virgo with earth sign Taurus sign of the earth, grounding, market places, local energetic
centers and an indication for the importance of the site as a place of resonance of feeling as the ruler of the
land and territory. Comparable sites where Muslim temples were built on the sites of former central
religious sites in Taurus are the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul and the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. It has to be
noted that Taurus does not stand for spirituality itself as the purpose of a temple and is no indicator that the
reconnection with the divine is the aim of a temple built in Taurus in the first place. The reason
why usurpators want to install their temples in Taurus is to overwrite central important places of the
culture of the invaded country by occupying a place of resonance of the local landlords and of local self-
centeredness.

But of course temples in Taurus can serve an important purpose in regard to local deities, deities of
the earth like for example the earth mother, fertility rites, rites and prayer for wealth, temples vor Venus
and other important purposes.

The site of today`s Somnath Temple in Taurus with Sagittarius

Somnath Jyotirlinga
Temple is located in Taurus with Sagittarius

Todays Somnath Jyotirlinga shrine in Gujarat and the famous temple are not located on the exact site of
the original position but adjacent of it. It`s astrogeographical coordinates fall in the combination of highly
profitable earth sign Taurus sign of the earth, grounding, roots, agriculture, food, wealth, income,
possession of land, local energetical centers and market places together with dynamic fire
sign Sagittarius the sign of expansion, victory, success, luxury, growth, the Brahmin castes, shamanism,

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initiation, thinking, time-measurement and a major indicator for knowledge about ritualism. The
combination of Taurus as the sign of wealth with Sagittarius as the stimulation for growth and expansion
stands for a site particularly stimulative for material success and growing wealth. This could be a reason
why the long and rich history of the Somnath Temple recorded since the 7th century accounts such a long
series of plundering, destruction and reconstruction of the temple.

Sanctum Sanctorum of Somnath

Here is a legend about the origin of the Somnath Jyiotirlinga from the Skanda Purana: The Moon
(Chandra) was married to the 27 daughters of Daksha Prajapati. In astrology they are known as the 27
stations of the Moon or Nakshatras. But Chandra developed a special love to Rohini whose position in the
hindu (sidereal) zodiac ranges from 10°-23°20 Taurus. Because Chandra started to neglect his other wifes
their father Prajapati Daksha cursed Chandra that he would lose his beauty and radiance. As the Moon
lost his beauty and radiance the entire world became lifeless. Worried about this Chandra came down
from the sky with Rohini and worshipped the Sparsa Linga of Somnath until he was blessed by Shiva to
grow and shine in the bright half. Because the moon regained his light at this place this town came to be
known as Prabhasa. Brahma paved way for the construction of the temple and Chandra and other gods
prayed top Shiva to assumed the name and form of the Somchandra Jyotirlinga (named after the moon
god Soma) to reside there eternally. Another important role of Somnath it is considered the place
(Prabhas Kshetra) where Shri Krishna is supposed to have left his mortal body .

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The controversy of the Nageshvar Jyotirlinga

The actual location of the legendary forest of Darukavana where the Nageshvara Jyotirlinga is located is
subject to a debate among scholars but also among the tourism industries. There are two places which are
commonly named as possible authentical sites of the Nageshvara Jyotirlinga: the Yageshvara Temples at
Almora, U.P. and the Nageshvara Tempel near Dwarka, Gujarat.

Jageshvar
Jyotirlinga in Almora is located in Capricorn with Scorpio ph: Ankitkumarsaxena, ccbysa3.0

The Jageshvar temples are a large group of temples built between the 7th and 12th centuries. The
astrogeographical resonance coordinates of the site combine the two signs of long-lastingness Capricorn
and Scorpio. This sign combination is also present at the site of the oldest known extant temples on our
planet: the 12000 year old round temples of Göbekli Tepe. Conservative earth sign Capricorn stands for
the topic of a site dedicated to a state cult, traditions, stabilization of culture, royal dynasties and social
hierarchy. Scorpio stands for the stone-masonry skills, construction and art work, sculpting, imaging and
also the resonance of places with energetical topics related to Lord Shiva.

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 Nageshwar Jyotirling near
Dwarka is located in Aquarius with Virgo.
ph: Aditya Mahar , ccbysa3.0

Nageshwar Jyotirling near Dwarka is located the combination of earth sign Virgo the sign of reason,
health, medecine, healing, yoga culture, celibacy, monk culture, brahmacharya and indicator for a place of
healing. The 2nd coordinate is in creative, innovative air sign Aquarius sign of the sky, heaven, flying,
paradise, self-finding, illumination.
https://astrologicalworldmap.com/2016/02/25/the-sites-of-the-12-jyotirlinga-in-astrogeography/

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 CHAPTER V
Avalokiteśvara in Cambodian Temples
Avalokiteśvara is one of the 108 avatars; one notable avatar being Padmapani, the one who holds
the lotus (padma). This bodhisattva is variably depicted, described and portrayed in different
cultures as either male or female.
Hindu tradition.In Hindu tradition, he has been depicted as an emanation of Shiva. It is therefore not
surprising that this form of the Buddha found a representation in the Shiva temples of Angkor as a
successor
The name Avalokiteśvara combines the verbal prefix ava "down", lokita, a past participle of the
verb lok "to notice, behold, observe", here used in an active sense; and finally īśvara, "lord", "ruler",
"sovereign" or "master". In accordance with sandhi (Sanskrit rules of sound
combination), a+īśvara becomes eśvara. Combined, the parts mean "lord who gazes down (at the world)".
The word loka ("world") is absent from the name, but the phrase is implied. It does appear in the
Cambodian form of the name, Lokesvarak.
The original meaning of the name fits the Buddhist understanding of the role of a bodhisattva. The
reinterpretation presenting him as an īśvara shows a strong influence of Hinduism, as the term īśvara was
usually connected to the Hindu notion of Vishnu (in Vaishnavism) or Śiva (in Shaivism) as the Supreme
Lord, Creator and Ruler of the world. Some attributes of such a god were transmitted to the bodhisattva,
but the mainstream of those who venerated Avalokiteśvara upheld the Buddhist rejection of the doctrine of
any creator god.
In Sanskrit, Avalokiteśvara is also referred to as Lokeśvara ("Lord of the World").

1. Painting of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva. Sanskrit Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra manuscript

written in the Ranjana script. Nalanda, Bihar, India. Circa 700-1100 CE

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1. Representing the great Khmer sculptural tradition, this statue merges divine power with royal likeness. While the body
depicts a Buddhist savior, the face is thought to be a portrait of the Khmer ruler of twelfth-century Cambodia,
Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181–1219). His closed eyes and serene smile suggest the inner calm 
and supreme bliss
that accompany perfect enlightenment. Hewn from a single large block, the enormous figure was one of several that
adorned a richly decorated Khmer temple at Angkor.

2. The Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara Seated in Royal Easelate 10th–early 11th century

Cambodia. The Buddhist embodiment of infinite compassion, the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, is rarely represented in the
rajalilasana seated posture more associated with rulers and Hindu gods. Monumental metal sculpture represents the apogee
of Khmer artistic production, and this image is one of few large-scale images from the Angkorian period to have survived
intact. In Khmer royal-cult practices, a close identification between a ruler and his chosen deity was customary; thus this
figure, so unusually seated in a kinglike posture, may have been intended to serve as both a representation of the
bodhisattva and a portrait of the ruler-patron for whom it was commissioned. Without the representation of the Amitabha
Buddha, the spiritual mentor of Avalokiteshvara, in its elaborately coiffured chignon, this realistic image could be mistaken
for a secular portrait.

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Close up at Banteay Chhmar temple/// TO RIGHT -Late 7th century-Sandstone/ Height: 5 feet 9 3/4 inches
(177.2 cm)

Cambodian, Khmer Empire

AVALOKITESHVARA

This is a Cambodian statue of Avalokiteshvara, which is Sanskrit for “The Lord Who Looks Down.”
Avalokiteshvara is a bodhisattva(bo-dee-SAHT-vah) in the Buddhist belief system. A bodhisattva
is a saintlike being who devotes himself to helping others reach a state of peaceful awareness called
enlightenment. There are two aspects of the statue that help us identify who it represents. The hair is
fashioned into a style called jatamukuta (jah-tah-moo-koo- tah), with dreadlocks that loop and rise up
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in a cylindrical (tubelike) crown shape. Nestled in the hair is a small figure of the Amitabha Buddha—
Avalokiteshvara’s spiritual father—meditating on a throne of lotus petals. Amitabha (ah-mee-TAH-
bah) means “boundless light.”

This sculpture was close to seven feet tall—larger than life!—before the legs were broken. It is over
1,200 years old, and when the Museum acquired it in 1965, the head and body were in two pieces. You
can still see the line where the Museum conservators rejoined them. Because the back of the sculpture is
unfinished, we know that it was probably set in a temple niche (space in a wall), facing out in a frontal
pose.

Sometimes Avalokiteshvara is shown with one thousand arms and eleven faces, but this sculpture has
simple, subtle shapes, which were carved from a large block of sandstone. The rounded rectangle of the
face, the delicately outlined, curving eyes, and the broad, slightly smiling mouth reflect the features of
people from SoutheastAsia. Have you noticed the small creases incised (carved) at the
base of the neck? They were considered to be signs of beauty. One of Avalokiteshvara’s missing
arms and hands probably held a rosary or a bottle of holy water, symbols of wandering monks. The
other hand probably held a lotus flower, the symbol of purity. His smooth, perfectly proportioned
body is wrapped in a short, plain piece of cloth held in place by a string indicated by shallow, incised
lines. This basic garment is similar to the sarongs that people inSoutheast Asia wear today.
Although many details of the body are left out, parts of the sculpture are so naturalistic, or lifelike, that
you might be tempted to touch them to find out if they are as soft and fleshy as they look!
Repeating, curved lines create the illusion of thin fabric that reveals the solid shapes of his hips and
thighs. His abdomen is carved so skillfully that he almost appears to be breathing. This is important to
both Hindus and Buddists, who believe in the spiritual nature of breath, or prana (life force). Standing
straight and tall, Avalokiteshvara seems strong and solid, yet his downward gaze and his graceful young
body also convey feelings of friendly calm, forgiveness, and quiet power.

ABOUT BUDDHA AND AVALOKITESHVARA

Avalokiteshvara embodies the two basic qualities of the Buddha, founder of Buddhism: limitless
wisdom and compassion (a feeling of deep kindness and sympathy). Avalokiteshvara relieves the
suffering of others, protects people from danger, and grants blessings to children. This statue of
Avalokiteshvara looks similar to statues of the Buddha—especially his downcast eyes, gentle smile,
long earlobes (now broken), and soft, smooth body. The eleventh-century Buddhist poet Ratnakirti
described Avalokiteshvara this way:
His glorious face is bright with gathered moonlight
and his glance is soft
with that deep pity that he bears within.

The story of the Buddha explains how Buddhism started. In the sixth century BCE, Prince Siddhartha
(sid-DAHR-ta) was born to a wealthy king in India and grew up in total comfort and luxury. He was
twenty-nine years old when he went out of his palace for the first time, and was surprised to see that not
everyone lived the life of leisure that he enjoyed. He wondered why human beings experience
suffering, such as sickness and old age, and eventually die. Greatly disturbed, Siddhartha took off his
fancy clothes and jewelry and left his family and his kingdom in order to search for answers to these
difficult questions. He wandered throughout his kingdom for six years, listening to wise men and
begging for his food. Then he decided to remain completely still in one spot, underneath a bodhi (BO-
dee) tree. After sitting for forty days and nights through sun and rain and storms, Siddhartha
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reached a state of deep understanding called enlightenment. He realized that the causes of human
suffering are desire and attachment to the world and that it is possible to overcome suffering through
meditation and good deeds. This understanding also made him free from the endless cycle of birth,
death, and rebirth known as samsara. Siddhartha was recognized for his revelations, and he became
known and worshiped as the Buddha, which means “enlightened” or “awakened” one.
Like the Buddha, Avalokiteshvara gave up worldly pleasures and attained enlightenment. However, he
postponed his entry into nirvana (the final release from samsara) to stay in the world and help others.
There are many Buddhist bodhisattvas, but Avalokiteshvara has been the most popular throughout Asia.
Some bodhisattvas are female, and all are recognized by the different attributes that they hold or wear,
like the small Amitabha Buddha in Avalokiteshvara’s hair.

Avalokiteshvara,Bodhisattva of
Compassion
c. Third quarter of 5th century
Avalokiteshvara
Sandstone
Late 7th century
Height: 48 1/2
Sandstone
inches (123.2 cm)
Height: 5 feet 9 3/4
inches (177.2 cm)
Indian
Cambodian, Khmer Empire

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Mahayana account
According to the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra, the sun and moon are said to be born from
Avalokiteśvara's eyes, Shiva from his brow, Brahma from his shoulders, Narayana from his
heart, Sarasvati from his teeth, the winds from his mouth, the earth from his feet, and the sky
from his stomach. In this text and others, such as the Longer Sukhavativyuha Sutra,
Avalokiteśvara is an attendant of Amitabha
We come across the name Avalokiteshvara in the Avatamsaka Sutra, a Mahayana scripture that
precedes the Lotus Sutra.[15] On account of its popularity in Japan, and as a result of the works of
the earliest Western translators of Buddhist Scriptures, the Lotus however has long time been
accepted to be the earliest literature teaching about the doctrines of Avalokiteśvara. These are
found in Chapter 25 of the Lotus Sutra: Universal Gate of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. This
chapter is devoted to Avalokiteśvara, describing him as a compassionate bodhisattva who hears
the cries of sentient beings, and who works tirelessly to help those who call upon his name. A
total of 33 different manifestations of Avalokiteśvara are described, including female
manifestations, all to suit the minds of various beings. The chapter consists of both a prose and a
verse section. This earliest source often circulates separately as its own sutra, called
the Avalokiteśvara Sūtra , and is commonly recited or chanted at Buddhist temples in East Asia.
When the Chinese monk Faxian traveled to Mathura in India around 400 CE, he wrote about
monks presenting offerings to Avalokiteśvara. When Xuanzang traveled to India in the 7th
century, he provided eyewitness accounts of Avalokiteśvara statues being venerated by devotees
from all walks of life: kings, to monks, to laypeople

Avalokiteśvara / Padmapani, Ajanta Caves, India

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In Chinese Buddhism and East Asia, Tangmi practices for the 18-armed form of Avalokiteśvara
called Cundī are very popular. The popularity of Cundī is attested by the three extant translations
of the Cundī Dhāraṇī Sūtra from Sanskrit to Chinese, made from the end of the seventh century
to the beginning of the eighth century. In late imperial China, these early esoteric traditions still
thrived in Buddhist communities. Robert Gimello has also observed that in these communities,
the esoteric practices of Cundī were extremely popular among both the populace and the elite.
In the Tiantai school, six forms of Avalokiteśvara are defined. Each of the bodhisattva's six
qualities are said to break the hindrances respectively of the six realms of existence: hell-
beings, pretas, animals, humans, asuras, and devas.
And also according to prologue of Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī Sūtra, Gautama Buddha told a disciple
Ānanda that Avalokiteśvara had become a Buddha from countless previous incarnations ago,
alias "Wisdom of Right Dharma Tathāgata", also had Ten titles of Buddha include Tathāgata
(Thus Come One), Arhat (One Worthy of Offerings), Saṃyak-saṃbuddha (One of Proper and
Universal Knowledge), Vidyacaraṇa-Saṃpaṇṇa (One Perfect in Clarity and Practice), Sugata
(Well Gone One), Lokavid (Unsurpassed One Who Understands the World, Anuttarā
(Unsurpassed Knights), Purusa-damya-sarathi (Taming Heroes), Sastā deva-manuṣyanam
(Teacher of Gods and Humans), Buddha-lokanātha or Bhagavat (World-Honored One). Because
of his great compassion, because he wanted to create proper conditions for all the Bodhisattva
ranks, because he wanted to bring happiness and peacefulness to sentient living beings, he
became a Bodhisattva, the title of Quan Avalokiteshvara, often abiding in the Sahā world. At the
same time, Avalokiteśvara is also the attendant of Amitabha Buddha, assisting Amitabha Buddha
to teach the Dharma in his Pure Land.
Theravāda account

Bronze statue of Avalokiteśvara from Sri Lanka, ca. 750 CE

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Veneration of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva has continued to the present day in Sri Lanka:
In times past both Tantrayana and Mahayana have been found in some of
the Theravada countries, but today the Buddhism of Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Laos, and
Cambodia is almost exclusively Theravada, based on the Pali Canon. The only Mahayana deity
that has entered the worship of ordinary Buddhists in Theravada countries is Bodhisattva
Avalokitesvara. In Ceylon he is known as Natha-deva and mistaken by the majority for the
Buddha yet to come, Bodhisattva Maitreya. The figure of Avalokitesvara usually is found in the
shrine room near the Buddha image.[
In more recent times, some western-educated Theravādins have attempted to identify Nātha with
Maitreya Bodhisattva; however, traditions and basic iconography (including an image of
Amitābha Buddha on the front of the crown) identify Nātha as Avalokiteśvara. Andrew Skilton
writes:
... It is clear from sculptural evidence alone that the Mahāyāna was fairly widespread throughout
[Sri Lanka], although the modern account of the history of Buddhism on the island presents an
unbroken and pure lineage of Theravāda. (One can only assume that similar trends were
transmitted to other parts of Southeast Asia with Sri Lankan ordination lineages.) Relics of an
extensive cult of Avalokiteśvara can be seen in the present-day figure of Nātha.
Avalokiteśvara is popularly worshiped in Myanmar, where he is called Lokanat or
lokabyuharnat, and Thailand, where he is called Lokesvara. The bodhisattva goes by many other
names. In Indochina and Thailand, he is Lokesvara, "The Lord of the World." In Tibet he
is Chenrezig, also spelled Spyan-ras gzigs, "With a Pitying Look." In China, the bodhisattva
takes a female form and is called Guanyin (also spelled Kwan Yin, Kuanyin or Kwun Yum),
"Hearing the Sounds of the World." In Japan, Guanyin is Kannon or Kanzeon; in Korea, Gwan-
eum; in Vietnam, Quan Am.

Wood carving of Lokanat at Shwenandaw Monastery, Mandalay, Burma

Modern scholarship
Avalokiteśvara is worshipped as Nātha in Sri Lanka. Tamil Buddhist tradition developed
in Chola literature, such as in Buddamitra's Virasoliyam , states that
the Vedic sage Agastya learnt Tamil from Avalokiteśvara. The earlier Chinese
traveler Xuanzang recorded a temple dedicated to Avalokitesvara in the South Indian Mount
Potalaka, a Sanskritzation of Pothigai, where Tamil Hindu tradition places Agastya having learnt

117
the Tamil language from Shiva. Avalokitesvara worship gained popularity with the growth of
the Abhayagiri vihāra's Tamraparniyan Mahayana sect.

Pothigai Malai in Tamil Nadu, proposed as the original Mount Potalaka in India

Western scholars have not reached a consensus on the origin of the reverence for Avalokiteśvara.
Some have suggested that Avalokiteśvara, along with many other supernatural beings in
Buddhism, was a borrowing or absorption by Mahayana Buddhism of one or more deities
from Hinduism, in particular Shiva or Vishnu. This seems to be based on the name
Avalokiteśvara.
On the basis of study of Buddhist scriptures, ancient Tamil literary sources, as well as field
survey, the Japanese scholar Shu Hikosaka proposes the hypothesis that, the ancient mount
Potalaka, the residence of Avalokiteśvara described in the Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra and
Xuanzang’s Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, is the real
mountain Pothigai in Ambasamudram, Tirunelveli, Tamil NaduKeralaborder. Shu also says that
mount Potalaka has been a sacred place for the people of South India from time immemorial. It is
the traditional residence of Siddhar Agastya, at Agastya Mala. With the spread of Buddhism in
the region beginning at the time of the great king Aśoka in the third century BCE, it became a
holy place also for Buddhists, who gradually became dominant as a number of their hermits
settled there. The local people, though, mainly remained followers of the Tamil Animist religion.
The mixed Tamil-Buddhist cult culminated in the formation of the figure of Avalokiteśvara.
The name Lokeśvara should not be confused with that of Lokeśvararāja, the Buddha under
whom Dharmakara became a monk and made forty-eight vows before becoming Amitābha.
.

Mahāyāna Buddhism relates Avalokiteśvara to the six-syllable mantra oṃ maṇi padme

hūṃ. In Tibetan Buddhism, due to his association with this mantra, one form of Avalokiteśvara
is called Ṣaḍākṣarī "Lord of the Six Syllables" in Sanskrit. Recitation of this mantra while
using prayer beads is the most popular religious practice in Tibetan Buddhism. The connection
between this famous mantra and Avalokiteśvara is documented for the first time in
the Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra. This text is dated to around the late 4th century CE to the early 5th
century CE. In this sūtra, a bodhisattva is told by the Buddha that recitation of this mantra while
focusing on the sound can lead to the attainment of eight hundred samādhis. The Kāraṇḍavyūha
Sūtra also features the first appearance of the dhāraṇī of Cundī, which occurs at the end of the
sūtra text. After the bodhisattva finally attains samādhi with the mantra "oṃ maṇipadme hūṃ",

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he is able to observe 77 koṭīs of fully enlightened buddhas replying to him in one voice with the
Cundī Dhāraṇī: namaḥ saptānāṃ samyaksaṃbuddha koṭīnāṃ tadyathā, oṃ cale cule cunde
svāhā.[
Another mantra for Avalokiteśvara commonly recited in East Asian Buddhism is Om Arolik
Svaha. In Chinese, it is pronounced Ǎn ālǔlēi jì suōpóhē . In Korean, it is pronounced Om
aroreuk Ge Sabaha . In Japanese, it is pronounced On arori kya sowa ka .
The Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī is an 82-syllable dhāraṇī for Avalokiteśvara.

1000 armed Avalokiteśvara - One prominent Buddhist story tells of Avalokiteśvara vowing
never to rest until he had freed all sentient beings from saṃsāra. Despite strenuous effort, he
realizes that many unhappy beings were yet to be saved. After struggling to comprehend the
needs of so many, his head splits into eleven pieces. Amitābha, seeing his plight, gives him
eleven heads with which to hear the cries of the suffering. Upon hearing these cries and
comprehending them, Avalokiteśvara tries to reach out to all those who needed aid, but found
that his two arms shattered into pieces. Once more, Amitābha comes to his aid and invests him
with a thousand arms with which to aid the suffering multitudes.
The Bao'en Temple located in northwestern Sichuan has an outstanding wooden image of the
Thousand-Armed Avalokiteśvara, an example of Ming dynasty decorative sculpture.

Sanskrit Meaning Description

Āryāvalokiteśvara Sacred Avalokitesvara The root form of the Bodhisattva

Additional faces to teach all in 10

Ekādaśamukha Eleven Faced
planes of existence

Sahasrabhuja Thousand-Armed, Thousand- Very popular form: sees and helps

Sahasranetra Eyed Avalokitesvara all

Wish Fulfilling Holds the wish-fulfilling jewel

Cintāmaṇicakra
Avalokitesvara (cintamani) and the wheel (Chakra)

Wrathful form; simultaneously

Hayagrīva Horse-necked one
bodhisattva and a Wisdom King

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Cundī Extreme purity Portrayed with many arms

Amoghapāśa Unfailing Rope Avalokitesvara with rope and net

Bhṛkuti Fierce-Eyed

Pāndaravāsinī White and Pure

Parṇaśavarī Parṇaśabarī Cloaked With Leaves

Raktaṣadakṣarī Six Red Syllables

Śvetabhagavatī White Lord

Udakaśrī Auspicious Water

2. Cambodian statue of Avalokiteśvara. Sandstone, 7th century CE.

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 3. Avalokiteśvara sandstone statue, late 7th century CE.
4. Thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara. Guanyin women's vihara, Anhui, China

Avalokiteśvara at the Banteay Chhmar : This is a kummune (khum) in Thma Puok

District in Banteay Meanchey province in northwest Cambodia. It is located 63 km north of
Sisophon and about 20 km east of the Thai border. The commune of Banteay Chhmar contains
14 villages.The massive temple of Banteay Chhmar, along with its satellite shrines and reservoir
(baray), comprises one of the most important and least understood archaeological complexes
from Cambodia's Angkor period.

A prince battles a demon (north section of west gallery, third enclosure wall)

Like Angkor Thom, the temple of Banteay Chhmar was accomplished during the reign
of Jayavarman VII in the late 12th or early 13th century. One of the temple's shrines once held an
image of Srindrakumararajaputra (the crown prince), a son of Jayavarman VII who died before
him. The temple doors record Yasovarman I's failed invasion of Champa.
The long Old Khmer inscription found at the site (K.227), and now on display in the National
Museum, Phnom Penh, relates how Prince Srindrakumara was protected on two occasions by
four companions in arms, once against Rahu, and once on a military campaign against Champa.
Their four statues, with one of the prince, was placed in the central chapel.
Another bas-relief states Yasovarman II was attacked by Rahu, but "saved by a young prince”.
The complex resembles Angkor Thom and other structures attributed to Jayavarman VII. It is
one of two sites outside Angkor with the enigmatic face-towers. Besides that, its outer gallery is
carved with bas-reliefs depicting military engagements and daily life scenes very similar to the
well-known ones in Bayon.
The complex is oriented to the east, where there's a dried baray (about 1.6 by 0.8 km), which had
a temple on an artificial island (mebon) in its centre. There are three enclosures, as typical. The

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external one, largely ruined, was 1.9 by 1.7 km and surrounded by a moat. The middle enclosure,
provided with a moat too, is 850 by 800 m. It contains the main temple, surrounded by a gallery
with reliefs 250 by 200 m which constitutes the third inner enclosure.[
Besides the main temple and the mebon there are other eight secondary temples. Four stelae
detailing Jayavarman VII's genealogy were placed (though they remain unfinished) at each of the
four corners of the third enclosure wall, mirroring the stelae that occupied the four corner-shrines
(Prasat Chrung) of the king's capital at Angkor Thom.

sculpted walls from Banteay Chhmar : Cambodian temple wall carved with a bas-relief
sculpture of the 10-armed Buddhist Bodhisattva of Compassion, Lokeshvara.The 12th-century
wall, standing 9 feet high and 10.5 feet wide, most likely depicts Lokeshvara offering
redemption to the souls of Khmer warriors who died in wars against the neighboring Cham
people of present-day South Vietnam, said Sonya Rhie Mace, the museum's curator of Indian
and Southeast Asian art.The section of the wall was transported to Cleaveland and shown at
the museum there. This is part of a 1,738-foot-long enclosure that surrounded the sacred inner
precinct of a massive temple complex that covers 1.7 square miles now choked with jungle
and brush.

Made of numerous stacked blocks of light gray sandstone the wall, partially eroded in areas,
shows signs of having been exposed to the elements for centuries, along with scars and nicks
from rougher handling more recently. Digital photographic reconstruction of the sacred
enclosure, most of which deals with images of war and conquest during the reign of Khmer
Emperor Jayavarman VII from 1181 to 1218 withn the segment on view in Cleveland
occupied a climactic position at the West exit from the Temple, a direction that gestured
toward the Buddhist Western Paradise, a mystical realm of rebirth.

Redeeming warriors' souls

Within that context, the wall appears to deal with the problem of redeeming the souls of
warriors who fought for an empire whose official faith at the time was Buddhism, which
preaches nonviolence.Lokeshvara, the 10-armed bodhisattva of compassion, was the
answer.The wall shows Lokeshvarastanding proudly on a lotus blossom representing the
Khmer people while at his feet are "suffering wretched, abject individuals, The souls of the
fallen heroes, through worship of Lokeshvara, can be redeemed; also on view in the wall are
ranks of defeated Cham soldiers, depicted in postures of submission.

Arrayed on either side of Lokeshvara are rows of nobles or gods who smile or wear somber
expressions perhaps more appropriate to the occasion of saving souls.

Sacred symbols
In his 10 hands, Lokeshvara holds symbolic implements including an elephant goad, lotus
blossoms, a bottle with the elixir of immortality and the vajra, a lightning bolt said to have
been adapted from the weapon of Zeus, the Greek god introduced to the East during the 4 th-
century BC conquests of Alexander the Great.
Flying figures over Lokeshvara's head scatter flowers and garlands that rain down on him.

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123
Section on view in Cleveland Bas-Relief with Ten-Armed Lokeshvara, c. 1200. Northwestern
Cambodia, Banteay Chhmar, reign of Jayavarman VII. Sandstone; 53 blocks; total section
averaging 275 x 325 x 22 cm. National Museum of Cambodia, Phnom Penh, Ka.2859. Photo: ©
The Cleveland Museum of Art, Howard Agriesti

At the end of the 1100s in the country now called Cambodia, a triumphant king named
Jayavarman VII built a massive temple far to the northwest of Angkor, the centuries-old capital
of the Khmer Empire. Known as Banteay Chhmar, the ruler’s “Second Citadel” covered about
1.7 square miles and served as a ritual and administrative center in his newly reimagined
kingdom. Jayavarman VII (r. 1181–1218) used military might to expand the Khmer Empire to its
greatest extent ever. He consolidated the territories through an unprecedented building program
of temples and hospitals. In the latter, survivors of the wars were healed; in the former, the dead
were redeemed and their spirits venerated to ensure the prosperity and protection of the realm.

Eight hundred years after the death of Jayavarman VII, an extraordinary, climactic section of the
temple at Banteay Chhmar is now on view at the Cleveland Museum of Art. The nine-foot-tall
by twelve-foot-wide, four-and-a-half-ton bas-relief sculpture depicts the bodhisattva of
compassion in his form as the ten-armed Lokeshvara (also known as Avalokiteshvara, Guanyin,
or Kannon), “Lord of the World.”

Bas-relief sculptures rank among the especial glories of Cambodian art from the reign of
Jayavarman VII. Unlike those from earlier periods, the bas-reliefs of this king mainly depict
historical and idealized episodes from his reign, including rituals, festivals, and victorious
battles. The ten-armed Lokeshvara is one of eight manifestations of the bodhisattva of
compassion that Jayavarman VII, his army, queen Jayarajadevi, heir Prince Vidyanandana, and
extended family members traveled to in procession, following the distribution of alms to the
populace.

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Southern half of the west wall c. 1200. Banteay Chhmar. Sandstone. Photographs by Léon de
Beylié (1909), George Goloubew (1921), and Luc Ionesco (1965). © École française d’Extrême-
Orient; digital photomontage by Olivier Cunin (2012)

The series of eight Lokeshvaras of Banteay Chhmar is unique not only in the surviving corpus
of Cambodian art, but also apparently anywhere in the Buddhist world. They are the culminating
images of the staggering 1,765 running feet of bas-relief sculptures at Banteay Chhmar. Carved
on the west side of the wall that surrounds the sacred precinct of the temple, demarcating it from
the outside world, they face the direction of Buddhism’s Western Paradise, opposite the temple
entrance. Ten-armed Lokeshvara, featured in the exhibition at Cleveland, stands among smaller
figures who pay him homage and imagery that proclaims his superiority over all other gods. He
is depicted as having the power to deliver souls from suffering.

Also on view are highlights from the CMA collection of works of Khmer art dating to the reign
of Jayavarman VII. A three-dimensional sandstone head of a Deva gives a clear sense of how the
relief figure from Banteay Chhmar was conceived in the round. An important bronze icon of the
Buddha seated under the bodhi tree was used to transport the presence of a sacred image from
one temple to another around the realm. The exhibition includes ritual objects, statues, and
fittings from royal thrones or palanquins. Spectacular photography of the temple site taken by
Jaroslav Poncar and digital reconstructions by archaeological architect Olivier Cunin create a
transportive experience for visitors.

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Map of peninsular Southeast Asia with distribution of temples established by Jayavarman VII.
© Olivier Cunin. Inset: Archaeological reconstruction of the main temple complex at Banteay
Chhmar. © Olivier Cunin, 2013

Banteay Chhmar’s location was so remote that after the demise of the Khmer Empire in the mid-
1400s, it escaped occupation and alteration by followers of other religions, and thus stands as an
important document of Buddhist art and religion during Cambodia’s Angkorian period. Its
remoteness, however, contributed to its natural collapse from a lack of maintenance, and made it
vulnerable to looting. In 1998 four of the eight Lokeshvaras were forcibly removed from their
places in the surrounding wall at Banteay Chhmar. Two of them remain in undisclosed locations,
and two were seized at the border with Thailand and subsequently transported to the National
Museum of Cambodia in Phnom Penh.

In 2015 the National Museum of Cambodia forged a Cultural Cooperation Agreement with the
Cleveland Museum of Art, following the transfer of a tenth-century sculpture of Hanuman from
Cleveland to Cambodia. The agreement allowed for exceptional works of art to be lent for
exhibition at the CMA in order to promote knowledge and appreciation of Cambodia’s cultural
heritage. As a result, our visitors have the unprecedented opportunity to see the ten-armed
Lokeshvara from the temple of Jayavarman VII.

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Portable icon of Shakyamuni Buddha in the Earth-touching gesture late 1100s–early 1200s.
Cambodia,reign of Jayavarman VII. Bronze; h. 42 cm. The Cleveland Museum of Art, Andrew
R. and Martha Holden Jennings Fund, 1964.9 Cleveland Art, November/December 2017

REFERENCE

Green, P. S. E. (2014). The Many Faces of Lokeśvara: Tantric Connections in Cambodia and Campā
between the Tenth and Thirteenth Centuries. History of Religions, 54(1), 69–93.
https://doi.org/10.1086/676513

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 CHAPTER V
Jain Idoletry
Very recently, a discussion on the true representation of a Tirthankar through an idol
raised many questions which I thought needed answers. Therefore, with an intent to
create more awareness on the history and evolution of idolatry in Jainism, I am
writing this article to share some of the common/ uncommon questions, which had
been asked to me in the past with respect to Jain iconography in an easy to
understand Q&A format. Readers can also share their observations in the comments
section and can also ask more questions which I will try to answer to best of my
knowledge using references from ancient texts/ modern research.

A. Worship is an act of reverence of giving or acknowledging worth to

something/someone beyond yourself. A layperson’s subconscious mind is not that
developed that only through meditation he/she can achieve spirituality – The person
needs “आलम्बन”, i.e. support and a foundation which can be found through a physical
representation of the Tirthankar – i.e. the idol.

An idol is a physical object placed in veneration to the highest soul and helps a person
to focus thoughts and channelize them in the direction of the Tirthankar and his
attributes. Worshipping an idol of the Tirthankar, therefore provides the individual
with a discipline that helps them concentrate on the ideals, and cultivate detachment.
The worshipper thus, concentrates on the virtues of the Tirthankars in order to help
them follow their example. According to Jain scriptures, the worshipper does not
worship the Tirthankar through the idol; instead the worshipper engages in a form of
reflexive meditation. By gazing upon the idol as a three dimensional symbol of
spiritual perfection, the worshipper reflects upon his or her imperfections, thereby
striving to reduce or eliminate the same. Some of the benefits of idol worship listed in
the scriptures are as below –

 It improves the spiritual state of the worshipper by providing a focus for

spiritual activity.

 It reminds the worshipper of the life-example they want to follow thereby

destroying the bad karma attached to the soul.

 It acknowledges the worshipper's own inherent divinity.

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Bronze idol of a Tirthankar, 10th century AD, Cleveland Museum of Art
A 11th century idol of a Tirthankar, Solanki Period, Metropolitan Museum of Art, USA

The 12 main canons (scriptures) composed by Lord Mahavir's ‘Gandhar’s’ (chief

disciples) are known as “Ang-Agams” (~5th Century BC). Out of the 12 Ang-Agams, 11
are available today (the 12th Ang Agam- Drashtivad, being extinct). These scriptures
form the core of Jainism. These Agams are dotted with words like – Jincheiya (Temple)
and Jinpadima (idol of a Jina, i.e. Tirthankar) etc.

The second Agam, Suyagdang (Sutrakrutang) states that Abhaykumar gifted an idol
of a Tirthankar to Ardrakumar through which he remembered his past lives and
attained true knowledge– “पीत्तीय दोणह दु ओ, पु च्छणमभयस्स पत्थवे सोउ, तेणावव सम्मवदविवत्त
होज्ज पविमारहं वम गया”

The first Mul-sutra, Uttaradhyayan Sutra describes Gautam Swami’s (Lord Mahavir’s
chief disclipe) journey to Mount Ashtapad (where the 1st Tirthankar attained
liberation). Its Niryukti (which furnishes the etymological interpretation of the
canonical terminology) clearly states that Gautam Swami worshipped the idols of the
Tirthankars (on Ashtapad) - "पविमाओं वं दइ वजणाणं"

Further, there are various other references of idol worship in the 3rd Agam- Sthanang

Sutra (worship of the idols of 4 immortal Tirthankars –Rushabh, Chandranan,

Varishen, Vardhaman), 4th Agam - Samavayang Sutra (52 Jinalay), 5th Agam -
Bhagvati Sutra (Idols of Tirthankars at Nandishvar Dvip), 6th Agam - Gnatadharm
katha (Worship of Tirthankar idol by Draupadi), 9th Agam - Anuttaropapatik
Dashang Sutra (description of a Jain temple), 1st Upang Agam- Aupapatik
Sutra (Worship of Tirthankar idol by Aband Sanyasi), 2nd Upang Agam - Rayapaseni
(Rajprashniya) Sutra (Worship of Tirthankar idol by Suryabh Dev), 3rd Upang Agam-
Jivabhigam Sutra (Worship of Tirthankar idol by Vijay Dev) etc.

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physical representation of a Tirthankar
One of the earliest physical descriptions of a Tirthankar occurs in an Upang Agam
(The scriptures which provide further explanation to the Ang-Agams are called Upang-
Agams) named Aupapatik Sutra which is an Upang-agam for the 1st Ang Agam,
Acharang Sutra. According to the scripture-
 The Tirthankar is exceedingly tall and his body is perfectly proportioned.
 The arrangement of his bones is of a rare type, affording him the extraordinary
strength required for him to endure all sorts of attacks, supernatural, natural
and man-made, and to practice the extreme austerities required to burn off his
karma.
 Unlike us, his digestion is always perfect and he never suffers from gas or
diarrhea, and like a bird he can digest anything, even stones.
 He has perfect teeth and his shoulders are broad
 His chest is marked with the Srivats sign which signifies that the highest
knowledge is manifested itself from the heart of the Tirthankar.
 He has a charming line of hair on his belly and his genitals are concealed, like
those of a fine stallion.
 The bottoms of his feet are red like a lotus and soft, like its leaves.
 Every limb of the Tirthankar is radiant with light.

Ancient idol of Lord Mahavir, Kshatriyakund, Bihar believed to be an accurate representation of Lord
Mahavir as it was installed by Nandivardhan (Lord's brother) in 5 BC. However, historians have dated it to
the Pala Era (~10 AD) A modern idol of Shri Adinath Bhagwan

Further, Kalikalsarvagna Acharya Hemchandra writes the following physical

description of the lord in his work, Trishashtishalakapurushcharitra (11th century AD)-

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 The feet of the Lord are soft, red, like the inside of a lotus, warm, firm, free from
perspiration, with smooth soles. The conch and the pitcher signs shine on the
soles, and the svastika mark is seen on the heels of the Master’s feet.

 Fleshy, round, high and like a serpent’s hood, the great toe of the Master is
marked with srivatsas. The Lord’s toes are like the flame of a lamp, motionless,
steady, shining, touching each other, straight like petals of a foot-
lotus. Nandyavartas shine on the soles of the feet and toes of the Lord. Like a
bulb of the lotus, the heel is rounded, long and broad; while its nails resemble
the hood-jewels of the serpents.

 The upper part of the Lord’s feet is gradually arched like a tortoise; the veins
are invisible and the smooth skin is free from hair. The Lord’s lower legs are
fair, resembling the legs of deer, strong, adorned with flesh covering the bones.

 The Master’s knees, round, covered with flesh, give the appearance of a soft
pillow embellished with beautiful mirrors. His thighs, soft, smooth are gradually
filled out. His loins are long, fleshy, thick, broad and firm. His waist resembles
the middle of a thunderbolt in its slenderness.

 A deep navel gives the impression of a whirlpool in a river; the abdomen is

smooth, fleshy, and soft.

 The breast, broad as a slab of gold, is marked with the jeweled background of
the Srivats. Firm, massive, the high shoulders resemble the hump of a bull;

 The armpits of the Lord have little curved hair, free from the odor of
perspiration and dirt. Massive arms hang down to the knees. The Lord’s palms
are reddish like a young mango-shoot, not hard, neither perspiring, with warm
fingers touching each other.

 Like the feet, the hands are marked with auspicious symbols like rod, disc,
bow, pair of fish, srivatsa’s, thunderbolt, goad, banner, lotus, chauri, umbrella,
conch, pitcher, Ocean, Mandara, makara, bull, lion, horse, chariot, svastika,
sky elephant etc.

 The thumb and fingers are red, straight, like shoots from
a Kalpavriksha (wishing-tree, adorned with rubies on the ends).

 Round, not too long, purified by three lines, having a deep voice, the neck of the
Lord is like a conch.

 Fair, round, with waves of light the Lord’s face is like another moon, free from
spots. Soft, fleshy, smooth, the broad cheeks of the Lord are like golden
mirrors. The ears are like pearl-oysters on the bank of the Sindhu river.

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  The lips are like bimba-fruit; the teeth are like thirty-two jasmine-flowers; the
Supreme Lord’s nose gradually widens, with a gradually arched bridge. Neither
small nor large, his chin is fleshy, round and soft;

 The Protector’s beard is dark, thick, glossy, soft. The Lord’s tongue, begetting
the contents of the scriptures having twelve angas, is not too thick, soft,
reddish, like the young shoot of a kalpa-tree.

 His eyes are white with black in the center, red at the ends, as if they have
insets of sapphire, crystal and rubies. They reach to the ears, their eyelashes
black, wide-open, like blossoming lotuses filled with clusters of bees. The dark,
curved eyebrows of the Lord have the beauty of a creeper that appears on the
shore of the lotus-pond.

 The Lord’s forehead is broad, fleshy, round, firm, soft and smooth, like the
moon on the eighth day of the month. The Master’s head, gradually arched,
rivals in appearance of an umbrella with its face turned downwards.

 The hair on the Lord’s head shines, black as bees, curled, soft, glossy, like the
waves of the Yamuna. His skin, fair as Goru Chandan (sandal), smooth and
clear, shines on the body as if it is anointed with melted gold.

 The hair on the Master’s body is soft, dark as bees, having an unique source
(i.e., his body), fine as lotus-fiber. The Lord marked with these various
remarkable signs is like an Ocean with jewels!

Q. On the basis of which scriptures are the idols sculpted/ designed?

A. Idols of Jain Tirthankars are designed and sculpted based on the guidelines
provided in scriptures like – Jaysamhita, Jinpratima Vidhan, Shodashak
Prakaran, Vastu-sar, Aparajit Pruchcha, Bruhat-Samhita, Pratimaman
Lakshan, Navtal Murti Vidhan, Kalyan-Kalika and Samrangan Sutradhar. As
per these scriptures, some of the examples have been given that enable a sculptor to
carve an idol-

Face: The face should either be contoured on the shape of an egg (showcases the
dignity of the Tirthankar) or like an inverted betel leaf (showcases the peaceful
attributes of the Tirthankar)

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 Representation of the face

Eyes: The eyes should be carved either like a (1) lotus petal, (2) Thin leaf (3) the body
(shape )of a pigeon (4) eyes of a deer, (5) un-bloomed lotus bud and (6) body (shape) of
a fish

Nose: The nose should be shaped either like (1) the seed of the sesame plant, (2) the
beak of a parrot, (3) seed of Long bean

Representation of eyes

Representation of nose

Chin: The chin should resemble a mango seed

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 Representation of chin

Neck: The neck should be carved like the upper portion of a conch shell

Representation of neck

Chest & Waist: The chest should resemble like the chest of a lion or the face of a cow.

Representation of the chest and waist

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Shoulders: The shoulder should resemble the trunk of an elephant

Representation of the shoulder

Fingers: The fingers should resemble the pea pods and the nails should be carved
resembling the pointed bud of a flower.

Representation of fingers

Head and Hair : The hair represented should be thick, deep black in colour and
curled resembling a spring, preferably with an elevated head with top knotted hair
known as “Unnat Mastak Shikha”. Most of the ancient idols had this feature;
however, due to lack of knowledge in the later years artisans have started carving a
few beaded lines on a round head representing hair which is a wrong practice.

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 The Unnat-Mastak-Shikha (representation of the head and hair)

Curled hair resembling a spring, Gommateshwara-Bahubali, Shravanbelagola,

Karnataka

An idol depicting the wrong practice of representing hairs like a line of beads (which is
followed currently)

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Q. How ancient is this practice of Idol Worship? How did the iconography
evolve?

A. While there are newer studies that showcase the fact that some of the idols found
in the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization (3000 BC) are of Jain Tirthankars,
there is no conclusive evidence to assign the same. Possible idols of Lord Adinath and
other Tirthankars in Karyotsarg mudra have been excavated from this period.

Possible idols of Jain Tirthankars from the Indus Valley Civilization

The earliest proven archaeological evidence of icon worship in Jainism could be traced
to a 3000-year-old stupa from Mathura (8th Century BC) which was excavated in
1871. Known as Kankali Tila Stupa, the excavations revealed numerous Jain
sculptures, Ayagapattas (tablets of homage), pillars, crossbeams and lintels. While
most idols of Jain Tirthankars could be dated from the 2nd century BC to the
12th century CE, the clay and bricks used in the Stupa date back to 8th Century
BC, i.e. to the time of the 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath which prove that Stupa
worship was prevalent 3000 years ago. As per literary evidences, it is said that
this stupa was visited by Lord Parshwanath who paid his respects to the 7th
Tirthankar Shri Suparshwanath Bhagwan.

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 Stupa worship in ancient era depicted from archaeological remains from Mathura
The 3000 year ancient stupa of Mathura represented on an Ayagapatta

As per various ancient texts, a structure constructed at a funeral place in the memory
of holy persons is known as a Stupa. The earliest reference of stupa occurs in the first
Agam, Acharang-Sutra in union with ‘Kadarh’ and 'Chaitya' i.e. Chaitya-Kadarh -
Stupa. In Sanskrit, the meanings of the word ‘kadarh’ stands for a heap whereas
‘chaitya’ means: a heap of stones, a monument, a funeral place, adoration place, a
shrine, a place where images are installed etc.
The 7th Upang Agam, Jambudvip Pragnapti encouraged building Chaitya-
stupas made of precious stones and precious metals as memorial structures for the
Tirthankars as noted from the following line– “सव्वरयणामए महए महालए तउ चेइय भूमे
करे इ”

Various commentaries of Jain Agams (Vasudevahindi, Avashyakachurni,

Avashyakavritti) mention the practice of installing the idol of Jivantswami which
represents the Lord in his princely state, with a crown and ornaments.
The Trishashtishalakapurushcharita by Acharya Hemachandra states that before
the diksha of Lord Mahavir, a sandalwood idol depicting the Lord in his
Rajyavastha (princely state) was created by the demi-god Vidyunmali. This idol was
worshipped by the queen of Udayan and was installed at Vidisha, but was eventually
lost.

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Idols of Jivantswami (Left: 5th/ 6th century AD from Akota, currently Baroda Museum; Right: Modern
representation at Basukund Digambar Jain Temple, Bihar )

The Hathigumpha inscription (2nd Century BC) from Udayagiri, Orissa which was
inscribed by Kharavela, the then Emperor of Kalinga (Modern Orissa) tells the story of
the idol of ‘Kalinga Jin’. As per the inscription, an idol of Lord Adinath was revered
and worshipped as 'Kalinga Jin' in the region of Kalinga. It was taken away by
Mahapadma Nanda when he conquered Kalinga and he brought the idol to his capital
in Magadh in 4th Century BC. However, in the 2nd century BC Emperor Kharvela
conquered Magadha and brought the idol back and installed it in Udaygiri, near his
capital, Shishupalgarh.

Hathigumpha Inscription, Udaygiri, Orissa

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The evolution of idol sculpting can be studied on various historical era’s-

Pre Nanda- Era (before 5th Century BC) - Based on archaeological evidences, it has
been found that idol-worship in Jainism was preceded by worship of symbols.
Representations of the Tirthankars usually occurred on architectural objects
like Stupas and Ayagapatta's. Excavations at Kankali Tila, Mathura revealed that
the Stupa itself was an object of Jain worship apart from the idols.

Head of a Tirthankar, Mathura, 1st century BC

An Ayagapatta dating to 1st century AD///

Nanda Era (5th Century BC to 3rd Century BC)- An ancient scripture

named Titthogalipayanna states that the emperors of the Nanda empire installed 5
Jain stupas in Patliputra. Remains of these stupas were found during recent
excavations.

Mauryan Era (3rd Century BC to 1st Century AD) – It is believed that Chandragupta
Maurya embraced Jainism in 290 BC and migrated to south with Acharya
Bhadrabahu (Shravanbelgola) where he took Sallekhana (voluntary fasting to death).
Since then, Jainism became prevalent in the Southern regions; (However it was not
before 5th/ 6th Century AD that idols started gradually appearing in the those
regions). In the 2nd Century BC, Emperor Samprati embraced Jainism under the
guidance of Acharya Suhastisuri and installed lakhs of idols. Today many idols are
called ‘Samprati-Kalin’ (dating to the era of Samprati) but they look more modern
(dating back to 9th to 10th Century AD) and none of them have any inscriptional proof

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which can link it to Emperor Samprati. Even Acharya Hemratnasurishwarji Maharaja
in his book, Shri Adi-Jin-Bimb-Nirman-Prabandh states that the idols which are
called “Samprati-Kalin” have features of the Gupta era (5th Century AD onwards) and
a closer look on some of these idols have revealed that these were sculpted in the 12th
Century AD. The only idols found which can be assigned to the Mauryan era are-

1. An idol of unknown Tirthankar excavated from Lohanipur (near Patna) in polished

sandstone (famously known as the Mauryan polish), dating back to the 3rd century
BCE ~ 2nd century CE.

2. An idol of Lord Parshwanath (currently at Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai now

known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya) dates back to 1st Century
BC

Idols from the Maurya age

Shrunga (Shunga) Era (2 BC to 1 BC) – The idols from this era were had primitive
features with artistic representation of Dharmachakra, Kalpavruksh etc. Idols of Lord
Adinath were depicted with locks of hair and the depiction of yaksh-yakshini’s had
emerged. 18 Jain bronze idols were excavated from Chausa (Buxar, Bihar) belonging
to this period.

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Idols from the Shrunga era (Chausa Hoard)

Kushan Era (1st Century AD – 3rd Century AD) – Idols installed during this period
were carved with stretched hands in Padmasan mudra and long hands upto knees
in Karyotsarg mudra. No clothes were carved on the idol and support was also not
given at the back. Shoulders were carved with a broad chest depicting a dwarfish look.
The idols of the Tirthankars have open eyes and the eye-balls, too, can be noticed in
some of the idols of this period. Another remarkable feature is the representation of
the dharma-chakra on the palms and both Dharma-Chakra and Tri-Ratna on the soles.
In the earliest seated idols, cross-legging is very loose, but the seated idols of this
period display padmasana or tight cross legging. The heads of the seated idols are
either bald or characterized by small curls. Representation of Bha-Mandal (Halo) was
also a characteristic of this period. Although the depiction of Lanchans was not
present in the Kushan period, the earliest depiction of the Srivats mark on the chest of
the idol of the Tirthankar occurs on an idol dating back to 1st Century AD. The idols
of Tirthankars flanked by their respective yaksh and yakshinis were also depicted
during the period. During this period, the artisans started
developing Chaturmukhi sculptures as well.

A principal characteristic of the idols is their nudity. Except for a few sculptures, all
idols of Tirthankars do not have any carvings of clothes/ are completely nude which
give an impression that they were installed by the Digambar sect. However, it has been
found that these idols have been installed by the monks belonging to the Shwetambar
sects as their names and monastic orders match exactly with the Kalpastura. Scholars
have opined that the difference between the idols in respect of drapery and nudity did
not exist in the Kusana period.

Another interesting aspect of the depiction of monks in the idols excavated. It was
found that the monks during that period did not practice complete nudity and are

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partially clad with a broad piece of cloth known as the “Cholpatta” draped over the left
forearms. This practice is also shown in the Acharang Sutra of the Shwetambar sect.
The monks are shown holding their distinctive piece of cloth in front of their bodies so
as to cover their genitals. These monks also appear to carry muhpatti (small cloth
used to cover the mouth during speech), Rajoharan (sacred whisk brooms) and Patras
(alms bowl for collection of food). In inscriptions carved on these idols these monks are
called “nirgranthas” (which means free from all bonds) - the name which was used for
Jainism followers in the ancient era. Although Archaeologists and historians call these
monks as “Ardhapalaka’s”, some scholars believe these monks practiced what was
known as “Alp-Chelakya”. This practice is in line with Shwetambar Jain scriptures like
Acharang Sutra (5th century BC).

Some scholars have opined that these idols depicted the Ailaks and Kshullaks of the
Digambar tradition; However, their titles on their pedestals clearly show that they were
Munis and Acharyas of Shwetambar Gaccha's-Kula-Gana-Shakha's. In one of the idols
it has been seen that a fully clothed Shwetambar monk is depicted together with the
Ardhaphalakas. This suggests that by the mid to late Kushan Period, the monks
started to wear complete clothes then partially covering nudity.

Idols from the Kusana era

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Idols of Shwetambar/ Ardhapalak monks appearing on the pedestals/ idols of
Tirthankars (whose names of the monastic orders match with the Shwetambar
Kalpasutra) with Cholpatta's, Patra's and Rajoharan. These monks had installed idols
of Tirthankars without clothes. Mathura- Kushan era, 1st to 3rd century AD

Gupta Era (3rd Century AD – 6th Century AD) –The sculptures of the Gupta period
show that Lanchans of the various Tirthankars did not evolve even in the Gupta
period. The idols were recognised on the basis of inscriptions, hair styles, yaksh-
yakshini attendants and serpent canopy. The seats on which the idols were depicted in
the pre-Gupta figures were plain. The character of the seat of the idol changed in the
Gupta period. The throne of the idol was supported by a pair of lions. The cushion
often bore ornamental patterns and profusely decorated back rests were also depicted.
The practice of Ayagapattas was discontinued during the period.

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Idols from Gupta era

Post Gupta Period (650 AD onwards) – The Lanchans of the 24 Tirthankars evolved
in the 7th -9th Century AD and this development gave a new shape to the idols.
Attendant Yaksha and Yakshinis, Vidhyadhars, Ashtapratiharya's, 3 Chatras etc.
started appearing along with the idols of the Tirthankars in their background
platforms known as Parikars. Clothed idols of Tirthankars along with Jivantswami
idols started featuring more prominently during the period. During this period Jainism
also flourished in western India.

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7 th Century idols from Tamil Nadu(Left) and Akot( right)

Jain Idols and Iconography in Southern India – It is generally believed that the
southern region was a stronghold of Digambar sect; however, it is not entirely true.
References in literary treatises suggest that the Mauryan emperor Samprati sent
emissaries to the region and even settled some Shwetambar followers in Paithan also
known as Malkhed in Deccan. The penetration of the Shwetambar sect deeper into the
south is attested by an inscription recording the grant of a village made by Kadamba
king Mrigeshvarma in 488 AD. However, post the period the Shwetambar sect declined
in the south.

Although Jainism was present in southern parts of the country from 3rd Century BC,
the only architectural activities from the period of 3rd Century BC to 6th Century AD
were the construction of caves/ natural dwellings for Jain monks. Barring inscriptions
in Brahmi, these caves were devoid of any sculptural embellishment. Due to the surge
of the Bhakti Movement (by Brahmans) in 7th Century AD, the process of installing
idols of Tirthankars and erecting temples was initiated.

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Rock relief sculptures - 8th century AD, Kalugumalai, Tamil Nadu

Post 7th Century AD, hundreds of Jain idols, belonging to the Digambar sect were
installed. Along with Tirthankar idols, images of Bahubali were also featured
prominently; the most famous being the 57 feet high Gommateshwara statue in
Shravanbelagola in Karnataka installed by the Ganga dynasty minister and
commander, Chavundaraya in 983 AD. It is also interesting to note that the process of
ascribing Lanchans in the pedestals of the idols was started in this region only from
the 18th Century.

Idols from southern India - post 10th century AD

Post the 10th Century,the iconography of the Jain idols have more or less remained the
same therefore it is not being discussed.

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Ajitha Jain devotional Image

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 Chapter VII
JAIN ART & Iconography as representing DIVINITY

Jainism

Jainism being a transtheistic religion prescribing non-violence toward all living

beings was originated in the Indian subcontinent in the 6th century BCE. Its
founder Mahavira (c. 540–468 BCE) was born into a royal family but renounced
worldly life to become an ascetic and establish the central tenets of Jainism.

Jainism found favor with the merchant classes and also with several powerful
rulers. Chandragupta Maurya (born c. 340 BCE, ruled c. 320–298 BCE), the
founder of the great Maurya Empire, had succeeded in conquering almost the
entire Indian subcontinent; however he abdicated his throne at the age of 42 to
become a Jain monk. Samprati, also an emperor of the Maurya dynasty and
the grandson of Ashoka the Great (304–232 BCE) also became a Jain. Both
Chandragupta and Samprati were responsible for spreading Jainism in
southern and eastern India.

Jain Architecture

Jainism has played an important influence on the development of architectural

styles in India. Like Buddhists, Jains participated in Indian rock-cut
architecture from a very early date. Remnants of ancient jaina temples and
monasteries temples can be found all around India, and much early Jain
sculpture is reliefs in these. Ellora Caves in Maharashtra, and the Jain temples

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at Dilwara near Mount Abu, Rajasthan. The Jain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan is
a good example of Jain architecture.

Modern and medieval Jains built many Jain temples, especially in western
India. In particular the complex of five Dilwara Temples of the 11th to 13th
centuries at Mount Abu in Rajasthan is a much-visited attraction. The Jain
pilgrimage in Shatrunjay hills near Patilana, Gujarat is called "The city of
Temples". Both of these complexes use the style of Solanki or Māru-Gurjara
architecture, which developed in west India in the 10th century in both Hindu
and Jain temples, but became especially popular with Jain patrons, who kept
it in use and spread it to some other parts of India. It continues to be used in
Jain temples, now across the world, and has recently revived in popularity for
Hindu temples.

Palitana Jain Temples-------------------------------------------------Ellora caves

A Jain temple or Derasar is the place of worship for Jains, the followers
of Jainism. Jain architecture is essentially restricted to temples and
monasteries, and secular Jain buildings generally reflect the prevailing style of
the place and time they were built. Derasar is a word used for a Jain temple in
Gujarat and southern Rajasthan. Basadi is a Jain shrine or temple in
Karnataka. The word is generally used in South India. Its historical use
in North India is preserved in the names of the Vimala Vasahi and Luna
Vasahi temples of Mount Abu. The Sanskrit word is vasati, it implies an
institution including residences of scholars attached to the shrine.
Temples may be divided into Shikar-bandhi Jain temples, public dedicated
temple buildings, normally with a high superstructure, typically a north
Indian shikhara tower above the shrine) and the Ghar Jain temple, a private

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Jain house shrine. A Jain temple which is known as a pilgrimage centre is
often termed a Tirtha.
The main image of a Jain temple is known as a mula
nayak[ A Manastambha (column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed
in front of Jain temples. It has four 'Moortis' i.e. stone figures of the main god
of that temple. One facing each direction: North, East, South and West.

Modern and medieval Jains built many temples, especially in western India.
The earliest Jain monuments were temples based on the Brahmanical Hindu
temple plan and monasteries for Jain monks. For the most part, artists in
ancient India belonged to non-denominational guilds who were prepared to
lend their services to any patron , whether Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain. Many of
the styles they used were a function of the time and place rather than the
particular religion. Therefore, Jain art from this period is stylistically similar to
Hindu or Buddhist art, although its themes and iconography are specifically
Jain. With some minor variations, the western style of Indian art endured
throughout the 16th century and into the 17th century. The rise in Islam
contributed to the decline of Jain art but did not result in its total elimination.

Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves

Among the earliest Jain monuments are the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves,
located near the city of Bhubaneshwar in Orissa, India. These caves are partly
natural and partly manmade and were carved out as residential blocks for Jain
monks during the reign of King Kharavela of Kalinga (193–170 BCE). The caves
bear inscriptions and sculptural friezes depicting Tirthankaras, elephants,
women, and geese.

The Dilwara Temples

Built under Chalukya rule in Rajasthan between the 11th and 13th centuries
CE, the Dilwara Temple complex consists of five ornately carved marble
temples, each dedicated to a different Tirthankara. The largest temple in the
complex, the Vimal Vasahi Temple, was built in 1021 and is dedicated to the
Tirthankara Rishabha. Among its most remarkable features are the rang
manda, a grand hall supported by 12 pillars and surmounted by a
breathtaking central dome , and the navchowki, a collection of nine rectangular
ceilings, also richly carved. The pillars in the main hall are carved into the
likenesses of women playing musical instruments and the 16 vidyadevis, or
goddesses of knowledge; each holds a symbol representing her individual
branch of learning.

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Domed ceiling detail: This image shows the interior of a richly carved marble
dome in the Dilwara Temple complex representing Jain Tirthankaras.

Jain Sculpture

Jain sculpture is characterized most often by nude representations of saviors

or deities in meditative postures.

 Jain art is stylistically similar to Hindu or Buddhist art, although its

themes and iconography are specifically Jain.
 Common themes in Jain painting and sculpture are the Tirthankaras , or
saviors; the yakshas and yakshinis, or supernatural guardian deities, and
symbols such as the lotus and the swastika, which represent peace and
well-being.
 Ayagapata is a type of votive slab or tablet associated with worship in
Jainism; the slabs are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain
worship such as the stupa , dharmacakra, and triratna.
 The colossal monolithic statue of Bahubali, carved in 981 CE out of a
single block of granite and standing 57 feet high, is one of the most sacred
pilgrimage sites for Jain worshipers.

Themes within Jain Sculpture

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The Two Jain Tirthankaras, British Museum: This sculpture represents two Tirthankaras, or
founders of Jainism. On the left is Rishabha, who was the first of the 24 tirthankaras. On the
right is Mahavira, the last of those 24, who consolidated and reformed the religious and
philosophical system. PIC TO RIGHT Indian Pillar at Ellora which is Jain caves reveal specific
dimensions of Jain philosophy and tradition, vintage line drawing or engraving illustration.

For the most part, artists in ancient India belonged to non-denominational

guilds who were prepared to lend their services to any patron , whether Hindu,
Buddhist, or Jain. Many of the styles they used were a function of the time and
place rather than the particular religion. Therefore, Jain art from this period is
stylistically similar to Hindu or Buddhist art, although its themes and
iconography are specifically Jain. With some minor variations, the western
style of Indian art endured throughout the 16th century and into the 17th
century. The rise in Islam contributed to the decline of Jain art but did not
result in its total elimination.

Jain iconography mostly has a sage in sitting or standing meditative posture

without any clothes. Popular themes and icons in Jain art include
the Tirthankaras (Jain saviors, or human beings who achieved the ultimate

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spiritual salvation and served as role models for
society), yakshas and yakshinis (supernatural male and female guardian
deities), and holy symbols such as the lotus and the swastika, which
symbolized peace and well-being.

Figures on various seals from the Indus Valley Civilization are similar to Jain
images: nude and in a meditative posture. The earliest known Jain image is in
the Patna museum, dated approximately to the 3rd century BCE. Bronze
images of the 23rd Tirthankara, Pārśva, can be seen in the Prince of Wales
Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the 2nd
century BCE. A sandalwood sculpture of Mahāvīra was carved during his
lifetime, according to tradition. Later the practice of making images of wood
was abandoned, with other materials being substituted.

Ayagapata

Ayagapata is a type of votive slab or tablet associated with worship in Jainism.

Many of these stone tablets, some dating back to the 1st century CE, were
discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites such as Kankali Tila near
Mathura , India. These slabs are decorated with objects and designs central to
Jain worship such as the stupa, dharmacakra, and triratna, and were often
used as offerings or for worship.

The Statue of Bahubali

A colossal monolithic statue of Bahubali at Shravanbelagola, the Jain siddha

(one who has attained spiritual salvation), is located in Karnataka in southern
India. This statue is one of the most sacred pilgrimage sites for Jain
worshipers. The statue was carved in 981 CE out of a single block of granite; it
stands 57 feet high and is completely nude, as is customary in the Jain
tradition.

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The statue of Gommateshwara Bahubali: The 57 foot high Gommateshwara
statue at Shravanabelagola, Karnataka, was built in 981 CE.

Jain Illustrated Manuscripts

 Jain illustrated manuscripts were painted on palm leaf and relied on

sharp outlines for effect, becoming progressively more angular and wiry
until barely a trace of naturalism was left.
 The figures are shown in profile, as the full-face view was reserved for the
Jain Tirthankaras . Only a few colors are used, including yellow, green,
blue, black, and red.
 Common themes in Jain painting and sculpture are the Tirthankaras, or
saviors; the yakshas and yakshinis, or supernatural guardian deities, and
symbols such as the lotus and the swastika, which represent peace and
well-being.

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  The earliest illustrations were simple icons in small panels, but they
gradually became more elaborate, depicting scenes from the lives of
various Tirthankaras in detail.
 From the 14th century onward, the increased availability of paper allowed
the production of larger and more elaborate Jain illustrated manuscripts.

Illustrated Manuscripts in the Jain Tradition

A large number of illustrated manuscripts commissioned by members of the

Jain community have survived from between the 1oth and 14th centuries,
representing the Western Indian style of art. Painted on palm leaf, these
illustrations relied on sharp outlines for effect, becoming progressively more
angular and wiry until barely a trace of naturalism is left. The figures are
shown in profile, as the full-face view was reserved for the Jain Tirthankaras. A
common feature of this style is the projection of an eye beyond the face shown
in profile, meant to indicate the second eye, which would not be visible in this
position. Only a few colors are used, including yellow, green, blue, black, and
red. The earliest illustrations were simple icons in small panels, but they
gradually became more elaborate, depicting scenes from the lives of various
Tirthankaras in detail.

Common themes in Jain painting and illustrated manuscript, similar to other

forms of Jain art, include the Tirthankaras (Jain saviors, or human beings who
achieved the ultimate spiritual salvation and served as role models for
society), yakshas and yakshinis (supernatural male and female guardian
deities), and holy symbols such as the lotus and the swastika, which
symbolized peace and well-being.

The Tirthankaras

Most of the Jain paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known
as Panch Kalyanaka, from the life of the Tirthankaras. Rishabha, the first
Tirthankara, is usually depicted in either the lotus position or kayotsarga, the
standing position. He is distinguished from other Tirthankara by the long locks
of hair falling to his shoulders. Incidents of his life, such as his marriage and
Indra marking his forehead, are often depicted in paintings; other paintings
show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers, painting a house, weaving,
and being visited by his mother Marudevi. Each of the 24 Tirthankara is
associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in texts such as
Tiloyapannati, Kahavaali, and Pravacanasaarodhara.

Advances Over Time

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The increased availability of paper from the late 14th century enabled artists to
paint more elaborate illustrations. A 15th century manuscript of Kalpasutra, a
Jain text containing the biographies of the Tirthankaras, is particularly
opulent. The text is written in gold and the margins are illuminated with figural
patterns. Paintings in lavish blue, gold, and red, testifying to the wealth of the
patron , often take up an entire page.

Jain Kalpasutra manuscript: This illustration is from a Jain Kalpasutra

manuscript, 1470—1500 CE. It uses opaque watercolor and gold on paper.
In his book the Monolithic Jinas-The Iconography of the Jain Temples of
Ellora, Jose Pereira says that Jain art dwells heavily on the iconography of its
Sages- more than any other art form . This core of iconography dwells on the
Jina as standing or sitting cross-legged- none of which can embrace the robe in
its context of representation.

A Jaina Motif In Indian & Eastern Architecture

By Mr. S. K. Saraswati

Logically and rationally it is not possible, nor desirable, to classify Indian

architectural styles according to their religious affiliations. At the same time,
however, it cannot be ignored that a few of the Indian religious systems
developed some special forms or types of monuments which may be described
to be distinctively their own For instance, one may cite the stupa and the caitya
shrine each of which, as a form of architecture, is known to have intimate
associations with Buddhists religious beliefs and usages. The Buddhists owed
their inspiration for raising stupas to earlier pre-Buddhist practices. As a form
of memorial the stupa was not known to the Jainas. But it is the Buddhists
who particularly selected and adopted it to their own use and much of the
development and elaboration of the design and form of the monument in

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course of time was, in a large measure, due to Buddhist patronage. It is not
surprising, hence, that as a form of architecture the stupa, had acquired a
special and almost exclusive Buddhist connotation. The caitya shrine is
exclusively Buddhist in inspiration, the design and form being, to a great
extent, determined by the needs and exigencies of that particular belief in the
worship of the caitya which was almost universal in the early days of
Buddhism. With the introduction of the image of the Master and the
occupation of its rightful place in the beliefs and rituals of his followers, the
caitya shrine as a form of monument went out of use, the few experiments, to
utilised it to new usage having proved unsatisfactory and unsuitable.

Jainism is still a living faith in India and Jaina patronage has played a not
insignificant part in the history of Indian art and culture. So far as architecture
is concerned, the Jainas are known to have been responsible for the creation of
important groups of temples in different parts of India, some of which (the
Dilwara group, for instance) are justly regarded as outstanding creation. But
Jainism, or for the matter of that Buddhism or Brahmanism, cannot be said to
have developed a particular style of temple exclusively its own. A survey of
Jaina temples in different parts of India would tend to show that basically and
fundamentally they have affiliations with the style or types prevailing in the
regions and periods in which they were erected. The few Jaina temples in
South India have clear affinities with the Dravida temples style of the south.
The Jaina temples of Khajuraho belong to the Central Indian expression of the
Nagara temple style. The Dilwara temples, as much as other Jaina temples in
the west, are intimately related to the Western movement of the Nagara style. It
would be futile to separate the Jaina temples as a class apart from the
monuments of other creeds. There are minor variations no doubt, due to the
exigencies of the beliefs and rituals of Jainism; but such variations are not

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fundamental enough to affect their basical relation with the styles and types in
regard to time and space.

A distinctive Jaina inconographic motif, however, seems to have been

responsible for inspiring a rate type of Indian temple, a type that may be found
to have significant reverberations in South East Asia. A four-faced image,
usually known as Chaturmaukha or Caumuha, has been a very popular Jaina
iconographic theme from fairly early times. Such and image has been described
as Pratima Sarvatobhadrika in inscriptions of the early centuries of the
Christian era. It takes of the shape of solid square obelisk with four images on
its four faces or sides. The image depicted on the four face are usually those of
the four Tirthankaras Risabhnath (Adinatha), the first; Santinatha, the
sixteenth; Parsvanatha, the twenty-third; and Mahavira, the twenty-fourth.
Sometimes, the figure of the same Tirthankara is repeated on all the four faces.
This variation, however is immaterial. The name Sarvatobhadrika means
'pleasing' or 'auspicious' from all directions. It is important ot observe that the
Jainas had conceived a four-faced votive object which is naturally and logically
expected to be approached from the four directions.

The sanctum cella (garbha-griha) is meant for the enshrinement of the image of
a divinity, and as such is regarded as the holiest of the holies in the entire
temple complex which, not infrequently, assumes extensive proportions.
Almost invariably the garbha-griha consists of a square chamber with a single
entrance facing the image installed inside. A sanctum with a single entrance
generally suits the needs of worship according to the rituals and beliefs of the
different Indian creeds, the majority of the images of the various pantheons
having been conceived for confrontation by the worshippers from one direction
only, i.e., from front. But the four-faced votive object of the Jaina, as the motif
itself suggests, requires to be confronted from four directions and a shrine with
four entrances on four faces is the most suitable design for the proper
installation of such a quadruple image. A four-faced shrine appears to be the
natural and logical answer, hence, to the four-faced votive image conceived by
the Jainas.

In this context it may be useful to mention that Indian literature on art

frequently refers to a type of temple called sarvatobhadra. There are variations
in the descriptions of the type in the different texts. All texts, however, are
agreed that the fundamental design of a sarvatobhadra temple admirably suits
the needs of a four-faced Jaina image, pratima sarvatobhadrika, and it is not
without significance that the term sarvatobhadra has been used as a qualifying
designation in each case. The iconographic theme and the architectural design
seem to go together, one being complementary to the other.

The number of Jaina sarvatobhdrika images of the early centuries of the

Christian era is not small. From Eastern India have been discovered also a
fairly substantial number of such images of the early mediaeval epoch.

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Unfortunately, the shrines in which such images were installed have
disappeared. As already observed, the name sarvatobhadra for the
architectural design appears to have significant relations with the term
sarvatobhadra used for the iconographic motif. The linking together of the two
seems to be not without interest. In this situation it is possible to presume that
the Jainas might have introduced the design of the four-faced shrine, i.e., a
shrine without entrances, in the four cardinal directions, in order to suit the
needs of the four-faced votive object that they had evolved. In a manner this
supposition finds confirmation in a number of monolithic votive templets from
Eastern India, now in the State Archaeological Gallery of West Bengal. They
belong to the early mediaeval period and each of them shows four figures of
four Tirthankaras on four sides of a cubic block topped by a graceful
curvilinear shkhara, thereby reproducing, in all probability, a shrine with four
entrances confronting the dour figures of the block installed within a cubic
sanctum cella. Such a shrine, i.e., one with four entrances might also have
been employed for installation of a pratima sarvatobhadrika of the early
Christian epoch. The type ;of shrine with four doors on four cardinal faces
appears, thus, to have evolved by the Jainas for the proper installation of their
sarvatobhadrika images at a fairly early date. The Yugadisvara temple at
Ranakpur of the fifteenth centuries may be recognised to be the most elaborate
expression of the simple four-entranced cubical shrine of the Jainas of the
early phases.

Among the Buddhists the idea of Jaina sarvatobhadrika finds expression in two
votive temples, done in stone from Dinajpur and the other in bronze from
Jhewari (Chittagong District ), both in Bangla Desh. Each of them is in the
form of shrine surmounted by a sikhara, the cubical block in the lower section
having four figures in niches (the niches in the bronze specimen are now empty
). These votive offerings of Buddhist affiliation, there is hardly any doubt, echo
the motif of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika and reproduces the design of a four
entranced shrine.

It will be useful to mention in this context a few early temples of Burma

consecrated for Buddhist usage. They repeat not only the iconographic motif of
Sarvatobhadrika image but the architectural design of Sarvatobhadra temples
in a clear and explicit manner. In such shrines the iconographic motif in each
case occupies the position of the altar. The earliest of these temples seems to
have been the Lemeythna at Hmawza (Thayetkhettaya - old Srikshetra). The
exact date of this structure is not known. Some scholars would assign it to a
date between the fifth and the eighth century with the inherent probability that
it might have been the earliest of the extant monuments in this old city. In
spite of its battered state it is possible to determine the fundamental features of
its composition,. It is seen to be a cubical shrine with four entrances on its four
main sides, each entrance being further strengthened by two projecting
buttresses flanking the sides. In the interior one finds a solid masonry obelisk
of square shape occupying the middle of the sanctuary. This obelisk is faced on

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four sides by four sculptured figures, each in axial with the entrance doorway
on each of the sides. This obelisk shoots high up to roof and the space between
the obelisk and the walls forms a continuous gallery around. It is not
impossible to find in this Buddhist monument a faithful expression of the
sarvatobhadra shrine together with a reproduction of iconographic motif of the
sarvatobhadrika.

The pattern, apparently Jaina in inspiration, remained very popular among the
Burmese Buddhists for a long time and several notable monuments of this
order are known to have been erected in the classical phase of Burmese art and
architecture. Among these, the celebrated Ananda temple at Pagan is one of the
most remarkable. It was built and consecrated by Kyanzittha in A. D. 1091. In
course of time there had been elaborations of the design in respect both of
ground plan and elevation. But such elaborations did, in no way, affect the
fundamental concept of the iconographic motif or of the architectural form.
Hence in the middle of each of the four cardinal faces, one finds the square
masonary pile in the centre with four colossal figure of the Buddha in recessed
niches on its four sides. The altar is surrounded by two concentric galleries
communicating with each other and with the approach vestibules and grilled
windows in the walls by passages cutting and cross-cutting one another.
Further light is admitted in the interior, especially to the niches containing the
sculptures, by projecting dormer windows provided in the superstructure on
the four sides. One may, perhaps, find in the Ananda temple at Pagan one of
the most notable expressions of a four-faced shrine that might have started
with the Jainas for the purpose of housing their caturmukha images.

In Burman the type is known to have been in use also in respect of

Brahmanical shrines. Mention may be made in this regard of the Nat Hlaung
Kyaung temple, which is the only Brahmanical temple, now existing, among
the hundred of the Buddhist temples at Pagan. It is said to have been built in
A. D. 931 by king Nyaung U. It consists of a nearly square sanctum cella
accommodating in the centre a solid brick column with four large brick images,
possibly of manifestations of Vishnu (as may be known from the sculptures of
his incarnations on the outer walls), on its four sides. Such brick columns with
sculptures on four sides, whether Buddhist or Brahmanical, may clearly be
recognised, in the ultimate analysis, to be adaptations of the caturmukha or
sarvatobhdrika images of the Jainas.

Mention has been made first of the Burmese temples owing to the fact that due
to their comparatively fair state of preservation it is possible to recognise easily
the correspondences that they bear to the iconographic motif of the Jaina
sarvatobhadrika and the architectural design of the sarvatobhadra shrine. In
the Indian subcontinent at least, two Buddhist temples of the early mediaeval
phase may be suggested to have adopted this iconic theme as well as the
architectural design. One is the colossal brick temple occupying the key
position in the centre of the extensive monastic complex at Paharpur (Rajshahi

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District, Bangla Desh) that was once the great Somapura Vihara founded by
Dharmapala, the second Pala ruler, about the close of the eighth century or the
beginning of the ninth. In the earlier days there was a jaina establishment at or
near the site, as is known from a copperplate grant dated in (Gupta) year 159
(A. D. 478-79). The Buddhist temple had many unusual features including
elevation in successive terraces; but they do not seem to be relevant ot he
scope of this paper. What is important is the nature and form of this Buddhist
shrine. The present author has shown elsewhere that the shrine of this colossal
monument was situated on the second terrace which consists of a square
column-like pile with projected chambers, one on each of its four sides, the
whole surrounded by a circumambulatory gallery. There is every possibility
that on each of the four sides of the pile an image was installed in the projected
chamber against pile behind thus repeating the motif of the sarvatobhadrika
images of the Jainas. In this instance the ideas might have been derived from a
similar Jaina votive object in the earlier Jaina monastery. The above suggestion
gains further support from the extant remains of image pedestals, abutting on
the walls of the pile, in a few of the projected chambers. A similar complex, in
fragments, has been laid bare on the site, known as Salban Vihara, on the
Mainamati hills, the complex that can be identified as the Vihara of Bhavadeva,
fourth ruler of the Buddhist Deva dynasty of Eaxt Bengal. The remains of the
temple in the centre of the monastic quadrangle may be seen to repeat the
above plan of the second terrace of the Paharpur temple. In the Mainamati
temple also one finds a square brick column with four projected chambers on
its four sides. The above suggestion about the Paharpur temple that it had
images on four faces of the square pile in the projected chambers seems o be
supported here also by the find of a fragment of a bronze image of the Buddha
in one of its projected chambers. These two Indian temples are each in an
extremely fragmentary state. The above reconstruction of these two shrines
gains credibility from the analogy of the Pagan temples noticed above. The
Jaina motif of a four-faced altar appears to have served as the model for
imitation by the Buddhists.

In the Nat Hlaung Kyaung temple at Pagan in Burma, consecrated to the

worship of Vishnu, the Jaina motif is seen to have been followed, and in this
context it may be useful to enquire whether the scheme finds expression in any
Brahmanical temple in India or elsewhere. In Brahmanical iconography, not
infrequently several divinities have been conceived each with four heads facing
the four cardinal directions. But in such concepts the iconic theme in each
case has been treated in strict frontal view and as such intended for approach
only from the front. Such iconic motifs in Brahmanism can hardly be
considered, hence, to the parallel expressions of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika in
the literal sense of the term. In illustrating this point reference may be made to
the Vaikuntha aspect of Vishnu and Brahma. The first of the Brahmanical
triad, each of whom is to have four faces according to iconographic description.
The treatment in each case in frontal and the few temples that are known to
have been dedicated to their worship are each known to have one door only in

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front. The Lakshmana temple at Khajuraho, one of the most important
enshrining and image of Vaikuntha-Vishnu has an entrance in front only. The
Brahma temple at the same place is seen to have four openings on four sides,
three of which are closed by stone lattices; that on the east forms the only
entrance to the shrine. Such iconic themes in Brahmanism, simply because of
their having four faces, are not apparently intended for approach or
confrontation from all sides.

In Brahmanism an echo of the Jaina sarvatobhadrika may be recognised in the

iconographic motif of Shiva-Linga with four faces or four sides commonly
known under the designation of Caturmukha Linga or Caturmukha Mahadeva.
The theme is conceived and treated completely in the round in accordance with
the cylindrical from of the phallic emblem of the god. Representations of
Caturmukha Linga are known from fairly early times and it is difficult to say
which of the iconic motifs, the Jaina sarvatobhadrika or the four-faced Linga,
is prior in time conceptually. But that the two are parallel expressions of a
votive object in its four-fold conception admits of little doubt. A Linga with its
plain and cylindrical shape or a Caturmukha Linga allows confrontation from
four sides and the logical from of a shrine of this order may be expected to have
the shape of a four-entranced cubical cella with the votive object installed in
the centre. In the Indian subcontinent thousands of temples are known to have
been medicated to the worship of the god Siva, the votive object in each being
invariably the Linga, plain or with four faces around. Seldom have they been
conceived with more than one entrance. Even the Caturmukha Mahadeva
temple at Nachna Kuthara (Madhya Pradesh) with a Caturmukha Linga as the
votive object in the shrine is seen to have a single entrance in front. The
Matangesvara temple at Khajuraho has four openings in four sides; but only
that on the east has been treated as the principal entrance to the shrine. The
Aparajita-priccha (circa twelfth century; G. O. S No. CXVI) describes a Siva
temple as having four entrances and as sarvatobhadra (sarvatra
sarvatobhadras-caturdvarah Sivalayah, chapter 134, verse ). As already
observed, this is the logical form that a Linga shrine is expected to have and
this to have been recognised by the followers of Saivism rather late in the
history of this creed. The Pasupatinatha temple in Nepal and the Visvanatha
temple, as we see it today, at Varanasi are each seen to have four doors on four
cardinal directions, following the scheme described in the Aprajita-prccha.
They are among the most sacred of the Saiva fanes, the former housing a
Caturmukha Linga in the sanctum cella. Some late mediaeval Siva temples in
Bengal are also known to have four doors, following the sarvatobhadra scheme.
The description in the Aprajita-paccha of a Siva temple as sarvatobhadra
seems not to be without significance and may lend support to the plausibility
that in a Siva shrine of this scheme might have been derived from the
particular architectural motif conceived and evolved, as observed above, under
Jaina patronage.

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This particularly Jaina motif in architecture, as is apparent from the above
survey, is thus seen to have extended its impact beyond sectarian confines and
to have interesting reverberations among the votaries of other faith, namely
Buddhism and Brahmanism, and territories outside. This survey, more or less
in outline illustrates the need for a fuller investigation in this regard.
https://www.jainsamaj.org/content.php?url=Jaina_Motif_in_Architecture_-

The Concept of Divinity in Jainism[21]

Dr. Kokila Shah
‘Religion is expression of divinity in man’
Jainism[21] represents sraman current of thought in Indian tradition. It is an
independent philosophy, a rational religion and an ethical system par
excellence. It does not believe in creator God and yet this religion has well
developed cult, a rich ritual system and marvelous temples. The Jain devotee
worships the Jaina[17][19] image paying homage to Tirthankaras[41]. Here it can
be queried whether it is an atheistic system or not. At the very outset it must
be mentioned that “the atheism of the Jain means denial of a divine creative
spirit”[1] Jainas do not attribute actorship to God. They however
worship Tirthankaras[41]- the ford makers, the enlightened souls besides other
minor deities. God of Jainism[21] is a spiritual Being. Godhood means the
attainment of purity and perfection inherent in every soul[39].
Thus Jainism[21] may be termed as ‘transtheistic. ’

It has been a rightly observed that divinity is the principle common to all souls
though not fully developed “The divine character inherent in all beings is called
God[.2] Jainism[21] is polytheistic and denies a creative function of God. There is
no difference between Ataman and Paramatman essentially. The divinity that
dwells in liberation is essentially the same in both. Jainism[21] believes in
godhead, though not in one single God. There is no provision for creator God.
The universe with all its substances, conscious and unconscious is governed
by the laws of Nature Jainism[21] has its own unique concept of divinity which
needs to be appreciated God according to Jaina[17][19] philosophy is the
supreme soul[39] The soul[39] who is omniscient[33], free from all defilements and
preaches reality as it is, is called God.. Faith in the purity of soul[39] is the heart
of Jainism[21]”.[3]It is the foundation of religiousness in Jainism[21] The pure and
perfect soul[39] is worshipped as God. I intend to reinterpret Jain atheism. The
paper highlights the Jain concepts of divinity and its different aspects. The
focus is on the concept of consciousness[11], which is implicit in the Jain view
of divinity.

Aspects of divinity can be explained under the following heads.

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 1. Arihantas[6]-Tirthankaras[41]
2. Demi Gods, Yaksa[46] and Yaksis[49] and other goddesses.
3. Paramatman-The pure and perfect soul[39] as God Siddha[38]

Jainas worship Tirthankars[42] -the ford makers besides, other minor

deities. Jaina[17][19] hymns are popularly known as stotras written in praise
of Tirthankars[42] or deities, whose images are usually found in the Jain
iconographic art, Jain devotionalism is directed towards invocations to deities.
The stotra literature gives glimpses into the Jain pantheon, which had
developed at the end of 5th century A. D.

The Yaksa[46] and Yaksinis the attendants of 24 Tirthankars[42] constituting a

class of divine beings called Sasan Devatas - the guardian deities were given a
venerated position next to Tirthankars[42] in the Jain Pantheon. Gradually, their
position was elevated and most of them even attained the status of
independent deities called demi-gods. Various temples are also erected to
worship them.

The word ‘god’ requires some clarification here. Jains believe that
the Arihantas[6] and the Tirthankaras[41]-Siddhas[50] are the highest forms of
divine gods. However there are other gods and goddesses which are sometimes
called devas[14] and devis respectively. Devas[14] and devis are beings who live in
on different astral planes. These are regarded as much lower forms than
the Tirthankaras[41] and the Arihantas[6]. Some times a common word ‘god’ is
used to describe Tirthankaras[41] and those devas[14]. Jains worship idols of
Jinas who are adored as supreme souls. They have also started worshipping
other deities, Such as yaksa[46] yaksinis who are the devotees of Jin[23].

Jain scriptures contain details of the universe and various types of living
beings. There are four main categories of living beings: Hellish beings, animals,
humans, and Demi-gods or Devas[14]. One is born in to all sorts of existence.
After following the three fold right path of liberation one achieves moksa[30].

There are, it is said, four types of Devas[14]. Bhavanpati, Vyantar[45],

Jyotiska and Vaimanika. The four classes of gods are: mansion-dwelling, forest,
luminous and empyrean.[4] References to these gods are found in Jain
devotional literature.[5] The images of deities are found
in Jaina[17][19] iconographic art. Besides this there are large number
of Kuldevis, Vidyadevis[44] like Sarasvati[37] etc, Yaksa[46] and Yaksinis attendant
s of 24 Thirthankaras. There are numerous Jaina[17][19] temples[20] in which
images of gods and goddesses could be found along

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with yaksa[46] and yaksinis. Sasan devas[14] and devtas always serve
24 Tirthankaras [41] and they are Samyak drushti i.E. they are pure soul . They
[39]

help spiritual aspirant and devotees of Jinas.

The twenty-four Yaksas[47] are associated with twenty-

four Tirthankaras . Each yaksa
[41] [46] is the attendant deity of Tirthankara[40] and
there is female yakisni on the left side of the Jina[24] idol. For example: For
twenty- third Tirthankara[40] Parsva yaksa[46] and Padmavati[34] yaksini[48].

The concept of Arihant[4] and Siddha[38], taksa, yaksini[48], demi gods etc. need to
be understood.

Jains are clear about the concept of divinity and the words
like Tirthankaras[41] and Arihantas[6] are used for the highest form of souls. The
other gods are also worshipped because they are believed to help ordinary
humans with their extra ordinary power. In Jain stotra literature we find praise
of Tirthankars[42] and also the names of certain Demi-gods and demi-godesses
called Sasan Devatas, yaksa[46] and yaksini[48].

Now, Jainism[21] does not acknowledge existence of God as a Creator and

administrator. God is not the first cause or the architect of the universe as
things of the world are eternal Therefore; there is no necessity of any cause for
bringing them in to existence. Jainas are antitheists in this sense. The
assumption of God as a creator, according to Jainism[21], is ontologically
irrelevant and logically inconsistent. The universe is beginning less and it is
eternal. Hence, any conception of God as creator is unnecessary. It might,
however, be added here that the kind of religiousness of Jainas is essentially
different from the conception of divinity found in theistic religious systems of
world. Jainism[21] does not deny the existence of Paramatman, the highest state
of soul[39] which is the state of divinity, the supreme soul[39].

The outstanding characteristic of the concept of God is omniscience it

represents. Jainism[21] subscribes to the view that omniscience is possible
when soul[39]’s perfection is achieved. It must be noted that the concept of
divinity is manifested in the state of perfect soul[39], the state of
pure consciousness[11].

The concept of Arihant[4] and Siddh as divine beings need to be emphasized.

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The very first line of Jain prayer is Namo Arihantanam - obeisance
to Arihantas[6] - embodied perfect beings-who are devoid of
destructive karmas[25]. Then the Siddhas[50] are saluted who are devoid of
eight karmas[25]. Arihanta[5] and Siddha[38] are the supreme object of devotion.
They represent Deva[13] or Divine Being. Arihantas[6] are liberated while alive
while the Siddhas[50] enjoy disembodied liberation. Both of them have
actualized divinity potential in themselves. They are hence, supreme objects of
devotion. It is clear that devotion to jina[24] implies that Jainas believe in
adoration of virtues, not person. There are two kinds of Arihantas[6].

1. Tirthankara[40]
2. Non-Tirathakara

Tirthankara[40] preach and propagate religious doctrines in order to guide the

mundane soul[39] and his sermons are worded by gandharas - while
those Arihantas[6] who are not Tirthankaras[41] are not the Propounder of
religion however, they are omniscient[33].

In Jaina[17][19] Texts, Arihanta[5] and Siddha[38] are called ‘God’. Yet as

neither Arihanta[5] nor Siddha[38] are creators or destroyers of the world. The
spiritual aspirant receives no favours from them. They are however worshipped
as they possess certain qualities. The aspirant pray to them worship them and
meditate on them. They are rather ideals and provide inspiration to common
souls. Jinbimpratistha-idol installation is one of the Jain rituals.

Here God means any soul[39], which is, free from attachments and aversions
and is omniscient[33].

Arihanta[5] is absolutely dispassionate - beyond attachment and

aversion. Arihanta[5] is Jina[24]-spiritually victorious soul[39]. Siddhas[50] are the
beings free from all karmas[25] the highest form of souls.

The main images in temples are those of the Tirthankaras[41]. There are other
Gods and Goddesses. The other Gods are worshipped because they are believed
to help ordinary humans with their magical powers. These Gods are

1. Gods living in different parts of the universe.

2. Gods and Goddesses who are called attendant deities.

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Although Jainism[21] does not admit God as the world creator, it does admit a
perfect human being who is omniscient[33], Paramatman is revealed, giving
supreme bliss to saints who are established in equanimity[15]. It is called God
Every soul[39] through self-exertion and spiritual development can attain
godhood. Thus there are many gods in Jainism[21] is characterized as
polytheism.

Metaphysically, Jainism[21] is realistic pluralism. Its first principle is that the

universe is a system by itself, governed by laws inherent in its very
constitution. In this connection, it has been rightly observed that “Jainism is
not a theistic system in the sense of belief in the existence of God as the creator
and Ruler of the universe and still the highest being in the Jaina[17][19] view is a
person and not impersonal quality less being”[6]

In the worldly cycle of birth’ and death based on the force of Karmas[25], there
can be no place for the creatorship of God. Further, Jainism[21] contends that a
man can achieve freedom from karmas[25] by his own efforts and attain
perfection. Jainism[21] believes in Rebirth and liberation. If by atheism is meant
an unbelief in life beyond, then a Jaina[17][19] is not an atheist. The term ‘God’
has highest spiritual significance in Jain philosophy[18]. Thus, “Jainism has no
quarter for a creative God, accommodating at the same time the concept of
Godhead”.[7]

Soul[39] and God and consciousness[11]:

The concept of god is essentially related to the concept

of soul[39][10] in Jainism[21]. Soul[39] has been described in Jain scripture in
grand terms. It is the repository of excellent characteristics, It is the supreme
substance among the substances and the superb spiritual principle among
principles. Soul[39] is that which knows thinks and feels. Jainism[21] believes in
independent existence of soul[39]. According to Jainism[21], ontologically, there
are six eternal substances. A substance is that which has origin destruction
and permanence. “That is, substance is permanent, though it undergoes
changes. The continuity of the substance in all its modifications is a fact,
which is emphasized here by the Jaina[17][19] philosophers. Soul[39] is an eternal
spiritual substance. Consciousness[11] is its essential quality “[8] Jainism[21] is
very explicit on this point.

According to Acharya[1] Kundakunda[26][2] “self is an eternal substance which

possesses pure knowledge and pure perception”.[9] Pure soul[39] possesses

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infinite knowledge, infinite bliss and perception. Pujyapada[35] has pointed out,
“Divinity is the natural attribute of the soul[39]”.[10] Human being by destruction
of all karmas[25] i. e - the soul[39] being released from all connections with
matter regains its pure state and becomes divine - parmatman. The soul[39] is
this state experience bliss which is unique and interminable.[11]

The road to ‘Godhood” Paramatman or divinity consists in making efforts.

When impurities of self are removed, pure manifestation of consciousness[11] is
possible. All souls wandering in the world are in bondage due to karma-
impurities. Soul[39] in its natural state free from Karmas[25] is Pure soul[39] and
that state of soul[39] is godhood. Thus Godhood is the natural state
of soul[39] which is not revealed when soul[39] is covered by Karmas[25].
When soul[39] realizes Its real nature, It becomes Perfect and that is God- God is
none other than soul[39]. It is interesting to note that, thus soul[39] is not a part
of God, It does not dissolve into God after liberation but it becomes God.

The journey from Internal self to the transcendental self is reached through the
medium of moral and spiritual disciplines. Jainism[21] subscribes to the view
that the soul[39] and God are essentially the same. Soul[39] has to be evolved
into Paramatman by progressive realization. The spiritual aspirant can attain
enlightenment by observing spiritual disciplines. Obviously; the Jain
conception is ‘The Atman[7] is really Paramatman’ [12] to be more
precise, soul [39] is divine inherently. This innate divinity is obscured by karmic
particles and hence the divinity is dimmed but not destroyed because, the
essence is indestructible. [13]

From the Jaina[17][19] point of view substance remains the same though
changes. That is, change is compatible with identity. Jainism[21] believes in
relation of Identity in difference. The conception of supreme soul[39] is
metaphysical possibility and is spiritually significant.

Conclusion:

1. Thus in Jain tradition, there is rejection of theism in the sense that no

creator God is there.
2. At the same time, the Jainas believe in the theory of inherent divinity of
self. Divinity consists in self perfection. Soul[39] has to be evolved
into Paramatman by progressive realization.

In brief, ‘God is the symbol of all that is morally excellent, he is not the creator
or the preserver or the destroyer. He is not in any sense responsible for the

169
destiny of the universe or the individual. Nor is he capable of bestowing grace
upon the devotee’. In this connection the Jaina[17][19] philosophers have made a
distinction between the states of the soul[39], which is significant.

Bahiratman - external soul[39] It consists in the identification

of soul[39] with body and external things.
[8]

Antaratman - internal self - when inwardization takes place - there is freedom

for the sense of otherness- self has discriminative knowledge. That is,
knowledge of the distinction between soul[39] and body[8].

Parmatman - the pure and perfect self which is free from all the impurities
of karmas[25] It is pure consciousness[11] which is God. Thus we have not to
seek God there in the world outside, nor is God to be found in the ‘dark corner
of a temple’-soul[39] the spirit itself is God, the Perfect soul[39].

The Jains recognize divinity in Man and Godhood for them is the attainment of
purity and perfection inherent in every soul[39]. A couple of observations about
Jain view are remarkable.

1. Idea of God as a creator is logically illegitimate.

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 2. Jain atheism makes moral life and religious experience quite
meaningful. The soul[39] alone is responsible for all that, it does.

Incidentally, it may not be out of place to mention Jain belief in other Gods and
Goddesses - the attendant deities of Tirthankaras[41] who are believed to help
ordinary humans with their power. These demi-Gods provide protection to
humankind. Besides there are Goddesses of wisdom, knowledge etc. and
guardian deities like Cakresvari, Padmavati[34] etc. There are Gods in heaven
and Gods in hell. There is also mention of some Indras. They are kings and the
gods of the different heavens. The deities are meant for fulfillment of material
desires. They can be called popular Gods. Tirthankaras[41] are the Gods
completely free from attachment and aversion so they will not favour any one.
They are the Pure souls residing in ultimate bliss. They are not to grant any
wishes or fulfill desires. Perhaps Later on the cult of worshiping other gods and
Goddesses had begun within the Jain faith.

To sum up, Jain Concept of soul[39][10] and God has far reaching implications. It
needs to be noted that philosophy of the Jainas is not essentially founded on
any particular writing or external revelation but on the unfoldment of
spiritual consciousness[11] which is the birth right of every soul[39].

Jain view of divinity has certain elements of mysticism. It is spiritualism per

excellence as consciousness[11] is primary reality. It can be related to
contemporary findings about consciousness[11]. I would like to conclude by
offering “Salutations to souls supreme”.

Footnotes
1:Hopkins, E. W, The Religions of India, Munshiram
Manhoralal, New Delhi[12][32]. 1970 p. 285.
2:VR Gandhi[16] Religion and philosophy of the
Jainas. Jaina[17][19] International Ahmedabad[3] 1993.
3:Joshi, L/M Facts of Jaina[17][19] Religiousness in Comprarative Light, L. D
Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad[3], 1981, P. 41.
4:Tattvarthsutra 4/1
5:Kundakunda[26] Bhaupahund 1.
6:Gopani, A. S An Article ‘Thus spake Mahavir[27]. ’ Mahavira[28] and his
Teachings[29], Bhagvan Mahavira[28] 2500th Nivran Bombay[9], 1977. P207.
7. Tattvarthsutra V. 30
8:Ibid II-8
9:Kindakunda Niyamsar, 102.
10:Pujyapada[35]-Istopades. 2
11:Kundakunda[26] Pravancansar-1-13
12:Tatia Studies in Jain philosophy[18] P. V Research Institute Varanasi[43].

171
13:Raynade, B Jaina[17][19] Philosophy, Bharatiya Prakashan Delhi[12]. 2002P.
202
https://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=75112

The Concept of Divinity in Jainism: Where was God before the creation of the
Universe?

NewsGram Desk

Jainism is a rational, ethical religion with an independent philosophy. The

religion has a rich ritual system, a well-developed cult and beautiful temples. It
does not believe in a divine creative spirit. Instead, they pay homage to

172
 Tirthankaras- the ford-makers. It believes that God is a spiritual being. It
believes that the attainment of perfection and purity in the soul leads to
Godhood.The divinity is achieved through the path of salvation or the Moksha
Marga. ‘Aptha’ is the lord who reveals the path of salvation to the mankind out
of his love and mercy for the humans suffering in the samsara. The Idea of God
is illegitimate in Jainism. The soul is responsible for moral life and religious
experience.

Jainism has its own sole idea of divinity. Philosophy is the supreme soul. There
is no difference between ‘Aatman’ and ‘Paramatman’. The Universe is governed
by the laws of nature. God is nothing but an omniscient soul which teaches
reality as it is and is free from all forms of defilements. It is the foundation of
the beliefs of Jainism. God is not the architect of the Universe. The assumption
of God as a creator is logically inconsistent. The Universe is eternal. So, the
concept of God as the creator of the universe is irrelevant. However, it does not
deny the existence of a supreme soul which is the state of divinity i.e.,
Paramatman.

The Jain writings are very contemptuous of the idea of God as the creator of
the universe.Where was God before the creation of the Universe? Where is he
now? How can an immaterial God create something that is material? If God is
perfect and complete, how did the will to create the universe arise in him? No
single being had the potential to build the entire universe. No form of God is
essential to keep the universe in existence.Jains believe in the attendant deities
of Tirthankaras who help humans with their power. There is Goddess of
wisdom and knowledge and also other guardian deities. There are Gods in
heaven and in hell. There are kings and Gods in heaven. However, the Kings of
heaven are still subject to reincarnation and karma. Gods of Tirthankaras are
free from attachment and hatred. They are just pure souls living in paradise.
They don’t grant wishes.

Basically, it has the following forms of divinity:

1. Paramatman: The pure and perfect soul

2. Demi Gods, Yaksa and Yaksis
3. Arihantas- Tirthankaras

The philosophy of Jainism is based on the spiritual consciousness and not on

any form of external revelation or any particular writing. The concept of God in
Jainism subscribes to the opinion that omniscience is possible when the soul
has reached the pinnacle of purity and perfection. The concept of divinity is
viewed in the state of pure consciousness and perfect soul. Jains do not believe
in a God who must be obeyed. There is not a god for judgment. The quality of a
human’s life is determined by his karma. Karma has nothing to do with
spiritual beings; it is a physical process.

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Every soul can be a perfect soul. These perfect souls do not have any interest
in human beings. They don’t have a desire for anything. Thus, these Gods don’t
demand any worship. They can’t intervene in the human world.In many ways,
the Jain attitude to perfect beings is both intelligible and satisfying, and
sufficient to demolish the claim that Jainism is an atheistic religion. If one
wants to argue that Jainism is atheistic then one must do so from a specific,
limited, idea of what it means to be divine.The beliefs of Jainism regarding the
perfect souls are satisfying and comprehensible. Only a person with a limited
idea of the meaning of divinity will disagree with the beliefs of Jainism.

– by Diksha Arya of NewsGram.

https://www.newsgram.com/the-concept-of-divinity-in-jainism-where-was-
god-before-the-creation-of-the-universe

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 CHAPTER VIII
BRAHMINS in ANGKOR

Angkorian kings presided over sacred ceremonies. Many aspects of the contemporary
transnationalization of Hinduism have already been well studied, such as long-distance
nationalism or the sense of belonging to a transnational community, but very little attention has
been paid to the ritual actors who actually circulate within the diaspora space. By focusing on
their caste, their migratory profiles, their circulation, and their agency, the article shows that
these “migrant priests” actively contribute to shaping the forms that transnational Hinduism takes
in different Tamil immigration countries.The countries we focus on are ofcourse ambodian
hinterland related kingdoms.
More broadly, Brahmins were“circulating” religious actors and our understanding of Cambodian
Royalty and Kingship is to understand tevrole played by these in the mechanisms of the
transnationalization of Hinduism. Centuries ago in the chambers of Angkor Wat and Bayon
temple, Brahman priests serving

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India's caste system is among the world's oldest forms of surviving social stratification. The BBC
explains its complexities.
The system which divides Hindus into rigid hierarchical groups based on their karma (work) and
dharma (the Hindi word for religion, but here it means duty) is generally accepted to be more
than 3,000 years old.
How did caste come about?
Manusmriti, widely regarded to be the most important and authoritative book on Hindu law and
dating back to at least 1,000 years before Christ was born, "acknowledges and justifies the caste
system as the basis of order and regularity of society".
The caste system divides Hindus into four main categories - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and
the Shudras. Many believe that the groups originated from Brahma, the Hindu God of creation.
I
At the top of the hierarchy were the Brahmins who were mainly teachers and intellectuals and
are believed to have come from Brahma's head. Then came the Kshatriyas, or the warriors and
rulers, supposedly from his arms. The third slot went to the Vaishyas, or the traders, who were
created from his thighs. At the bottom of the heap were the Shudras, who came from Brahma's
feet and did all the menial jobs.
The main castes were further divided into about 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes, each based
on their specific occupation.
Outside of this Hindu caste system were the achhoots - the Dalits or the untouchables.
How does caste work?
For centuries, caste has dictated almost every aspect of Hindu religious and social life, with each
group occupying a specific place in this complex hierarchy.
Rural communities have long been arranged on the basis of castes - the upper and lower castes
almost always lived in segregated colonies, the water wells were not shared, Brahmins would not
accept food or drink from the Shudras, and one could marry only within one's caste.

India's caste system is among the world's oldest forms of social stratification surviving to this
day. The system bestowed many privileges on the upper castes while sanctioning repression of
the lower castes by privileged groups.
Often criticised for being unjust and regressive, it remained virtually unchanged for centuries,
trapping people into fixed social orders from which it was impossible to escape.
Despite the obstacles, however, some Dalits and other low-caste Indians, such as BR Ambedkar
who authored the Indian constitution, and KR Narayanan who became the nation's first Dalit
president, have risen to hold prestigious positions in the country.
Historians, though, say that until the 18th Century, the formal distinctions of caste were of
limited importance to Indians, social identities were much more flexible and people could move
easily from one caste to another.

A Jati is considered a community that has a particular profession. You used to be able to
determine someone’s trade or profession by their surname, but because of the modern education
system, and lack of discrimination by the state, the Jati system is currently quickly deteriorating.
The Caste System represents a division of labor based on birth right justified by moral and
religious concepts. The Brahmins held the most power in Hindu society , they were priests,
otherwise known as the spiritual and intellectual leaders of the society. “They devoted their time
to studying, teaching, performing sacrifices, and officiating religious services” (Nigosian 136).

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The second Varna in the social hierarchy are the Kshatriyas who are the rulers and warriors of
the society. Their job was to “Protect, administer, and promote material welfare within the
society” (Nigosian 136). The third in the social hierarchy are the Vaishyas who are the farmers,
merchants, and traders who really contribute to the economy of India. The fourth and last of the
Varnas are known as the Sudras who are laborers that supply the manual labor needed for the
economic well-being of India. Later as the development of the caste system continued a fifth
group was formed; although not officially considered a Varna, the Chalandalas or
“untouchables” had status so low that they did not belong to a caste at all.
The justification of this “social stratification” is linked to the justification of Karma and Samsara.
Karma refers to action, each person’s birth is directly related to the past karma from the previous
life of that individual, birth into the Brahmin Varna is a result of good karma.

Origin of the Caste System:

The Caste System today is a result of the end of the Mughal era and the British colonial
government in India. The Mughal empire was ruled by a Persianate Dynasty of Chagatai Turco-
Mongol origin and was prominent throughout large areas of the Indian subcontinent. The end of
this era caused there to be an increase of men who deemed themselves powerful and associated
themselves with kings and priests. The British colonial government later continues this
development in 1860 and 1920 by separating Indians into castes. They only allowed individuals
in the upper castes to hold professions and trades of importance. In 1920 that policy changed and
the colonial government started a policy that reserved a certain percentage of government jobs
for the individuals in the lower castes. When India gained its independence in 1947 from the
British Empire new policies were enforced that helped to improve the socioeconomic conditions
of its lower caste population. In 1950 many affirmative actions initiatives were taken by the
Supreme Court of India. Discrimination against the lower castes is now considered illegal in
India under Article 15 of its constitution.

Brahmins:
The word Brahmin translates to “Supreme Self” or the first of the gods. Brahmin is the highest
Varna in Vedic Hinduism. The population of India that is considered a member of the Brahmin
caste according to the article “The Joshua project” is about 60,481,000 people. That’s
approximately 4.3 percent of the total Indian population. The Brahmin Varna consists of priests,
and individuals of this specific Varna are separated into sub-castes called gotras. Because of the
religious and cultural diversity Brahmins are divided into these sub- castes. Only some members
are priests, other members have held professions as educators, law makers, scholars, doctors,
writers, poets, land owners, and politicians. According to Nancy Auerbach in her book Living
Hinduism the Brahmin is associated with Sanatana Dharma which was in early Hinduism and is
a code of ethics, or a way of living in order to achieve “mosksha” a sense of liberation and
enlightenment. As the developments of the caste system continues, Brahmins became an
influential Varna in India and discriminated against the other lower castes.
Most Brahmins are located in the Northern states of India which includes Uttar Pradesh and
Andhra Pradesh, and small concentrations in the southern states which includes Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, and Kerala. This territorial division led to the creation of two groups among the
Brahmin: the Panch Gour (northerners) and the Panch Dravida (Southerners). These two groups
are separated by the central Indian Vindhya mountain range that almost bisects the country into
two parts.

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Brahmin came from the term Brahman, which is a magical force. The name Brahmin was given
to the first trained priest who held a sacrifice. After the end of the Vedic period in 1000 BC, the
term “Brahmin” became universally known as the term for all members of the priestly class.
Around 900 BC the Brahmins were divided in to exogamous clans that restricted matrimonial
choice and dictated ritual. This system is still intact today where it is frowned upon to marry
someone of another caste. The Rig Veda is one of the most sacred Hindu scripture, and it
contains the mythological origin of the Brahmin. The god Prajapati (Lord of beings) is identified
with Brahma who is the creator in the Hindu trinity and was later sacrificed by his children. This
sacrifice is said to have produced the universe and that the Brahmin originated from his mouth.
Traditionally the Brahmin are supposed to become priests, but in actuality they hold a wide
variety of occupations. Many members practice agriculture, while others hold white collar jobs.

The Brahmin are allowed to follow any profession, but no one except a Brahmin can become a
priest. Members of this Varna tend to be strict vegetarians. It is a socio-spiritual obligation to
feed Brahmin at ceremonies. Brahmin men have more freedom then Brahmin women. Men try to
avoid alcohol and smoking whereas for women it is strictly forbidden. The socially acceptable
age for marriage also varies between the sexes. Women can get married starting from as young
as 18 whereas men get married at an older age. Marriages tend to be arranged by parents and
monogamy is expected. Widows are not allowed to remarry whereas widowers are allowed to.
Although Brahmin women are second to men, they do hold a higher level of education than other
women in Indian society.
Overall Brahmins hold a high status in Hindu society, and are considered to be smart and
influential. They set the standard of social conduct and morality due to their leadership in
society. Hindu priesthood is dominated by Brahmins, but other castes due in fact have “sacred
specialists” but their status does not compare to that of a Brahmin.

Kshatriyas:
The term Kshatriya comes from kshatra which means authority and power. This authority and
power is not based on successful leadership, but more on sovereignty over certain territories.
Kshatriya is the second Varna within the social hierarchy. The Brahmin and the Kshatriya make
up the upper castes, 20 percent of India’s population is within this category. The Kshatriya
constitutes the ruling and military elite, the warriors. Their purpose in the society is to fight as
warriors during war and govern in time of peace. They had a duty to protect the citizens from
harm, to ensure that each individual performed their prescribed duty and advanced spiritually in
their specific Varna. In addition to that they are responsible for the protection of the political
cosmic order (dharma). Kshatriyas initially achieved their status on merits of their aptitude
(guna), conduct (karma), and nature (swabhava). As the caste system later developed, merit
became irrelevant status became hereditary.
It is said that when Brahma was procreating, a “negative energy” emerged from him. The
negative energy took the form of Rakshasas also known as devils who started to torture Brahma.
Brahma asked Lord Vishnu for help, who later killed them. Lord Vishnu then explained to
Brahma that when positive energy is used, negative energy will also emerge. Because of this
Lord Vishnu tells Brahma that a special race of humans should be created to protect the entire
human race. The Rig Veda contains a different story of origin for the varnas. In this Hindu

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scripture, Brahmin originated from the mouth of Brahma, while Kshatriya originated from the
arms.

The two primary roles of the Kshatriya Varna were to govern the land and to wage war, which
led to professions as rulers and soldiers. The male children in Kshatriya were considered
symbols of masculinity whereas the female child needed to be gentle and well behaved. Like
Brahmin and the rest of the Varnas, men and women were not allowed to marry outside their
specific Varna. Kshatriyas also hold a high status of power, second only to the Brahmin. They
make sure everyone stays within their Varna.1

One of the major imports to early Southeast Asia from India was religion: specifically,
Buddhism and Hinduism. In particular, the Hindu religion (Brahminism) established the
cosmological and political legitimisation of kingship in the courts of Southeast Asia. The
‘brahmins’ who preside over court rituals in contemporary Cambodia and Thailand are said to be
direct descendants of Angkorian ‘brahmins’, but this identification is highly contested. By Indian
definition and from a ritual perspective, the term brahmin generally referred to those whose caste
and gotras (ritual lineage) go back to the Vedic period. Scholars of ritual and religions have
questioned whether the ‘brahmins’ of Southeast Asia were ‘brahmins’ by the Indian definition,
and if so, in what sense. Was there a caste system in ancient Cambodia?2

Cambodians or Khmers are a race of people occupying the Mekong (Ma Ganga) River
basin what was known as Indo-China but now is South East Asia. The racial and
linguistic family to which the Cambodians belong is known as the Mon-Khmer family.
Indians came from the second century CE to trade and later to settle on the west coast of
Indo China.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

1. Varnas in Angkor and the Indian Caste System,. W. Mabbett,The Journal of Asian Studies,Vol. 36, No. 3 (May, 1977), pp.
429-442 (14 pages),Published By: Association for Asian
Studies,https://doi.org/10.2307/2054092,https://www.jstor.org/stable/2054092
2. 23 - Broken Threads: Contested Histories of Brahminism in Cambodia and Thailand and the Construction of Ritual
Authority-from PART II - Localisation in Southeast Asia
https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/early-interactions-between-south-and-southeast-asia/broken-threads-contested-histories-
of-brahminism-in-cambodia-and-thailand-and-the-construction-of-ritual-authority/3BC67C03B1321C39B4E63BC3F976D660

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Funan= Panavan=Punal: Tamil Connection

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1)The first Khmer texts, inscriptions of the 7th and 8th centuries CE gave practical information
about religious foundations while Sanskrit was used for composing the panegyrics of Gods and
kings. Khmers regarded Sanskrit as the language of literature.

2)From the Chinese annals we learn that there was an indianized state called Funan in south of
Cambodia.The word Funan may mean Panavan (Pandya title) or Punal Nadu (water country in
Tamil). The reason for my conclusion is the first king of Vietnam (Champa) was Sri Maran, a
Pandya king (Tiru maran in Sangam literature)

3)The Indian connection is reflected in the legend which tells how an Indian, the Brahmin
Kaundinya, came to Cambodia and married Soma, the daughter of the king of the Nagas.Tamil
and Sanskrit literature describe all lands lying beyond east of India or South of India as
Nagalokam. If it is further away from South East Asia they called those lands Patala Lokam
(Under world).

Reason for the name Kamboja/Cambodia

4)Another legend relates that the hermit Kambu Swayambuva married the heavenly nymph
Mera, a gift of the god Siva. This gave them the name Kambojas for the people.

5)Finally at the end of ninth century CE there was the beginning of the Angkor kingdom which
built the world famous monuments including Angkorwat. The earliest dated inscriptions are 611
CE (Khmer) and 613 (Sanskrit) but there were earlier dated Sanskrit inscriptions in
Champa/Vietnam

6)We know the names of six poets who wrote in Sanskrit during Angkor period. Indian epics
were read even before this period.

New Ramayana
7)The Ramakerti (16th century CE) presents Ram as the Buddha, but lot of Hindu gods are
referred to. Like Indians, Cambodians also worshiped the spirits inhabiting the rocks and trees.

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8)Apart from writing on stone, the Khmers wrote on palm leaf. The Latania palm leaves were
first treated to make them supple. An iron stylus was used to engrave the writing. The oldest
manuscripts were preserved at a monastery in Battambang.

9) The Khmers have lively interest in the use of words. They were praised fr their riddles. The
hero of the folk tales and riddles was Thmenh Chey (Sanskrit name Dhananjaya). He was like
the great Tenali Rama, court jester of Vijayanagara emperor Krishna Deva raya. Dhanajaya
saves Cambodia from the Chinese by answering all the three riddles sent by king of China. There
are hundreds of stories about Dhanamjaya.

The names in Ramakerti are Rab for Ravana, Laks for Lakshmana, Hemavant for the Himalayas.
The end of Ramayana is changed in this work. Ram asked Lakshmana to execute Sita in the
forest. When Lava and kusa went to Rama’s court one was arrested and released later. Sita was
asked to go to Ayodhya. She refused and went to the underworld when falsely told that Rama
was dead!!!) BRAHMANISM IN ANCIENT KAMBUJADEŚA,Baij Nath Puri- Proceedings of the
Indian History Congress,Vol. 21 (1958), pp. 95-101 (7 pages)

Óc Eo, 'Glass Stream' or 'Crystal Stream' is an archaeological site in Thoại Sơn District in
southern An Giang Province, Vietnam, in the Mekong River Delta. Óc Eo may have been a busy
port of the kingdom of Funan between the 2nd century BC and 12th century AD.
Scholars use the term "Óc Eo Culture" to refer to the archaeological culture of the Mekong Delta
region that is typified by the artifacts recovered at Óc Eo through archeological investigation.
Óc Eo is also one of the modern day communes of Vietnam.
Oc Eo was part of the Funan culture, or Funan empire, a pre-Angkor society based on
international trade and sophisticated agriculture built on an extensive network of canals. Trade
goods flowing through Oc Eo came from Rome, India, and China. Surviving historical records
about Funan and Oc Eo includes the Funan culture's own records written in Sanskrit and those of
a pair of 3rd century Wu Dynasty Chinese visitors. Kang Dai (K'ang T'ai) and Zhu Ying (Chu
Ying) visited Funan about 245–250 AD, and in the Wou li ("Annals of the Wu Kingdom") can
be found their report. They described Funan as a sophisticated country of people living in houses
raised on stilts and ruled by a king in a walled palace, who controlled trade and managed a
successful taxation system.

Origin Myth
According to a myth reported in Funan and Angkor archives in several different versions, Funan
was formed after a female ruler named Liu-ye led a raid against a visiting merchant ship. The
attack was beaten off by the ship's travelers, one of whom as a man named Kaundinya, from a
country "beyond the sea." Kaundinya is thought to have been a Brahman from India, and he
married the local ruler and together, the two forged a new trading empire.
Scholars say that at the time of its founding, the Mekong Delta had several settlements, each of
which was independently run by a local chief. Oc Eo's excavator, French archaeologist Louis
Malleret, reported that in the early first century CE, the Funan coast was occupied by Malay

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fishing and hunting groups. Those groups were already building their own ships, and they would
come to form a new international route focused on the Kra Isthmus. That route would enable
them to control the transmission of Indian and Chinese goods back and forth across the region.
Funan culture researchers debate how much the establishment of the Funan trade empire was
indigenous to the Kra Isthmus or the Indian emigres, but there is no doubt that both elements
were important.

Khmer Dictionary

10)The Khmer lexicon includes a large body of fully integrated loan words, principally from
Sanskrit and Pali languages of India.
First period covers Pre Angkor and Angkor periods (7th to 14th centuries CE): we find
inscriptions on stone in Sanskrit and Pali.
Second period covers the Middle period (16th to 19th centuries CE): Inscriptions on stone are in
Pali. Verse novels are in Sanskrit and Pali.
Early modern period covers 19th and early 20th century: Prose and poetry are in Sanskrit, Palai,
French , Thai and English.

11.In the inscriptions the first part and the last parts are in Sanskrit. First par contains prayer to
Hindu gods. Last part contains warnings of punishment to marauders. All types of hells are
mentioned for those who destry the inscriptions or the properties.

Sanskrit Names
12.The educated elite of Cambodia read and wrote Sanskrit. It became the practice of to use
Sanskrit for all elevated linguistic activities. Names of dancers, singers, musicians and officials
were in Sanskrit. Few examples: Vasantamallika/Spring jasmine, Tanvangi/Slender
limbed,Sakhipriya/Beloved lady friend , officer Dharmaraksa/Protector of the Law.

13.Like Dhananjaya, Vikram and Vetal type stories are also prevalent. Satra kin Kantrai is a
collection of legal tales known also in Laos, Thailand and Burma. In each case the dispute cannot
be solved by a mere judge and has to be referred to the king. His judgements are wise and fair.
When two women claim to be the mother of a child, he settles the case very much as Solomon
the wise did. These stories show that even the stories were borrowed from India and improved

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later. If we compare all the folk tales of Cambodia, it will be a very interesting comparative
study.

14.Indra figures as the helping god in many stories. This shows that the cultural contacts began at
a very early date than the inscriptions show.

Tamil Names
15.Dhananjaya goes to China and he dupes even the emperor of China like Tenali Rama duped
the Emperor of Vijayanagara. He says to the king that he has an Indri bird (Which is really a toy
kite). The emperor heaps handsome presents upon him. References to Thais and Vietnamese are
noticeably lacking in the folk tales. But a proverb explains this
The monkey is constantly occupied with chewing
The Thais with their text books
The Vietnamese with their pretences
The pure Khmers with the truth.

16.My comments: We already know that the script used in all the South East Asian countries
went from South India. All the scripts are based on Pallava Grantha. Even the early architecture
looked like Pallava cave temple where from it went to South America. Brahmin Kaundinya must
have gone from Tamil Nadu. The famous Tamil Saint Tirunjana Sambandha also belonged to
Kaundinya Gotra and we have a few Kaundinya Brahmins in the list of Tamil Sangam poets. In
the folk tales we have typical Tamil name Kandhan as the captain of King Brahmadutt. Other
names of interest in the stories are Kamaraj, Aruna Raj, Krishnakumar etc. Feminine Saskrit
names like Chandra, Chitra, Padma etc are common to both parts of India.

17.The Pre Khmer inscriptions looked exactly similar to South Indian inscriptions; the order of
the matter was:

a) The date or name of the reigning king

b) The title and name of donors
c) The name of the God
d)Names of the people from whom the donor obtained the land to offer to the religious
foundation
e)Details of the price paid to those who relinquished the land
f)The extent, location and the capacity of the donated rice fields
g)The names of the slaves/workers donated with an indication of their duties
h)details of the subsistence to be given to the religious personnel
i)details of other lands given to the religious institution: orchards, gardens etc.
j)The list of the precious objects given to the foundation
k)the statement that the revenues are to be combined with those of another foundation
l)Warning of punishment for anyone using or abusing the belongings of the religious foundation.

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More research will bring out more interesting connections.

Today believe it or not, descendants of the Indian priest caste who brought their religion to
Cambodia centuries before Buddhism took root, the Brahmans served as mystics, clairvoyants,
advisers and clergy. They passed down their faith from one generation of men to the next, in a
chain of tradition that withstood centuries of warring regimes and even the cultural destruction
wreaked by the Khmer Rouge.
“Cambodia has Brahmanism in its history,” Ly Daravuth, director of Reyum Institute, explained.
“When the Indian entrance became effective, it brought in the Brahmans. Although there was
Buddhism, [there] has been Brahmanism all along—the state religion and the king’s religion.
Brahmanism has always been part of the Cambodian royalty,” he said.
Now, the burden of upholding that royal tradition falls on the gaunt, hunched shoulders of Kang
Ken, Cambodia’s head Brahman priest and a civil servant in the Ministry of the Royal Palace.
With his tall frame wrapped in the traditional white shirt and black trousers, and his long,
graying hair tied in a tight knot, Kang Ken, 55, leads seven other priests known as the Bakou
Borahet, the Brahmans of the King’s court.
“They consider the Brahman the teacher for the King—the royal teacher,” Kang Ken said, sitting
in an open-air performance hall inside the palace.
“The previous kings always got advice from Brahmans—they had Brahmans who could predict
the future and Brahmans who played other roles. The current-day kings: Sometimes they get
advice, sometimes they only get the blessing.”

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The priests are conspicuous for their unusual dress: They wear only white, black and red, and are
forbidden to cut their hair. Their duties include performing elaborate ceremonies: one for each
month, plus the annual plowing ceremony, another ritual near Khmer New Year, one on Pchum
Ben and others.
As late as the 1960s, the Brahmans were a highly visible element of palace life, said Alain Dan-
iel, who holds a doctorate in oriental literature and civilization.
“When I was here in the ’60s, there were quite a number of the Brahman priests who performed
the rites for every ceremony. At public events, they were there, using special instruments and
dressed in black and white and gold…. They were completely integrated into current life in
Cambodia.”
Khmer kings looked to the Brahmans to bring good fortune to the nation.
“If one year there was no rain, all of the kings of Cambodia—including King Norodom Siha-
nouk, and his father, King Norodom Suramrit—asked the Brahman priests to be an intermediary
with the Hindu gods, so that the rain would come,” Daniel said.
Kang Ken learned his craft from his father Kang Nhien, the former head priest who was “retired”
under Lon Nol after then-Prince Norodom Sihanouk was overthrown.
Kang Nhien was the last Brahman to serve before the Khmer Rouge took power.
Kang Ken said his entire family was spared under the Khmer Rouge regime—even though his
father refused to lie about his religious and political affiliations—a fate he attributes to divine
intervention. But the records and books that held the Brahman secrets did not fare so
well.
“For the Brahmans, they had responsibility for predicting about the future,” Kang Ken noted.
“But now they cannot, because all the documents and books were destroyed during the Pol Pot
regime.”
In the early 1990s, Kang Ken said, retired King Norodom Sihanouk dispatched representatives to
search for the remaining Brahmans and restore them to the palace. And, Kang Ken said simply,
“they found my father first.”
Now Kang Ken, who was appointed in 1993, keeps the faith as best he can with his fellow
priests, fostering a religion that has evolved into a uniquely Cambodian concoction that draws on
Buddhist and Hindu traditions.
The Brahmans are now as much government workers as they are religious leaders, and their roles
as the King’s advisers and clairvoyants are largely diminished.
In fact, Kang Ken said, he’s been drafted into office work in addition to his duties as priest.
“I have to work every day—no weekends off,” he said. “The Ministry of the Royal Palace is very
strict compared to other ministries.”
The Brahmans have homes outside the palace, and unlike Buddhist monks, they are allowed to
marry and have children, thereby keeping alive the practice through their family lines.
And for the Brahmans, that may be the greatest challenge of all.
Kang Ken admits that as a young man he had no desire to be a priest. Now, his three sons sound
much like their father.
“Traditionally, if I retire, maybe my son will continue this position, but it is very hard currently,
because the younger generation doesn’t want to wear this uniform,” Kang Ken said.
“I used to ask my sons many times to work here after I retire, but my sons have not said yes or
no,” he said. “But I told them, ‘If you love your family and the King, you must work as a Brah-
man.’”

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  Painting portrays the priest anointing the symbol of the Hindu god Siva in
rites sanctifying Jayavarman II as devaraja, or god-king.
 An inscription from the Sdok Kak Thom temple recounts that at
Mahendraparvata, Jayavarman II took part in a ritual by
the Brahman Hiranyadama, and his chief priest Lord Sivakaivalya, known
as devaraja which placed him as a chakravartin, Lord of the Universe.

The foundation of Hariharalaya near present-day Roluos was the first settlement in what
would later become the empire of Angkor.   Despite this key role in Khmer history, few
firm facts survive about Jayavarman. No inscriptions authored by him have been found, but
he is mentioned in numerous others, some of them written long after his death. He appears
to have been of aristocratic birth, beginning his career of conquest in the southeast of
present-day Cambodia. He may have been known as Jayavarman Ibis at that time. “For the
prosperity of the people in this perfectly pure royal race, great lotus which no longer has a
stalk, he rose like a new flower,” declares one inscription. Various other details are
recounted in inscriptions: he married a woman named Hyang Amrita; and he dedicated a
foundation at Lobok Srot, in the southeast.

Taken in sum, the record suggests that Jayavarman and his followers moved over the
course of some years from southeast Cambodia to the northwest, subduing various
principalities along the way. Historian Claude Jacques writes that he first seized the city
of Vyadhapura in the southeast, then pushed up the Mekong River to take Sambhupura. He
later installed himself at another city state, now known as Banteay Prei Nokor,[5]: 54  near

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present-day Kompong Cham. Jacques believes that from there he pressed on to Wat Pu,
seat of a city-state in present-day southern Laos, then moved along the Dangrek
Mountains to arrive in the Angkor region. Later he brought pressure on local Khmer
leaders located to the west, but they fought back and drove him to seek refuge on the
summit of present-day Phnom Kulen, about 50 kilometers east of Angkor, where the
Brahman declared the independent state. Jacques suggests that this step might have been
intended to affirm Jayavarman's authority in the face of strong resistance.
Once established in the Angkor region, he appears to have reigned not only in
Hariharalaya, located just north of the Tonle Sap lake, but also at a place that inscriptions
call Amarendrapura.   It has not been positively identified, though some historians believe it
to be a now lost settlement at the western end of the West Baray, the eight kilometer-long
holy reservoir that was built about two centuries after his death. No single temple is
positively associated with Jayavarman, but some historians suggest he may have built Ak
Yum, a brick stepped pyramid, now largely ruined, at the southern edge of the West Baray.
The temple was a forerunner to the mountain-temple architectural form of later Khmer
kings.

Sdok Kok Thom or Sdok Kak Thom, is an 11th-century Khmer temple in present-
day Thailand, located about 34 kilometres (21 mi) northeast of the Thai border town
of Aranyaprathet. The temple is in Khok Sung District, Sa Kaeo Province, near the village
of Ban Nong Samet. It is regarded as the largest Khmer temple in eastern Thailand.[1]The
temple was dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. Constructed by a prominent priestly family,
Sdok Kok Thom is best known as the original site of one of the most illuminating
inscriptions left behind by the Khmer Empire, which ruled much of Southeast Asia from
the end of the 9th century to the 15th century.
Built of red sandstone and laterite, the temple is a prime example of a provincial seat of
worship during the empire's golden age. It is small by the standards of the major
monuments in Angkor, the empire's capital, but shares their basic design and religious
symbolism. In its 11th century heyday during the reign of King Udayādityavarman II, the
temple was tended by its Brahmin patrons and supported with food and labor by the people
of surrounding rice-farming villages.
Scholars disagree as to the meaning of the name, which refers in Old Khmer to the temple's
setting. Translations include 'great reed lake', 'large reservoir with herons', and 'abundant
reeds in a large swamp'.
The inscription (classified K. 235) is a 340-line composition, in both Sanskrit and ancient
Khmer, carved on a gray sandstone stele 1.51 meters high that stood in the northeast corner
of the temple's court. Dating to 8 February 1053, it recounts two and a half centuries of
service that members of the temple's founding family provided to the Khmer court, mainly
as chief chaplains to kings. In laying out this long role, the text provides a remarkable and
often poetically worded look at the faith, royal lineage, history and social structure of the
times.

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Northeastern library. Photo c. 1980

The Sanskrit text opens: "Homage to Śiva whose essence is highly proclaimed without
words by the subtle Śiva, His form, who pervades (everything) from within and who
activates the senses of living beings." The inscription is perhaps most useful to historians in
providing an account of twelve Khmer kings who ruled over the course of the two and a
half centuries. It recounts monarchs' spiritual and martial virtues and basic events of their
reigns. “As a teacher zealously impels his disciples or a father his children, so did he, for
the sake of his duty, zealously impel his subjects, rightfully securing them protection and
nourishment,” says the inscription of Udayādityavarman II. “In battle he held a sword
which became red with the blood of the shattered enemy kings and spread on all sides its
rising lustre, as if it were a red lotus come out of its chalice [or, applied to the sword: drawn
out of its scabbard], which he had delightedly seized from the Fortune of war by holding
her by the hair(or better, correcting lakṣmyāḥ in to lakṣmyā: which the Fortune of war, after
he had seized her hair, had delightedly offered him).”

The earliest king mentioned is Jayavarman II, who historians generally consider, partly on
the authority of this inscription, to have founded the Khmer empire in c. 800. [5]: 97  The text
includes the oft-cited detail that he came from a country named Java which meanwhile by
most scholars, such as Charles Higham, was seen as a foreign people living in the east
whose name is derived probably from Sanskrit yavana (wise), perhaps referring to the
kingdom of Champa. The Khmer portion of the text goes on to say: “A Brahman named
Hiraṇyadāman, skilled in magic and science," was invited by the king "to perform a
ceremony that would make it impossible for this country of the Kambuja to pay any
allegiance to Java and that there should be, in this country, one sole sovereign.”
The inscription documents nine generations of the temple's priestly family, starting with
Śivakaivalya, Jayavarman II's chaplain. The advisors are praised in the same adulatory tone
as is employed for the kings. The text gives a detailed account of how the family
systematically expanded its holdings of land and other property over the course of its long
relationship with the royal household. The final chaplain named in the text, Sadasiva, is
recorded as leaving the holy orders and marrying a sister of the primary queen of
Suryavarman. The man was given a new name and placed in charge of construction
projects. His career appears to have closed out the family's role in the royal inner circle; the
family is never heard from again in inscriptions.

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Scholars have paid special attention to the inscription's account of the cult of the devarāja, a
key part of the Khmer court's religious ritual. “Hiraṇyadāma(n), the best of brahmins, with
superior intelligence like Brahmā, came, moved with compassion. To the king Jayavarman
II he carefully revealed a magic which had not been obtained by other people,” the text
reads. The king was instructed in four holy treatises. “After carefully extracting the
quintessence of the treatises by his experience and understanding of the mysteries, this
brahmin contrived the magic rites bearing the name of Devarāja, for increasing the
prosperity of the world.” But the description is sufficiently enigmatic that scholars cannot
agree on the cult's function. The term means obviously "king of the gods," in the sense that
one god, generally Śiva, was recognized as higher than others in the Hindu pantheon and
through his authority brought order to heaven. Court religious ritual, as described
repeatedly in the inscription, focused on maintaining a linga, or holy shaft, in which Śiva's
essence was believed to reside.

The inscription is also key to understanding important events in Khmer history, such as the
late 9th Century relocation of the capital from the area around the present-day village of
Roluos. “Again, the skillful Vāmaśiva was the preceptor of Śrī Yaśovardhana, bearing as
king the name Śrī Yaśovarman,” the Sanskrit text states. “Invited by the king, he erected a
liṅga Mount Yaśodhara, which was like the king of mountains (Meru) in beauty.” French
scholars initially believed that Śrī Yaśodharagiri was the mountain-like Bayon temple. But
it is now established that the Bayon was built almost three centuries later than the event
described in the inscription and that the linga was in fact placed in the newly
constructed Phnom Bakheng temple, which stands about two kilometers south of the Bayon
atop a real hill.

The text also notes the relocation of the capital from Angkor to the site now known as Koh
Ker under Jayavarman IV, and turmoil during the times of King Sūryavarman I. He is
described as having dispatched soldiers against people who had desecrated shrines in the
area of Sdok Kok Thom. Historians generally believe that Sūryavarman fought his way to
power, eventually driving out of Angkor a king named Jayavīravarman (who significantly
is not mentioned in the inscription).

Elsewhere, the text provides myriad details of everyday existence in the empire—the
establishment of new settlements, the recovery of slaves who had fled a pillaged settlement,
payments given for land, such as gold, lower garments, goats and water buffaloes.

The text describes the creation of Sdok Kok Thom itself. The family was gifted the land by
Udayādityavarman II, it says. The final member of the line, now in his role as construction
chief, "erected a stone temple with valabhi [spire], dug a reservoir, built dikes and laid out
fields and gardens." The precise boundaries of its land and the size, duty schedules and
male-female breakdown of local work teams that maintained the temple are listed.
Khmer inscriptions were created in part to glorify heaven and the earthly elite. For that
reason, their value as factual records is often thrown into question. But many parts of this
one are confirmed by other texts, and some of the places it describes have been reliably
located. Moreover, many of its numbers and descriptions, particularly concerning land and
its ownership, read as if they have the full accuracy and authority of modern courthouse

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 documents. Overall, there is general consensus among scholars that the words chiseled out
at Sdok Kok Thom are perhaps the most important written explanation that the Khmer
empire provided of itself.

The inscription's author or authors are not named. Many scholars conclude firmly that
Sadasiva wrote it, at least his lineage, Sak-Humphry believes the text was likely drafted in
consultation with the Brahman. The most valuable inscription concerning Jayavarman II is
the one dated in 1052 AD, two centuries after his death, and found at the Sdok Kak
Thom temple in present-day Thailand. “When His Majesty Paramesvara came from Java to
reign in the royal city of Indrapura,…Sivakaivalya, the family’s purohit, was serving as his
guru and held the post of royal chaplain to His Majesty,” states the inscription, using the
king’s posthumous name.[11] In a later passage, the text says that a Brahman named
Hiranyadama, “proficient in the lore of magic power, came from Janapada in response to
His Majesty’s having invited him to perform a sublime rite which would release
Kambujadesa [the kingdom] from being any longer subject to Java.” The text also recounts
the creation of the cult of the devaraja, the key religious ceremony in the court of
Jayavarman and subsequent Khmer people.

[Some inscription referring to King Jayavarman II]

"Then a brahman named Hiranyadama, skilled in magic science, came from Janapada,
because H. M. Paramesvara had invited him to perform a ceremony that would make it
impossible for this country of Kambuja to pay any allegiance to Java and that there should
be, in this country, one sole sovereign, who should be cakravartin."

"Then H. M. Paramesvara came from Java to be Kurung in the holy city of Indrapura. The
steng an Sivakaivalya, wise ancestor, was the guru, was the rajapurohita of His Majesty
Paramesvara"

"Then His Majesty was Kurung on the site of the royal city of Hariharalaya. The steng an
Sivakaivalya resided also in this city. As for his family, they were made pages of the King"

Angkor wat is the main and biggest temple complex in the old Angkor Thom city.
1). There are no “pujaris” (Hindu) at Angkor Wat. Though there are some Buddha-Bikshus -
they don’t know Sanskrit (I personally tried to converse with them and no body had a clue - this
was in 2015)
2). The main Vishnu “murti”is not in the main temple but in the museum.
3). The “garba-griham” (sanctum sanctorum) is permanently closed with stone slabs and in the
North side (there are 4 sides) they have installed a large Buddha statue outside “garba-griham”.
4). Cambodia as a nation largely depends on revenue from tourism - particularly the Siem Reap
province (border with Thailand) and Angkor Thom (Angkor dham).
5). There are 4 large temple complexes in Angkor Thom (the ancient city of Khmer dynasty) -
“Angkor wat” (Vishnu), “Baphuon” (Shiva), “Taprohm” (Brahma) and “Prasat Bayon”
(Avalokiteshwara). Except Angkor Wat - rest of the temples are in very bad shape.

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6). Indian Government’s ASI is funding and helping Cambodian Government to restore these
temples. The ‘Taprohm’ (Brahma) is being restored with the help from Chinese.
7). One of my contact is a curator in Angkor Wat, Cambodia - he studied archaeology in India.
He knows a bit of Sanskrit - other than that hardly anybody in the temple complex know
Sanskrit.
8). There are more Sanskrit knowing people in Thailand than in Cambodia.
BRAHMIN POWER IN CAMBODIAS
Tamil and Vedas- Tamil and Sanskrit names in Cambodian Inscriptions and Folktales

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Tamil and Sanskrit names in Cambodian Inscriptions and Folktales South East Asian countries
were ruled by Hindu kings for over one thousand years. Influence of Sanskrit language is seen
everywhere, but Tamil influence was not noticed by many. When I read two books written by
Judith M Jacob, senior lecturer at SOAS, University of London, I made some marginal notes and
I give them below:-
Slave names in Cambodian inscriptions have beautiful Tamil and Sanskrit names. Some
musicians and dancers have very poetic names e.g Vasanta mallika, (spring jasmine) in Khmer
inscription K 557.
We may compare it with the 400 beautiful names in Rajaraja Choza inscriptions in Thanjavur.
He had given the names of all the 400 dancers employed in the big Hindu temple. Some of them
are beautiful Tamil names and others were beautiful Sanskrit names.

Slaves in Cambodia were treated as ‘goods’ possessed by an owner. They were gifted to temples
along with lands and other goods.
A case suggesting two dependent parents is recorded on inscription K904,A1.23,
“me kandan, ta kandan ku Kandan” meaning mother of Kandan, father of Kandan.
Kandan is a Tamil name derivedfrom Sanskrit Skanda.
Va and Ku are used frequently in inscriptions, Va is Mr and Ku is Mrs or Miss.
In folk tales Kandhan , with Tamil spelling, Kam Raj, Krishna Kumar and Suvanna Kumar (
Swarnakumara) are used. Though these names are Tamilized Sanskrit words these are more
common in Tamil Nadu than other parts of India.

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Order of details in Inscriptions
Pre-Angkor inscriptions followed the same order in giving details like India. Here also we see
Indian influence.
The date or name of the reigning king;
The title and name of donors;
The name of the god;
Names of the people from whom the donor obtained land to offer to the foundation;
The extent, location, capacity of the donated rice fields;
The names of the donated slaves with an indication of their duties;
Details of the subsistence given to the religious personnel;
Details of other lands given to the foundation, orchards, market, garden etc
List of precious objects given to the foundation;
The statement s that the revenues are to be combined with those of another foundation ;
Warning of punishment for anyone using or abusing the belongings of the foundation.
King Vikramaditya
‘Satra keng kantrai’ is a collection of legal tales known also in Laos, Thailand and Burma. In

194
each case the dispute cannot be solved by a mere judge and has to be referred to the king. His
judgments are wise and fair. When two women claim to be the mother of one child, for example,
he settles the case very much as Solomon did.
It is like our Vikramaditya, a wise and just king.

Tamil Anangu
The frequent appearances in the stories of spirits ‘anak ta’ always associated with a specific
locality such as a strangely shaped tree trunk or huge rock may be compared with ‘Thaakku
Anangu’ in Sangam Tamil literature and Brahmarakshas in Sanskrit literature. This shows clear
Indian influence. (Thaaku Anangu= Anak Ta)
When we look at all these stories we come across Sanskrit or Tamil words or parallel Indian
stories. That shows even Solomon’s stories are borrowed from India and adapted.
Dhananjay
‘Themen Chey’ is a story known in Cambodia, Burma and Thailand. It is the corrupted form of
Dhananjayan, one of the popular names of Arjuna. Also a common name among business
community of Tamil Nadu. In the story, he is a poor boy who rises first to be the servant of a rich
man, then to attend upon the king, and finally to be the most eminent man in the land.
–subham–

Brahmin Power in South East Asian Countries-

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Pictures shown here are taken from various sources such as Facebook friends, Books,
Google and newspapers; thanks. Pictures may be subject to copyright laws.

Brahmin Power in Cambodia ,Thailand Burma and Vietnam

Brahmins maintained powerful hierarchy for many centuries. They were well organised. They
came there around fifth century and increased in number due to a constant flow of immigrants
from India. During the reign of Yasovarman 889 CE, Saivism was predominant. We learn from
the following inscription that they enjoyed a position similar to that which was theirs in India.

The king,well versed in kingly duties, performed Koti Homa and Yajnas, for which he gave the
priest s magnificent presents of jewels, gold etc.

The cult of the Royal God, though founded by Jayavarman II, 802 CE, did not reach the heights
of its development until two centuries after wards, and was especially associated with
Vaishnavism and the temple of Angkor Wat. This cult led Brahmins enjoying even more exalted
position . The priest hood became hereditary in the family of Sivakaivalya, who enjoyed
immense power. This sacerdotal dynasty almost threw the royal dynasty into the shade.
Brahmins were depicted on the reliefs of Angkor Wat and Coedes has identified Drona and
Visvamitra amongst them. In one of the relief s which illustrates a royal procession, it is
interesting that the Brahmins were the only onlookers who do not prostrate before the king, as
was also the case in India. In the reliefs aristocracy wear the chignon and the lower castes short
hair.
One remarkable sign of the power of the Brahmins was that they had even marriage alliances
with the princesses. Bakus, the descendants of ancient Brahmins, chose one from them to
succeed if the royal family failed.

As early as the reign of Jayavarman V, Buddhism and Hinduism got mixed and the Brahmin
purohitas were expected to be well versed in Buddhist prayers and rites. But the Brahmin s of
Cambodia never sank so low as did those of Campa (modern Vietnam). In the Po Nagar
inscription of Campa, we read that the feet of the king were worshiped,even by Brahmins and
priests.

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In Thailand

Though the religion of Thailand was Buddhism the royalty recruited Brahmin s from Cambodia.
For centuries Brahmin s enjoyed quite an important position.
The famous inscription dated about 1361 CE of King Dharma Raja mentioned the kings
knowledge of the Vedas and of astronomy. The inscription on the Siva statue found at Kamben
bejra recorded the desire of King Dharmasokaraja,(1510 CE), to exalt both Hinduism and
Buddhism.

Brahmins had access to sacred books and law books and so they served the royal s in various
capacities. The epigraph ic records demonstrate the powerful influence of purohitas in Burma
and Cambodia, where they often served under successive rulers and provided continuity to the
government in troubled times. In ninth century Angkor, for instance, Indravarman I had the
service of Sivasoma, who studied VedantA under Shankara.

Indian Brahmins are occasionally mentioned in the south East Asian inscription s and one
wondered how Brahmins travelled abroad when Manu and other lawmakers ban foreign travel
for Brahmins. These prohibitions may have had little practical effect, and would n of have
deterred ambitious men lured by the hope of honour and fortune in a distant land. In fact they
were invited by some rulers.

Not only in the Hindu courts in Cambodia but also in the courts of Pagan in Burma and Sukothai
in Thailand, the Brahmins conducted great ceremonies,such as the Royal Consecration and-
functioned as ministers and counsellors . The grand ceremony in Pagan required the services of
numerous Brahmins.In Cambodia Jayavarman VIII built a temple for the scholar priest
Jayamangalaartha and likewise for the Brahmin Vidyesavid. Who became Royal sacrificial
Priest. The Chinese visitor Chou Ta kuan refers to the presence of Brahmins wearing sacred
thread.

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We have evidence of use of Sanskrit even in Sri Lanka. Thirteenth century work Kundamala was
composed in Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, according to some scholars.

Source: Source books- From Turfan to Ajanta, Edited by Eli Franco and Monika Zin, Lumbini
International Research Institute, Nepal;2010

Sanskrit and Tamil Words in Cambodian Language

Cambodians or Khmers are a race of people occupying the Mekong (Ma Ganga) River basin
what was known as Indo-China but now is South East Asia. The racial and linguistic family to
which the Cambodians belong is known as the Mon-Khmer family. Indians came from the
second century CE to trade and later to settle on the west coast of Indo China.

Funan= Panavan=Punal: Tamil Connection

1)The first Khmer texts, inscriptions of the 7th and 8th centuries CE gave practical information
about religious foundations while Sanskrit was used for composing the panegyrics of Gods and
kings. Khmers regarded Sanskrit as the language of literature.
2)From the Chinese annals we learn that there was an indianized state called Funan in south of
Cambodia.
(My comments: The word Funan may mean Panavan (Pandya title) or Punal Nadu (water
country in Tamil). The reason for my conclusion is the first king of Vietnam (Champa) was Sri
Maran, a Pandya king (Tiru maran in Sangam literature)
3)The Indian connection is reflected in the legend which tells how an Indian, the Brahmin
Kaundinya, came to Cambodia and married Soma, the daughter of the king of the Nagas.
(My comments: Tamil and Sanskrit literature describe all lands lying beyond east of India or
South of India as Nagalokam. If it is further away from South East Asia they called those lands
Patala Lokam (Under world).

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Reason for the name Kamboja/Cambodia

4)Another legend relates that the hermit Kambu Swayambuva married the heavenly nymph
Mera, a gift of the god Siva. This gave them the name Kambojas for the people.

5)Finally at the end of ninth century CE there was the beginning of the Angkor kingdom which
built the world famous monuments including Angkorwat. The earliest dated inscriptions are 611
CE (Khmer) and 613 (Sanskrit) but there were earlier dated Sanskrit inscriptions in
Champa/Vietnam

6)We know the names of six poets who wrote in Sanskrit during Angkor period. Indian epics
were read even before this period.

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New Ramayana

7)The Ramakerti (16th century CE) presents Ram as the Buddha, but lot of Hindu gods are
referred to. Like Indians, Cambodians also worshiped the spirits inhabiting the rocks and trees.

8)Apart from writing on stone, the Khmers wrote on palm leaf. The Latania palm leaves were
first treated to make them supple. An iron stylus was used to engrave the writing. The oldest
manuscripts were preserved at a monastery in Battambang.

9) The Khmers have lively interest in the use of words. They were praised fr their riddles. The
hero of the folk tales and riddles was Thmenh Chey (Sanskrit name Dhananjaya). He was like
the great Tenali Rama, court jester of Vijayanagara emperor Krishna Deva raya. Dhanajaya
saves Cambodia from the Chinese by answering all the three riddles sent by king of China. There
are hundreds of stories about Dhanamjaya.
The names in Ramakerti are Rab for Ravana, Laks for Lakshmana, Hemavant for the Himalayas.
The end of Ramayana is changed in this work. Ram asked Lakshmana to execute Sita in the
forest. When Lava and kusa went to Rama’s court one was arrested and released later. Sita was
asked to go to Ayodhya. She refused and went to the underworld when falsely told that Rama
was dead

Khmer Dictionary

10)The Khmer lexicon includes a large body of fully integrated loan words, principally from
Sanskrit and Pali languages of India.
First period covers Pre Angkor and Angkor periods (7th to 14th centuries CE): we find
inscriptions on stone in Sanskrit and Pali.
Second period covers the Middle period (16th to 19th centuries CE): Inscriptions on stone are in
Pali. Verse novels are in Sanskrit and Pali.
Early modern period covers 19th and early 20th century: Prose and poetry are in Sanskrit, Palai,
French , Thai and English.

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11.In the inscriptions the first part and the last parts are in Sanskrit. First par contains prayer to
Hindu gods. Last part contains warnings of punishment to marauders. All types of hells are
mentioned for those who destry the inscriptions or the properties.

Sanskrit Names
12.The educated elite of Cambodia read and wrote Sanskrit. It became the practice of to use
Sanskrit for all elevated linguistic activities. Names of dancers, singers, musicians and officials
were in Sanskrit. Few examples: Vasantamallika/Spring jasmine, Tanvangi/Slender
limbed,Sakhipriya/Beloved lady friend , officer Dharmaraksa/Protector of the Law.

13.Like Dhananjaya, Vikram and Vetal type stories are also prevalent. Satra kin Kantrai is a
collection of legal tales known also in Laos, Thailand and Burma. In each case the dispute cannot
be solved by a mere judge and has to be referred to the king. His judgements are wise and fair.
When two women claim to be the mother of a child, he settles the case very much as Solomon
the wise did.

14.Indra figures as the helping god in many stories. This shows that the cultural contacts began at
a very early date than the inscriptions show.

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Tamil Names

15.Dhananjaya goes to China and he dupes even the emperor of China like Tenali Rama duped
the Emperor of Vijayanagara. He says to the king that he has an Indri bird (Which is really a toy
kite). The emperor heaps handsome presents upon him. References to Thais and Vietnamese are
noticeably lacking in the folk tales. But a proverb explains this
The monkey is constantly occupied with chewing
The Thais with their text books
The Vietnamese with their pretences
The pure Khmers with the truth.

16. My comments: We already know that the script used in all the South East Asian countries
went from South India. All the scripts are based on Pallava Grantha. Even the early architecture
looked like Pallava cave temple where from it went to South America. Brahmin Kaundinya must
have gone from Tamil Nadu. The famous Tamil Saint Tirunjana Sambandha also belonged to
Kaundinya Gotra and we have a few Kaundinya Brahmins in the list of Tamil Sangam poets. In
the folk tales we have typical Tamil name Kandhan as the captain of King Brahmadutt. Other
names of interest in the stories are Kamaraj, Aruna Raj, Krishnakumar etc. Feminine Saskrit
names like Chandra, Chitra, Padma etc are common to both parts of India.
17.The Pre Khmer inscriptions looked exactly similar to South Indian inscriptions; the order of
the matter was
1.a) The date or name of the reigning king
2.b) The title and name of donors
3.c) The name of the God
d)Names of the people from whom the donor obtained the land to offer to the religious
foundation
e)Details of the price paid to those who relinquished the land
f)The extent, location and the capacity of the donated rice fields
g)The names of the slaves/workers donated with an indication of their duties
h)details of the subsistence to be given to the religious personnel
i)details of other lands given to the religious institution: orchards, gardens etc.
j)The list of the precious objects given to the foundation
k)the statement that the revenues are to be combined with those of another foundation
l)Warning of punishment for anyone using or abusing the belongings of the religious foundation.

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Sanskrit Inscriptions in South East Asia!

Over 1250 inscriptions are discovered so far in South East Asian countries. Majority of them are
in Sanskrit language. Ancient Cambodia, known as Kingdom of Khmer covered most of the area
in South East Asia. Champa, what is now known as Vietnam, has the oldest Sanskrit inscription.
Since the name on the inscription is Sri Mara, I have interpreted it as the name of a Pandyan king
in my research article “A Tamil king who ruled Vietnam” — posted here on Sept 13 , 2011.
This is what I wrote,
“The inscription is known as Vo-Chanh Inscription. It was inscribed on a rock as two parts. This
is about the donation made by the family of the king Sri Maran. We have fifteen lines on one part
of the rock and seven more lines on the other side. Of these only nine lines are readable. Scholars
who took a copy of the inscription say the poetry part is in Vasantha Thilaka metre in Sanskrit
and rest is in prose.
The king donated all his property to the people who were close to him and ordered that it should
be honoured by the future kings. The inscription ends abruptly. But we could read the words ‘Sri
Mara raja kula’ very clearly. Though we couldn’t get much information about this king from
other sources, Chinese historians confirmed that the Hindu empire that existed in Vietnam, Laos
and Cambodia started with Sri Maran”.
Over 800 Sanskrit inscriptions were found in S.E.Asia until fifty years ago. Now more and more
inscriptions are discovered. Even a new underground city is discovered in 2013.
Cambodia has made unique contributions to Sanskrit literature especially in poetry according to
Dr M K Charan. He says, “The writers demonstrated full knowledge of various Indian sects.
They mastered the rhetorical and literary conventions like puns, alliterations, similes etc. and
virtually employed all the varied metres of Sanskrit poetics.
Cambodian epigraphy used both Sanskrit and old Khmer languages. They considered Sanskrit as
a sacred language and so used it to record royal genealogies, panegyrics of the founders of
monuments and donors, while old Khmer and Cambodian were used for the details which
followed. Even in South India writers used Sanskrit and Tamil in the same way. Sanskrit verses
praised the king and his Vamsavali (genealogy) whereas the Tamil section gave minute details of
the donation, the extension of the land or the gifts to temples or the Brahmins.

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298 verses in one inscription! -Saivite Sanskrit Inscription

Since the Cambodian inscriptions covers a vast area covering several modern S. E. Asian
countries and period of 800 years from 7th century to 14th century CE, we can’t expect uniformity
in the language of the inscriptions.
“We have positive evidence about the flourishing state of Sanskrit language during a span of
more than 800 years. Verses composed during the period of Jayavarman and Yasovarman
conform to Panini’s rules because the composers had a thorough knowledge of grammar”, says
DR MK Charan. Many of the Sanskrit verses are so beautiful that we do not find their parallel in
India. A new Kavya style named Manohara has been referred to in the Pre rup inscription.
Inscriptions are in beautiful and flawless Kavya style. They exhibit a thorough knowledge of
different metres and most developed rues and conventions of rhetoric and prosody.

Buddhist Inscription/Pallava Grantha Script

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The oldest inscription found in Cambodia is of fifth century CE. Out of the five verses contained
in this inscription, four are in sardulavikridita metre and one shows familiarity with Hindu
mythology. Some of the inscriptions are very big compositions. The Prasusti of Rajendravarman
which contains 298 verses excess all others in size.
J F Stall says, “The Vocañh inscription is written in regular Sanskrit prose, and most of the
inscriptions from Cambodia are written in a more correct form of Sanskrit than that which is
used in some of the inscriptions from India. The reason for this may be that the Cambodians
learned Sanskrit from grammar books and not from native speakers. The Indian grammarian
Panini is in fact honoured by being mentioned in these inscriptions; other linguistic works are
referred to as well”.
Jean-Michel Filippi, Professor of Linguistics at Royal Phnom Penh University wrote in June
2013, “Cambodian inscriptions make you feel dizzy: new inscriptions are still regularly found
and they are very far from having been translated and commented upon.
The implications of this fact are obvious: Cambodian general history may well be known, but
there remains very many obscure points which will only be made clear when the inscriptions are
deciphered. Thus there is a strong chance that a book about pre-Angkor or Angkor Cambodia
written 20 years ago may be simply refuted by the discovery or the deciphering of an
inscription”.

Pallava Grantha Script

Lakshminarayana dasa and Bhaktin Kaunteya of Iskcon, Cambodia, are writing about research in
this area and add
“In the beginning of Christian era, Khmer language was only a spoken language. In other terms,
at that time, the Khmer did not know how to write. The ancient Khmers borrowed the Indic
script to record their own language. So the modern Khmer language is written in a script, which
is borrowed from India. It is precisely the Grantha Brahmi script, which is the mother of modern
Khmer script. Cambodia has also adopted the Devanagari script and Pallava Grantha script in
order to develop its actual alphabets. In the present day Cambodian, about seventy percent words
are borrowed from Sanskrit. Such common words as dhanagara (bank), durasabda
(telephone),bhasa (language), etc are derived from Sanskrit.
Sanskrit was the court language of the Khmer Empire for more than thousand years. All the royal
orders, land transactions, temple administration were recorded in Sanskrit. Slowly the Khmer
language shared this role in course of centuries. So after seventh century we find inscriptions
partly written in Sanskrit and partly in Khmer.

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About 1250 inscriptions have been discovered from the Ancient Angkor Empire. The majority is
written in Sanskrit. The aim of the present research is to explore various aspects of cultural
relations between India and Cambodia as presented in the epigraphic literature of this country”
Sources:–
Studies in Sanskrit Inscriptions of Ancient Cambodia by M K Charan, 1974
Articles by J F Stall, Jean-Michel Filiippi and Iskcon, Cambodia.
Who is Dhananjayan?

Vo Canh Inscription in Vietnam (Champa) RIGHT

Picture: Dhananjayan with folded hands on left & Pandya king on the right.
I was fascinated by the name DHANANJAYAN when I found it in Mahabharata, Alupa coins,
Cambodian folk tales, Vishnu Sahasranama, Nagas and history of Madurai Meenakshi temple. I
also knew that Dhanajayans are famous names in Bharatanatyam. But I was provoked to do some
research in to it when I read Dhanajayan under baby names it is the name of Murugan (Lord
Skanda). I think it is wrong because I found no proof for that claim.

The most famous Dhanajayan was Arjuna. One of his ten names was Dhanajayan. If the roar of
thunder is heard, Hindus used to recite the ten names of Arjuna to avoid thunder striking them.
Arjuna got this name when he won the wealth (Dhanam= wealth, Jayan= victor) of Uttarakuru
country in the north.

Bhagavad Gita Dhanajayan

The name Dhananjayan comes in Vishnu Sahasranama (couplet 70) as one of the names of Lord
Vishnu. The meaning according to Sahasranama bhasyam is:
“Arjuna is called so because by his conquest of the kingdoms in the four quarters, he acquired
great wealth (Dhanam). Arjuna is a Vibhuti, a glorious manifestation of the Lord, according to
the statement of the Gita (10:57): Panadavanam dhananjaya:–among the Pandavas, I am
Dhananjaya, says Krishna.”

Pandya Dhanajaya on Coins:

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The Alupas, one of the very ancient dynasties of Karnataka, ruled for over a thousand years in
the coastal tract of Karnataka. Even Ptolemy (79 to 168 AD) refers to the Alupas. They are
referred to in the famous Halmidi (500 AD) inscription. The Alupas belonged to the lunar race
and had fish as their royal emblem, exactly like the Pandyas of Madurai. Among the most
important titles of the Alupas, were Pandita Pandya and Pandya Dhananjaya. This has been
found on coins and inscriptions in Kannada. This shows Pandyas were very familiar with the
name Dhanajaya. This takes us to the history of Madurai Meenakshi Temple.

Picture of Golden Lotus tank in Madurai Temple

Dhanajaya statue in Madurai

The story of the world famous Madurai Meenakshi Temple begins with a merchant called
Dhananjaya. (Please read my article THE WONDER THAT IS MADURAI MEENAKSHI
TEMPLE in this blog). A merchant by this name travelled to a neighbouring town and returned
to his home town Manavur through the thick forest of Kadamaba trees. Since the sun was already
set he took rest under a tree. Suddenly he saw bright lights. He hid himself and watched Indra
and other angels from the heaven came down to earth doing Puja to a Linga (formless Shiva). He
was so excited and reported it to the Pandya king Kulasekara the very next morning. The king
visited the place with all his retinue immediately and built a temple over the Shiva Lingam and a
city slowly came up around this temple. Anyone can see Madurai as a well planned city in the
shape of squares within squares round the temple. It is called lotus city.
The statue of Dhanjaya is in the Golden Lotus Tank pillar inside Maduari temple. This story is
narrated in Thiru Vilayadal Puranam in Tamil.
Surprise from Cambodia
Mahabharata’s character Arjuna had good connection with the south of India by marrying
Chitrangada. They had a son by name Babruvahana/bull vehicle which also links to Shiva whose
vehicle is a bull. When we read that Dhananjaya Pandya in Karnataka and Dhannjaya’s early
connection with Manalur, the previous capital of Pandya, we see a link between Arjuna-Pandya-
Dhananjaya-fish symbol- Bull Vahana/vehicle etc. This calls for deeper research in to this area.

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Picture of Halmidi Kannada inscription
The next surprise comes from Cambodia. If someone sees names like Rama, Krishna, Buddha in
Cambodia one won’t be surprised because we have a history of Hindu rule in South East Asia for
1300 years. (Please read my article THE PANDYA KING WHO RULED VIETNAM). This
Dhananjayan is neither a king nor a historical figure. But he was a jester in a folk tale. The
famous stories of Tenali Rama are duplicated in Cambodia by replacing Tenali Rama’s name
with Dhananjaya. How did his name travel that far from India and how did he become a jester or
clown is a mystery. This calls for more research.

Judith Jacob in her book ‘Cambodian linguistics, literature and history’ says:
“Thmenh Chey (Dhmen Jay or Dhananjay) is a story known also in Burma and Thailand.
Thmenh Jay is a poor boy who rise, first to be the servant of a rich man, then to upon to attend
the king and finally to be the most eminent man in the land. All this he does by his wits and in
particular by outwitting his current master in verbal adroitness”.
I have read some of the stories and they are very similar to stories of Tenali Rama.
Asvagosha’s Dhanajaya
Asvagosha was one of the great writers of ancient India. He lived in the period of Kushan
emperor in first century AD. Unlike other Buddhist writers he wrote in Sanskrit. Many Kavyas
and dramas are attributed to him. One of the characters in Asvagosha’s drama was Dhananjaya!
Probably Cambodian’s followed this fictional character to create their jester.

More Dhananjayans
Dhananjayan is a famous name in Bharatnatyam in Chennai. The couple started their own school
in their names. The ancient Djhanajayas include the son of Naga woman Kadru, a Jain author
who wrote ‘Dhananjayam’ and a commander in Lord Muruga’s army. This is the only link with
Muruga/Skanda. Dhanajayan is one of the names of Agni/fire. Since Vedas connect Agni to Lord
Skanda/Murugan we may see some distant link to Murugan.
Divākarapaṇḍita, original name Divākara, (born 1040, Cambodia—died c. 1120), Hindu of the
Brahman (priestly) caste who rose through religious and administrative ranks to serve four

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Cambodian kings—Harshavarman II, Jayavarman VI, Dharanindravarman I, and the great
Suryavarman II—and who was the most trusted adviser to three of them.
The highly opportunistic Divākara was able not only to survive the successive usurpations of
monarchies but also to ingratiate himself with each new sovereign. Divākarapaṇḍita played a
singular role in Cambodian history, for it was at his urging that Suryavarman II began
construction of the temple of Angkor Wat, one of the world’s largest religious edifices and
certainly one of the greatest achievements of ancient Khmer, or Cambodian, civilization. One of
the monuments of Angkor Wat commemorates this powerful Brahman.

Many historical rulers came from other castes, or were descended from non-Hindu foreign
conquerors, and were either granted de facto Kshatriya status by virtue of the power they held, or
they created fictionalized family histories to connect themselves to past Kshatriya rulers. For
instance, the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Paradas, and so on, were foreign invaders
from the northwest, but were assimilated into the Indian community as Kshatriyas.

 Though the Ashtadhyayi of Panini (sutra 4.1.168-175) attests that the Kamboja
and Gandhara were very important Kshatriya kingdoms of Uttarapatha during or prior to
Paninian times (500 B.C.E.), they came to be regarded as Sudras for not following the
teachings of the Vedas.
 The Manusmriti, written about 200 C.E. states that the Sakas (Scythians), Yavanas
(Ionian, Indo-Greeks), Kambojas (Central Asians), Paradas (Sinkiang), Pahlavas
(Persians), Kiratas (Nepal, Assam), Dravidas, Thevar (Tamil), and Daradas were
originally noble Kshatriyas but were relegated to the Barbaric (Vrishala) status due to
their neglect of the Brahmanas as well as due to their non-observance of the sacred
Brahmanical codes (X/43-44).
 Anushasanaparava of the Mahabharata also views the Sakas, Kambojas and the
Yavanas. in the same light. Patanjali in his Mahabhasya regards the Sakas and Yavanas
as pure Sudras (II.4.10).
 The Vartika of the Katyayana informs us that the kings of the Sakas and the Yavanas,
like those of the Kambojas, may also be addressed by their respective tribal names.
 The Mahabharata also associates the Sakas, Yavanas, Gandharas (Northwest India),
Kambojas (Pamir-Badakshan), Pahlavas, Tusharas, Sabaras, Barbaras, Dravidas, and
Boyars, and so on, and addresses them all as the barbaric tribes of Uttarapatha.
 The Kishkindha Kanda of the Ramayana locates the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, and the
Paradas in the extreme north-west beyond the Himavat (that is, Hindukush) (43/12) in the
Shakadvipa, adjoining the land of Uttarakurus.
 The Udyogaparava of the Mahabharata (MBH 5/19/21-23) tells us that the composite
army of the Kambojas, Yavanas and Sakas had participated in the Mahabharata war
under the supreme command of Sudakshina Kamboja. The epic repeatedly applauds this
composite army as being very fierce and wrathful. Some verses of Mahabharata also
attest that the Tusharas or Tukharas were also included in the Kamboja division (for
example, MBH 6.66.17-21; MBH 8.88.17).
 Puranic accounts attest that the Dravidas are Kshatriyas and are said to be descendants of
the sons of Vishwamitra. Like the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Daradas, Khashas, and so
on, the Dravidas were recorded as Kshatriyas who no longer were initiated into the sacred

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 thread due to their neglect of the Brahmanas as well as due to their non-observance of the
sacred Brahmanical codes.

Within the complex and multifaceted world of Hindu symbolism, the Kshatriyas class is
represented by the Nyagrodha Banyan tree and the danda (staff). When a Kshatriya undergoes
his initiation ceremony, a "staff made of [the aforementioned] wood is given to
the Kshatriya initiate with a mantra imparting physical vitality or 'ojas'".

Mahajanapadas
The gaṇa sangha form of government was a oligarchic republic during the period of
the Mahajanapadas (c. 600-300 BCE), that was ruled by Kshatriya clans. However, these
kshatriyas did not follow the Vedic religion, and were sometimes called degenerate Kshatriyas or
Shudras by Brahmanical sources. The kshatriyas served as representatives in the assembly at the
capital, debated various issues put before the assembly.[17] Due to the lack of patronage of Vedic
Brahmanism, the kshatriyas of the gana sanghas were often patrons of Buddhism and Jainism.
In the kingdoms of the Mahajanapadas, the king claimed kshatriya status through the Vedic
religion. While kings claimed to be kshatriya, some kings came from non-kshatriya origins.
After the Mahajanapada period, most of the prominent royal dynasties in northern India were not
kshatriyas. The Nanda Empire, whose rulers were stated to be shudras, destroyed many kshatriya
lineages.
According to Devaraja teaching, kings were revered like gods and had ultimate control over
the kingdom. This belief was the basis for Khmer kings to embark on massive architectural
projects such as Angkor Wat and Bayon, to celebrate the king's divine rule on earth.

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The Empire also adopted the Hindu caste system, whereby commoners such as rice farmers and
fishermen formed the majority of the population. The minority higher castes were Kshatriyas,
such as royalty, nobles, warlords, soldiers, and warriors; and Brahmins such as priests.
Aside from those there were also traders and artisans. Slaves made up the lowest social caste,
and they were probably the laborers who worked on the many building projects of the empire.
Cambodia experienced its most glorious days during the Angkor Empire.The emperor once
reigned over most of Indochina, including today's Vietnam, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and
Laos. The Angkor royal court was famous for grand ceremonies, festivals, and rituals. The king
was surrounded by ministers, state officials, nobles, royalty, palace women, and servants, and
protected by guards and troops.

Dress was elaborate and there were large free standing armies. To extend their territories, they
frequently conducted military campaigns against the neighboring Cham, Dai Viet, and Thai
warlords. Power struggles over succession were common in the royal court. The Angkor Empire,
also known as the Khmer Empire, began in 802 AD when Jayavarman II wrested the land from
Javanese control. At that time, there were no united kingdoms in Cambodia.

After expelling the Javanese, Jayavarman II celebrated independence by conducting an elaborate

consecration ritual in Phnom Kulen, proclaimed himself king, and adopted the Devaraja cult of
Hinduism as the state religion.Devaraja is a term in Sanskrit meaning "god-king". True to its
name, the Devaraja cult taught that the king was a universal ruler, a manifestation of the Hindu
god, often known as Shiva or Vishnu.

Within a few centuries, the Angkor Empire grew to be the greatest ever in mainland Southeast
Asia. Jayavarman II was followed by a succession of kings who contributed to the growth of the
empire through alliances with neighboring kingdoms and conquests, building projects,
establishment of new cities, and development of hydraulic and irrigation systems.
Ancient Khmers were a traditional agriculture community and were dependent on massive and
complex hydraulics systems, including networks of canals and barays, or giant water reservoirs.
These facilities enabled more intense rice cultivation, which increased food security, supported
the growth of the Khmer economy, and increased wealth.
Indian Trade with neighbouring countries was at Its peak In 5th Century B.C.. Indian traders abd
businessmen were seafaring to the countries of the SUVARNABHUMI through the ports at
CHAMPA.. These included Burma, Malaya, Siam, Cambodia , Ceylon. These Indian
Businessmen were of two types- those who returned and those who stayed on in those lands thus
establisheing their culture In South-East Asia through thgese business related exchanges of
economy and culture. Of the lattrer one can say that they helped in settling up efficient Political
System of those Countries. Brave Kshatriya warriors doubled as traders and mercenaries
whereas wandering hindu priests became the missionaries of Hinduism spreading Hindu religion
and Pphilosophy.

By 2nd Century B.C., many Indian influenced states were established within Indo-China region.
Cambodia which was situated In Southern Indo-China then known as KAMBUJ State under
the territory of Funan. By 1 st BC Indians made colonies were established in States Like
Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia and Siam Hundreds Of Sanskrit inscriptions have been

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recovered from these countries establishing the fact that Sanscrit was the State Language Of
these countries.
In his paper Kalinga and Funan : A Study in Ancient Relations, Dr. Benudhar Patra states that even
though the origin of the kingdom of Funan, is shrouded in mystery, K’ang T’ai, a Chinese envoy
who visited Funan in the middle of the third century CE recorded that, the first king of Funan was a
certain Hun-t’ien, that is, Kaundinya, who came either from India or from the Malay Peninsula or
the southern islands. This Chinese version of the dynastic origin of Funan has been corroborated by
a Sanskrit inscription of Champa belonging to the third century CE. Though scholars agree on
the point that the kingdom of Funan came into existence some time during the first century CE, after
union of a Brahmin named Kaundinya with the Naga Princess Soma(Lieu-Ye), there is
considerable disagreement on the homeland of Kaundinya. This mystical union which was still
commemorated at the court of Angkor at the end of the thirteenth century in a rite identical with
that of the Pallava kings of Kanchi made some scholars to believe that Kaundinya probably
belonged to the Pallava kingdom.10 On the basis of the Mysore inscription (2nd century CE) which
records the grant of land, to a Siva shrine of the Brahmins of the Kaundinya gotra (clan), Kaundinyas
might have migrated from Mysore to Indo-China.according to a source others rejecting this view
and proposing that the migrating clan of Kaudinyas might have emerged from the Amaravati region of
Andhra on the ground of the discovery of specimens of Amaravati style of sculpture at Dong Duong
which was then underFunan.

The main reason for the belief that the homeland of Kaundinya Brahmins of Funan could be Mahendra
Parvata of Kalinga arises from the fact that the name of Mahendra Mountain appears in the history of
Funan on two important occasions. The History of the Southern Ch’i states that during the reign
of Jayavarman (5th century CE) ‘the custom of this country [Funan] was to worship the God
Mahesvara (Siva)’who continually descends on Mount Mo-tan. Mo- tan could be another name of
Mahendragiri of nOrissa which was also considered as an abode of Lord Siva and early Saivism. It
was shortlybefore c. 500 CE that the Gangas of Kalinga(theEastern Gangas) were worshipping Siva-
Gokarnasvamin as the tutelary deity of the family (ista-devata) on Mahendra Mountain. Even now
there is the shrine of Gokarnesvara on the top of the hill. Worshipping of Gokarnasvamin (on
Mahendra Parvat in Kalinga) and Mahesvara (in Funan) belonged to the same time. This led to an
important assumption that as Funan was Indianised by the traders and merchants from the eastern coast of
India, the migrants, with the passage of time named a local mountain of Funan as Mahendraparvata
after the Mahendra Parvata of Orissa which had god Mahesvara(Gokarnesvara) on it. Onethingisclear
that Koundinya, also known as Ājñātakauṇḍinya, Pali: Añña Koṇḍañña, was not the brahmin,
who became Buddhist monk and an ardent follower of Gautama Buddha and the first to become
an arhat. One who lived during the 6th century BCE in what are now Uttar Pradesh and Bihar,
India. According to traditional accounts, at the time of Gautama Buddha's birth, he predicted his
future destination as an enlightened teacher.The naming of Mahendraparvata mountain in Funan
after the one of the same name in Orissa logically implies that Kaundinya and early emigrants
most probably went from Kalinga region, especially from the Mahendraparvata region. This is
further corroborated by Jayavarman II (9th century CE) of Cambodia who went to reign at
‘Mahendraparvata” and installed a miraculous Siva linga there as devaraja or king of gods
(which is god Siva or Mahesvara himself in c. 802 CE) with the help of a Brahman named
Hiranyadama16 whom he invited from Janapada (probably in India). Jayavarman II is most often

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cited in the inscription as “the king who established his residence on the summit of Mount
Mahendra”. This Mahendraparvata (i.e. Mount Mahendra) has been indentified with Phnom
Kulen, the sandstone plateau that dominates the northern part of the Angkor plain.17 As
Jayavarman II went to Mahendra Parvata to reign and established his residence there, it appears
that mount Mahendra which was considered as Kula Parvata (Phnon Kulen) and used as the
abode of devaraja was already there in Funan (Cambodia) before the reign of Jayavarman II. So,
this could have been the mount Mo-tan of the Chinese record of the fifth century CE. This
indicates that the Kaundinyas of Funan were not only ardent Saivites but also had intimate
association with the Mahendra Parvata of Kalinga and there was close contact between Kalinga
on the eastern sea coast of India and Funan of IndoChina. It is a well known fact that fifth
century CE onwards Saivism became popular both in ancient Orissa and Cambodia. God Siva
was worshipped in Funan under different names like Mahesvara and Tribhubanesvara.

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 CHAPTER VIII
Cultivating Divinity in Temple Construction
PART I

THE CONCEPT OF DIVINITY

DIVINITY is a noun, plural di·vin·i·ties. the quality of being divine; divine nature. ... the
Divinity, (sometimes lowercase) the Deity. a being having divine attributes, ranking below
God but above humans: minor divinities. the study or science of divine things; theology.
Cultivating Divinity

In Hinduism, divinity is often portrayed as a mother, in contrast to the Western habit of

depicting the divine as father. Many schools of yoga have developed around the image of God as
Shakti or feminine power; these form yoga’s great Shakta lineages. For centuries, one of the
most frequently recited scriptures in India has been the Chandi, the allegorical saga of the Divine
Mother Durga’s manifestations on earth to rescue humanity from evil, as told by the sage
Medhas Muni.

A common complaint I hear from people who have practiced yoga and meditation for years is
that, in spite of their best efforts, they still feel unhappy and unfulfilled. What would you say to
these discouraged students?

One must invite a bhava – a divine attitude – into your life. In Sanskrit there is a distinction
between buddhi and medha. “Buddhi” means the intellect and medha means the intellect
illuminated by love. When you have a loving intellect full of rasa, full of joy, full of inspiration,

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then you are medhas muni, the intellect of love. Do you remember the myth in which Tara, the
Divine Mother, leaves the house of Brihaspati because he is so dry and dull? Brihaspati
represents the buddhi. She tells him, “I need some bhava. I am going to the home of Chandra
because he is filled with devotion.”

The Divine Mother has two breasts from which she nourishes her children. From the left comes
devotion and from the right comes wisdom. Every woman should know that. Buddhi alone is not
enough nourishment to raise a healthy child. If we have a cold and dull spiritual practice, we
have to light it up with flames of devotion.

Have you heard about the time Ramakrishna visited the headquarters of the Brahmo Samaj?
They were discussing philosophy and cosmology. Ramakrishna stood in the middle of the hall
and said, “Why are you talking about the moon and the sun and the planets? Why aren’t you
calling out to the Divine Mother, the one who made the stars?” He started crying, “Mother!
Mother! Mother!” and went into Samadhi, the state of union with the supreme. The leader of the
Brahmo Samaj looked very sad and said, “All my life I have studied the scriptures and sat for
meditation, but still I have not achieved Self-realization. This saint doesn’t care to read. All he
does is call out to the Mother with pure love and immediately She wraps him in her arms.”
Also, uniting in satsang, your inspiration will increase. The root of all spiritual evolution is
satsang, which means cultivating spirituality from a good example, and then becoming a good
example yourself. As much as you polish your brass pots and your copper vessels, so much will
they shine.

Satsang is defined as keeping the company of truth or spending time with one’s guru. Self-
realized gurus are not readily available in America.

If in every family, one individual begins to cultivate community with truth, then the rest of the
family will join in. It’s not a question of having a teacher but becoming a teacher.
Ramakrishna’s instruction was that in this age in every house there should be a temple, in every
house there should be satsang. The objective is not to make anyone a renunciate, but to help
everyone realize their divinity in the framework of their own lives. Satsang does not necessarily
mean going outside. It’s cultivating inspiration within yourself and sharing it with your
immediate circle of associates.

One way you cultivate a divine attitude is through puja, ritual worship. Pu means punya, merit,
and ja means jata, to give birth. So pujas are those acts which give birth to the highest merit, and
in spiritual life the highest merit is to sit in the presence of God. What you call meditation is
concentrating awareness on one thing. But when your concentration breaks, what happens? Is
your meditation over?

Puja is guided meditation. It helps us to concentrate for longer periods of time because we take
all the practices and techniques we’ve been studying and tie these together. We take asana (yoga
postures), pranayama (breath control), mudra (yoga gestures), recitation of mantras, meditation,
and make a synthesis. In Sanskrit, synthesis is known by the word tantra. This synthesis, offered
with devotion in the form of guided meditation, is called puja. The function of puja is to guide
our meditation to the highest divinity and to offer to that divinity the best we possibly can. We

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receive as Prasad (gifts from God) whatever remains from that offering, and it is our privilege to
share those gifts, the fruit of our worship, with anyone who wants to participate.
The soul has no gender. In our tradition both Gods and Goddesses are considered worthy of
worship. It says in the Chandi, “Whoever takes refuge in the Divine Mother invariably becomes
a refuge to others.” Male or female – it doesn’t matter.

In our tradition, the first and foremost forms the divine assumes is the Mother. Always in a
mother there will be renunciation of selfishness and an equal division of love among all the
children. Although there are bad children, there can never be a bad mother. This is a very
beautiful attitude.

The greatest asset in spiritual life?

These are the same for both women and men. Faith. Devotion. Desire for attaining the goal.
Inspiration. There are nine forms of Durga, the Divine Mother, in the Chandi. First is the goddess
of inspiration; second is the goddess of sacred study; third is the goddess of spiritual practice;
fourth, the goddess of inner refinement; fifth, the goddess who nurtures divinity; sixth is she who
makes us completely pure; seventh, the great surrender of the darkness of duality; eighth, she
who makes us one with radiant light; and ninth, the granter of perfection. These are the names of
the nine Durgas united in succession in the path of perfection, given from the beginning of time.
These nine Durgas will be the greatest illumination in the path of every woman in her spiritual
development. In the path of material life, these nine forces take us to the culmination of our
goals.

And these Durgas are something we find inside ourselves?

Yes! At every point in time, a woman could ask herself, “Which Durga am I illuminating right
now? Am I the goddess of inspiration or am I the teacher of sacred knowledge? Am I performing
my practice? Am I surrendering the darkness of my egotism? Am I illuminating the great radiant
light?” These are questions we’ll ask ourselves all through the day.

Temple land and importance of Earth divinity

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Temples are the most attractive features of India. India is known for the divine culture for a long
time. Almost in all occasions and ceremonies God play a significant role. In marriage, child birth
and all mundane life, divinity is upheld. This custom and practice continue for centuries without
any deviation. The other political and social changes don’t affect that system and further it is
strongly imbibed and integrated with an average Indian life.
The temple has a history of ages. Almost in all parts of the world, temple has been constructed
and worshiped. Owing to the political changes, the worshiping method has only changed, but the
whole worshiping is ultimately one and the same.

Now, we can examine the places of the natural positive divine presence. The Tantric texts say
that the neighborhood of pilgrim centre, the banks of rivers, the shores of estuaries, littoral area,
on the top of the mountain and hill, foot of the mountain and hill, forest, thick forest, garden,
places famous for Siddha and holy people, great people like Bhuddha, middle of a village,
middle of a town, harbor, places where peace of mind is felt are the places of positive energy.
The temple should be constructed in these featured places. The natural positive energy flow
happens in these places. Further, the lake and pond where abundance of lotus, swans group,
pond with still water or with mild waves that attracts birds, trees which give shelter to the birds,
bushes with attractive blooms, hovering and resting places of rare species of birds are also
present with the positive energy. Many invisible divine powers roam in these areas.
To fix a place for the construction of a temple, we have to choose one of the above mentioned
lands. The Tantric Acharyas like those places more, where plenty of water, pond, and lake are
present. We can see that many spiritual people chose similar places to get enlightenment. In the
legendary, we have heard that the great Bhuddha got enlightenment while sitting under a Banyan
tree in a village.

The land of temple is classified into four. 1) Supathma 2) Badhra 3) Purna 4) Dumra
The Features of Supathma Land
The land will be full of coconut trees, scent and perfumes extracting trees, incense trees, sandal
wood trees, areca nut trees, canes, lotus and those things used for Puja purposes. The land will
have slight slope towards east and north. This land will have ponds with enough water even in
the scorching summer time. It may be beside a mountain or hill divide. If a temple is constructed
in this type of land, the temple will remove all kind of dangers.

The Features of Bhadra land

The sea shore, littoral area, oceanic places, river

banks for pilgrimage, paddy and agriculture in the south or the right side of the main deity in the
temple, the woods and other sacred things used for the Yaga and Yajna, the trees with full of

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flowers and fruits, garden are the feature of Bhadra land. If a temple is constructed in this land, it
will provide and fulfill all kind of desires.

The Features of Purna land

The place where Peepul tree, banyan tree, Neem tree, the trees mentioned in the Puranic books,
hill top, down hill, land with scarce water are the features of the Purna land. If a temple is
constructed in this land, it will bring all kind of fortunes. Also, this land will have herbs, and the
land will have fertile soil, arbor of trees for the worshippers as well as birds and quadrupeds. In
case of quadrupeds, generally cattle are given importance.

The Features of Dhumra land

The place where horrible trees are thriving, trees causing allergy and infection, bushes with
thorns, full of gravel, land with hard soil structure, having burrows, clay, eagle, vulture, crow,
fox, monkey, jackal are widely traversing places is called Dumra. If a temple is constructed in
this land, it brings negative effects. It means that this land is suitable for worshipping evil
powers. I presume that it is useful for the practices of the Adharva Veda hymns (the black
magic).
Hence, we can say that we have to identify a suitable land for both the construction of temple,
worshiping of the divinity and a centre for spiritual activities. Apart from ascribing the power
derived from the Kundalini flow, the land should also be suitable for the construction of the
temple. This implies that man has no separation from the nature. He is strongly fused with the
nature. Nature is divine. This is the principle of Vedic science. All that needed is that we have to
identify different natural forces present in the different part of the world. Some powers are
positive and some are negative. We opt for the positive powers, positive energies to get
realization.

In India, we can see a number of temples that spread all over the land. These temples are
constructed upon various principles. The structure of the temple, the size and the form of the
deities, the practices of worshiping and all are, though basically same, different in different
places. The agricultural system, geographical significance, the interest of the ruler, the wealth of
the principality have influenced the temple construction. All temples are associated with the
harvest. The festivals are conducted in accordance with the harvest. The forefathers compiled a
comprehensive worshiping system after observing the movement of the Sun. they knew well that
sowing, ploughing and reaping must be related to the rainfall. To that end, they created a

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systematic almanac and followed it. They succeeded in that endeavor as well. Next, the
landscape and the structure of the soil were very important to construct the temple. High and
strong temples are not possible where the soil base is week. More over, the land structure is
important as zigzag land can not hold a vast and extended temple. The local rulers were in
competition to prove their capacity to construct the temples with utmost perfection, to show their
pomp in front of other kings. The richness of the temple is dependent on the wealth of that
region. The wealth, in olden times, was coming from agricultural sector.
In Kerala, the temples were constructed with a strong and logical method which I would like to
write below. That system is still followed without any change. Baskaracharya, the famous
Tantric, lived some centuries ago had commented that he was an ardent follower of the Kerala
system of temples.

The Tantra means science or application of science or a methodology. The Tantra system
was evolved from the agama system or yet another modified form of agama system. In
Karnataka and Tamilnadu, the agama system is popular whereas in Kerala, the Tantric system is
very popular.
In Tantric system, apart from Vedic practices, the Yoga science is also implicated. The power of
Kundalini that is supposed to be lying below the spinal end and that power is presumed to be
ascending through an invisible channel along with the spinal chord, after passing six energy
vortexes, reaching on the top of the head, called Sahasra Ara, literally, a lotus with 1000 petals.
Anatomically and physiologically, such a power has not been detected. This may be due to the
fact that this Kundalini power is associated with micro level of body ( Sukshma Sarira). The
Acharya who installs the deity inside the sanctum sanctorum gives that power acquired through
Prana yama( Systematic breathing pattern), that is compulsory for the Kundalini Arousal. He at
the same time does a prayer from the deepest of his heart, which will be discussed later.

The Divinity Present on the Earth

Here, I am discussing the divinity on the earth. Divinity is present everywhere. As per the logic, I
slightly change the meaning of divinity into two energy levels. One is positive energy and the
other is negative energy. We can see the different types of natural phenomenon that takes place
around the world. Many catastrophe and calamities, flood, land slide, hurricane take place
around us. These are the negative powers. Good agricultural growth, fertility of the soil, plenty
of water availability for both drinking and agricultural purposes, thriving trees, blooming in a
wonderful way are positive powers.
The temple must be constructed where the positive energy is present. More over, meditation,
yoga etc. shall be held in these areas to get the positive powers, positive energy into our body.
Scientifically also, we can say that plenty of vital energy is found in these area and it will nourish
the basic needs of the body. Also, it purifies our body and mind. Mind relaxation takes place
without our conscious knowledge. Hence, the temple gives mental satisfaction as well as body
purification.

Adopted from ~ K. Kailasnath, Vedic Astrologer, Kerala, India.

https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/vedic_science/astrology/temple-land-importance-earth-
divinity/

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The Agni Purana,is a Sanskrit text and one of the eighteen major Puranas of Hinduism. The text
is variously classified as a Purana related to Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism, but
also considered as a text that covers them all impartially without leaning towards a particular
theology.
The text exists in numerous versions, some very different from others.[3] The published
manuscripts are divided into 382 or 383 chapters, containing between 12,000 and 15,000 verses.
The chapters of the text were likely composed in different centuries, with earliest version
probably after the 7th-century, but before the 11th-century because the early 11th-century
Persian scholar Al-Biruni acknowledged its existence in his memoir on India. The youngest layer
of the text in the Agni Purana may be from the 17th-century.
The Agni Purana is a medieval era encyclopedia that covers a diverse range of topics, and its
"382 or 383 chapters actually deal with anything and everything", remark scholars such as Moriz
Winternitz and Ludo Rocher. Its encyclopedic secular style led some 19th-century Indologists
such as Horace Hayman Wilson to question if it even qualifies as what is assumed to be a
Purana. The range of topics covered by this text include cosmology, mythology, genealogy,
politics, education system, iconography, taxation theories, organization of army, theories on
proper causes for war, martial arts, diplomacy, local laws, building public projects, water
distribution methods, trees and plants, medicine, design and architecture, gemology, grammar,
metrics, poetry, food and agriculture, rituals, geography and travel guide to Mithila (Bihar and
neighboring states), cultural history, and numerous other topics.

Agni-purana, Chapter 38, Texts 1-50. | From Manmatha Nath Dutt’s “A Prose English Translation of
Agni Puranam”, Vol. I, (Calcutta, 1903), pp. 142-6; adapted by M. Eliade

“Agni said: I will now describe the fruits of making temples for the residence of Vasudeva and
other deities. He who attempts to erect temples for gods is freed from the sins of a thousand
births. Those who think of building a temple in their minds are freed from the sins of a hundred
births. Those who approve of a man’s building a temple for Krishna go to the region of Acyuta
[Vishnu] freed from sins.

Having desired to build a temple for Hari, a man immediately takes a million of his generations,
past and future, to the region of Vishnu. The departed manes of the person who builds a temple
for Krishna live in the region of Vishnu, well adorned and freed from the sufferings of hell. The
construction of a temple for a deity dissipates even the sin of Brahmanicide. By building a
temple one reaps the fruit which he does not even gain by celebrating a sacrifice. By building a
temple one acquires the fruits of bathing at all the sacred shrines.

The construction of a temple, which gives heaven, by a religious or an irreligious man, yields the
fruit reaped by persons slain in a battle undertaken on behalf of the celestials. By making one
temple one goes to heaven; by making three one goes to the region of Brahma; by making five
one goes to the region of Shambhu; by making eight one goes to the region of Hari. By making
sixteen one attains all objects of enjoyment and emancipation. A poor man, by building the
smallest temple, reaps the same benefit which a rich man does by building the biggest temple for
Vishnu. Having acquired wealth and built a temple with a small portion of it, a person acquires
piety and gains favours from Hari.

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By making a temple with a lakh of rupees, or a thousand, or a hundred, or fifty, a man goes
where the Garuda-emblemed deity resides. He who in his childhood even sportively makes a
temple of Vasudeva with sand, goes to his region. He who builds temples of Vishnu at sacred
places, shrines, and hermitages, reaps three-fold fruits. Those who decorate the temple of Vishnu
with scents, flowers, and sacred mud, go to the city of the Lord. Having erected a temple for
Hari, a man, either fallen, about to fall, or half-fallen, reaps twofold fruits. He who brings about
the fall of a man is the protector of one fallen. By making a temple for Vishnu one attains to his
region. As long as the collection of bricks of Hari’s temple exists, the founder of his family lives
gloriously in the region of Vishnu. He becomes pious and adorable both in this world and in the
next.

He who builds a temple for Krishna, the son of Vasudeva, is born as a man of good deeds and his
family is purified. He who builds temples for Vishnu, Rudra, the sun-god, and other deities,
acquires fame. What is the use to him of wealth which is hoarded by ignorant men? Useless is
the acquisition of riches to one who does not have a temple built with hard earned money for
Krishna, or whose wealth is not enjoyed by the Pitris, Brahmanas, celestials, and friends.

As death is certain for men, so is his destruction. The man who does not spend his money for his
enjoyment or in charities and keeps it hoarded is stupid and is fettered even when alive. What is
the merit of him who, obtaining riches either by an accident or manliness, does not spend it for a
glorious work or for religion? [What is the merit of him] who, having given away his wealth to
the leading twice-born, makes his gift circulated, or speaks of more than he gives away in
charities?

Subject Chapters Illustrative content

Pancaratra texts, Mahabharata, Ramayana, Pingala-

Book summary 21-70
Sutras, Amarakosha, etc.

Regional geography 114-116 Mithila (now Bihar), rivers, forests, towns, culture

Medicine 279-286, 370 Ayurveda, herbs, nutrition

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 Summary of the Buddhist text Yuddhajayarnava, mantras
Buddhist incantations 123-149
of Trailokyavijaya

Structure of a state, education and duties of a king and key

ministers,
organization of army, theory of just war, ambassadors to other
Politics 218-231
kingdoms,
system of administration, civil and criminal law, taxation,
local administration and court system

239, 247, 282,

Agriculture, planning Fortification, trees and parks, water reservoirs
292

Martial arts, weapons 249-252 32 types of martial arts, making and maintaining weapons

Cow 310 Holiness of cow, breeding and taking care of cows

Hindu temple, 25, 39-45, 55-

Design, layout, construction, architecture
monastery 67, 99-101

Metrics, poetics, art Summary of different schools on poetics, music, art of poetry,
328-347
of writing Alamkara, Chandas, Rasa, Riti, language, rhetoric

Eight limbs of yoga, ethics, meditation, samadhi,

Yoga, moksha 372-381
soul, non-dualism (Advaita), summary of Bhagavad Gita

Therefore, a wise man should have temples built for Vishnu and other deities. Having entered the region
of Hari, he acquires reverential faith in Narottama [Vishnu]. He pervades all the three worlds containing
the mobile and the immobile, the past, future, and present, gross, subtle, and all inferior objects. From
Brahma to a pillar everything has originated from Vishnu. Having obtained entrance into the region of the
Great Soul, Vishnu, the omnipresent god of gods, a man is not born again on earth.

By building temples for other gods, a man reaps the same fruit which he does by building one for Vishnu.
By building temples for Shiva, Brahma, the sun, Candi, and Lakshmi, one acquires religious merit.
Greater merit is acquired by installing images. In the sacrifice attendant upon the setting up of an idol
there is no end of fruits. One made of wood gives greater merit than one made of clay; one made of bricks
yields more than a wooden one. One made of stone yields more than one made of bricks.

Images made of gold and other metals yield the greatest religious merit. Sins accumulated in seven births
are dissipated even at the very commencement. One building a temple goes to heaven; he never goes to
hell. Having saved one hundred of his family, he takes them to the region of Vishnu. Yama said to his
emissaries: ‘Do not bring to hell persons who have built temples and adored idols. Bring those to my view
who have not built temples. Range thus rightly and follow my commands.

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Persons can never disregard your commands, except those who are under the protection of the endless
father of the universe. You should always pass over those persons who have their minds fixed on the
Lord. They are not to live here. You should avoid from a distance those who adore Vishnu. Those who
sing the glories of Govinda and those who worship Janardana [Vishnu or Krishna] with daily and
occasional rites should be shunned by you from a distance. Those who attain to that station should not
even be looked at by you.

The persons who adore Him with flowers, incense, raiment, and favourite ornaments should not be
marked by you. They go to the region of Krishna. Those who smear the body [of Vishnu] with unguents,
who sprinkle his body, should be left in the abode of Krishna. Even a son or any other member born in the
family of one who has built a temple of Vishnu should not be touched by you. Hundreds of persons who
have built temples of Vishnu with wood or stone should not be looked at by you with an evil mind.

By building a golden temple one is freed from all sins. He who has built a temple for Vishnu reaps the
great fruit which one gains by celebrating sacrifices every day. By building a temple for the Lord he takes
his family, a hundred generations past and a hundred to come, to the region of Acyuta.

Vishnu is identical with the seven worlds. He who builds a temple for him saves the endless worlds and
himself attains immortality. As long as the bricks will last, the maker [of the temple] will live for so many
thousands of years in heaven. The maker of the idol attains the region of Vishnu and he who consecrates
the installation of the same is immersed in Hari. The person who builds a temple and an image, as well as
he who consecrates them, come before him.

This rite of pratishtha [installation] of Hari was related by Yama. For creating temples and images of the
deities, Hayashirsha described it to Brahma.” https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/indian-
religions/hinduism/merits-building-temple-agni-puran/

TEMPLE: HINDU TEMPLES

"The Indian temple, an exuberant growth of seemingly haphazard and numberless forms," wrote
Stella Kramrisch in 1922, "never loses control over its extravagant wealth. Their organic
structure is neither derived from any example seen in nature, nor does it merely do justice to
aesthetic consideration, but it visualizes the cosmic force which creates innumerable forms, and
these are one whole, and without the least of them the universal harmony would lack
completeness" ("The Expressiveness of Indian Art," Journal of the Department of Letters,
University of Calcutta, 9, 1923, p. 67). This intuitive understanding of the temple's structure and
significance has been fleshed out and confirmed by Kramrisch and others in the years since those
words were penned.

Axis, Altar, and Enclosure

Hindu temples are built to shelter images that focus worship; they also shelter the worshiper and
provide space for a controlled ritual. Between the fifth and the fifteenth century ce, Hindu
worshipers constructed stone temples throughout India, but sacred enclosures of another sort had
been built centuries before. Tree shrines and similar structures that enclose an object for worship
(tree, snake, liṇga, pillar, standing yakṣa, all marked by a vertical axis) within a square railing, or
later within more complicated hypaethral structures, have been illustrated in narrative relief-
sculptures from the first few centuries bce and ce. Whatever the variations, these structures mark
a nodal point of manifestation, as does Viṣṇu in reliefs from the fifth century ce that show him

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lying on the cosmic ocean, with a lotus that springs from his navel supporting Brahmā, who
proceeds to generate the universe.
In creation myths and in the imagery of the lotus, as in the structure of Mauryan monolithic
pillars (from the third century bce), the cosmic axis separates heaven from the waters. Creation
flows from this nodal point toward the cardinal directions, producing a universe that is square,
marked by the railing-enclosure of these early shrines, by the harmikā (upper platform) of the
Buddhist stupa, and by the edges of the brick altar used for sacrifice. The Āpastamba Śulbasūtra,
a text probably of the fourth century bce, comments that "though all the earth is vedi [altar], yet
selecting a particular part of it and measuring it they should perform the yajña ['sacrifice'] there"
(6.2.4). The identity of the altar and the entirety of creation is thus established quite early, and
this configuration of vertical axis, square altar, and enclosure persists in Indian architecture to
demonstrate the participation of each monument in the cosmogonic process.

Diagram of Construction

The Vāstupuruṣa Maṇḍala—the square diagram on which the altar, temples, houses, palaces, and
cities are founded—also outlines creation (see figure 1). The myth of the vāstupuruṣa portrays
the first sacrifice, in which a demon is flayed and his skin held down by divinities who ring the
diagram (padadevatā s; lit., "feet deities"). In the center is the "place for brahman "—the
formless, ultimate, "supreme reality." The use of this diagram for the construction of houses and
the laying out of cities on a grid of eighty-one squares (nine by nine) is recorded in a chapter on
architecture in Varāhamihira's sixth-century ce text, the Bṛhat Saṃhitā; the use of a grid of sixty-
four squares (eight by eight) as a special case for the construction of temples (figure 1) is
recorded in a separate chapter.

Cave, Mountain, and Shelter

By the early centuries ce the use of anthropomorphic images to focus worship had moved from
"substratum" cults into mainstream Hinduism and into Buddhism. Early Hindu images often
represented cosmic parturition—the coming into present existence of a divine reality that
otherwise remains without form—as well as "meditational constructs," to use T. S. Maxwell's
phrase. The representation of the Buddha became permissible with the emergence of two new
conceptions: the Buddha in cosmic form, replacing or supplementing the stupa as focus for
meditation, and the boddhisattva s, figures who mediate between the aspirant and the ultimate
reality of nonexistence. Behind anthropomorphic imagery in India, however, is always an
ultimate reality without form.
Early shelters for anthropomorphic images were of several types: apsidal brick structures
resembling the caitya-gṛha s of the Buddhists, elliptical structures perhaps suggesting the
"cosmic egg," open altars and hypaethral structures (both extending earlier aniconic formulas),
small stone chatrī s (umbrellas or pavilions), cave shrines, and eventually temples with towers.
Rock-cut shrines of the early fifth century ce (particularly those at Udayagiri, near Vidiśa, in
central India), present two imperative metaphors for the temple: the sanctum as
womb (garbha) in which the seed of divinity can be made manifest, and the temple as mountain.
As the cave opens up the earth, so the sanctum opens up the temple.
If existing cave shrines emphasize the cave metaphor, an inscription dated 423/4 ce from
Gaṅgadhāra in western India already compares a temple there to "the lofty peak (śikhara) of the

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mountain Kailāśa," and the so-called Pārvatī Temple at Nachna of about 465 ce ornamentally
rusticates its exterior walls to suggest Kailāśa's piled rocks and animal-filled grottoes. The
metaphors of cave and mountain for sanctum and temple are explicit in inscriptions and texts, but
it is the concept of divinity made manifest and the practice of devotional worship (bhakti) that
make the temple possible. The cosmic mountain and its womb/cave ultimately shelter a tender
divinity, in the form of an image, and must open out to include and give shelter to the worshiper,
who approaches the central point of cosmic manifestation along a longitudinal axis.

Iconicity of Architectural Form

In North India, the fifth century ce saw experimentation in the means by which architecture
could supply shelter to images. Small cave shelters were excavated (Udayagiri), cavelike cells
were constructed (Sāñcī), structures with towers were built in impermanent materials
(Gaṅgadhāra), and stone "mountains" were built (as at Nachna) with cavelike sanctums. Some
temples began to show multiple and variant images of the central divinity on the walls (Maḍhia),
and others became complexes by adding subsidiary shrines to shelter other deities (Bhumara,
Deogarh). Such a proliferation of images can be seen as a product of the Hindu conception of
cosmic parturition: if divine reality is formless, through the process of creation it takes an infinity
of forms in this (created) world; though the
individual may choose one divinity as "trunk" for worship, others take up appropriate positions
as "branches."
Only in the sixth century did such experiments lead to a North Indian temple form that was
complete in its symbolism and architectural definition. On plan, the North Indian temple grows
from the Vāstupuruṣa Maṇḍala (see figure 1): its corners are those of the square vedi ; its walls
are half the width of the sanctum in thickness (as prescribed in the Bṛhat Saṃhitā ); at its center
is the brahmasthāna. The outer walls begin to acquire projecting planes that measure the
dimensions of the interior sanctum and the "place for brahman." The central projections on the
wall now and then show closed doorways but most often frame secondary images
(parśvadevatā s) that extend and differentiate the form of the divinity within. In elevation, these
planes continue up through the superstructure as bands that curve in to meet a square slab at the
top of the temple, from which a circular necking projects. The necking supports a large, circular,
ribbed stone (āmalaka) that takes the form of an āmala fruit and normally is crowned by a stone
waterpot (kalaśa) from which leaves sometimes sprout.
The imagery (and its iconicity) is explicit. Just as the block of the temple's walls projects planes
outward in order to display the images that make its sacred content manifest, so too the temple
"grows" in altitude, marking the process of cosmic parturition by its form. The womb of the
temple, its sanctum (garbhagṛha), provides the dimension for an uttaravedi ("upper altar") that
terminates the tower (some seventh-century shrines show this altar as a shallow, pillared
platform at the top of the curvilinear superstructure). Extending the dimensions of
the brahmasthāna, the necking above this vedi takes the form of the emerging "world
pillar" (axis mundi), which passes symbolically through the sanctum with the body of the temple
as its sheath.

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As North Indian architecture evolves between the sixth and the thirteenth centuries, the plan of
the temple shows more and more offsets, the walls gain more images, and the central tower of
the temple becomes clustered by other, miniature towers, increasingly giving the effect of a
mountain peak through specifically architectural means. If this variety of constructional forms,
buttresses, and images "body" forth reality in the manifest world, the ribbed āmala stone at the
top of the temple, much like the staff that sprouts in Tannhäuser, presents the ripening seed's
potentiality for fruition. Both the pot with germinating seeds that is buried under the foundation
and the vase finial placed on top of the temple as an act of final consecration ritually help to
perpetuate cycles of cosmic growth and fruition.

Palace, Hut, and Fortress

The temple thus combines physically the pillar that marks the axis of cosmic parturition, the altar
of sacrifice taking the shape of the created universe, and the need for shelter of the tender
divinity and the human worshiper; it unites the cosmic mountain and potent cave. South Indian
temples, built in stone from the seventh century ce, give emphasis to the temple's role as shelter
for anthropomorphic divinities by retaining throughout their evolution a terraced, palatial form
crowned by a domed śikhara that has the shape of the ascetic's hut. As early as the Ājīvika caves
in the Barabār Hills of Bihar, dating from the third century bce, the hut of the living ascetic had
been an architectural form appropriate for presenting the concept of sacred potentiality.

The temple is called prāsāda ("palace") in North India, and the architectural veneer of its
superstructure, in both north and south, allude to forms of palace architecture. In the north, these
have been completely subordinated to the temple's vertical ascent, becoming body for the altar

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that still presents itself at the top of the temple, open to the sky. In the south, deities sheltered
within the temple's compact, palace-like structure increasingly took on the accoutrements of a
secular ruler, through ritual and the cycle of festivals. While divinity in the form of images
(mūrti s) could take on qualities of royalty, and kings did validate their role by patronage of
temples, the king was considered a reflection of divine order principally through the quality of
his actions and the nature of his responsibilities, not by divine right.

If the temple is palace for divinity, it also is fortress, protecting the world from disorder and
chaos. Corners are "attended with evils" according to the Bṛhat Saṃhitā (53.84), and "the
householder, if he is anxious to be happy, should carefully preserve Brahman, who is stationed in
the center of the dwelling, from injury" (53.66). In the puranic leg-end of Śiva conquering the
three worlds, he frees three "cities" of demons, making them his devotees and transforming the
cities into his temples. In fact, images of Guardians of the Quarters (dikpāla s) are placed on the
corners of temples from about the seventh century, and a number of geometric experiments with
plans based on the rotation of squares seem to play on the fort as a form for temple architecture.
Large temples in South India often enclose the sanctum in a series of ambulatory paths and walls
that simulate rings of fortification around a walled city, and in fact use the eighty-one-
square maṇḍala appropriate for the city, with a single square at the center surrounded by
concentric rings of squares, to define the temple's plan. If practice in South India increasingly
emphasized the royal personality of the divinity and his relation to his subjects and kingdom by
use of great festival processions, it also began to surround temples and contiguous sections of the
city with walls pierced by gateways (gopura s) that became the focus of patronage themselves.

Access and Aspirant

The Hindu temple must also act as access and approach for aspirants and worshipers. This role
changes the temple from a centralized, bilaterally symmetrical structure (reflecting the nature of
the cosmogonic process) to one with a defined longitudinal axis. On that axis the worshipers
approach their personal divinity within the sanctum; but also on that axis the aspirants
increasingly can place themselves, in halls built for that purpose, as if under the umbrella of the
sacrificer, positioning themselves for ascent. "The whole intention of the Vedic tradition and of
the sacrifice is to define the Way (mārga) by which the aspirant … can ascend [the three]
worlds," wrote Ananda K. Coomaraswamy. "Earth, Air, and Sky … compose the vertical Axis of
the Universe.… [These are] the Way by which the Devas first strode up and down these
worlds … and the Way for the Sacrificer now to do likewise" ("Svayamātṛṇṇā : Janua Coeli,"
in Coomaraswamy, vol. 1, Selected Papers: Traditional Art and Symbolism, ed. Roger Lipsey,
Princeton, 1977, pp. 465–467, 470). The temple is as much a monument to the procession of
time as it is a static model of the cosmos or a marker of its origin. Padadevatā s ringing
the vāstumaṇḍala (grid) are identified with the asterisms (nakṣatra s) of the lunar calendar, and
the temple both helps generate and acts as a focus for the ritual time of the festival calendar.
Personal ritual within the temple involves both approach and circumambulation, and movement
by the aspirant through time toward release had to be a recognized part of the architect's program
for the temple.

All sides of the temple allow access to the divinity through imagery, but the entry that pierces
and makes ritual approach possible, most frequently on the east, is given increasing importance

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and architectural definition as temples evolve. Halls for ritual and assembly are added along this
axis and sometimes used for dance or music to entertain the divinity, but often they serve simply
as shelters for approach. One common and potent configuration places the sanctum (sometimes
surrounded by an enclosed ambulatory path) behind a closed hall that may also be fronted by an
open hall and an entry pavilion.

In the Kaṇḍarīya Mahādeva Temple at Khajuraho (c. 1025–1050), for example, space for the
worshiper within the closed hall takes the same dimensions as the sanctum, with parallel rings of
the maṇḍala defining walls of the sanctum, the space within the hall, ambulatory walls, and the
outer enclosure. Ceilings in such halls imitate the canopy over the ritual sacrificer; this intention
is made architecturally clear in some cases by having a separately defined pavilion within the
hall over the central platform, as at Sinnar in Maharashtra or at the great Jain temple at
Ranakpur. The ritual fire can be placed in this position, and worshipers gather there as much to
carry out ritual as to face the image of the deity.

The Temple in the Human Image

In such an architectural context, yogin and god are equal participants: the place of divine
manifestation and the path of the aspirant have been given consubstantiality along the temple's
longitudinal axis; sanctum and sacrificer's space both have become altars manifesting supreme
reality in human form. In the Hindu temple, the axis of cosmic creation and the ritual path for
release of the aspirant/worshiper/sacrificer (yajamāna) meet; the temple shares in the image of
the "Supernal Man" (Puruṣa). As Kramrisch has written, "Puruṣa, which is beyond form, is the
impulse towards manifestation" ("The Temple as Puruṣa," in Studies in Indian Temple
Architecture, ed. Pramod Chandra, New Delhi, 1975, p. 40). This is true whether that
manifestation is of the cosmos, of divine forms, or of human potential.

Bibliography

Bhattacharyya, Tarapada. The Canons of Indian Art. Calcutta, 1963. A pioneering modern work
on India's architectural texts.
Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. "Early Indian Architecture: II, Bodhi-Gharas." Eastern Art 2
(1930): 225–235. In this series Coomaraswamy establishes a basis for understanding the forms of
early Indian architecture.
Kramrisch, Stella. The Hindu Temple. 2 vols. Calcutta, 1946. Kramrisch's monumental work lays
out, as no other, the ritual and metaphysic of the temple and establishes a groundwork for the
analysis of standing monuments.

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Meister, Michael W. "Maṇḍala and Practice in Nāgara Architecture in North India." Journal of
the American Oriental Society 99 (1979): 204–219. An article that demonstrates through the
analysis of standing monuments the practical applicability of the ritual vāstumaṇḍala.
Meister, Michael W., ed. Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, vol. 1, pt. 1, "South
India, Lower Drāviḍadēśa." Philadelphia, 1983. The first in a series of volumes intended to cover
the full spread of India's temple architecture with technical detail.

Before that what is a Temple? – Is it a huge structure with Deities installed therein and rituals
regularly performed? – Can we imagine a Temple without Devotees? – Power and popularity of
a Temple structure get amplified when Divine poetic sages outpour songs/prayers in pure total
Devotion – which is free-flow of Divinity touching The Heart. They are the personification of
Divinity – eternal Grace overwhelming not as a man-made intellectual poetic stanzas – but Pure
Love elevated to the highest plane of Devotion – a manifestation of Divinity unplugged. Can
any school or college train and inculcate Devotion or such Divine Poets manufactured in the
man-made academic curriculum? – The Truth is – a Temple arrives when The Lord ordains it to
be – by His Grace.

It naturally follows criticism on building a Temple is an intellectual function. Rishis and Sages
have proclaimed whatever happens is only due to Divine Grace – discrimination analysis are
mental faculties – Divinity is indeed far beyond such measuring minds – In our astrology, Moon
is Manas-karaka …. Sun is Arma-karaka.

Days surrounding the Full Moon night – just before & after & during – entire land is immersed
in cool-cool Moon light. The trees, tall and short, shine in silvery streaks, their leaves in ecstacy
of Moon-bathing; the grass and the greens, majestic mountains and hills, deep valleys, musical
rivers and their tributaries, man made buildings electric poles wide metalled roads country-side
narrow paths – nothing is spared – from the silvery delight. Graceful Moon appears on vast
Ocean surface, huge reservoirs, lakes, ponds – It is steady in calm peaceful water-surfaces – or
shakes when the winds giggle them – Yet Moon is Moon in any reflection. None of the water-
sources ever try to capture/own the Moon image – they all exist aligned to Mother Nature with

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little choices, can’t amplify the Moon-light nor diminish it at any moment – spontaneous
existence – effortless meditative absorption is natural to them. Moon wanes and waxes – a day
of total rest – how nicely it fits with human mind – peaceful & still at times, oscillating with the
wind of the moment, waning/waxing phenomena; but humans think they own the mind – swayed
by its plus/minus swings; believe they have succeeded or failed in moments. Moon is reflection
of The Sun.

Scriptures and Sages have proclaimed – whenever we experience a joy, be it in eating a tasty
mango, or something accomplished in mundane activities, The Soul (Innate Spirit) manifests in
such moments – the satisfaction derived in the moment – is in fact a tiny reflection of the natural
happiness, the very nature of Beings. Similarly when some damage occurs in objects mentally
enemical to one, the momentary pleasure is also a miniature satisfaction derived from within.
Both types of joys are transitory – when one desire is met, ten more line up in queue. The
plus/minus swings go on and on – without realizing their impermanence.
Several magnificent huge temples were built by Maharajas in ancient times – architectural
marvels. With all the advancements, we are yet to replicate such marvels – without cranes &
modern tools, it is amazing how such monumental structures were built in perfect harmony – and
have stood the test of time – witnessed many storms upheavels in human civilization – several
eras have come and gone – such ancient Temples have survived. Bitter truth today, is we are
unable to maintain many such Temples – so vast & huge they are; this is also a reflection of
Devotion of the day.

Back to Moon-light – Can tube-lights be ever compared with The Moon or The Sun? — Howeve
much man may illuminate an area with powerful light decorative shows – they can never match
th Natural glow – its all-encompassing permeance. Temples wherein The Divine Idol is
Swayambhu (not crafted & installed by humans – but spontaneous) do mark the eternal vibes.
Divine Grace is never restricted to a Temple or Worship place. There are great stalwarts – who
rarely visit a Temple or few may not at all) – but the Grace they permeate around as Human
Shrines is unmistakable… Nobel laureate Satyarti name & such others come to mind in this
category. Basic Greatness of God is impartiality equanimity – Divinity is never restrictive in
nature; precisely why it is immeasurable unfathomable by our intellectual prowess. Lazy way-
laid students or luck-dependent businessmen – can never succeed by mere visits to Temples
customarily ostensibly – if there is no applied spirituality in their endeavours.
Let us hope & pray that the latest addition to millions of Temples – at the Ramjanmabhoomi –
comes up at par with the glory & marvels of ancient archaeological wonders – boosts national
integration – and motivates the rulers & architects to go for crucial reforms, the revival of the
drooping economy, sectors, jobs/avocations, team-spirit to boost enterprising natural groups to
shine – in mundane affairs – by His Grace. Citizens at large repose more faith in Divinity
than……………?

Temples Amalgamation Of Art And Divinity Written by Pranav Gulati

After an extraordinary confluence of religion and art, these famous temples in South India have
become a shining example of the cultural heritage and diversity of India. Of all the existing ones,

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take a look at some of the finest architectural creations made over a period of thousands of years
by historic dynasties for the creators and preservers of this beautiful planet.
In India, for hundreds of years, the only form of tourism that existed was purely religious and
devotional. Even to this day, millions of devotees flock to these incredible famous temples in
South India every year in a quest for moksha and inner peace.

Famous Temples In South India

Many of the famous temples in South India have often been considered by historians and
architects as the finest devotional constructions ever to be made. What made these temples not
lose their charm with the passage of time was the strong and dedicated devotional purpose for
which they were built. Here are a few:
 Padmanabhaswamy Temple – Trivandrum
 Ramanathaswamy Temple – Rameshwaram
 Ranganathaswamy Temple – Trichy
 Venkateshwara Temple – Tirupati
 Chennakeshava Temple – Belur
 Arunachaleswar Temple – Thiruvannamalai
 Brihadeeswarar Temple – Thanjavur
 Meenakshi Temple – Madurai
 Guruvayur Temple – Guruvayur
 Kailasanathar Temple – Kanchipuram
 Ekambareswarar Temple – Kanchipuram
 Sarangapani Temple – Kumbakonam
 Vadakkunnathan Temple – Thrissur
 Annapoorneshwari Temple – Horanadu
 Shore Temple – Mahabalipuram
 Sivagiri Temple – Varkala
 Mahabaleshwar Temple – Gokarna
 Parthasarathy Temple – Aranmula
 Bhutanatha Temple – Badami
 Murudeshwara Temple – Murdeshwar
 Murugan Temple – Tiruchendur
 Sabarimala Sastha Temple – Pathanamthitta
 Attukal Bhagavathy Temple – Trivandrum
 Sri Krishna Temple – Guruvayoor
 Thirunelli Temple – Wayanad
 Vaikom Mahadeva Temple – Varkala
 Thiruvalla Temple – Thiruvalla
 Aihole Durga Temple – Aihole
 Sri Krishna Temple – Udupi
 Veera Narayana Temple – Belavadi

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1. Padmanabhaswamy Temple – Trivandrum

Padmanabhaswamy Temple is one of the most interesting famous temples in South India in
terms of architectural design. It was built with an intriguing fusion of Kerala style and Dravidian
style of architecture. Built in the 16th century, this temple has been home to many royal families
over the centuries including the Travancore Royal Family.
Main deity: Lord Padmanabhaswamy
Location: West Nada, Fort, East Fort, Pazhavangadi, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 695023
.2. Ramanathaswamy Temple – Rameshwaram

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One of the southernmost famous temples in South India, Ramanathaswamy temple was
constructed during the 17th century on the Rameshwaram Island of Tamil Nadu. The temple
holds a special importance for Hindus as it contains one of the 12 Jyotirlingas of Lord Shiva
around India.Main deity: Lord Shiva.Location: Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu 623526

3. Ranganathaswamy Temple – Trichy

Ranganathaswamy Temple was constructed in the 6th Century AD as a tribute to Lord

Ranganatha (a form of Lord Vishnu). Built in traditional Dravidian architecture, this temple has
been glorified in early Tamil literature scriptures as an important Divya Desam to Lord Vishnu.
Main deity: Lord Ranganatha
Location: Srirangam, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu 620006
4. Venkateshwara Temple – Tirupati

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Out of all the famous temples in south India, the Venkateswara Temple in Tirupati holds the
achievement of being the most visited and recognized temple. Along with receiving millions of
devotees every year, the temple also receives generous donations of human hair and money by
the loyal worshipers of Lord Vishnu.
Main deity: Lord Venkateshwara
Location: S Mada St, Tirumala, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh 517504

5. Chennakeshava Temple – Belur

Built in the 12th century by King Vishnuvardhana, Chennakeshava Temple was a prime
attraction of Belur, an early capital of the Hoysala Empire. This is amongst the most spectacular
temples in South India, attracting pilgrims from across the country.
Main deity: Lord Vishnu
Location: Temple Road, Belur, Karnataka 573115
6. Arunachaleswar Temple – Thiruvannamalai

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A Tamil Hindu temple built in the 9th century by the Chola dynasty, Arunachaleswar Temple is
one of the most prominent Lord Shiva South Indian temples in existence. Along with being
located in the Anamalai hills in Tamil Nadu, this temple holds a lot of significance to the Hindu
sect of Saivism.
Main deity: Lord Shiva
Location: Pavazhakundur, Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu 606601
7. Brihadeeswarar Temple – Thanjavur

A temple that recently completed 1000 years of its existence in Thanjavur, Brihadeeswarar
Temple is a renowned UNESCO World Heritage Site also recognized one of the famous temples
in South India built by the great Chola dynasty.
Main deity: Lord Shiva
Location: Membalam Rd, Balaganapathy Nagar, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu 613007

8. Meenakshi Temple – Madurai

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Believed to be constructed as early as the 7th century AD, Meenakshi Temple has long been the
most artistic, among all the famous temples in South India. Although the legend says that the
foundation of the temple was laid by the Lord Indra, the current structure was last modified in
the 16th century to add color and intricate details.
Main deity: Goddess Paravati
Location: Madurai Main, Madurai, Tamil Nadu 625001
9. Guruvayur Temple – Guruvayur

Located in the town of Guruvayur, this temple is often regarded as the most important place of
worships for Hindus in Kerala who consider this South Indian temple as the “Holy Abode of
Vishnu on Earth”. Known to be as one of the oldest famous temples in South India, earliest
scripted records indicated the temple to be almost 5000 years old.
Main deity: Lord Vishnu
Location: Guruvayur Devaswom, East Nada, Guruvayur, Kerala 680101
10. Kailasanathar Temple – Kanchipuram

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Built between the 685 – 705 AD by Rajasimha (ruler of the Pallava Dynasty), this South Indian
temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva. Located on the banks of the Vegavathi river, the temple
contains 58 shrines to denote the different forms and incarnations of Lord Shiva.
Main deity: Lord Shiva
Location: Pillaiyarpalayam, Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu 631501

11. Ekambareswarar Temple – Kanchipuram

Spread out in a space of more than 25 acres, Ekambareswarar Temple is the largest out of all the
famous temples in south India. The temple has 12 festivities around the year, along with six
players offered to the deity every day.
Main deity: Lord Shiva
Location: Ekambaranathar Sannathi St, Periya, Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu 631502
Timings: 6 am to 11 am; 5 pm to 8 pm
12. Sarangapani Temple – Kumbakonam

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Renowned as of one of the three key south Indian temples of Lord Vishnu, Sarangapani Temple
is believed to have been constructed more than 2000 years ago as it has been regularly revered in
the early scriptures of 7th century AD. Also regarded as one of 108 Divya desams, the temple is
believed to contain many significant antiquities of the different dynasties like Cholas and
Vijaynagar Empire.
Main deity: Lord Vishnu
Location: Sarangapani North Madavilagam, Valayapettai Agraharam, Kumbakonam, Tamil
Nadu 612001

13. Vadakkunnathan Temple – Thrissur

This temple built within the lush green surroundings of Thrissur is dedicated to Lord Shiva.
Explore the classic Kerala architecture in addition to the ancient artworks including the
collection of mural paintings that showcase the Mahabharata. Visit this temple during April and
May when the Pooram festival is celebrated with amazing firework displays.
Main deity: Lord Shiva
Location: Swaraj Round N, Kuruppam, Thekkinkadu Maidan, Thrissur, Kerala 680001

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14. Annapoorneshwari Temple – Horanadu

As the name suggests, the temple is dedicated to the Goddess of Food, Annapoorneshwari. It is
one of the oldest temples in Karnataka and located in a serene area on the banks of Bhadra river.
Legend has it that the sage Agastya built a beautiful statue of the Goddess in a standing pose
which is a major attraction inside the temple.
Main deity: Goddess Annapurna
Location: Mudigere – Taluk, Chikmagalur – District, Hornadu, Karnataka 577181.
15. Shore Temple – Mahabalipuram

One of the oldest temples in Tamil Nadu, built in the 7th century is the astounding seaside
pilgrimage site in Mahabalipuram. The temple has been noted as a UNESCO World Heritage
Site. The 3 major shrines in the temple are dedicated to Lord Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma. The
best time to visit the temple would be during the Mahabalipuram Dance Festival held on the
exterior of the temple complex.

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Main deity: Lord Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma
Location: Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu 603104
16. Bhutanatha Temple – Badami

Lord Vishnu had around 10 incarnations, also called “Dashavataras” spread throughout the ages.
To explore the very essence of the avatars, Bhutanatha temple has been built. The architecture is
a combination of north and early south Indian architectural style. And it’s not one temple but a
group of temples in a huge complex surrounded by a pristine lake and the Badami rocky
mountains.
Main deity: Lord Vishnu
Location: Badami, Karnataka 587201

17. Murudeshwara Temple – Murdeshwar

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The great temple of Murudeshwara is dedicated to Lord Shiva and located near the beaches of
Bhatkal in Karnataka. The 22-storied high gopuram was and still continues to be the largest
attraction of the temple while the newly built statue of Lord Shiva, which is the second highest in
the world is the new thing. Seek blissful vibes from the surrounding Kanduka hill which
overlooks the Arabian Sea.
Main deity: Lord Shiva
Location: Murdeshwar, Karnataka 581350

18. Murugan Temple – Tiruchendur

Do you want to feel the serene bliss while also offering your prayers to the lord? Then visit the
Murugan temple in Tiruchendur to get a glimpse of the grand ocean view. The temple has one of
the largest complexes in the entirety of India. The temple is built using red sandstone rock at the
foundation with an iconic Gopuram that gives it an elegant look. Another amazing offering of the
temple are the 120 columns and 16 pillars of Ananda Vilas Mandap.
Main deity: Lord Murugan

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19. Sabarimala Sastha Temple – Pathanamthitta

Be spiritually awakened at this major Hindu pilgrimage centre located in Pathanamthitta, Kerala.
The temple is located in the vicinity of Periyar Tiger Reserve which adds to the lush green
surroundings of the temple. The temple also hosts a mass pilgrimage accounting for 50 million
people.
Main deity: Lord Ayyappan
Location: Sannidhanam, Sabarimala, Kerala 689662

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20. Aihole Durga Temple – Aihole

Exhibiting Dravidian style of architecture, Aihole Durga Temple is renowned for its semicircular
structure. The temple is dedicated to Goddess Durga and is frequently visited by pilgrims.
Numerous tourists head to this temple to sneak peek at the marvellous structure of the temple.
Main Deity: Goddess Durga
Location: Aihole, Karnataka 587124

21. Sri Krishna Temple – Udupi

At Sri Krishna Temple the statue of Shri Krishna is facing towards the opposite site of the
entrance. It is said that Kanakadasa, a devotee was denied the entrance due to his cast. He went
to the back of the entrance and offered prayers. Locals believe that the lord, supposedly statue
turned towards Kanakadasa and since then the window is called Kanakana Kindi.

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Main Deity: Lord Krishna
Location: Temple Car St, Sri Krishna Temple Complex, Thenkpete, Maruthi Veethika, Udupi,
Karnataka 576101

22. Veera Narayana Temple – Belavadi

The architectural marvel of Belavadi, Veera Narayana Temple has relevance with the epic
Mahabharata. The three trikutas of the temple are made up of soapstone. The temple was
commissioned during the reign of Veera Ballala II and is known for its enormous structure.
Main Deity: Lord Narasimha

The rich history of these divine South Indian temples is motivating enough for anyone to go
out explore them on their own. Every temple has its own story, and behind every story.
South India is home to an extensive number of temples that reeks of essence of spirituality. The
main temples of South India includes Chidambaram, Rameshwaram, Madurai, Tirupati,
Kanchipuram, and Thanjavur.Q. Which is the largest temple in South India? A. South India is
known as the land of temples that exhibit eye-catching architecture. The largest temple in South
India is Angkor Wat that covers an area of 1,626,000 meter square approximately.

Kanchipuram or Conjeevaram is also known as the City of Thousand Temples. One of the
ancient cities of the southern part of India, this city reeks of history that dates back to as early as
the Chola capital, the 2nd century BCE.

The City of Thousand Temple, Sacred City, Heritage City or Temple City of India is
Kanchipuram, and hence, the temple city of Tamil Nadu also happens to the same. All the cities
of Tamil Nadu blankets an extensive number of major temples. There are around 165 temples
dedicated to Shiva in Kanchipuram itself.
What is the best time to visit South India?

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If one is seeking to avoid the hot and humid weather conditions of South India, it is best to visit
during the winter season. The peak season for South India usually begins around December and
continues till February.
Which temple is famous in Tamil Nadu?
Home to numerous temples and the Temple City, there is an extensive number of major temples
that attracts flocks of believers all year long. The most famous temple in Tamil Nadu is the
Brihadeeswarar Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, which is located in Thanjavur. This temple is
also one of the largest temples that exhibits a fine example of Hindu architecture.
Which south state is famous for temples?
The entire southern India is known for spiritual and beautifully built temples. From Andhra
Pradesh to Tamil Nadu, all the states of South India have their floors covered with numerous
places of worship.
Which part of South Indian temple is called a gopuram?
A Gopuram is a Sanskrit word that refers to the monumental and ornate entrance towers of the
Hindu Temples. These towers form an important part of the Dravidian architecture that can be
seen in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and Kerala.
Who built Rameswaram temple?
The Rameswaram Temple is one of the main temples of South India and was built by King
Achutha Nayak during the 1614-1640s. The King ruled Tanjore during this era and was a
devotee of Lord Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu who took life of a ten-headed demon named
Ravana.

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 CHAPTER X
Amalgamating Art & Divinity in Temples
PART II of a series on Divinity in temple construction

Divinity is a recurring concept throughout Hinduism and other world religions. The word
‘divine’ has become associated with God or other supernatural being – a power that is greater
than man.Ancient texts originating from India talk about divinities in reference to the many Gods
of the Hindu pantheon. These texts appear to have influenced the myths of later civilisations and
modern day religions.Although it is said there are some 330 million gods in Hinduism, divine
Yogis understand there is just One Supreme God – Brahman – which is personified by the
Trimurti; Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. he Trimurti are the Highest Divinities of the Hindu
pantheon. Yet Hindus with an in-depth understanding of the True Self – the Atman, realise that
the Trimurti are merely aspects of our inner life.

Essentially, human beings have the potential to become God-like by connecting with the ‘divine’
power that is within us. The divine power within us is the Atman and we connect with the
Supreme Universal Divinity which is the mysterious Brahman.

God in Man

Hindu texts written thousands of years ago teach us how to develop the qualities of divinity.
Religious texts make no bones that God resides in man. The Svetasvatara Upanishad describes
the Atman as the God that resides within.Similarly, in the Christian Bible, Genesis 1:27 states:
“God created mankind in his own image.” Although the Catholic Church personifies God as
some supernatural Sky Daddy, the texts imply that man has the divine qualities of God if we
choose to discover our true Self – the Atman – the God that resides within.In the Bhagavad Gita,
Lord Krishna talks about the ‘divine mystery’ being a royal secret. Kings, crowns and thus
royalty are used in esoteric symbolism to represent Yogis – enlightened beings.

This ‘royal secret’ is knowledge that can only be gained through self-examination. Eventually,
the process of self-examination results in a revelation – the point of self-realisation, or if you
like, an understanding on an deeper, emotional level.A spiritual aspirant therefore has to search
for the divine power within. And the God in ancient myths demonstrates what we have to do in
order to become an enlightened soul and ‘see the face of God.’

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Where is the divine power within?

This is a question that is open to debate. Yogis teach us that we can access our divine power
through the breath. By breathing from the pit of the stomach and using the whole diaphragm, we
fall deeper into trance.

In deep meditation, we are able to access levels of consciousness which connect us to the divine.
By training the mind to empty and concentrate on an intention, you can explore and discover the
divine in you.

The ancient Chinese call this energy centre the Tan Tien. This is where the chi energy starts.
Hindus have a similar concept which explains how the chi energy emerges and passes through
the chakra system.

The Tan Tien is situated about an inch below the navel, in the middle of the sacral chakra and the
solar plexus chakra. These are arguably the two most important chakras – although this is open
for debate and many people will have alternative opinions.

My reasoning behind this statement is because the sacral chakra is the energy centre for creation.
The ancient Sanskrit word for the sacral chakra is Svadhisthana which means ‘dwelling place of
the Self.’ In other words, where the Atman resides.

Atman remember is the individual God that resides within – your personal divine power that
connects you to the Universal divinity which is Brahman.

The Solar Plexus chakra is regarded as the control room. This powerful energy centre can be
used for burning away old values that no longer serve us in order to bring in new values. Among
the Hindu Gods the Solar Plexus is the divine power of Shiva and Shakti.

So together, the sacral chakra and the solar plexus chakra can be used to help us transform from
an ordinary mortal and develop the divine qualities reflected in the mythological Gods.

The qualities of a divine Being

Yogis explain that to access divine knowledge, we must transcend the bounds of reason and logic
that we typically apply to things in the physical world.

When we let go and allow our minds to wander beyond the five physical senses, we connect with
our divine self and acquire knowledge that enables us to dissolve the ego.

Throughout history we have heard stories about these revelations being grandiose epiphanies –
visits from God. In reality, self-realisation is far less dramatic, although is usually accompanied
by feelings of light-headedness and a release of tension felt leaving the body. We tend to call
them ‘Eureka moments’ or ‘ha-ha moments.’

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The truth about yourself comes from within. By internalising your thoughts and examining your
actions, you understand more about yourself. This is how to connect with your higher self and
expand your conscious awareness. he Vedas inform us that divine qualities are fearlessness, love,
gratitude, appreciation, compassion, patience, honesty, control of emotions and purity of mind.

Men that oppose the qualities of divine beings in Hindu mythology develop demonical qualities
that we find in the Asuras; ignorance, anger, arrogance, hate, selfishness, materialism,
indulgence, boastfulness and jealousy.As children we develop the qualities of the Asuras because
we do not know any better unless guided by adults; parents, teachers, spiritual leaders etc.Sadly,
many of us our misled by the glamorous ideal of a life you can have. In essence, these fantastical
ideals steer us away from the inner Truth of the divine Self.So essentially, you have a choice.
Chase a non-realistic dream that magazines promise. Or look within, touch the divine Self and
create the life you want for yourself.1

Hinduism is considered to be the oldest religion in the world. But it is much more than that.
Hindu mythology has been tolerant of other religions and traditions since its inception. In terms
of scripture, it is a delightful concoction of epic stories of morality and righteousness. These
stories give us ideal characters like Rama, Laxamana, and the Pandavas. The Vedas give us an
insight into ancient science and astronomy. Epics like Mahabharata and Ramayana narrate divine
stories of the never-ending battle between good and evil. These are the reasons that the rich
history of Hindu mythology is fascinating for both Hindus and non-Hindus.

Origin of Temples

Going back to the history, the ancient period is divided into four stages and is called as the Krta,
Treta, Dvapara and Kali. The Krta also known as the Satya Yuga was called the golden age or
the age of truth where there was no malice, deceit and had only righteousness. They all believed
that there was only one god who lived among the humans. Then came the Treta Yuga where
righteousness deteriorated by one fourth and here the main virtue was to acquire knowledge.
They considered that god was a scarce entity and would descend to earth only when men invoked

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them in rituals and sacrifices. During the third division of time called the Dvapara Yuga,
righteousness existed only in half the amount and eventually misery, disease, caste came into
existence. The presence of god multiplied and each individual started forming groups and having
their own images of god. However Kaliyuga is the present age of mankind. It is said that this age
began at midnight between February 17 and 18, 3102 BC with righteousness being only one
tenth. It is the time of anger, lust, pride, discord and there is very little room for true worship and
sacrifice. Individuals are more involved with materialistic satisfaction and sexual desires.

Temples appeared during Kali Yuga. During this phase temples were built and icons were
installed however, the gods ceased to come down. In contrast to the previous periods where the
gods were available to all the individuals equally, in Kaliyuga only the priests who belong to the
traditional hierarchy of professional worshipers and at the same time competent individuals
could compel the presence of the almighty.

Architecture

Temples are located strategically at a place where the positive energy is abundantly available
from the magnetic and electric wave distributions of north/south pole thrust. The main idol is
placed in the core center of the temple, known as “*Garbhagriha*” or *Moolasthanam*. In fact,
the temple structure is built after the idol has been placed. This *Moolasthanam* is where earth’s
magnetic waves are found to be maximum.

We know that there are some copper plates, inscribed with Vedic scripts, buried beneath the
Main Idol. What are they really? No, they are not God’s / priests’ flash cards when they forget
the *shlokas*. The copper plate absorbs earth’s magnetic waves and radiates it to the
surroundings. Thus a person regularly visiting a temple and walking clockwise around the Main
Idol receives the beamed magnetic waves and his body absorbs it. This is a very slow process
and a regular visit will let him absorb more of this positive energy. Scientifically, it is the
positive energy that we all require to have a healthy life.

I. Satya Yuga

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Hindu mythology clearly states that all living beings pass through a continuous cycle of creation
and destruction, the Maha Yuga. This cycle repeats itself over four different epochs or Yugas.
The first of these Yugas is the Satya Yuga, which spans a period of 1,728,000 years. The Satya
Yuga is said to be the golden age of truth and enlightenment. In this age, people attained an ideal
state of mind and their actions were always reasoned and virtuous. The sacred texts further state
that there was a surplus flow of ideas and thoughts between people.

Everyone led an honest life and adhered to the truth. Everyone had acquired the answer to the
ultimate question – the origin of everything. And since there was virtually nothing to conceal,
even the tiniest thread of thought was accessible to everyone without verbal communication.
Human physiology also significantly differed from the one that we exhibit today. People used to
be around 31.5 feet (21 cubits or 80cm) tall. They also had a lifespan that stretched over
hundreds of thousands of years.

II. Treta Yuga

This represents the second age in the cycle of Maha Yuga. The Hindu scripts state that Treta
Yuga spans a period of 1,296,000 human years. By the advent of Treta Yuga, the presence
of sattva or goodness in human nature had slowly started to diminish. Whatever goodness or
virtue that remained in people was now accompanied by an ever-increasing amount of tamas and
rajas. Tamas represented the darkness in human nature and rajas constituted all the passion a
human could conjure. By now, people had nurtured an acute level of intellect, but they had also
lost a good deal of control over their body and its physiology.
People’s stature was now smaller than during the Satya Yuga, with the average human being
around 14 cubits tall, but there were some exceptional beings who had attained a godly build and
divine persona such as the characters Rama, Laxamana, Ravana, and Hanumana who were
considered godlike for their extraordinary strength and inimitable intellect.

III. Dwapar Yuga

Dwapar Yuga represents the third age right after Treta Yuga. Also known as the Bronze Age, the
Dwapar Yuga is said to have lasted for 864,000 human years. It represents an age where
goodness and evil in human nature are neck and neck. As the human body loses satva or purity,
people attain a far greater control over their body than their intellect. By the time Dwapar Yuga
was at its peak, man had already lost control over his innermost body and knowledge. He became
more attracted to the materialistic aspects of the world, succumbing to his ever-increasing
desires. Only intellectuals like Bhisma, Dharmaraja, and Vidura were able to escape this fate.
Eventually, there was a gradual decline in the moral fiber of society in general. People with
enormous physicality became increasingly offensive in their thirst for desire and power. The
average human lifespan had also come down to 1,000 years.

IV. Kali Yuga

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The last age in the ever-repeating cycle of Maha Yuga is the Kali Yuga. It is also the shortest,
lasting for 432,000 human years. The current time period falls under Kali Yuga, and it is also
referred to as the Iron Age. The Kali Yuga represents hypocrisy and instability like never before.
Human nature is significantly corrupted by the temptations of sin and only a little conscience
remains.

The human body is at its lowest in terms of physicality and intellect. An average man is only 3.5
cubits tall and lives for around 100 to 120 years. Citing the ancient Hindu scripts, it is estimated
that around 5,000 years of Kali Yuga have already passed by. It is also predicted that when Kali
Yuga reaches its dying years, the lifespan of man will be no more than 20 years. This age has
been highlighted by man’s unprecedented longing for materialism. In a stark contrast to previous
ages, human lives have been corrupted by ignorance and the connection to one’s inner self has
been lost. 2

Temples are the focal points of religious worship. Through architectural representation they
can express religious ideology. From the late Dark Ages to the Classical Period and beyond,
humanity had been consistently struggling with their understanding of God, divinity, and the
world around them. In the historic and prehistoric evidence of humanity we see a constant
attempt to understand the nature of the world around us and how it interacts with us. One of the
most ancient understandings of the nature of the world and all within it comes through the notion
of divinity. Harboring a belief in the divine is an effort to understand not only the world, but also
its relation to us. Religion is the organization and patterning of a conception of divinity. In many
historical civilizations we see the reflection of religion in human creations. Temple architecture
is only one creation through which religion and divinity are expressed, but it is potentially a

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powerfully persuasive medium, which can support tremendous intricacy of expression. Through
an understanding of temple architecture, we can hope to have an insight into the nature of
divinity in a particular religion.3

Architecture has always had a role to play in religious worship - here's our pick of the best
modern religious buildings, from one of the largest mosques in the world to a diminutive chapel
built to honour a 15th-century hermit. The mainland Greeks expressed their conception of
divinity in many ways through the design and function of Archaic and Classical temples of the
Doric order. As the Islamic religious calendar is based on the lunar cycle, the moon became a
source of inspiration and a unifying element of the design. The building of somemosques such as
-The Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan al Nahyan Mosque- alters character as the lunar cycle progresses,
bathed in cool white light at the full moon, but shifting colour every two evenings, and growing
gradually bluer as the moon wanes. On the fourteenth evening the mosque is lit in deepest blue to
signify darkness - yet the viewer is never able to perceive the building changing from one colour
to the next.

Sacred or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space.

Architect Norman L. Koonce has suggested that the goal of sacred architecture is to make
"transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the spirit." In discussing sacred
architecture, Protestant minister Robert Schuller suggested that "to be psychologically healthy,
human beings need to experience their natural setting—the setting we were designed for, which
is the garden." Meanwhile, Richard Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building is
a metaphor for entering into spiritual relationship. Kieckhefer suggests that sacred space can be
analyzed by three factors affecting spiritual process: longitudinal space emphasizes the
procession and return of sacramental acts, auditorium space is suggestive of proclamation and
response, and new forms of communal space designed for gathering and return depend to a great
degree on minimized scale to enhance intimacy and participation in worship.

Sacral architecture (also known as sacred architecture or religious architecture) is

a religious architectural practice concerned with the design and construction of places of
worship or sacred or intentional space, such as churches, mosques, stupas, synagogues,
and temples. Many cultures devoted considerable resources to their sacred architecture and
places of worship. Religious and sacred spaces are amongst the most impressive and
permanent monolithic buildings created by humanity. Conversely, sacred architecture as a locale
for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and
non-public.

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Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and were the largest buildings
in the world, prior to the modern skyscraper. While the various styles employed in sacred
architecture sometimes reflected trends in other structures, these styles also remained unique
from the contemporary architecture used in other structures. With the rise
of Christianity and Islam, religious buildings increasingly became centres
of worship, prayer and meditation.The Western scholarly discipline of the history of
architecture itself closely follows the history of religious architecture from ancient times until
the Baroque period, at least. Sacred geometry, iconography, and the use of
sophisticated semiotics such as signs, symbols and religious motifs are endemic to sacred
architecture.
Temples were built for religious patronage. Muslims built mosques, Christians built Churches
and Hindus built temples for their worship. They were also other structures for worship. Some
rulers considered the destruction of temples of other religions shows their power. Before the
advent of the British, there were several Rulers ruled over the vast Indian Subcontinent. It
includes large Empires to small rulers. They had different religions, cultures, and art traditions.
To maintain their tradition, they built several temples and pilgrimage places.

Let us discuss temples. Temples shows the wealth, art and architecture, knowledge of the
nation. The names of God in the temple were related to the name of kings. The people of the
nation treated them as Gods. The subordinate positions of the king were depicted as minor gods
in the temple. Religion classified humans based on their divinity in their worship and ethical
issues, morals. There were several religions in the world. The caste system was mostly followed
by the Hindus. Some leaders also followed a non-religion policy. Temples were built for
religious patronage. Muslims built mosques, Christians built Churches and Hindus built temples
for their worship. They were also other structures for worship.
Several Rulers followed several religions. Some rulers considered the destruction of temples of
other religions shows their power. During the invasions of Muhammad Ghazi, he looted from the
temples and also destroyed the Hindu temples to show himself as a hero among the Islamic
community. Hence the temples were built and destroyed.

Temples also had underground canals and silos for storage and passage. They were used as a

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refugee camp during natural calamities like floods, heavy rains, and during invasion times. The
Mundeswari Temple in Bihar was the oldest Hindu temple constructed in India.
For example if we look at Jain Temples- A Jain temple or Derasar is the place of worship for
Jains, the followers of Jainism. Jain architecture is essentially restricted to temples and
monasteries, and Jain buildings generally reflect the prevailing style of the place and time they
were built.

Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient
times Buddhist architecture. Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions,
and regional and period styles are generally similar. For over 1,000 years the basic layout of a
Hindu or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or sanctuary for the
main murti or cult images, over which the high superstructure rises, then one or more
larger mandapa halls.

Māru-Gurjara architecture or the "Solanki style" is, a particular temple style

from Gujarat and Rajasthan (both regions with a strong Jain presence) that originated in both
Hindu and Jain temples around 1000, but became enduringly popular with Jain patrons. It has
remained in use, in somewhat modified form, to the present day, indeed also becoming popular
again for some Hindu temples in the last century. The style is seen in the groups of pilgrimage
temples at Dilwara on Mount Abu, Taranga, Girnar and Palitana.

Patri Jain Temples Kutch,Gujrath,India

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The word temple comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as
defined by a priest, or augur. It has the same root as the word "template", a plan in preparation of
the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur.
The form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by
believers to be in some sense the "house" of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort
are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, and a special group of clergy maintain, and
operate the temple. The degree to which the whole population of believers can access the
building varies significantly; often parts or even the whole main building can only be accessed
by the clergy. Temples typically have a main building and a larger precinct, which may contain
many other buildings, or may be a dome shaped structure, much like an igloo.The right and
correct word for a HINDU temple is MANDIR and a Jain temple is Derasar. Basadi is a Jain
shrine or temple in Karnataka. The word is generally used in South India. ... The Sanskrit
word is vasati, it implies an institution including residences of scholars attached to the shrine.
Derasar is a word used for a Jain temple in Gujarat and southern Rajasthan.

A Mandir or Hindu temple is a symbolic house, seat and body of divinity for Hindus. It is a
structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, using symbolism to express the
ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. The symbolism and structure of a Hindu temple are rooted in
Vedic traditions, deploying circles and squares.[3] It also represents recursion and equivalence of
the macrocosm and the microcosm by astronomical numbers, and by "specific alignments related
to the geography of the place and the presumed linkages of the deity and the patron".A temple
incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmos—presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well
as the elements of Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life—symbolically
presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa, and karma.
The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient
Sanskrit texts of India (for example, Vedas and Upanishads), while their structural rules are
described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture (Brhat Samhita, Vastu
Sastras). The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals,
geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism.
A Hindu temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks around which
ancient arts, community celebrations and economy have flourished.

Who built more temples?

The whole of South India was ruled by Vijayanagara Empire from (1343–1565 CE), who built a
number of temples and monuments in their hybrid style in their capital Vijayanagara in
Karnataka. Their style was a combination of the styles developed in South India in the previous
centuries. Mundeshvari temple in Bihar is considered by many to be the oldest functional
temple in India.

Important Temple in India built by different Kings and Dynasties

1. Sun temple (Konark, Odisha)

Dynasty and Period of Construction-Built by Narasimha Deva-I of East Ganga
Dynasty in 1255 AD
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images

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Temple complex is in the form of a gigantic chariot of Sun god, Surya.
It has 12 pairs of stone wheels, and pillars and walls have elaborate carvings, where some are
erotic images of Mithunas.The temple is oriented towards the east so that the first rays of the Sun
enters the main entrance.The wheels of the temple act as sundials which can calculate time to
the accuracy of a minute.
It has Odisha or Kalinga style architecture (Nagara Phamsana shikhara).A UNESCO world
heritage site.

2. Lingaraja temple (Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Dynasty and Period of Construction-Built in 11th century CE by king Yayati Keshri of
Somvansh. Some parts of the temple were built in the 7th century
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images.Dedicated to Lord
Shiva, it is the largest temple of Odisha.It has Kalinga style architecture, its shikhar is of
Nagara Phamsana type.
Built in sandstone and laterite, it is east facing.
It is built in Deula style and has four components, the vimana (which contains the
garbhagriha), jagmohana (which is assembly hall), nata-mandir (hall for dance and festivals),
and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings).The bhoga-mandir hall has a pyramidical roof of several
horizontal layers and has on top aninverted bell and Kalasa.

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 3. Jagannath temple (Puri, Odisha
Dynasty and Period of Construction-Constructed in the 12th century CE by Anantvarma
Chodganga Deva of Eastern Ganga dynasty.

Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images

Located on eastern coast of India at Puri, the temple is dedicated to Lord Jagannath (incarnation
of Lord Vishnu).The temple deities are unique as they are made of wood which are replaced
every 12th year.It is one of the four dhamas (four divine sites) associated with Hindu faith and is
associated with the famous 'Rathyatra'.The large temple complex contains over 120 temples
and shrines. The main temple has four distinct structures: Deula
(shikhar), garbhagriha, mukhashala (frontal porch), nata-mandir, and bhoga mandap.

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 4. Siva Sagar Sivadol temple (Sibsagar district,
Assam)
Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built in 1734 by Ahom king Swargdeo Siba Singha
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
It is a group of three temples-Sivadol, Vishnudol, and Devidol, located on the banks of the
Sivasagar tank.
The temple has Ahom style of architecture. The spire of Sivadol is crowned with 8
highgolden domes.
The Ahom style is also seen in Kamakhya temple (17th century) near Guwahati (Assam).

5. Terracota temples of Bishnupur (Bankura district,

West Bengal)
Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built by different Malla kings in the 17th & 18th century CE
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
These are a group of temples built by different kings of Malla dynasty, each having distinct features.

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6. Jor Bangla temple (1655); dedicated to Lord Krishna, has Chala style of Bengal architecture. It
has beautiful terracotta carvings set in walls and roofs with the shape of the roof being curving
and sloping quite unlike other temples.\

7. Panch Ratna temple; dedicated to Lord Krishna, has a low square plinth. It has an ambulatory
pathway with a porch opened by three arches. It has a five shikhars, the central shikhar being
octagonal and the remaining being square.

8. Lakshmana temple (Sirpur, Chhattisgarh)

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Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
Dedicated to Lord Vishnu, the Lakshmana temple is an excellent example of a brick temple.
The temple is known for its unique symmetry and exquisite carvings on pillars.
Images of Vishnu and Krishna Leela are found on its walls and pillars.The site has a number of
Buddhist structures including viharas and statues of Buddha and Mahavira.

9. Khajuraho temples (Madhya Pradesh)

Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built by Chandela kings 950 CE to 1050 CE
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
The temple complex comprises a number of Hindu and Jain temples, the most famous being
the Lakshmana temple (dedicated to Lord Vishnu, Kandariya Mahadeo temple (dedicated to
Lord Shiva), the Chausath Yogini temple, and the Parsvanath Jain temple.
Temples are of typical Nagara style of architecture. The Lakshmana temple has five shikhars
(Panchayatana style) with four smaller temples in the centre. The towers rise high and are
topped with a fluted disc (amlak) and a kalash.
The walls are highly decorated with numerous erotic carvings signifying the importance
attached to human experience in even spiritual pursuit.
It is a UNESCO world heritage site

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 10. Dashavatara temple (Deogarh District, UP)
Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built in 500 CE in the late Gupta Period
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
It is among the earliest Hindu temples. Dedicated to Lord Vishnu, it has the famous sculpture
of Sheshayna Vishnu. Other important images are that of NaraNarayan, and Gajendra
Moksha Vishnu.It is a prototype of Sarvatobhadra temple.

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 11. Nachna Kuthara temple (Panna District, Madhya
Pradesh)
Dynasty and Period of Construction
Two temples built in late Gupta period
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 It is among the earliest temple structures of ancient India.
 The site is famous for two temples, the Chaturmukhlinga temple (it has Shivalinga with four
faces) and the Parvati temple.
 The Parvati temple built on a raised platform has walls over a metre thick and faces west
towards the setting sun, making it unique.

12. Sun temple (Modhera, Gujarat)

Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built by Raja Bhimdev - I of Solanki dynasty in 1026 CE
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 Dedicated to Sun god, the temple faces east and at equinoxes, the rays of the sun shine directly
on the main shrine.
 It has a large rectangular stepped tank (Surya Kund) which is over 100 square meters and is
the grandest temple tank with 108 miniature shrines carved in between the steps in the tank.
 The architecture is unique as it has three axially aligned and integrated elements, viz. the Surya
kund (temple tank), Sabha mandap, and Guda mandap.

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 13.Dilwara temple (Mount Abu, Gujarat)
Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built in 11th to 13th century CE. The Vimal Vasahi temple of this group was built in 1031 CE
by Vimal Shah, minister of Bhimadev-I, a Chalukya king
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 It is a Jain group of temples which are world famous for exquisite marble carvings.
 It comprises five set of temples, the most famous being Vimal Vasahi temple dedicated to Jain
Tirthankara Rishabhnath.

13. Ranakpur temple (Pali district, Rajasthan)

Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built in 15th century CE
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 It is a Jain temple complex dedicated to the first Tirthankara Adinath (Rishabhnath).
 The temple made in white marble is spectacular and has intricate carvings and statues.
 Referred to as Maru Gurjara architecture, the temple is designed as 'chaumukh' with four
faces.

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 14. Kailash temple (Ellora, Aurangabad district,
Maharashtra)
Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built by Rashtrakuta king, Krishna-I in 8th century CE
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 It is the largest rock-cut temple carved from a single rock (monolithic structure)
 Dedicated to Lord Shiva, the temple has a mandapa, gopuram, a courtyard, and a statue of Nandi
carved out of stone.It is a UNESCO world heritage site\

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 15. Meenakshi temple (Madurai, Tamil Nadu)
Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built by Vishwanatha Nayakar, ruler of the Nayak dynasty in the 16th century CE
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 The temple is unique as it has 14 gopurams (towers of gateways) which are 45-50 metre high
and are the most visible structures of the temple complex.
 It has two golden sculptured vimanas under which the garbhagrihas with the main deity is
present. The vimanas of the main deity are smaller in size as compared to the gopurams.

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 16. Brihadeeshwara temple (Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu)
Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built by Raja Raja Chola I of Chola dynasty in 1009 CE
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images

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 Dedicated to Lord Shiva, it is also known as the Rajarajeshwar temple and is made of granite
rock.
 The vimana of the temple is nearly 70m high and one of the largest and tallest temple of India. It
has the largest Shivlinga.
 It has Dravidian style architecture, with a large vimana, mandapa hall, statue of Nandi, and
gopuram (which is smaller than the vimana).
 A UNESCO world heritage site.

Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple (Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu)

Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built by king Rajendra Chola (successor of Raja Raja Chola) in the 11th century CE
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 Dedicated to Lord Shiva, it is a massive temple, only next in size to Brihadeeshwara
temple but better than the latter in terms of quality of sculpture work.
 A Dravidian architecture temple with vimana of 55m high which is nine storey high.
 A huge Shiva linga 4m high is placed in the sanctum.

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 Shore temple (Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu)
Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built during the reign of Pallava dynasty ruler Narsimha Varman II in 8th century CE
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 Built onshore facing east towards the ocean, it is a complex of three temples. Two of these are
dedicated to Lord Shiva and one to Lord Vishnu.
 Built with sculpted granite rocks it is a five storied structural temple (and not rock-cut). It is a
pyramidical structure nearly 60ft high built on a raised platforms.
 Along with other structures it forms a part of UNESCO world heritage site.

Pancha Rathas (Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu)

Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built in 7th century CE during reign of Mahendra Verman-1 and his son Narsimha
Verman of Pallava dynasty
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 It is located at a separate monument complex from the shore temple.
 The pancharathas are monolithic rockcut temples.
 They resemble and represent the five rathas of Pandavas, the largest being the Dharmaraja-
ratha and the smallest one was the Draupadi-ratha. The others were Arjuna-ratha, Bheema-ratha,
and NakulaSachdeva-ratha.
 The site is famous for the bas-relief or the large sculptural panel nearly thirty metres long and
fifteen metres high. This tableau has a large number of images, the most famous, being the image
of Arjuna's penance.

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 Some scholars interpret it is as the story of the descent of Ganga from heaven to earth and
Bhagirath's penance for that.
 Along with other monuments it is a UNESCO world heritage site.

Srirangam temple (Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu)

Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built by Chola kings around 10th century CE
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 It is the largest functioning temple complex in the world, spread in 156 acres, second in size
only to Angkar Vat complex (however the latter is not functioning as a temple).
 It is a typical Dravidian style temple. It has 7 concentric walls (called prakarmas), 21 gopurams,
39 pavillions, fifty shrines, and several tanks/water bodies inside.
 The vimana over the main deity (Ranganatha Swamy, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu) is shaped
like Om and is gold plated.
 It has a 1000 pillared hall. The pillars have sculptures of various animals and other figures.

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 Durga temple (Aihole, Karnataka)
Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built in 7th & 8th century CE by Chalukyan kings
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 The temple is unique as its plan is oblong or apsidal and is similar to the earlier Buddhist
chaitya halls. It employs Gajprishta architecture.
 The temple is surrounded by a circumambulatory verandah and has a shikhar similar to Nagara
architecture. Thus, elements of Dravidian and Nagara style is incorporated.

Virupaksha temple (Pattadakal, Karnataka

Dynasty and Period of Construction

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 Built in 745 CE by Loka-Mahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya-II of Chalukya dynasty
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 This temple is the largest temple at Pattadakal group of monuments (a UNESCO world heritage
site).
 Dedicated to Lord Shiva, it has a typical Dravidian temple architecture and is famous for
sculptures of Lingobhava, Nataraja, and Ugra Narasimha.
 The Kailash temple at Ellora was modelled as per the Virupaksha temple.

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 Chennekeshva temple (Somnathpuram district, Mysore, Karnataka
Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built in 1268 CE under Hoysala king Narasimha III
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 Dedicated to Lord Vishnu, this temple is of Dravidian style of architecture and is unique as it
has a number of projecting angles appearing like stars (called stellate plan).
 The material used for construction is soapstone (green schist) which is a relatively soft stone,
making the intricate sculpture possible (as seen in jewellery of deities).
 Temple is built on jagati (a raised platform and is trikuta (triple shrine). The vimanas have a
vestibutle connecting each to the main mandapa.
 The walls of the temple have scenes of Ramayana and Mahabharata depicted on them

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 Hoysaleshwar temple (Halebid, Karnataka)
Dynasty and Period of Construction
Built by Hoysala King Vishnu Vardhan in 1150 CE
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 The temple architecture has a mix of Dravidian and Nagara features. Thus, it has a Vesara
temple architecture.
 Dedicated to Lord Shiva, who is depicted as Nataraja, the temple has two buildings
(Dvikutavimana) which is a plan with two shrines and two superstructures. It has a long
mandapa (hall) for music and dance.
 It has a stellate plan with star like projections and fine carvings.

Jageshwar temples (Almora District, Uttarakhand)

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 Dynasty and Period of Construction
Temples built between 9th century CE to 13th century CE
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 The temple complex comprises nearly 124 temples of which Mahamritunjay Mahadev is the
oldest and largest one and the Tarun Jageshwar is the principal temple. Both are dedicated to
Lord Shiva.
 It has Nagara style architecture.

Lakhsna Devi temple (Chamba, Himachal Pradesh)

Dynasty and Period of Construction
Constructed in 680 CE by Raja Meru Verman
Style of Architecture, Salient Features, Important sculptures/Images
 It is famous for the image of goddess Durga, in four armed form of Mahisasura Mardini.
 It has Nagara style architecture and has features of old wooden architecture with richly
carved entrance.

Fron the above it is clear that many styles of design and architecture nd myrid
materials were used in making temples but the main ingredient was always-
Divinity

17th-century palm leaf manuscript page on temple building, Odisha.

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 DIVINITY
Talking of Measures and proportions,Seenivasarao on of the contemporary
temple experts in the country and a man who has inspired me says:-“

The structural harmony, the rhythm and a fine sense of proportion is the hall
mark of Indian temple architecture. It not merely resolves the contradictions but
also expresses harmony by encompassing all contradictions, transforming into
pure and uncompromised details of structure. The aim of a proportional system,
meaning not merely symmetry, is to manifest a sense of coherence and harmony
among the elements of the temple and it’s whole. The proportional harmonization
of design, therefore, is of utmost importance in the construction of a temple. It is
believed that the power and purity of the structure radiates from its exact
proportions and measures as specified in the texts. It is also believed that a
meticulously well constructed temple radiates peace and joy; and ensures the
welfare of the world and its people.
Without harmony, symmetry and proportion there can be no principles in the
design of any temple. This is analogues to the precise relation between the
features and organs of a well proportioned, good-looking person.
The ancient texts, therefore, insist on a high degree of precision in their
measurements.
The standard text Mayamata mentions “Only if the temple is constructed
correctly according to a mathematical system can it be expected to function in
harmony with the universe. Only if the measurement of the temple is in every
way perfect, there will be perfection in the universe as well.”
The Hindu temple is a feast of a variety of visual aspects, and wherever one
engages one of them, entering a doorway, circumambulating or approaching the
inner sanctuary or worshipping there– one is accessing an aspect of the whole.
The rules of Vastu-shastra render beauty, structural stability and quality of
spaces by virtue of light, sound and volume management. They also evoke in the
devotee an attuning of his person to its structure and ambience.
A Hindu temple is a symmetry-driven structure, with many variations, on a
square grid of padas, depicting perfect geometric shapes such as circles and
squares. Susan Lewandowski states that the underlying principle in a Hindu
temple is built around the belief that all things are one, everything is connected.
A temple, states Lewandowski, "replicates again and again the Hindu beliefs in
the parts mirroring, and at the same time being, the universal whole" like an
"organism of repeating cells".The pilgrim is welcomed through mathematically
structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that
display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human
life—the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (desire), the
pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit of moksha (release, self-
knowledge).
At the centre of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the
deity, is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically

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 representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without
form, which is present everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of
everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification
of one's mind, and trigger the process of inner realization within the devotee. The
specific process is left to the devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of
different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum.
In PROPORTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE
(http://granthaalayah.com/Articles/Vol6Iss3/14_IJRG18_A03_1217.pdf) Architect Minakshi
Rajput Singh says that

The uniqueness of His creation is reflected in different fields of life by the great masters throughout the
ages that have born with the formation of the universe, from the big bang, till times still to come.
Special ratio that can be used to describe the proportions of everything from nature’s smallest building
blocks, such as atoms, to the most advanced patterns in the universe, such as unimaginably large
celestial bodies. One of the key evidences presented for creation is the recurring appearance of the
Divine proportion, or golden section, throughout the design of the human body and other life forms. An
attempt has been made to relate Sri yantra and golden ratio and the various forms that seem to
exemplify in the plan and elevation of the Indian temple. The yantra which is a complex geometry has
been perfected to be used for the development of temple forms of different eras. The following paper
will be a tool for the researchers to use the yantra in deriving the spaces of Indian temples.

In the Master’s Thesis in Building Science & Technology submitted to the University of Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, on Temple design in Mayaysia, by SUJATAVANIGUNASAGARAN A STUDY ON
HINDU TEMPLE PLANNING, CONSTRUCTION AND THE V ASTU by SUJATAVANIGUNASAGARAN
says that
A Hindu Temple should be designed to maintain its ancient aesthetics, mysticism, philosophy, design
principle, components, quality, nature and comfort. This can be done with incorporating the Vaastu in
building Hindu Temples. In Malaysia, there are no rules to govern the religious buildings. Therefore
there are no scale to measure the quality of Hindu Temples.

Before a Temple is planned details of how to attain divinity in the Constructed

elements as well as the post Construction rituals is discussed and planned to
fruition in the temple building.
It starts with the
1. site.
2. Builders Guilds and Traditions of building temples also contribute
to the effort to attain a divine seeking form
3. The square grid principle used in almost all temples to attain a
DIVINE ration in proportions

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The site
The appropriate site for a Mandir, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water
and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other
birds are heard, where animals rest without fear of injury or harm.These
harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the explanation that
such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.
If we study the 10 most Ancient Temples in the World (and What They Look Like Now)

We discover these incredible ancient temples from across the globe and learn about
the sites thet adorned.9 Fron an article by Stephanie
Strasnickhttps://www.architecturaldigest.com/gallery/oldest-temples
February 19, 2018

early years of civilization, many of the most spectacular are the ancient temples.
Given the importance of religion in ancient civilizations, it's not surprising that these
spiritual sites were built using the latest architectural innovations and are imposing
in scale. Many of these sites are still shrouded in mystery about their past uses and
creators, while others are well documented and have been studied for more than a
century. Luckily for architecture and history buffs, some of the oldest temples
around the globe can actually be toured by visitors today. Get your Indiana Jones
hat and field boots ready—we’ve rounded up 10 awe-inspiring temples you’ll want to
explore right now.
Temple of Hatshepsut.(Above RIGHT PIC)
Location: Egypt. Built: Around 1,470 B.C. Also known as Djeser-Djeseru, this
ancient funerary shrine in Egypt was designed by pharaoh Hatshepsut’s royal
architect, Senenmut, and can be recognized by its lengthy colonnade and many
terraces. Although many of the site’s original statues and ornaments have been
stolen or destroyed over the years, its relief depicting the divine birth of a female
pharaoh is still intact. A monastery was built on top of the temple in the seventh
century A.D. The site's first large-scale excavation took place in the 1890s and the
Metropolitan Museum of Art's Egyptologist Herbert E. Winlock led an ex cavation
and restoration of the site from 1923 to 1931.

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 Temple of Amada.(Above RIGHT PIC)
Location: Nubia. Built: 18th and 19th Dynasties (Between 1,550 and 1,189 B.C.)
Originally constructed on the east bank of the Nile, this temple, which is the oldest
temple in Nubia, was moved in the 1960s and '70s to a new, higher site on Lake
Nasser to protect it from flooding. The effort was led by French Egyptologist
Christiane Desroches Noblecourt and included a number of Nubian temples and
historic sites. The temple’s most notable features include a well-preserved relief
and two significant inscriptions describing the military accomplishments of the
pharaohs who built the temple, Tuthmosis III and his son Amenhotep II.

Göbekli Tepe
Location: Turkey. Built: 10,000 B.C. It is believed that 6,000 years before
Stonehenge was built, a remarkable stone temple was erected on a hilltop in
southeastern Turkey by prehistoric people. Known as Göbekli Tepe, the si te was
previously dismissed by anthropologists, who believed it to be a medieval grave. In
2008, however, the German archaeologist Klaus Schmidt determined that Göbekli
Tepe is, in fact, the oldest known temple in the world. The site was purposefully
buried around 8,000 B.C. for unknown reasons, although this allowed the
structures to be preserved for future discovery and study.

Luxor Temple

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Location: Egypt. Built: Between 1,100 and 1,600 B.C. This Ancient Egyptian
temple on the east bank of the Nile has served as a place of worship for nearly
3,500 years. The site is known for its avenue of sphinxes and the towering Pylon of
Ramses II. The structure was constructed during the reigns of several pharaohs,
including Amenhotep III, Ramses II, and Tutankhamen, who is credited with much
of the temple's decoration. The Luxor Temple is considered the largest and most
important site in ancient Egypt and was dedicated to Amun, the king of the gods,
as well as the mother goddess Mut, and Khonsu, god of the moon and time.

Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni
Location: Malta. Built: Around 2,500 B.C. Unlike the other temples on our list, the
Hypogeum in Malta was constructed underground. A UNESCO World Heritage Site,
this enormous, subterranean labyrinth has false windows, trilithon doorways,
decorative red ocher paintings, and carved-stone ceiling accents that mimic
corbeled masonry. The Hypogeum was discovered in 1902 during construction and
was first excavated beginning in 1903. The site was closed between 1990 and 2000
for conservation, and while it has reopened to the public, only 80 visitors are
permitted per day.

Stonehenge- Location: England.Built: Beginning in 3,000 B.C.

One of the world’s most famous—and mysterious—monuments, Stonehenge dates
back approximately 5,000 years, when an early monument, consisting of a circular
ditch with inner and outer banks, was installed. The stone structure we know
today was constructed around 2,500 B.C. Though its original function remains
unknown, it’s possible that Stonehenge was built as a temple for the worship of
ancient earth deities. Comprising a symmetrical arrangement of bluestones (some
weighing up to four tons), the structure is regarded as a major feat of engineering.
The monument was privately owned until 1918, when it was given to the country.
Stonehenge and its surroundings were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in
1986.

280
281
Ġgantija Temples.(Above RIGHT PIC)
Location: Malta. Built: Between 3,600 and 3,200 B.C. Inhabitants of the island of
Gozo once believed these two temples were built by a race of giants, hence their
name, which is derived from the Maltese word for giant. The temples are
constructed of coralline limestone, and some of the stones weigh over 50 tons.
Inside, softer globigerina limestone was used for decorative elements. The temples,
as well as five other temples in Malta, were named UNESCO World Heritage sites
in 1980.

Temple of Apollo
Location: Delphi, Greece. Built: 330 B.C. The Temple of Apollo is located at Delphi,
the center of the Ancient Greek world, and was built on the site of two earlier
temples. The architects, Spintharus, Xenodoros, and Agathon, built the peripteral
Doric temple following a similar plan as the previous temple, which was destroyed
by an earthquake in 373 B.C. Athenian sculptors Androthenes and Praxias created
work that decorated the pediment. The village of Kastri was built over the site in
the seventh century A.D. and was later removed in 1891 for long-term excavations.
Delphi was named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987.

Tchogha Zanbil
Location: Iran. Built: 1,250 B.C. Tchogha Zanbil was founded by Elamite ruler
Untash-Gal as the religious center of ancient Elam, a site which is now part of the
Khuzestan province. The holy city contains a ziggurat (a rectangular stepped

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tower), temples, and three palaces. The ziggurat at Tchogha Zanbil is the largest
outside of Mesopotamia and the best-preserved structure of its kind. The city was
never completed and was attacked and damaged by Assyrian king Ashurbanipal
around 640 B.C. It was discovered in 1935 by prospectors for an oil company and
was excavated between 1946 to 1962 by archaeologist Roman Ghirshman.

Ziggurat of Ur: Iraq.(Above RIGHT PIC)

Built: 21st century B.C. The Ziggurat of Ur was built by King Ur-Nammu and
dedicated to the god Nanna. Today only the foundations remain, and part of the
structure, including the staircase and lower façade, was rebuilt by Saddam
Hussein in the 1980s. It has been closed to the public since 2003, although U.S.
military personnel have been able to access the site thanks to its proximity to the
Tallil Air Base

Site of the Shiva Tempe PRAMBHANAN in Yogakarta,Indonesia

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 DIVINITY BY DESIGN
In his paper on THE ADINATHA TEMPLE at RANAKPUR ,Takio Kamia DISCUSSES
DIVINITY BY DESIGN in awe of the Rankapur Model he says
” CHARM OF THE TEMPLE AT RANAKPUR
This must be the greatest work of Indian architecture." I was
convinced while walking inside of a extensive Jaina temple with
excitement. This temple, dedicated to the first Tirthankara Adinatha,
appeared all of a sudden at Ranakpur, which is a place located in the
depths of the mountains, neither a city nor a village. It took me several
changes of trains and buses from Mount Abu to get to the temple.
It was the time when my three-month journey in India was drawing to
a close. In this architectural pilgrimage starting from East India, I had
been often overwhelmed by a lot of great works of Hindu and Islamic
architecture in Northern and Southern India. And yet, it was this
temple that struck me the most and became the highlight of my long
journey.
I felt it very strange that a masterpiece like this stood on such a
remote and inconvenient mountain, not in a big city or famous tourist
site. At that time, there was no tourist bungalow at Ranakpur. Besides
this large temple and a few small ones, there was only a pilgrimage
accommodation facility called "dharmashala."
I visited this temple three times with nine year intervals between each
visit. Every time I go there, I cannot but get a fresh impression. It is a
blissful combination of architecture, sculpture and crafts, sequential
space abounding in variety, immaculacy of white all over, continuing
halls covered by high-raised domical ceilings full of extremely minute
carvings, that reminds us of a sense of the "Pure Land." The beauty of
this temple is indeed beyond description. Ever since my first visit, the
more I learned about the background of this temple, the more I was
fascinated by it.

The temple is very large. It stands on a basement of 60m x 62m (*1) ,

which looks like a stronghold. On the top of a flight of stairs at the
central entrance, there is a three-storied "Balanaka" (entrance hall),
which has a domed roof. Its entrance door is rather small in order to
defend itself from incursion, as I have explained in the previous
chapter. Passing through the portals and walking up a dark staircase,

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there suddenly appears a bright and magnificent space, and the
splendor takes our breath away.

PLAN 1. ADINATHA TEMPLE, RANAKPUR, 15th century.

(From "The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India" vol. 1, Buddhist, Jain,
Hindu, by George Michell, 1989)
The central main shrine is called "Mula-Prasada", the interior of which is
"Garbagriha" (sanctum), and its main statue is "Mulanayaka". For a
Chaturmukha (four-faced) shrine, unlike the temples of Mt. Abu, there are no
"Gudha-mandapa" (closed hall) or "Trika-mandapas" (vestibule), but four
"Ranga-mandapas" ( A, assembly hall) in front of four portals of the main
shrine. Each Ranga-mandapa is connected with a three storyed "Meghanada-
mandapa" ( B, high hall) in front.
Having four "Mahadara-prasada" (two-faced-shrine) diagonally in four
directions of the main shrine, the temple type is "Panchayatana" (five-shrined-
type). In addition to this, there are two "Bhadra-prasada" east and west sides,
making the total composition much more intricate. A line of "Deva-kulika"
(small shrine) along "Bhamati" (cloister) surround the whole complex. All these
shrines hold a statue of Tirthankara or Jina (four in Chaturmukha, two in
Mahadara-prasada), there are more than 100 statues in total.

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 Statue of Depaka, architect/
Meghanada-mandapa, Adinatha temple

While major Hindu mandirs are recommended at sangams (confluence of

rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore, the Brhat
Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also be built where a natural
source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built
preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is
neither present naturally nor by design, water is symbolically present at the
consecration of temple or the deity. Temples may also be built,
suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93, inside caves and carved
stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, mountain slopes overlooking
beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head
of a town street.
In practice most temples are built as part of a village or town.[31] Some sites
such as the capitals of kingdoms and those considered particularly favourable
in terms of sacred geography had numerous temples. Many ancient capitals
vanished and the surviving temples are now found in a rural landscape; often
these are the best-preserved examples of older
styles. Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Gangaikonda Cholapuram are
examples.

The plan
The 8×8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to
Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu
temple template. The bright saffron centre, where diagonals intersect above,
represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.[6][2]

The design, especially the floor plan, of the part of a Hindu temple around the
sanctum or shrine follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala.
The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important
components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at
the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling
structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra. The design lays out a Hindu
temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs,
myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.

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The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around
which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala
circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and
as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is
considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon,
water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into
perfect square grids. In large temples, this is often a 8×8 or 64-grid structure.
In ceremonial temple superstructures, this is an 81 sub-square grid. The
squares are called ‘‘padas’’. The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from
fire altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction, similarly is an
extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among
Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the gnomon. In Hindu temple
manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to
1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or
devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with Vedic fire in
front. The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal
intersection, and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred
surrounded centre, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu
temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is
considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called
Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is
conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity
or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is dedicated to the
Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.

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In a Hindu temple's structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each
concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas,
signify aspects of Asuras and evil; the next inner concentric layer is Manusha
padas signifying human life; while Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and
good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory. The devotees, as
they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to
complete Parikrama (or Pradakshina), walk between good on inner side and evil
on the outer side. In smaller temples, the Paisachika pada is not part of the
temple superstructure, but may be on the boundary of the temple or just
symbolically represented.
The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma
padas, which signifies creative energy and serves as the location for temple's
primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very centre of Brahma padas
is Garbhagruha(Garbha- Centre, gruha- house; literally the centre of the house)
(Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and
everyone. The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and
Vimana in south India, is perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada(s).

A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically

above the central core of the temple. These spires come in many designs and
shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and geometric symbolism.
One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and
turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows
from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.

Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless
all pervasive all connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is
sometimes referred to as garbha-griya (literally womb house) – a small, perfect
square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents
universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti. This is the main
deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a
local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana
temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple,

288
Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It is this garbha-griya which
devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge, or vision).
Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a high superstructure called
the shikhara in north India, and vimana in south India, that stretches towards
the sky. Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the superstructure may be replaced
with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's
cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like
shape, once again using principle of concentric circles and squares (see below).
Scholars such as Lewandowski state that this shape is inspired by cosmic
mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods according to
its ancient mythology.

Mandapa of a temple in South India. Much temple sculpture was originally

painted.

In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings,
paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee.[2] In some temples, these
images or wall reliefs may be stories from Hindu Epics, in others they may be
Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some they may be
idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also

289
have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits
of life—kama, artha, dharma, and moksa. This walk around is
called pradakshina.
Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side,
serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a
separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is
integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a main
temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged
by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important
principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating
fractal-like design structure, each unique yet also repeating the central
common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of
repeating cells”.
Exceptions to the square grid principle
Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid
principle. However, there are some exceptions. For example, the Teli ka
Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century CE is not a square but is a
rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a number
of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios
are exact, suggesting the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and
the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other
examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of
Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael
Meister states that these exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for
temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility
in expression and aesthetic independence.
The Hindu text Sthapatya Veda describes many plans and styles of temples of
which the following are found in other derivative
literature: Chaturasra (square), Ashtasra (octagonal), Vritta (circular), Ayatasra
(rectangular), Ayata Ashtasra (rectangular-octagonal fusion), Ayata
Vritta (elliptical), Hasti Prishta (apsidal), Dwayasra Vrita (rectangular-circular
fusion); in Tamil literature, the Prana Vikara (shaped like a Tamil Om sign, )
is also found. Methods of combining squares and circles to produce all of these
plans are described in the Hindu texts.[
 Nashik Maharashtra temple, cross section and plan (1910 sketch)

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1.Vrindavan Uttar Pradesh temple plan
2.Khajuraho Madhya Pradesh temple plan
3.Puri Odisha temple complex plan
4.Bhubneshwar Odisha, a smaller temple plan
5. Halebidu Karnataka temple plan
6. Chidambaram Tamil Nadu temple plan

The temples were built by guilds of architects, artisans and workmen. Their
knowledge and craft traditions, states Michell, were originally preserved by
the oral tradition, later with palm-leaf manuscripts. The building tradition was
typically transmitted within families from one generation to the next, and this
knowledge was jealously guarded. The guilds were like a corporate body that
set rules of work and standard wages. These guilds over time became wealthy,
and themselves made charitable donations as evidenced by
inscriptions. The guilds covered almost every aspect of life in the camps around
the site where the workmen lived during the period of construction, which in
the case of large projects might be several years.

The work was led by a chief architect (sutradhara). The construction

superintendent was equal in his authority.[41] Other important members were
stonemason chief and the chief image-maker who collaborated to complete a
temple. The sculptors were called shilpins. Women participated in temple
building, but in lighter work such as polishing stones and clearing. Hindu texts
are inconsistent about which caste did the construction work, with some texts
accepting all castes to work as a shilpin. The Brahmins were the experts in art
theory and guided the workmen when needed. They also performed
consecration rituals of the superstructure and in the sanctum.
In the earliest periods of Hindu art, from about the 4th century to about the
10th century, the artists had considerable freedom and this is evidenced in the
considerable variations and innovations in images crafted and temple designs.
Later, much of this freedom was lost as iconography became more
standardized and the demand for iconometry consistency increased. This
"presumably reflected the influence of brahman theologians" states Michell,
and the "increasing dependence of the artist upon the brahmins" on suitable
forms of sacred images. The "individual pursuit of self-expression" in a temple
project was not allowed and instead, the artist expressed the sacred values in
the visual form through a temple, for the most part anonymously.

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The sponsors used contracts for the building tasks.[44] Though great masters
probably had assistants to help complete principal images in a temple, the
reliefs panels in a Hindu temple were "almost certainly the inspiration of a
single artist".
Schools of temple building tradition
Along with guilds, surviving texts suggest that several schools of Hindu temple
architecture had developed in ancient India. Each school developed its
own gurukuls (study centres) and texts. Of these, state Bharne and Krusche,
two became most prominent: the Vishwakarma school and the Maya
(Devanagari: मय not to be pronounced as Maayaa) school. The Vishwakarma
school is credited with treatises, terminology and innovations related to the
Nagara style of architecture, while the Maya school with those related to the
Dravida style. The style now called Vesara bridges and combines elements of
the Nagara and the Dravida styles, it probably reflects one of the other extinct
schools.
Some scholars have questioned the relevance of these texts, whether the artists
relied on silpa sastras theory and Sanskrit construction manuals probably
written by Brahmins, and did these treatises precede or follow the big temples
and ancient sculptures therein. Other scholars question whether big temples
and complex symmetric architecture or sculpture with consistent themes and
common iconography across distant sites, over many centuries, could have
been built by artists and architects without adequate theory, shared
terminology and tools, and if so how. According to Adam Hardy – an
architecture historian and professor of Asian Architecture, the truth "must lie
somewhere in between".According to George Michell – an art historian and
professor specializing in Hindu Architecture, the theory and the creative field
practice likely co-evolved, and the construction workers and artists building
complex temples likely consulted the theoreticians when they needed to.

REFERENCE

1. https://www.antaryami.com/hinduism/what-is-the-meaning-of-divine/
2. 2https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/india-history/top-10-interesting-hindu-mythology/
3. The Greek Conception of Divinity,Expressed through Mainland,Temple Architecture, Lucas
Livingston,November 28,
1998 https://www.saic.edu/~llivin/research/greek_divinity/ConceptionofDivinity.html#:~:text=Temples%20are%20the
%20focal%20points,they%20can%20express%20religious%20ideology.&text=And%20from%20the%20time%20of,ex
pressing%20these%20conceptions%20in%20architecture.

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 CHAPTER XI
Ujjain, Crossroad of Space and Time
Brought to you by Dr Uday Dokras from these 2 excellent articles
Darshana (https://threader.app/thread/1276464421263425536)
Source: https://threader.app/thread/1276464421263425536)

Prime Meridian - UjjainUjjain is literally the crossroad of Space and Time in

India. This renowned and ancient city is famous for spiritual as well as
scientific reasons. It has stood, quite literally, at the very centre of the
development of Astronomy as a science, as well as an instrument of spiritual
knowledge & practice. It is the cradle of the Hindu science of astronomy &
Timekeeping & the principal seat of astronomical knowledge during its early
history. It occupied this position because@Sanjay_Dixitit is situated where

293
India’s ancient Prime Meridian and the Tropic of Cancer once crossed.One of
the earliest available texts on Indian astronomy, the Surya Siddhanta, is dated
to the 4th century CE. This ancient work explains with complete clarity that
the earth is a sphere.It describes many of the scientific methods used for the
determination of place & time with respect to India’s ancient Prime Meridian.
From the text it is clear these methods were already thousands of yrs old at the
time of its composition. Indicating the great age of India’s zero longitude, or
Prime Meridian, of Avanti, the ancient name for the historic city of Ujjain
23°10’58”N & 75°46’38”E.A Prime Meridian is an imaginary line drawn b/w the
N & S Pole. A Prime Meridian is a meridian in a geographical coordinatesystem
at which longitude is defined to be 0°. Together, a prime meridian and its
antemeridian form a great circle. It is a zero point for both time and
geographical calculations. Today the internationally accepted Prime Meridian
runs through Greenwich, in England.In India this line always drawn through
Ujjain. This is stated in all ancient texts on astronomy. It is what made Ujjain a
very scared city. Dedicated especially to scared time. The Jyotirlinga here
dedicated to Mahakala -The great time. All Indian traditional calendars &...All
scared time is calculated through this line. It is also the basis for all
geographical calculations. Many of its temples are in some way connected to
Time & Space. In 18th century 1 of the still existing observatories for
astronomy was build by Maharaja jaysingh ।। in 1725.Known as vedshala or
jantar mantar it consists of 13 architectural astronomy instruments that
measures many astronomical phenomena with great accuracy. Some of them
are-1. Smrat yantra2. Nidhi valaya yantra3. Bhitti yantra4. Digansh yantra5.
Shanku yantra Ptolemy shown the ancient city of Ujjain, in the Greek as ozene.
Sources-ChidambaramhiddentreasurePuratattava@Bharathgyan (Source:
https://threader.app/thread/1276464421263425536)

posted in: Sharing the Ancient Wisdom, Temples, Wisdom of the Stars | 5

Ram Ghat in Ujjain. Photo Gyanendra

Singh Chau

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Ujjain is literally the crossroad of Space and Time in India. This renowned and
ancient city is famous for spiritual as well as scientific reasons. It has stood,
quite literally, at the very centre of the development of astronomy as a science,
as well as an instrument of spiritual knowledge and practice. It is the cradle of
the Hindu science of astronomy and Timekeeping, and the principal seat of
astronomical knowledge during its early history. It occupied this position
because it is situated where India’s ancient Prime Meridian and the Tropic of
Cancer once crossed.

Prime Meridian

One of the earliest available texts on Indian astronomy, the Surya Siddhanta,
is dated to the 4th century CE. This ancient work explains with complete clarity
that the earth is a sphere. It describes many of the scientific methods used for
the determination of place and time with respect to India’s ancient Prime
Meridian. From the text it is clear these methods were already thousands of

295
years old at the time of its composition. Indicating the great age of India’s zero
longitude, or Prime Meridian, of Avanti, the ancient name for the historic city of
Ujjain 23°10’58”N & 75°46’38”E.

A Prime Meridian is an imaginary line drawn between the North and South
Pole. A Prime Meridian is a meridian in a geographical coordinate system at
which longitude is defined to be 0°. Together, a prime meridian and its
antemeridian form a great circle. It is a zero point for both time and
geographical calculations. Today the internationally accepted Prime Meridian
runs through Greenwich, in England.

In India this line was always drawn through Ujjain. This is stated in all ancient
texts on astronomy, as well as in the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana etc. It
is what made Ujjain a very sacred city. Dedicated especially to Sacred Time.
The main Shiva temple here is dedicated to Mahakala, Great Time. All Indian
traditional calendars and all sacred time is calculated from this line. It is also
the basis for geographical calculations.

Vedh Shala or
Jantar Mantar in Ujjain. Photo Bernard Gagnon

Ujjain

296
Because of its status as the centre for all astronomical and geodetical
calculations, Ujjain attracted many religious and scientific institutions. Many
of its temples are in some way connected to Time and Space. In the
18th century one of the still existing observatories for astronomy was build here
by Maharaja Jai Singh II in 1725. Known as the Vedh Shala or Jantar Mantar
it consists of 13 architectural astronomy instruments that measure many
astronomical phenomena with great accuracy.

Once in 12 years Ujjain is the location for one of India’s greatest religious
festivals. It is the Kumbhamela of Simhastha. Ujjain is one of the four places
where a drop of Amrita fell after the Samudra Manthana, the Churning of the
Cosmic Ocean by the Gods and Titans. When the Sun is in Mesha/Aries and
Jupiter in Simha/Leo the Amrita, Elixer of Life, materialises in the river

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Kshipra. It is a very sacred time when a soul can purify itself. The last time this
festival was celebrated was in 2016.

Diagram of the earth’s tilt, Dennis Nilsson

Tropic of Cancer

There is another important astronomical line connected to Ujjain. But this is

kind of controversial. Traditionally the Tropic of Cancer is also thought to pass
through Ujjain, specifically through the temple known as Karkoteshwar,
located within the compound of the Harsiddhi Temple in Ujjain.

The Tropic of Cancer is the line of the most Northern position of the Sun is his
yearly course. From mid-winter till mid-summer the Sun’s course is north. In
India this is called Utarayana. Between mid-summer and mid-winter the Sun
moves south, called Dakshinaya. These are not real but apparent movements
caused by the tilt of the earth’s axis. It is the cause of the seasons on our
planet.

Here we run into a mystery, a challenge even. Because in actual physical

reality the Tropic of Cancer does not cross the Karkoteshvara temple in Ujjain
in our time. The Earth’s axial tilt (obliquity) is currently about 23.4°, and
therefore this line runs at the latitude of 23°26′13.4″.

Does this mean the ancient Indian astronomers made a big mistake? Or could
this apparent error be explained somehow.

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I think it can be explained, but the explanation leads us right into another
mystery.

Graph of the oscillation of the earth

axial tilt. A cycle of approximately 41.000 years.

Oscilation of the Obliquity, a 41.000 year cycle

Because Earth’s obliquity oscillates between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees on a

41,000-year cycle (See illustration). At the moment the Tropic of Cancer is on
its way back South and will cross through Ujjain approximately in 4250 AD.
Last time the Tropic of Cancer crossed the site of Ujjain was some 20.000 years
ago. Which leaves us with this mystery: did Ujjain already exist as an
astronomical centre in these remote times and was Indian astronomical
knowledge already so highly developed in what it considered pre-historic times?
When humanity is thought to have lived only as primitive hunter gatherers?

Graph of the shift of the Tropics.

Did the sages of old actually observe the Tropic of Cancer when it was crossing
through Ujjain? Or is the identification of Ujjain as the crossing point of Prime

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Meridian and Tropic of Summer Solstice the outcome of assumption and error
on the part of the ancient Indian astronomers?

The standard academic approach of this kind of anomalous data is to ignore it

as the outcome of errors from the part. Prehistoric people are assumed to have
been ignorant and kind of stupid. But there is a sea of evidence of the contrary.
Vedic texts and ritual are full of astronomical data and geometrical knowledge
in the form of symbolic codes, and as part of myth and ritual. The Vedic rituals
were ruled by a sophisticated calendar. And India can be proud of a great
number of astronomers and mathematicians who achieved detailed
understanding of these sciences in early historic times.

Our standard understanding of humanity’s prehistory is full of preconceptions.

Many of these are being challenged. Does the location of Ujjain point to the
existence of advanced astronomical knowledge in India in those very far off
times, some 20.000 years ago? That indeed would challenge our conventional
thinking. But is it impossible?

300
 C H A P T E R XII
The Battles for the Preah Vihear Temple
Preah Vihear Temple Prasat Preah Vihear is an ancient Khmer temple built
during the period of the Khmer Empire, that is situated atop a 525-metre
(1,722 ft) cliff in the Dângrêk Mountains, in the Preah Vihear
province, Cambodia. In 1962, following a lengthy dispute between Cambodia
and Thailand over ownership, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The
Hague ruled that the temple is in Cambodia
The French explorer and linguist Étienne Aymonier, the first European on
record who visited Preah Vihear, observed that the temple had a special
cultural significance only for the Kui people, the original inhabitants in the
southern section of the Khorat Plateau and in the upper part of the lowland
plain of northern Cambodia. Though originally built by Khmer kings of the
Angkorean Empire a millennium ago, there is no evidence for any strong
connection of Preah Vihear with the political and cultural complex of the
Cambodian lowlands, at least until French colonial rule. It was French scholars
like Groslier and Parmentier who defined Preah Vihear as one of the most
important monuments of the classical ancient Khmer art and part of the
national cultural heritage of Cambodia. Like Angkor and other monument
sites, Preah Vihear became a symbol of an ethnic-based Cambodian nation. In
this vein, the nation’s geo-body (Thongchai Winichakul) would ideally be
determined by the distribution of the ruins of ancient Khmer stone
monuments. It is not without reason that the silhouette of Angkor Wat became
the central symbol of the Cambodian national flag under successive royalist,
militarist and Communist regimes. In view of the fact that archaeological sites
from the Angkorean period are scattered throughout northeastern and eastern
Thailand, such identification of ancient Khmer architecture with Khmer
ethnicity and Cambodian national identity inevitably collides with Thai
nationalism. The Thais, on their part, developed a concept of Thainess which
incorporates the monument sites of the ancient Khmer empire in present-day
Thailand as part of their own cultural heritage. In the heydays of Thai
nationalism, in the 1930s and 1940s, nationalist ideologues like Luang Vichitr
Vadakarn claimed that the Thai were the true heirs of Khmer civilization,
whereas the present-day Cambodian were either “not the same people”
compared to the ancient Khmers or only their degenerated descendants. It is
against this background that the Thai-Cambodian dispute over the ownership
of Preah Vihear in the late 1950s and early 1960s and its renewed outbreak in
2008 has to be judged. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-
01963845/document Volker Grabowsky, Sok Deth. Heritage and Nationalism
in the Preah Vihear Dispute Voices from Cambodia. Discourses on the Preah
Vihear Conflict. [Research Report] EFEO, Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient;
Université de Hambourg. 2016. ffhal-01963845f

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Affording a view for many kilometers across a plain, Prasat Preah Vihear has
the most spectacular setting of all the temples built during the six-century-long
Khmer Empire. As a key edifice of the empire's spiritual life, it was supported
and modified by successive kings and so bears elements of several
architectural styles. Preah Vihear is unusual among Khmer temples in being
constructed along a long north–south axis, rather than having the conventional
rectangular plan with orientation toward the east. The temple gives its name to
Cambodia's Preah Vihear province, in which it is now located, as well as
the Khao Phra Wihan National Park which borders it in Thailand's Sisaket
province, though it is no longer accessible from Thailand. On 7 July, 2008,
Preah Vihear was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Rough map of Cambodia and Thailand, showing the location of the temple
being exactly at the borderline of Thailand and Cambodia

The temple was built at the top of Poy Tadi, a steep cliff in the Dângrêk
Mountain range which is the natural border between Cambodia and Thailand.
The Temple is currently listed by Cambodia as being in Svay Chrum Village,
Kan Tout Commune, in Choam Khsant District of Preah Vihear Province of
northern Cambodia. The temple is 140 km from Angkor Wat and 418 km
from Phnom Penh.
The Temple was listed by Thailand as being in Bhumsrol village of Bueng Malu
sub-district (now merged with Sao Thong Chai sub-district),
in Kantharalak district of the Sisaket Province of eastern Thailand. It is 110 km
from the Mueang Sisaket District, the center of Sisaket Province. In 1962 the
ICJ ruled that only the temple building belonged to Cambodia, while the direct

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way to access the temple was from Thailand,[4] but currently, as of at least
2015, the only access is from inside Cambodia.
The site

(David Hagerman)

Buddhist monks from a nearby monastery still conduct their spiritual

practices in the ruins of Preah Vihear. The temples have been used by
Buddhists since at least the 11th century, although the buildings were
originally dedicated to Hindu deities.

Much of the stone construction at Preah Vihear took place in the eleventh
century, during the reign of King Suryavarman I, a Buddhist who also
worshipped the Hindu gods Shiva and Rama, and was tolerant of a wide range
of religious practices. By the twelfth century, Buddhism had become the Khmer
state religion and Preah Vihear became a Buddhist sanctuary. A small
Buddhist monastery still exists near the ruins and saffron-robed monks come
to the 900-year-old buildings to conduct their spiritual practices.

The temple complex runs 800 m (2,600 ft) along a north–south axis facing the
plains to the north, from which it is now cut off by the international border. It
consists essentially of a causeway and steps rising up the hill towards the
sanctuary, which sits on the clifftop at the southern end of the complex (120 m
or 390 ft above the northern end of the complex, 525 m or 1,722 ft above the
Cambodian plain and 625 m or 2,051 ft above sea level). Although this
structure is very different from the temple mountains found at Angkor, it
serves the same purpose as a stylised representation of Mount Meru, the home

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of the gods. The approach to the sanctuary is punctuated by
five gopuras (these are conventionally numbered from the sanctuary outwards,
so gopura five is the first to be reached by visitors). Each of the gopuras before
the courtyards is reached by a set of steps, and so marks a change in height
which increases their impact. The gopuras also block a visitor's view of the next
part of the temple until they pass through the gateway, making it impossible to
see the complex as a whole from any one point. The fifth gopura, in the Koh
Ker style, retains traces of the red paint with which it was once decorated,
although the tiled roof has now disappeared. The fourth gopura is later, from
the Khleang/Baphuon periods, and has on its southern outer pediment, "one of
the masterpieces of Preah Vihear" (Freeman, p. 162) : a depiction of
the Churning of the Sea of Milk. The third is the largest and is also flanked by
two halls. The sanctuary is reached via two successive courtyards, in the outer
of which are two libraries.
A pair of stone lions flanks the path that leads to a grand staircase and the
causeway beyond. The stairs themselves are guarded by sculptures
of naga, supernatural multi-headed serpents. Beyond the naga stand the
remains of a type of building called a gopura, which were typically built at the
gateway of Hindu temples. Little is left standing of the first gopura, labeled
gopura V by scholars. There are a few standing columns, some leaning at
dangerous angles. The tropical environment has long been exacting a toll on
these structures.

(Barry Brukoff)

304
A large temple in the middle of the complex (top) is decorated with one of
the earliest depictions of the Hindu origin story called the Churning of
the Sea of Milk (above).

The causeway leads past a rectangular pool half-filled with black water and
through several more buildings. One of them, gopura IV, is carved with a scene
of gods and demons engaged in a struggle to obtain the elixir of immortality.
The carving is the earliest known depiction of the Hindu creation story, the
Churning of the Sea of Milk.

The causeway ends at an impressive collection of structures. Two buildings

flank the entryway to what is called the central sanctuary. Walls surround the
sanctuary and the ruins of the main temple buildings stand in the center.
Given the way the complex is situated in the landscape, visitors might well
expect this last segment of the complex to offer a dramatic vista of the
Cambodian plains that stretch for miles beyond. But the temple’s builders had
a different experience in mind. The sanctuary’s final wall blocks the scene.
Vittorio Roveda, an art historian at the School of Oriental and African Studies
at the University of London, says, “It was intended that monks not be
distracted by the spectacular view.”

Plan of Prasat Preah Vihear

305
Prasat Preah Vihear is the compound of words Prasat, Preah and Vihear, which
mean the "religious offering of sacred shrine". In Sanskrit, Prasat (प्रसाद)
(ប្រាសាទ) means "religious offering" which could even be taken as synonym of
"temple" in this context, Preah (ប្ររះ) mean "sacred" or "beloved", and "Vihear"
(វិ ហារ ) from the Sanskrit word Vihara (ववहार) means "abode" or "shrine" (the
central structure of the temple). In Khmer, "phnom" (ភ្ន ំ) means mountain, and
Cambodians occasionally refer to it as "Phnom Preah Vihear" (ភ្ន ំប្ររះិ ហារ ). These
versions of the name carry significant political and national connotations (see
below: New dispute over ownership).

Entrance to the temple structure

Ancient history
Construction of the first temple on the site began in the early 9th century; both
then and in the following centuries it was dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva in
his manifestations as the mountain gods Sikharesvara and Bhadresvara. The
earliest surviving parts of the temple, however, date from the Koh Ker period in
the early 10th century, when the empire's capital was at the city of that name.
Today, elements of the Banteay Srei style of the late 10th century can be seen,
but most of the temple was constructed during the reigns of the Khmer
kings Suryavarman I[5]: 136 [6]: 96–97  (1006–1050) and Suryavarman II (1113–1150).
An inscription found at the temple provides a detailed account of Suryavarman
II studying sacred rituals, celebrating religious festivals and making gifts,
including white parasols, golden bowls and elephants, to his spiritual advisor,
the aged Brahmin Divakarapandita. The Brahmin himself took an interest in
the temple, according to the inscription, donating to it a golden statue of a
dancing Shiva known as Nataraja. In the wake of the decline of Hinduism in
the region the site was converted to use by Buddhists.

The temple is located on a hill, oriented along a north–south axis. The plain in
the upper part of this picture is actually the Cambodian side to the south.

306
 A R C H I T E C T U R E
Plan at a glance
Large stairways and long pillared causeway lead to the gopura of the first three
levels of the mountain. The gopura are gateways leading into the sanctuary and
probably had statues of guardians or minor deities installed in their rooms.
The Nāga balustrade between the third and fourth and the top level. There, the
galleries and colonnades define areas for religious ceremonies and rituals
performed in and around the main shrine containing the sacred linga.
Construction materials
The gray and yellow sandstone used for the construction of Preah Vihear was
available locally. Wood was used extensively to construct a support for the roof
which was covered with terracotta tiles. Bricks, despite their small size, were
used instead of large rock slabs to construct the corbelled arches. Bricks were
easier to used when building corbelled roofs as they bound together with
mortar and were more compact and solid than stone slabs. The sandstone
blocks used for the construction of the main tower are exceptionally large,
weighing no less than five tons. Several have had holes used for lifting the
block drilled in up 24 places.
Elements
The numbering of the various elements of Khmer temple, its enclosure,
courtyards gopura etc., customarily starts from the central sanctuary and
works outwards. The gopura nearest the central shrine are given the number 1.
In axial temples the last gopura encountered by the visitor will be gopura I and
the first, outer gopura the one with the highest number. Here the traditional
number is given in brackets. Thus the first gopura encountered is described as
the gopura of the first level with its archaeological number given in a brackets(
Gopura V). The system is the same one that the archaeologist Parmentier used
for his detailed description of Preah Vihear published in 1039.
Inscription
Several inscriptions have been found at Preah Vihear, the most interesting of
which are summarised here.

 K.383 Known as the Stele of Preah Vihear or Stele of

the Divakara, this inscription was written in Sanskrit
and Khmer probably between 1119 and 1121. It
narrates, by order of Suryavarman II, the life of royal
guru Divakara and how he served under five Khmer
king (Udayadiyavarman II, Harshavarman III,
Jayavarman VI, Dharanindravarman I and Suryaman
II), who entrusted him with many gifts, both for
himself and to be donated on their behalf to temples.
Between the first and second decade of the 12th

307
 century, Divakara was asked by Suryavarman II to go
on a pilgrimage to the temples to offer gifts, preside
over ritual sacrifices and carry out improvements and
repair works. At Preah Vihear temple, Davakara
offered precious objects to Shikhareshvara, such as a
statue, probably of gold, of the dancing Shiva. He
added a gold dais inlaid with precious stones, covered
the temple floor with bronze plaques and decorated
the walls with plates of precious metal. He ordered
that the towers, courts and main entrance be
redecorated annually. He also distributed payments
to all those who worked at the temple. This
inscription is engraved on a stele found inside the
mandapa.
 K.380 This inscription appears on both sides of the
southern door on the gopura of the fourth level.
Written in Sanskrit and Khmer probably between
1038 and 1049, it contains important history about
Preah Vihear temple. It narrates the story of a local
personage, Sukarman, who carried out the duties of
Recorder in the Sanctuary and keeper of Archives of
the Kingdom. It also tells of a royal decree requiring
certain people to swear an oath of allegiance to
Shikhareshvara.
 K.381 This inscription was sculpted on the southern
doorjamb of the eastern palace's portico on the third
level. Written in Sanskrit and Khmer during 1024, it
narrates the story of Tapasvindra-pandita, head of a
hermitage, who was asked to dispose of presentation
in favour of Shikhareshvara, the main god of the
temple.
 K.382 This inscription was carved on a pillar and was
found badly damaged in front of the central
sanctuary and later taken to the National Museum in
Bangkok. Inscribed in 1047 it refers to Suryavarman
I who commissioned the inscription but contains little
information that is important to Preah Vihear temple.
The mountain stairway
When visitors pass the modern entrance gate they are faced with an impressive
and majestic steep stairway. It consists of 163 steps made with large stone
slabs, many of which are cut directly into the rock surface. The stairway is 8
meters wide and 78.5 meters long. It was originally flanked by rows of lion
statues of which only a few remain, close to the modern entrance gate. In its
last 27 meters the stairway narrow to a width of only four meters and is
flanked by seven small terraces on either side which were once decorated with

308
the lion statues. The difficulty of climbing the stairway symbolises the
laborious path of faith needed to approach the sacred world of the gods
The Lion Head Reservoir[
Between Gopura IV and III, some 50 meters to the east of the second pillared
avenue, there is a square, stone paved reservoir, 9.4 meters on the each side.
Each side of the reservoir has 12 steps, each 20 to 25 centimeters high. Near
this small reservoir, there is a re-dented, square brick base six meters on each
side. It is supposed that this was used as the pedestal for a statue or a small
construction made in perishable materials, suggesting a ritual use of this small
reservoir. according to previous reports, on the southern side of this pool there
was a stone lion's head with a water outlet from its mouth. It was visible only
when the water level of the reservoir was very low. This lion spout is no longer
at the site. and its where about are not known
Windows
In the Preah Vihear complex there is quite a range of window designs. Windows
with three or five balusters are common. Those with seven balusters are found
only in the palaces at Gopura III. The increased number of balusters at the
stage establishes the hierarchy of buildings and those who dwelt therein.
Lateral doors are flanked by false windows with balusters.

Drawing of
temple structures

Preah Vihear dispute

In modern times, Prasat Preah Vihear was rediscovered by the outside world
and became subject of an emotional dispute between Thailand and the newly
independent Cambodia. In 1904, Siam and the French colonial authorities
ruling Cambodia formed a joint commission to demarcate their mutual border
to largely follow the watershed line of the Dângrêk mountain range, which
placed nearly all of Preah Vihear temple on Thailand's side. In 1907, after
survey work, French officers drew up a map to show the border's location.
However, the resulting topographic map, which was sent to Siamese authorities
and used in the 1962 International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruling, showed the

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line deviating slightly from the watershed without explanation in the Preah
Vihear area, placing all of the temples on the Cambodian side.

Following the withdrawal of French troops from Cambodia in 1954, Thai forces
occupied the temple to enforce their claim. Cambodia protested and in 1959
asked the ICJ to rule that the temple and the surrounding land lay in
Cambodian territory. The case became a volatile political issue in both
countries. Diplomatic relations were severed, and threats of force were voiced
by both governments.
The court proceedings focused not on questions of cultural heritage or on
which state was the successor to the Khmer Empire, but rather on Siam's
supposed long-time acceptance of the 1907 map. Arguing in The Hague for
Cambodia was former U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson, while Thailand's
legal team included a former British attorney general, Sir Frank Soskice.
Cambodia contended the map showing the temple as being on Cambodian soil
was the authoritative document. Thailand argued that the map was invalid and
that it was not an official document of the border commission, and that it
clearly violated the commission's working principle that the border would follow
the watershed line, which would place most of the temple in Thailand. If
Thailand had not protested the map earlier, the Thai side said, it was because
Thai authorities had had actual possession of the temple for some period of
time, due to the great difficulty of scaling the steep hillside from the
Cambodian side, or simply had not understood that the map was wrong.

 Illustration of temple structures

On 15 June 1962, the court ruled 9 to 3 that the temple belonged to

Cambodia and, by a vote of 7 to 5, that Thailand must return any
antiquities such as sculptures that it had removed from the temple. In its
decision, the court noted that in over the five decades after the map was
drawn, the Siamese/Thai authorities had not objected in various
international forums to its depiction of the temple's location. Nor did they
object when a French colonial official received the Siamese scholar and
government figure Prince Damrong at the temple in 1930 (possibly before
the Thais realised the map was wrong). Thailand had accepted and
benefited from other parts of the border treaty, the court ruled. With these

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 and other acts, it said, Thailand had accepted the map and therefore
Cambodia was the owner of the temple.[7]
"It was clear from the record, however, that the maps were communicated to
the Siamese Government as purporting to represent the outcome of the work of
delimitation; since there was no reaction on the part of the Siamese
authorities, either then or for many years, they must be held to have
acquiesced. The maps were moreover communicated to the Siamese members
of the Mixed Commission, who said nothing, to the Siamese Minister of the
Interior, Prince Damrong, who thanked the French Minister in Bangkok for
them, and to the Siamese provincial governors, some of whom knew of Preah
Vihear. If the Siamese authorities accepted the Annex I map without
investigation, they could not now plead any error vitiating the reality of their
consent.
The Siamese Government and later the Thai Government had raised no query
about the Annex I map prior to its negotiations with Cambodia in Bangkok in
1958. But in 1934-1935 a survey had established a divergence between the
map line and the true line of the watershed, and other maps had been
produced showing the Temple as being in Thailand. Thailand had nevertheless
continued to also use and indeed to publish maps showing Preah Vihear as
lying in Cambodia. Moreover, in the course of the negotiations for the 1925 and
1937 Franco-Siamese Treaties, which confirmed the existing frontiers, and in
1947 in Washington before the Franco-Siamese Conciliation Commission,
Thailand was silent. The natural inference was that Thailand had accepted the
frontier at Preah Vihear as it was drawn on the map, irrespective of its
correspondence with the watershed line.[7] "

Australian judge Sir Percy Spender wrote a scathing dissent for the minority on
the court, however, pointing out that the French government had never
mentioned Thai "acquiescence" or acceptance at any time, not even when
Thailand stationed military observers at the temple in 1949. On the contrary,
France always insisted that their map was correct and the temple was located
on their side of the natural watershed (which it clearly is not). Thailand had
modified its own maps, which in Spender's opinion was sufficient without
having to protest to France. Spender said:
Whether the Mixed Commission did or did not delimit the Dangrek, the truth,
in my opinion, is that the frontier line on that mountain range is today the line
of the watershed. The Court however has upheld a frontier line which is not the
line of the watershed, one which in the critical area of the Temple is an entirely
different one. This finds its justification in the application of the concepts of
recognition or acquiescence.
With profound respect for the Court, I am obliged to say that in my judgment,
as a result of a misapplication of these concepts and an inadmissible extension
of them, territory, the sovereignty in which, both by treaty and by the decision

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of the body appointed under treaty to determine the frontier line, is Thailand's,
now becomes vested in Cambodia.[8]

Thailand reacted angrily. It announced it would boycott meetings of

the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, with Thai officials saying this step was
to protest a U.S. bias toward Cambodia in the dispute. As evidence, Thai
officials cited Acheson's role as Cambodia's advocate; the U.S. government
replied that Acheson was merely acting as a private attorney, engaged by
Cambodia. Mass demonstrations were staged in Thailand protesting the ruling.
Thailand eventually backed down and agreed to turn the site over to Cambodia.
Rather than lower the Thai national flag that had been flying at the temple,
Thai soldiers dug up and removed the pole with it still flying.[9] The pole was
erected at nearby Mor I Daeng cliff, where it is still in use. In January 1963,
Cambodia formally took possession of the site in a ceremony attended by
around 1,000 people, many of whom had made the arduous climb up the cliff
from the Cambodian side. Prince Sihanouk, Cambodia's leader, walked up the
cliff in less than an hour, then made offerings to Buddhist monks. He made a
gesture of conciliation in the ceremony, announcing that all Thais would be
able to visit the temple without visas, and that Thailand was free to keep any
antiquities it may have taken away from the site.
Cambodian Civil War
Civil war began in Cambodia in 1970; the temple's location high atop a cliff
served to make it readily defensible militarily. Soldiers loyal to the Lon
Nol government in Phnom Penh continued to hold it long after the plain below
fell to communist forces. Tourists were able to visit from the Thai side during
the war.
Even though the Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh in April 1975, the Khmer
National Armed Forces soldiers at Preah Vihear continued to hold out after the
collapse of the Khmer Republic government. The Khmer Rouge made several
unsuccessful attempts to capture the temple, then finally succeeded on 22 May
1975 by shelling the cliff, scaling it and routing the defenders, Thai officials
reported at the time. The defenders simply stepped across the border and
surrendered to Thai authorities.[11] It was said to be the last place in Cambodia
to fall to the Khmer Rouge.
Full-scale war began again in Cambodia in December 1978 when
the Vietnamese army invaded to overthrow the Khmer Rouge. Khmer Rouge
troops retreated to border areas. In January, the Vietnamese reportedly
attacked Khmer Rouge troops holed up in the temple, but there were no reports
of damage to it. Large numbers of Cambodian refugees entered Thailand after
the invasion. Guerrilla warfare continued in Cambodia through the 1980s and
well into the 1990s, hampering access to Preah Vihear. The temple opened
briefly to the public in 1992, only to be re-occupied the following year by
Khmer Rouge fighters. In December 1998, the temple was the scene of
negotiations by which several hundred Khmer Rouge soldiers, said to be the

312
guerrilla movement's last significant force, agreed to surrender to the Phnom
Penh government.[12]
The temple opened again to visitors from the Thai side at the end of 1998;
Cambodia completed the construction of a long-awaited access road up the cliff
in 2003.
Expulsion of Cambodian refugees
On 12 June 1979, the government of General Kriangsak Chomanan, who had
come to power in Thailand by a military coup, informed foreign embassies
in Bangkok that it was going to expel a large number of Cambodian refugees.
He would allow the governments of the United States, France, and Australia to
select 1,200 of the refugees to resettle in their countries. Lionel Rosenblatt,
Refugee Coordinator of the American Embassy, Yvette Pierpaoli, a French
businesswoman in Bangkok, and representatives of the Australian and French
governments rushed to the border to select the refugees that night. In three
frantic hours the foreigners picked out 1,200 refugees for resettlement from
among the thousands being held by Thai soldiers behind barbed wire in a
Buddhist temple at Wat Ko Refugee Camp and loaded them on buses to go to
Bangkok. The remaining refugees were then loaded on buses and sent away,
their destination unknown. It later became known that Cambodian refugees
had been collected from many locations and sent to Preah Vihear. An American
Embassy official stood beneath a tree along a dirt road leading to the temple,
counted the buses, and estimated that about 42,000 Cambodians were taken
to Preah Vihear.[13]
Preah Vihear is situated at the top of a 2,000 foot high escarpment overlooking
the Cambodian plains far below. The refugees were unloaded from the buses
and pushed down the steep escarpment. “There was no path to follow,” one
said. “The way that we had to go down was only a cliff. Some people hid on top
of the mountain and survived. Others were shot or pushed over the cliff. Most
of the people began to climb down using vines as ropes. They tied their children
on their backs and strapped them across their chests. As the people climbed
down, the soldiers threw big rocks over the cliff.”[14] At the foot of the cliffs
were minefields, placed by the Khmer Rouge during their rule in Cambodia.
The refugees followed a narrow path, the safe route indicated by the bodies of
those who had set off land mines. They used the bodies as stepping stones to
cross the three miles of mined land to reach the Vietnamese soldiers, occupiers
of Cambodia, on the other side.
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees later estimated that as
many as 3,000 Cambodians had died in the push-back and another 7,000 were
unaccounted for. General Kriangsak's objective in this brutal operation
apparently was to demonstrate to the international community that his
government would not bear alone the burden of hundreds of thousands of
Cambodian refugees. If so, it worked. For the next dozen years the UN and
Western countries would pay for the upkeep of Cambodian refugees in

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Thailand, resettling thousands in other countries, and devising means by
which Cambodians could return safely to their own country.[15]
World Heritage Site


 Lintel showing Shiva fighting Arjuna, gopura three
 On 8 July 2008, the World Heritage Committee decided to add Prasat Preah
Vihear, along with 26 other sites, to the World Heritage Site list, despite
several protests from Thailand, since the map implied Cambodian
ownership of disputed land next to the temple. As the process of Heritage-
listing began, Cambodia announced its intention to apply for World Heritage
inscription by UNESCO. Thailand protested that it should be a joint-effort
and UNESCO deferred debate at its 2007 meeting. Following this, both
Cambodia and Thailand were in full agreement that Preah Vihear Temple
had "Outstanding Universal Value" and should be inscribed on the World
Heritage List as soon as possible. The two nations agreed that Cambodia
should propose the site for formal inscription on the World Heritage List at
the 32nd session of the World Heritage Committee in 2008 with the active
support of Thailand. This led to a redrawing of the map of the area for
proposed inscription, leaving only the temple and its immediate environs.
However, Thailand's political opposition launched an attack on this revised
plan (see Modern History and Ownership Dispute), claiming the inclusion of
Preah Vihear could nevertheless "consume" the overlapping disputed area
near the temple. In response to the political pressure at home, the Thai
government withdrew its formal support for the listing of Preah Vihear
Temple as a World Heritage site. Cambodia continued with the application
for World Heritage status and, despite official Thai protests, on 7 July 2008,
Preah Vihear Temple was inscribed on the list of World Heritage sites. The
renewed national boundary dispute since 2008 has been a reminder that
despite the World Heritage ideals of conservation for all humanity, operating
a World Heritage site often requires use of national authority at odds with
the local cultures and natural diversity of the landscape. Earlier, Cambodia
considered Preah Vihear to be part of a Protected Landscape (IUCN category
V), defined as "Nationally significant natural and semi-natural landscapes
which must be maintained to provide opportunities for recreation." However,
Category V is generally defined as "Land, with coast and seas as
appropriate, where the interaction of people and nature over time has

314
produced an area of distinct character with significant aesthetic, cultural
and/or ecological value, and often with high biological diversity.
Safeguarding the integrity of this traditional interaction is vital to the
protection, maintenance and evolution of such an area." A luxury tour that
takes travellers camping on temple sites, crossing the border into Thailand
issues a warning to travellers on the possibility of a 're-routing'[16] of the
itinerary. During the People's Alliance for
Democracy's seizure of Suvarnabhumi Airport, future Thai Foreign Minister
Kasit Piromya reportedly called Cambodian Prime Minister in a 2008
television interview "crazy" and a nak leng (commonly translated as
"gangster").

Temple structures in 2003

In 1994, Thailand held a World Heritage proposal conference in Srisaket in
which local cultural traditions were considered along with monuments such
as Preah Vihear that stimulate more nationalistic sentiments.[clarification
needed] The use of passes in the Dongrak Mountains reportedly tied together

cultural communities and practices divided by a militarized (and imperfectly

demarcated) modern border line. A Mon-Khmer ethnic minority, the Kui or
Suay (the ethnonyms have multiple spellings), used the passes to hunt and
capture elephants in the forests below the Dongrak cliff edge, including the
Kulen area which is now a Cambodian wildlife sanctuary. Kui in Cambodia
were skilled ironsmiths using ore from Phnom Dek.[18] While elephant
hunting in the vicinity of Preah Vihear was touched upon in the
International Court of Justice proceedings, the World Heritage plans
overlook local culture and species protection to facilitate national revenues
from tourism. One international law professor has urged that practicality
calls for laying aside exclusive sovereignty in favor of an "international peace
park."] A scholarly article concurs in concluding: "Since Thailand and
Cambodia have brought only blood and bitterness to this place, it might be
desirable to preserve it from both. It could be given back to nature and the
indigenous peoples, to be managed cooperatively between the two
governments in equal partnership with local communities, as a transborder
Protected Landscape-Anthropological Reserve (IUCN category V and old
category VII)." Given the massing troops in 2008, perhaps such a
transborder reserve would create not only a demilitarized buffer zone in
which any future demarcation can be amicably undertaken, but a
recognition of the added ecological and cultural aspects of an area which
both Cambodia and Thailand may still save from the destructive and

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 exploitative impacts of rapid development so often suffered in other ASEAN
countries.[
 Disputes over ownership since 2008- Cambodian–Thai border dispute
The conflict between Cambodia and Thailand over land adjoining the site
has led to periodic outbreaks of violence. A military clash occurred in
October 2008.[21] In April 2009, 66 stones at the temple allegedly were
damaged by Thai soldiers firing across the border.[22] In February 2010, the
Cambodian government filed a formal letter of complaint with Google
Maps for depicting the natural watershed as the international border
instead of the line shown on the 1907 French map used by the International
Court of Justice in 1962.

In February 2011, when Thai officials were in Cambodia negotiating the

dispute, Thai and Cambodian troops clashed, resulting in injuries and
deaths on both sides.[24] Artillery bombardment in the area occurred during
the conflict. The Cambodian government has claimed that damage occurred
to the temple. However, a UNESCO mission to the site to determine the
extent of the damage indicates that the destruction is a result of both
Cambodian and Thai gunfire. Since 4 February, both sides have used
artillery against each other, and both blame the other for starting the
violence.[28] On 5 February, Cambodia had formally complained in a letter to
the U.N. "The recent Thai military actions violate the 1991 Paris Peace
Accord, U.N. Charter and a 1962 judgment from the International Court of
Justice", the letter claims. On 6 February, the Cambodian government
claimed that the temple had been damaged. Cambodia's military
commander said: "A wing of our Preah Vihear temple has collapsed as a
direct result of the Thai artillery bombardment". However, Thai sources
spoke only of minor damage, claiming that Cambodian soldiers had fired
from within the temple.[31] ASEAN, to which both states belong, has offered
to mediate over the issue. However, Thailand has insisted that bilateral
discussions could better solve the issue.[28] On 5 February, the right-wing
People's Alliance for Democracy called for the resignation of Prime
Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva for "failing to defend the nation's sovereignty".A
UNESCO World Heritage convention held in Paris in June 2011 determined
to accept Cambodia's management proposal for the temple.

As a consequence, Thailand withdrew from the event, with the Thai

representative explaining, "We withdraw to say we do not accept any decision
from this meeting." Following a February 2011 request from Cambodia for Thai
military forces to be ordered out of the area, judges of the ICJ by a vote of 11–5
ordered that both countries immediately withdraw their military forces, and
further imposed restrictions on their police forces. The court said this order
would not prejudice any final ruling on where the border in the area between
Thailand and Cambodia should fall. Abhisit Vejjajiva said that Thai soldiers
would not pull out from the disputed area until the military of both countries
agree on the mutual withdrawal. "[I]t depends on the two sides to come

316
together and talk," he said, suggesting that an existing joint border committee
would be the appropriate place to plan a coordinated pullback.[34] The ICJ ruled
on 11 November 2013 that the land adjacent to the temple on the east and
west (south being previously agreed as Cambodian, north as Thai) belongs to
Cambodia and that any Thai security forces still in that area should leave.
Conference: Integration in Southeast Asia: Trajectories of Inclusion, Dynamics
of Exclusion (SEATIDE) Sok Udom Deth Heritage, Nationalism, and Discourses
on the Preah Vihear Dispute

(Masuru Goto)
Because of a long-running border dispute with Thailand, Cambodian soldiers
guard the ruins of the Preah Vihear temple complex, which was declared a
UNESCO World Heritage site in 2008.

Archaeologist Pheng Sam Oeun was chatting with a park ranger at Preah
Vihear when the artillery barrage started. It was 6:15 p.m. on February 4,
2011, and he had just finished his workday at the administrative center at the
base of the mountain where the 1,100-year-old Khmer temple complex stands.
In spite of the apparent danger, Pheng and the park ranger stood and watched
the scene unfolding in the mountains above: flashes of light from the artillery
fire accompanied by the crack of gun shots. “We would see the fire first, and
then we heard the sounds,” says Pheng.

Preah Vihear sits just a few hundred feet inside Cambodia’s border with
Thailand. Pheng is in charge of preserving the site’s architecture and has been
conducting small-scale excavations there, but, predictably, his job is
complicated by the conflict.

317
Half an hour after the fighting had begun, the shelling had grown so intense
that Pheng and the park ranger made a run for their bunker, a section of
concrete sewage pipe buried under an eight-foot mound of dirt. For three hours
they hid there, slapping at malarial mosquitos and waiting for the skirmish to
end. At one point, an 81 mm mortar round ricocheted off the stone threshold of
an ornately decorated building, chipping it and killing the temple’s
photographer. According to news reports, the attack wounded dozens of
soldiers and civilians, and at least seven were killed. The incident touched off
six months of intermittent fighting at the site.

Cambodia and Thailand have argued and fought over the ownership of Preah
Vihear for more than 100 years. But the most recent cause of tension was that
the temple complex was designated a United Nations Education Scientific
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage site in July 2008. Since then,
the site has become the object of political posturing by Thai and Cambodian
nationalists alike. At stake is the survival of a unique holy place that is
important to the cultural heritage of both nations. Preah Vihear could also be
an important source of tourist income for Cambodia’s struggling economy.

Cambodia and Thailand have been colliding in one way or another since the
middle of the Cretaceous period, when geologic forces thrust Thailand’s Khorat
Plateau above the surrounding plains. The exposed bands of sedimentary rock
here and elsewhere became the chief building material for the ancient Khmer
Empire, which would ultimately stretch across most of mainland Southeast
Asia, including Cambodia, Thailand, and parts of Vietnam. For more than six
centuries, the Khmer people dominated Southeast Asia, erecting thousands of
lavish monuments and developing a complex system of waterways and
reservoirs, known as baray, to irrigate their fields and feed their people.

318
(Barry Brukoff, École française d’Extrême-Orient)
This carved stone doorway (top) was the eastern entrance to the first of five temples in
the complex. The doorway was previously photographed (bottom), likely sometime in the
past century, by a researcher from the École française d’Extrême-Orient.

The most famous of the Khmer Empire’s architectural wonders is the former
capital of Angkor, known for its elaborate temples, among them Angkor Wat.
While Preah Vihear is not nearly as large as the ruins of Angkor, the art and
architecture are significant and its setting is far more spectacular.

The first archaeological investigation of Preah Vihear was conducted when the
French colonized the region. The first Westerner to see the ruins was French
explorer and archaeologist Étienne Aymonier, who came to the temple in 1883
and later described its architecture, as well as the Khmer and Sanskrit
inscriptions. Henri Parmentier of the École française d’Extrême-Orient visited
the monument in 1924 and returned to clear the vegetation from it five years
later, sketching the architecture and describing its iconography. His work
clarified the timeline of temple building. But since Parmentier’s time, very little
work and no excavations had been undertaken at the site—until relatively

319
recently, when the Cambodian government began preparing to nominate Preah
Vihear to the World Heritage List.

Preah Vihear is a series of buildings arrayed along a 2,600-foot-long central

causeway that proceeds dramatically to the edge of a cliff. The complex is
meant to represent Mount Meru, the home of Shiva and other Hindu gods.
According to Sanskrit inscriptions at Preah Vihear, the temple’s formal origins
date to Jayavarman II’s son, Prince Indrayudha, who, in A.D. 893 installed a
fragment from a stone monument called a lingam at the site. The lingam, which
represents the male sex organ, served two purposes. It was a powerful holy
symbol of Shiva, and it was intended to mark Preah Vihear as the northern
extent of the Khmer Empire at that time.

While Preah Vihear was named a World Heritage site in 2008, archaeologists
are still working on a management plan for the site. As part of that plan, Pheng
Sam Ouen led a research team that has dug five trenches along a crumbling
ancient staircase that leads hundreds of feet up from the valley floor, through a
forested ravine, to the base of the temple. Most of the archaeological work at
the site is focused on finding ways to preserve the stone buildings, and to allow
a 2,500-step wooden staircase to be built alongside the ancient one without
damaging any archaeological remains. The excavations have turned up some
pottery sherds, roof tiles from the temples, and military artifacts that date to
the 1980s, when the Khmer Rouge still controlled the area. Pheng hopes to
learn more about the people who lived around the temple. He has found
archaeological evidence of seven settlements within the temple complex and
five more in the foothills. The remains of a building that may have been a
hospital and a small village likely dating to the twelfth century have been found
at the base of the mountain. Pheng and his colleagues also hope to restore at
least one empty baray at the base of the mountain so that the reservoir can be
used for irrigation. They are also building a six-mile-long trench from the baray
to carry water to a neighboring village. But there are much bigger hopes that go
along with Preah Vihear’s World Heritage site designation.
REFERENCE

1. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277013407_Heritage_Nationalism_and_Disc
ourses_on_the_Preah_Vihear_Dispute
2. Strate, S. (2013). A pile of stones? Preah Vihear as a Thai symbol of National Humiliation. South
East Asia Research, 21(1), 41–68. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23752586
3. The Battle Over Preah Vihear
4. A territorial dispute involving a 1,100-year-old Khmer temple on the Thai-Cambodian
border turns violent
5. By BRENDAN BORRELL
6. March/April 2013

Letter from Cambodia https://www.archaeology.org/issues/83-1303/letter-from/547-preah-

vihear-cambodia-thailand-khmer-temple#art_page5

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CHAPTER XII

Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram

Dr UDAY DOKRAS

321
The main gopuram of Chidambaram Natarajar temple/ What is special about Chidambaram
temple?
The Chidambaram temple complex proudly boasts of being one of the oldest temple complexes
in Southern India. The most unique characteristic of the Nataraj Temple is the bejewelled
image of Nataraj. The temple has five main Halls or Sabhas namely the Kanaka Sabha, the Cit
Sabha, Nritta Sabha, Deva Sabha and Raja Sabha. 1 It was built during a very traumatic era:

"The era under consideration opens with an unprecedented calamity for Southern India: the
invasion of the region at the turn of the fourteenth century by Malik Kafur, general of Alauddin,
Sultan of Delhi. Malik Kafur's forces brought to an abrupt end all of the indigenous ruling
houses of Southern India, not one of which was able to withstand the assault or outlive the
conquest. Virtually every city of importance in the Kannada, Telugu and Tamil zones succumbed
to the raids of Malik Kafur; forts were destroyed, palaces dismantled and temple sanctuaries
wrecked in the search for treasure. In order to consolidate the rapidly won gains of this pillage,
Malik Kafur established himself in 1323 at Madurai (Madura) in the southernmost part of the
Tamil zone, former capital of the Pandyas who were dislodged by the Delhi forces. Madurai
thereupon became the capital of the Ma'bar (Malabar) province of the Delhi empire."

Michell, George (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 145–148, ISBN 0-226-53230-5
Thillai Nataraja Temple, also referred as the Chidambaram Nataraja temple is a Hindu
Temple dedicated to Lord Nataraja is one of the form of Lord Shiva as the lord of dance. This
temple is located in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India. This temple has ancient roots and a Shiva
shrine existed at the site when the town was known as Thillai Chidambaram, the name of the city
and the temple literally means "atmosphere of wisdom" or "clothed in thought", the temple
architecture symbolizes the connection between the arts and spirituality, creative activity and the
divine. The temple wall carvings display all the 108 karanas from the Natya Shastra by Bharata
Muni, and these postures form a foundation of Bharatanatyam, a classical Indian dance.
______________________________________________________________________________

1. Younger, P. (1986). The Citamparam Temple Complex and Its Evolution. East and West, 36(1/3), 205–226.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/29756764

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Bhakti movement
Bhakti movement was a revolution started by the Hindu saints to bring religious reforms by
adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. This movement resulted in various rites by
practising rituals of devotion among the Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs in the Indian
subcontinent.There is, however, no reference to the temple in Sangam literature of the 1st to 5th
centuries and the earliest mention is found in 6th-century Tamil literature. The temple and the
deity were immortalized in Tamil poetry in the works of Thevaram by three poet saints
belonging to the 7th century - Thirugnana Sambanthar, Thirunavukkarasar and Sundaramoorthy
Nayanar. Thirugnana Sambanthar has composed 2 songs in praise of the temple,
Thirunavukkarasar aka Appar 8 Tevarams in praise of Nataraja and Sundarar 1 song in praise of
Nataraja. Sundarar commences his Thiruthondar thogai (the sacred list of Lord Shiva's 63
devotees) paying his respects to the priests of the Thillai temple - "To the devotees of the priests
at Thillai, I am a devotee". The works of the first three saints, Thirumurai were stored in palm
leaf manuscripts in the temple and were recovered by the Chola King Rajaraja Chola under the
guidance of Nambiandarnambi.
Manikkavasagar, the 10th-century saivite poet has written two works, the first
called Tiruvasakam (The sacred utterances) which largely has been sung in Chidambaram and
the Thiruchitrambalakkovaiyar (aka Thirukovaiyar), which has been sung entirely in the temple.
Manikkavasagar is said to have attained spiritual bliss at Chidambaram. The Chidambaram
Mahatmiyam composed during the 12th century explain the subsequent evolution and de-
sanskritization.
A unique feature of this temple is the bejeweled image of Lord Nataraja as the main deity. It
depicts Lord Shiva as the master of Koothu-Bharata Natyam and is one of the few temples where
Lord Shiva is represented by an anthropomorphic murthi rather than the classic,
aniconic Lingam.
At Chidambaram, the dancer dominates, not the linga as in other Shiva shrines. The Chitsabha
houses a small spatik (crystal) linga (Chandramoulisvara), believed to be a piece that fell from
the crescent adorning Lord Shiva's head and installed by Adi Shankara. Daily puja is offered to
the spatik linga (six times) and also to a small emerald figure of Nataraja called Ratnasabhapati
(once, at 10-30 am). The main sanctum also encloses Chidambara Rahasya - the divine chakra
adorned with golden vilva leaves. This remains hidden and only during the pooja times (six times
in a day), Rahasya Darshan will be offered to the devotees. Rahasya emanates the vastness and
formlessness of Akash, the divinity that is the highest form of Supremacy (ether form of five
elements).
Natyanjali Festival in the temple
A whole year for men is said to be a single day for the gods. Just as six poojas are performed in a
day at the sanctum sanctorum, six anointing ceremonies are performed for the principal deity -
Nataraja in a year. They are the Marghazhi Thiruvaadhirai (in December - January ) indicating
the first puja, the fourteenth day after the new moon (Chaturdashi) of the month of Masi
(February - March) indicating the second pooja, the Chittirai Thiruvonam (in April- May),
indicating the third pooja or uchikalam, the Uthiram of Aani (June–July) also called the Aani
Thirumanjanam indicating the evening or the fourth puja, the chaturdasi of Aavani (August -
September) indicating the fifth puja and the chaturdasi of the month of Puratasi (October -

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November) indicating the sixth pooja or Arthajama. Of these the Marghazhi Thiruvaadhirai (in
December - January) and the Aani Thirumanjanam (in June - July ) are the most important.
These are conducted as the key festivals with the main deity being brought outside the sanctum
sanctorum in a procession that included a temple car procession followed by a long anointing
ceremony. Several hundreds of thousands of people flock the temple to see the anointing
ceremony and the ritualistic dance of Shiva when he is taken back to the sanctum sanctorum.
Lord Shiva, in his incarnation of Nataraja, is believed to have born on full moon day in the
constellation of Ardra, the sixth lunar mansion. Lord Shiva is bathed only 6 times a year, and on
the previous night of Ardra, the bath rituals are performed on a grand scale. Pots full of milk,
pomegranate juices, coconut water, ghee, oil, sandal paste, curds, holy ashes, and other liquids
and solids, considered as sacred offering to the deity are used for the sacred ablution.

A D M I N I S T R A T I O N
The temple is administered by an exclusive group of Brahmins who are learned in the Vedas
and Yagnas (sacrifices) called Dikshitars. The entire community of Diskhitars live
in Chidambaram and also serve as the hereditary trustees of the temple. They are also
called Thillai Muvayiravar or the Three Thousand of Thillai[119] Every Dikshitar once he is
married becomes as of right a trustee and archaka of the temple. A practice unique to the
community is that the priests wear the tuft of hair in front of the head similar to
the Nambuthiri Brahmans of Kerala.
Thillai Vazh Anthaanar or Dikshitars are a Vedic Shaiva Brahmin servitor community
of Tamil Nadu who are based mainly in the town of Chidambaram. Smartha (especially
the Vadamas), Sri Vaishnava and other brahmins in South India also carry the surname
Dikshitars, but are different from the Chidambaram Dishitar.
1. They are an exclusive group of Brahmins learned in the Vedas and Yagnas (sacrifices) who
also serve as the hereditary trustees of Natarajatemple in Chidambaram. They are also
called Thillai Muvayiravar or the Three Thousand of Thilla.
2. Every Dikshitar once he is married becomes as of right a trustee and archaka of
the Nataraja temple. A practice unique to the community is that the priests wear the tuft of
hair in front of the head similar to the Nambuthiri Brahmans of Kerala.
3. The Dikshithars might be traced back to the first line of Brahmanas who migrated to South
India from the north,as a result of the increasing spread of Jainism and Buddhism there.The
establishment of Mauryan, Satavahana and Kadamba rule in South India also necessitated
the movement of Brahmans into the new regions because these kingdom required trained
ritualists.
4. They are mentioned in the 12th century work, the Periyapuranam of Sekkizhar. They were
originally the ritual arbiters of imperial legitimacy in the Chola Empire, ritually crowning
successive monarchs. This honour was reserved only for rulers belonging to the Chola
dynasty. When Kutruva Nayanar, a chieftain of Kalandai became very powerful as a result
of his conquests, he requested the 3000 of Tillai to crown him as king of the Chola country
but they declined saying that they would only crown a Chola and instead fled to
the Chera country to escape his wrath.
5. In order that he who conquered the world (Kutruvar) may not be bereft of a royal crown he
requested the crowning services of the ancient three thousand servitor priests at
Chidambaram (Thillai). Thereupon the priests refused the same saying that they are entitled

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 to perform the ceremony only to the most deserving of the ancient clan of Sembiyars
(Cholas). Having said this, they quit their dwelling to reach the hill country (Kerala) of the
ancient Chera king.- Periyapuranam

Architectural marvel of Chidambaram Natarajar Temple

BY MAHESH ON OCTOBER 1, 2012

STUNNING FEATURES OF ARCHITECTURAL EXCELLENCY

1. WORLD’S MAGNETIC EQUATOR: The place where temple located is the center point of
world’s magnetic equator. Three of the five Panchaboothasthala temples, those at Kalahasti,
Kanchipuram and Chidambaram all stand on a straight line exactly at 79 degree 41 minutes East
longitude -truly an engineering, astrological and geographical wonder. Of the other two temples,
Tiruvanaikkaval is located at around 3 degrees to the south and exactly 1 degree to the west of
the northern tip of this divine axis, while Tiruvannamalai is around midway (1.5 degree to the
south and 0.5 degree to the west).

“Advanced astrological and geological knowledge “ : Natarajar Temple at Chidambaram is

living testimony of ancient “Advanced astrological and geological knowledge” of Hindus
surpassing to anything contemporary.

The 9 gateways signify the 9 orifices in the human body.The Chitsabai or Ponnambalam, the
sanctum sanctorum represents the heart which is reached by a flight of 5 stairs called the
Panchaatchara padi – pancha meaning 5, achhara – indestructible syllables – “SI VA YA NA
MA”, from a raised anterior dias – the Kanakasabai. The access to the Sabhai is through the sides
of the stage (and not from the front as in most temples).

The 4 VEDAS: The Chit sabha roof is supported by four pillars symbolic of the four Vedas.

28 Pillars”|: The Ponnambalam or the Sanctum sanctorum is held by 28 pillars – representing

the 28 agama s or set methodologies for the worship of Shiva. The roof is held by a set of 64
beams representing the 64 forms of art and is held by several cross-beams representing the
innumerable blood vessels.

The roof has been laid by 21,600 golden tiles with the word SIVAYANAMA inscribed on
them representing 21600 breaths.

72,000 golden nails: These tiles are fixed using 72,000 golden nails which represents the no. of
nadis exists in human body. The roof is topped by a set of 9 sacred pots or kalasas, representing
the 9 forms of energy. The arthamandapa (sanctum) has six pillars denoting the six shastras (holy
texts).

18 PILLARED HALL: The hall next to the artha mantapa has eighteen pillars symbolizing the
eighteen Puranas . Sri Nataraj Mandir at Satara is a replica of this temple.I’ve been blessed to

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visit this greatest sthalam but did not know these facts. Thanks to my friend for sharing this…We
all do the mistake of not understanding the sthala purana and other important data before we go
to a temple – simply due to lack of time etc. Whoever drew this picture did a fantastic job – just
amazing!

The present temple was built in the 10th century when Chidambaram was the capital of the
Chola dynasty, making it one of the oldest surviving active temple complexes in South India.
After its 10th-century consecration by the Cholas who considered Nataraja as their family
deity, the temple has been damaged, repaired, renovated and expanded through the 2nd
millennium. Most of the temple's surviving plan, architecture and structure is from the late 12th
and early 13th centuries, with later additions in similar style. While Shiva as Nataraja is the
primary deity of the temple, it reverentially presents major themes from Shaktism, Vaishnavism,
and other traditions of Hinduism. The Chidambaram temple complex, for example, has the
earliest known Amman or Devi temple in South India, a pre-13th-century Surya shrine with
chariot, shrines for Ganesha, Murugan and Vishnu, one of the earliest known Shiva Ganga
sacred pool, large mandapas for the convenience of pilgrims (choultry, ambalam or sabha) and
other monuments. Shiva himself is presented as the Nataraja performing the Ananda
Tandava ("Dance of Delight") in the golden hall of the shrine Pon Ambalam.
The temple is one of the five elemental lingas in the Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, and
considered the subtlest of all Shiva temples (Kovil) in Hinduism. It is also a site for performance
arts, including the annual Natyanjali dance festival on Maha Shivaratri.[1

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Chidambaram is one of the many temple towns in the state which is named after the groves,
clusters or forests dominated by a particular variety of a tree or shrub and the same variety of tree
or shrub sheltering the presiding deity. The town used to be called Thillai, following
Thillaivanam, derived from the mangrove of Tillai trees (Exocoeria agallocha) that grow here
and the nearby Pichavaram wetlands.
The site became the capital of Cholas in the 10th century, and they renamed it to Chidambaram
and built the current temple for their family deity of Nataraja Shiva. The
word Chidambaram comes from the Tamil word Chitrambalam (also spelled Chithambalam)
meaning "wisdom atmosphere". The roots are citt or chitthu means "consciousness or wisdom",
while and ampalam means "atmosphere".This composite word comes from its association with
Shiva Nataraja, the cosmic dancer and the cultural atmosphere for arts. The word Chidambaram
is translated by James Lochtefeld as "clothed in thought".
The town and temple name appears in medieval Hindu texts by various additional names such as
Kovil (lit. "the temple"), Pundarikapuram, Vyagrapuram, Sirrampuram, Puliyur and
Chitrakuta.[20] Additional names for Chidambaram in Pallava era and North Indian texts include
Kanagasabainathar, Ponnambalam, Brahmastpuri and Brahmapuri.
LOCATION; The Nataraja temple in Chidambaram is located in the southeastern Indian state of
Tamil Nadu. It is about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north of the Kollidam River (Kaveri), 15
kilometres (9.3 mi) west from the coast of Bay of Bengal, and 220 kilometres (140 mi) south
of Chennai. The closest major airport is about 60 kilometres (37 mi) north in Pondicherry
(IATA: PNY). The National Highway 32 (old numbering: NH-45A) passes through
Chidambaram. The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation and private companies operate
services connecting it to major cities in the state. The site is linked to the Indian Railways with
daily express trains to South Indian cities.
Chidambaram is a temple town, with the Nataraja complex spread over 40 acres (0.16 km2)
within a nearly square courtyard in the center. Its side roads are aligned to the east–west, north–
south axis. It has double walls around its periphery with gardens. It has had entrance gateways on
all four sides.

Nataraja – Shiva as the cosmic dancer, inspired the 10th-century Chola kings to rebuild the Chidambaram temple with
stone and gold. A silver Nataraja, not Shivalinga, is the principal icon in this temple.

Sharada Srinivasan. (2004). Shiva as “Cosmic Dancer”: On Pallava Origins for the Nataraja
Bronze. World Archaeology, 36(3), 432–450. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4128341.

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Nataraja temple has ancient roots, likely following the temple architecture tradition that is
found all over South India from at least the 5th century. Textual evidence, such as those of the
Sangam tradition, suggest a temple existed here along with Madurai in ancient times but the
town is not named Chidambaram in these pre-5th-century texts. The earliest mention of "dancing
god of Chidambaram" as Shiva is found in 6th- and early-7th-century texts by Appar and
Sambadar. The Suta Samhita embedded inside Sri Kanda Puranam and variously dated between
7th and 10th century mentions the Chidambaram dance. The surviving Nataraja temple has a
structure that is traceable to the early Chola dynasty. Chidambaram was the early capital of this
dynasty, and Shiva Nataraja was their family deity. The Chidambaram temple town remained
important to the Cholas, albeit with increasing competition from other temple towns when
Rajaraja Chola I moved the capital to Thanjavur, built a new city and the
massive Brihadeeswarar Temple dedicated to Shiva in the early 11th century, which is now a
world heritage site.
Nataraja Shiva and his "dance of bliss" is an ancient Hindu art concept. It is found in various
texts such as Tatva Nidhi which describes seven types of dance and their spiritual
symbolism, Kashyapa Silpa which describes 18 dance forms with iconographic details and
design instructions, as well as Bharata's ancient treatise on performance arts Natya
Shastra which describes 108 dance postures among other things. Reliefs and sculptures of
Nataraja have been found across the Indian subcontinent, some dating to the 6th century and
earlier such as in Aihole and Badami cave temples.
The Chidambaram temple built on this heritage, yet creatively evolved the idea into forms not
found elsewhere. The earliest historically verifiable Shiva temple at Chidambaram is traceable in
inscriptions that date to the rule of Aditya Chola I in the early 10th century, and far more during
the rule of the 10th-century Chola king Parantaka I. For them, the dancing Shiva was the kula-
nayaka (family guide or deity) and Chidambaram was the capital they built.[ These inscriptions
and texts from this period suggest that the significance of the Agama texts and Shaiva Bhakti
movement was strengthening within the Chola leadership and thought.
The copper plate inscriptions of Parantaka I (c. 907-955 CE) describe him as the "bee at the lotus
feet of Shiva" who built the golden house for Shiva, with Chit-sabha, Hema-sabha, Hiranya-
sabha and Kanaka-sabha (all mandapam, pillared pilgrim rest places). He is referred to as "Pon
veinda Perumal", which means "one who covered with gold" the Chit-sabha of
Chidambaram. Both Aditya I and his Chola successor Parantaka I were active supporters of arts
and temple building. They converted many older brick and wooden temples into more lasting
temples from cut stone as the building blocks in dozens of places across South India.
Raja Raja Chola I (985-1013 CE) embarked on a mission to recover the hymns of the
63 Nayanmars after hearing short excerpts of the Tevaram in his court. He sought the help
of Nambiyandar Nambi, who was a priest in a temple. It is believed that by divine intervention
Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a
chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.
The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple are supposed to have disagreed with the king by
saying that the works were too divine, and that only by the arrival of the "Naalvar" (the four
saints)—Appar, Sundarar, Tirugnanasambandar and Manickavasagar would they allow for the
chambers to be opened. Rajaraja, however, created idols of them and prepared for them to be
brought to the temple through a procession. but Rajaraja is said to have prevailed. Rajaraja thus
became known as Tirumurai Kanda Cholan meaning one who saved the Tirumurai.

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After the Pallavas, Chola dynasty became the main power of Southern India and emerged
victorious among other kingdoms. The capital of Chola dynasty was the city of Thanjavur They
advanced as far as Bengal, Sri Lanka, Java, Sumatra and had trade links as far as Indonesia.
Their military and economic power was reflected in the grand architectural productions under the
period atThanjavur, Gangaikondcholpuram, Darasuram,Tribhuvanam. They had built more than
two hundred temples which seems to be continuation of previous Pallava architecture with some
variations. These temples amply illustrate the style of architecture between 8th to 12th century
CE and its influence may also be seen on the architecture of temples of Ceylone and those of SE
Asian kingdoms like SriVijay (Sumatra) and Chavakam (Java). RajRaja I has constructed a
Shiva temple at Polanuruva at Sri Lanka in the same pattern of Chola architecture.

An 1847 sketch of gopuram with ruined pillars, published by James Fergusson

In another version of the story, Rajaraja is said to have experienced a dream from
lord Shiva telling Rajaraja that the hymns in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram are in a state
of destruction and to recover the remaining hymns from the chambers.
The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple, however, are supposed to have disagreed with the
king by saying that the works were too divine to be accessed, and that only by the arrival of the
63 Nayanmars would they allow for the chambers to be opened. Rajaraja, devising a plan,
consecrated idols of each of them and prepared for them to be brought into the temple through a
procession. It is said that the 63 idols are still present in the Thillai Nataraja Temple. When the
vault was opened, Rajaraja is said to have found the room infested with white ants, and that the
hymns were salvaged as much as possible.[The temple, according to inscriptions found in South

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India and Southeast Asia, was also historic recipient of a precious jewel from the king of Angkor
who built the Angkor Wat through Chola king Kulothunga, who submitted it to the temple in
1114 CE. Kulothunga I and his son expanded the Chidambaram Nataraja temple expanse sixfold.
ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES Chola temples can be categorised in two groups –
1. Early Temples and
2. Later Temples;
early temples are influenced with Pallava architecture while later have Chalukya influence.
Temples were surrounded by high boundary wall unlike Nagara. The earlier example were
modest in size and while later ones were huge and large with Vimanas or Gopuras dominating
the landscape The spire in in the form of stepped pyramid, popularly known as Vimana. Pallava
influence may be seen in spire/vimana similar to Rathas, an octagon shaped crowning element
known as Shikhara. Panchayatan style, but no vimana on subsidiary shrines Absence of lion
motifs in pillar’s base as seen in the Pallava architecture, but presence of Kudus decoration,
however, it is little bit different with that of Pallavas The temple mostly consists grabhgriha,
antarala, sabhamandapa Presence of water tank inside the boundary of the temple

The raw material used are blocks of gneiss and granite The important example of early group is
Vijayalaya temple while later group represents Brihadishwar temple of Tanjaur and
Brihadishwar temple of Gangaikondcholpuram

Chidambaram temple thrived during the Chola dynasty rule through mid 13th century, along
with the later Shiva-based Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram capitals, as well as Vishnu-
based Srirangam temple towns. Its facilities infrastructure was expanded. Naralokaviran, the
general of king Kulothunga Chola I was responsible for building the steps that lead to Sivaganga
water pool, a goddess shrine, a shrine for child saint Thirugnana Sambanthar, temple gardens and
a pilgrim road network in and around Chidambaram. He constructed a hall for recitation
of Tevaram hymns and engraved the hymns in copper plates. The thousand pillar choultry, with

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friezes narrating Hindu texts, was built in the late 12th century.Between the second half of the
12th century and the early 13th century, the Chola kings added colorful and high gopura stone
gateways as easily identifiable landmarks, starting with the western gopura. Thereafter, about
mid 13th century, the Pandya dynasty ended the Chola dynasty. The Hindu Pandyas were liberal
supporters of Chidambaram temple, along with other Shiva and Vishnu temples, just like the
Chola. Sundara Pandya added the huge eastern gopura at Chidambaram, beginning the colossal
gateway tradition. Most of the structure and plans currently seen in the Chidambaram complex,
including the mandapas with their pillar carvings, the various shrines with polished granite
sculptures, the sacred water pool and the early gopurams are from the 12th and 13th century,
attributed to the late Chola and early Pandya kings.
Invasions

1. Subrahmanya shrine in ruins, early 19th century/ A Mandapam in 1869

2. One of the temple's pillared halls before demolition in the late 19th century.
In the north, the Indian subcontinent had been conquered by the Delhi Sultanate. Muslim armies
had begun raiding central India for plunder by the late 13th century. In 1311, the Ala ud Din
Khilji's Muslim general Malik Kafur and his Delhi Sultanate forces went deeper into the Indian
peninsula for loot and to establish annual tribute paying Muslim governors. The records left by
the court historians of the Delhi Sultanate state that Malik Kafur raided Chidambaram,
Srirangam and other Tamil towms, destroyed the temples, and the Chidambaram Shiva temple
was one of the sources of gold and jewels booty he brought back to Delhi.
The temple towns of Tamil Nadu were again targeted for loot in the 1320s. However, when the
news of another invasion spread in Tamil lands, the community removed them into the Western
Ghats or buried numerous sculptures and treasures in the land and concealed chambers
underneath temples sites before the Muslim armies reached them. A large number of these were
rediscovered in archaeological excavations at the site in and after 1979, including those in
Chidambaram. According to Nagaswamy, those who buried the temple artworks followed the
Hindu Agama texts such as Marici Samhita and Vimanarcanakalpa that recommend ritually
burying precious metal murtis as a means of protection when war and robbery is imminent. Over
200 such items have been recovered, including relevant hordes of copper plate inscriptions.
PATRONAGE: The Islamic invasion in the 14th century, brought an abrupt end to the
patronage of Chidambaram and other temple towns. The Delhi Sultan appointed a Muslim
governor, who seceded within the few years from the Delhi Sultanate and began the Madurai
Sultanate. This Sultanate sought tribute from the temple towns, instead of supporting them. The
Muslim Madurai Sultanate was relatively short lived, with Hindu Vijayanagara Empire removing
it in the late 14th century. The Vijayanagara rulers restored, repaired and expanded the temple
through the 16th century, along with many other regional temples. These kings themselves went
on pilgrimage to Chidambaram, and gifted resources to strengthen its walls and infrastructure.

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The destruction of Vijayanagara Empire in the late 16th century by an alliance of Sultanates,
followed within a few decades by entrance of Portuguese, French and British colonial interests
brought geopolitical uncertainties to Chidambaram and other temple towns. The Portuguese were
already a major Coromandel Coast trading group by the early 17th century, a region to which
Chidambaram belonged. The Portuguese began building forts, garrison and churches in
Coromandel Coast region after the demise of Vijayanagara, triggering the intervention of the
French and the British. By the mid-17th century, the temple complex was within the patronage of
Nayakas, who repaired the temple and repainted the frescoes on mandapa ceilings. According to
Michell, these restorations likely occurred about 1643 CE during the reign of Shrirangadeva
Raya III.
According to British reports, Chidambaram temple town had to bear the "brunt of several severe
onslaughts" between the French and the British colonial forces several times particularly in the
18th century.
Legend
The Chidambaram temple legend is contained in the 12th-century text Chidambara-mahatmya.
The central episode states that Shiva visits sages in the mythical Pine Forest in the form of a
dancer accompanied by Mohini, none other than Vishnu in the avatar of a beautiful woman.
Mohini triggers lustful interest of the sages, while Shiva performs Tandava dance that triggers
the carnal interest of the wives of these sages. The sages ultimately realise how superficial their
austerities have been. The episode becomes widely known. Two sages named Patanjali (also
called Sesha-bodied in the south for his connection to Vishnu) and Vyaghrapada (also called
Tiger-footed sage) want to see the repeat performance of this "dance of bliss" in the Thaillai
forest, Chidambaram. They set up a Shivalinga, pray, meditate and wait. Their asceticism
impresses Shiva who appeared before them in Chidambaram and performed "the dance" against
"the wall, in the blessed hall of consciousness". This is how this temple started, according to the
mahatmya embedded in the Tamil Sthalapurana. The late medieval
text Chidambaramahatmya may reflect a process of Sanskritisation, where these North Indian
named sages with Vedic links became incorporated into regional temple mythology.
According to another Hindu legend, Mahalingaswamy at Thiruvidaimarudur is the centre of all
Shiva temples in the region and the Saptha Vigraha moorthis (seven prime consorts in
all Shiva temples) are located at seven cardinal points around the temple, located in various parts
of the state. The seven deities are Nataraja in Chidambaram Nataraja Temple
at Chidambaram, Chandikeswarar temple at Tirucheingalur, Vinayagar in Vellai Vinayagar
Temple at Thiruvalanchuzhi, Muruga in Swamimalai Murugan
Temple at Swamimalai, Bhairava in Sattainathar Temple at Sirkali, Navagraha in Sooriyanar
Temple at Suryanar Kovil,Dakshinamoorthy in Apatsahayesvarar Temple at Alangudi.[58] and
Somaskanda in Thiyagarajar temple at Thiruvarur.
Nava Puliyur Temples
This is one of the Nava Puliyur Temples worshipped by Patanjali and Vyaghrapada. The
following temples are called as Nava Puliyur Temples.

 Perumpatrapuliyur

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  Thirupathiripuliyur
 Erukathampuliyur
 Omampuliyur
 Sirupuliyur
 Atthippuliyur
 Thaplampuliyur
 Perumpuliyur
 Kanattampuliyur

Golden Roof, Nataraja Temple in Chidambaram

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Nataraja temple plan. 1: East gopura; 2: South gopura; 3: West gopura; 4: North gopura; 5: 1000
pillar hall (choultry); 6: Shivaganga pool; 7: Devi temple; 8: Shiva Sanctum + Chit Sabha +
Kanaka Sabha; 9: Vishnu shrine.

Architecture
The temple as it stands had a pre-Chola existence and the architecture is Dravidian with the
Sanctum Sanctorum closely resembling Kerala or Malabar style structures. Indeed, the royal
charters mention the rebuilding of the Sanctum using architects from Kerala. However the
golden roof is a striking example of Vesara architecture with its apsidal shape. Two small
structures called the Chit Sabha and Kanak Sabha form the crux of the vast architectural
complex. The temple is spread over a 40-acre (16 ha) area, within layers of concentric
courtyards. The inner sanctum, its connecting mandapams and pillared halls near it are all either
squares or stacked squares or both. The complex has nine gopurams, several water storage
structures of which the Shivaganga sacred pool is the largest with a rectangular plan. The temple
complex is dedicated to Nataraja Shiva and theological ideas associated with Shaivism concepts
in Hinduism. However, the temple also includes shrines for Devi, Vishnu, Subrahmanyar,
Ganesha, Nandi and others including an Amman shrine, a Surya shrine complete with Chariot
wheels. The plan has numerous gathering halls called sabha, two major choultry called the 100
pillared and 1,000 pillared halls, inscriptions and frescoes narrating Hindu legends about gods,
goddesses, saints and scholars.

Courtyards
The Nataraja Temple complex is embedded inside four prakarams (prakramas, courtyards).
Each of the courtyard has walls that were defensively fortified after the 14th-century plunder and
destruction.

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Courtyard, Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram
The outermost wall around the fourth courtyard has four simple, insignificant gateways. The
walls and gateways of the fourth courtyard were added in the 16th century by Vijayanagara
rulers after they had defeated the Madurai Sultanate, and this outermost layer was heavily
fortified by the Nayakas in the 17th century. These face the four large gopurams that are
gateways into the third courtyard. These gopurams are also landmarks from afar. Inside the third
courtyard, near the northern gopuram, is the Shivaganga tank, the thousand pillar mandapam, the
Subrahmanyar (Murugan, Kartikeya) shrine and the shrine for Parvati (as Shivakama Sundari).
The other three gateways are closer to the sanctum. The four gopurams pilgrims and visitors to
enter the temple from all four cardinal directions. The complex is interconnected through a maze
of pathways.
The courtyard walls and gateways are made from cut stones with some brick structure added in.
The gardens and palm groves are in the fourth courtyard, outside the walls of the third courtyard
walls with the four large gopurams. These were restored or added in by the Vijayanagara rulers
in the 16th century.
Towers: gopurams

Two distinct styled gopurams of the Chidambaram temple. The artwork narrates religious and secular stories from Hindu texts .

The temple has nine major gopuram gateways connecting the various courtyards. Four of these
are huge and colorful, visible from afar, a symbolic and convenient landmark for pilgrims. These
gateway towers or gopurams each have 7 storeys facing the East, South, West and North. The
first edition of the four gopuram superstructures were likely built between 1150 and 1300 CE.
The earliest was likely the western gopuram, which is also the smaller of the four. This is
generally dated to about 1150 CE. The eastern gopura was likely completed by about 1200 CE,
southern gopura by the mid-13th century, while the northern was added in the late 13th century.
The four high gopurams were destroyed, rebuilt, repaired, enlarged and redecorated several times

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after the 13th century. This has made the gopurams difficult to place chronologically, yet useful
in scholarly studies of the history of the Nataraja temple.
All gopuras are built of precisely cut large stone blocks all the way to the main cornice. Upon
this is a stone, brick and plaster structure with layers of pavilions. Above these talas (storeys) is
a Dravidian style barrel vaulted roof, crowned with thirteen kalasa finials. All four are
approximately similar in size and 14:10:3 ratio, about 42.7 metres (140 ft) high, 30.5 metres
(100 ft) wide and 9.1 metres (30 ft) deep.
Artwork on the gopuram

Nataraja Temple gopuram artwork in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu/ Sculpture in a wall at Nataraja Temple in
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu

Each gopuram is colorful and unique in its own ways. They narrate stories from various Hindu
texts, showing religious and secular scenes from the various Hindu traditions. This art is
presented in each gopuram with anthropomorphic figure panels and about fifty niches with stone
sculptures in every gopuram. The scenes include multiple panels about the legend of Shiva-
Parvati wedding with Brahma, Vishnu, Saraswati and Lakshmi attending, dancing Ganesha,
Shiva in his various aspects, Durga in the middle of her war with a demon, Skanda ready for war,
seated Nandi, musicians, dancers, farmers, merchants, sadhu in namaste posture, dancing
dvarapalas near the vertical center line and others. The artists and architects who built these
gopura may have had a rationale in the relative sequence and position of the artwork with respect
to each other and on various levels, but this is unclear and a subject of disagreement among
scholars.

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The artwork on gopuram showing Parvati-Shiva Kalyanasundara wedding legend. Near the newly weds are
Saraswati, Lakshmi, Vishnu and others.

The earliest built western gopuram is the only one with inscriptions below each artwork that
identifies what it is. The artwork on it includes Durga fighting the evil, shape shifting buffalo
demon and Skanda sitting on peacock and dressed up for war. Other artwork found on the
eastern gopuram include Surya, Ganapati, Vishnu, Sridevi (Lakshmi), Tripurasundari, Brahma,
Saraswati, Varuna, Durga, Agni, several rishis, Yamuna goddess, Kama and Rati, Budha, the
Vedic sages such as Narada and Agastya, Pantanjali, Somaskanda legend, Ardhanarishvara (half
Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), several forms of dancing Shiva and
others.
The surviving south gopuram called the Sokkaseeyan Thirunilai Ezhugopuram was constructed
by a Pandya king identified from the presence of the dynasty's fish emblem sculpted on the
ceiling. The Pandyas sculpted two fishes facing each other when they completed gopurams (and
left it with one fish, in case it was incomplete). Other artwork found on the southern gopuram
include Chandesha, Ganapati, Vishnu, Sridevi (Lakshmi), several Devis, Brahma, Saraswati,
Surya, Chandra, Durga, Indra, Agni, several rishis, Ganga and Yamuna goddesses, Kama and
Rati, Budha, the Vedic sages such as Narada, Pantanjali, Somaskanda legend, Ardhanarishvara
(half Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), several forms of dancing and
standing Shiva such as Pashupata, Kiratarjuna and Lingobhava, as well as others.

The eastern gopura wall shows all 108 dance postures from the Natya Shastra. The other gopuras
also have dance images.
The eastern gopuram features the 108 reliefs of Natya Shastra dance postures (22 cm each in a
separate niche) and faces the sanctum. The eastern gopuram is credited to king Koperunsingan II
(1243-1279 A.D.) as per epigraphical recordsand was repaired with support from a woman
named Subbammal in the late 18th century.
The northern gopuram was repaired and finished by
the Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya (1509-1530 A.D.) in the 16th century. The eastern and
northern gopura also depicts the wide range of narratives as the southern and western gopuram.
The idols of Pachaiappa Mudaliar and his wife Iyalammal have been sculpted on the
eastern gopuram. The Pachaiappa Trust to date has been responsible for various functions in the
temple and also maintain the temple car. The eastern gopuram is renowned for its complete

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enumeration of 108 poses of Indian classical dance – Bharathanatyam, detailed in small
rectangular panels along the passage that leads to the gateway.
Shrines

The Chidambaram temple complex includes gopura, vimana and the sacred pool.

The temple complex has many shrines, most related to Shaivism but elements of Vaishnavism
and Shaktism are included. The innermost structures such as the sanctum and the shrines all have
square plans, but the gateways do not align except the innermost two courtyards.
Shaivism The sanctum of the temple is set inside the innermost 1st prakara which is a square
with about 44 metres (144 ft) side. This prakara is offset towards the west inside the 2nd prakara,
which is also a square with about 105 metres (344 ft) side. The Shiva sanctum is unusual as it
does not have a Shivalinga, rather it has the Chit Sabha (consciousness gathering, also called chit
ambalam) with an image of Shiva Nataraja. This introspective empty space has a curtained space
that is 3.5 meter long and 1.5 meter wide. It is called the rahasya (secret) in Hindu texts. It
consists of two layers, one red, the other black. According to George Michell, this is a
symbolism in Hinduism of "enlightenment inside, illusion outside". It is replaced on the tenth
day of the main festivals. The Chidambaram Rahasya is the "formless" representation of Shiva as
the metaphysical Brahman in Hinduism, sometimes explained as akasha linga and divine being
same as Self (Atman) that is everywhere, in everything, eternally.
Facing the Chit Sabha is the Kanaka Sabha (also called pon ambalam), or the gathering of
dancers. These two sanctum spaces are connected by five silver gilded steps called
the panchakshara. The ceiling of the Chit Sabha is made of wooden pillars coated with gold,
while copper coats the Kanaka Sabha is copper colored.

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Durga in the Shivakamasundari shrine, in her Mahishasuramardini form killing the buffalo
demon below her foot.

Shaktism
The main Devi shrine in the Nataraja temple complex is offset towards the north of the sanctum
inside the third prakara, and found to the west of the Shivaganga pool. It is called the
Shivakamasundari shrine, dedicated to Parvati. The temple faces east and has an embedded
square plan, though the stacked squares created a long rectangular space. The shrine has its own
walls and an entrance gateway (gopura). Inside is the dedicated mandapas and brightly colored
frescoes likely from the 17th-century Vijayanagara period. These narrate the story of Shiva and
Vishnu together challenging the "learned sages, ascetics and their wives" in the forest, by
appearing in the form of a beautiful beggar that dances (bhikshatanamurti) and a beautiful girl
that seduces (Mohini) respectively. Another set of frescoes are secular depicting temple
festivities and daily life of people, while a stretch narrates the story of Hindu saints named
Manikkavachakar and Mukunda.
The shrine had artwork narrating the Devi Mahatmya, a classic Sanskrit text of Shaktism
tradition. However, in 1972, these were removed given their dilapidated state. These were
replaced with a different story. Other parts of the paintings and shrine also show great damage.
The sanctum of the Shivakamasundari shrine is dedicated to Devi, where she is Shiva's
knowledge (jnana shakti), desire (iccha sakti), action (kriya sakti) and compassion (karuna
sakti). The oldest Shivakamasundari sculpture at the site representing these aspects of the
goddess has been dated to the king Parantaka I period, about 950 CE.
Vaishnavism
The Nataraja temple complex incorporates Vaishnava themes and images like many Hindu
temples in South India. A Vishnu shrine, for example, is found inside the sanctum of the temple
in its southwest corner. According to George Michell and others, Chola kings revered Shiva with
Tyagaraja and Nataraja their family deity, yet their urban Shaiva centers "echo a very strong
substratum of Vaishnava traditions". This historic inclusiveness is reflected in Chidambaram
with Vishnu Govindaraja in the same sanctum home by the side of Nataraja. After the turmoil of

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the 14th century when the temple was attacked and looted, there was period when some priests
sought to restore only Shaiva iconography according to extant Portuguese Jesuit records.
However, the Vijayanagara rulers insisted on the re-consecration of all historic traditions. The
temple inscriptions confirm that Vishnu was included along with Shiva in the temple's earliest
version, and was reinstalled when the temple was reopened by the Vijayanagara kings.
Some texts from the time of king Kulottunga II give conflicting reports, wherein the Shaiva texts
state that the king removed the Vishnu image while Vaishnava texts state that they took it away
and installed it in Tirupati, sometime about 1135 CE. The scholar Vedanta Desika re-established
the co-consecration in 1370 CE, about the time Vijayanagara Empire conquered Chidambaram
and northern Tamil lands from the Madurai Sultanate. The current shrine, states Michell, is from
1539 financed by king Achyutaraya and it features a reclining figure of Vishnu.
The Govindaraja shrine is one of the 108 holy temples of Vishnu called divyadesam, revered by
the 7th-to-9th-century saint poets of Vaishnava tradition, Alwars.[93] Kulashekhara
Alwar mentions this temple as Tillai Chitrakutam and equates Chitrakuta of Ramayana fame
with this shrine. The shrine has close connections with the Govindaraja temple in Tirupati dating
back to saint Ramanuja of the 11th and 12th centuries.

The circumambulation paths in shrines, the mandapa's moulded plinth and the pilgrim hall pillars
of the Nataraja temple are carved with reliefs showing dancers and musicians.

Others
The Nataraja temple has a pre-13th-century Surya shrine. The image is unusual as it depicts a
three headed Surya same as Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu, with eight hands holding iconographic
items of these deities, along with two lotuses in a pair of hands in front, accompanied by two
small female figures possibly Usha and Pratyusha, standing on a chariot drawn by seven horses
and Aruna as charioteer. The temple also has a significant shrine for Ganesha in the southwest
corner and a Subrahmanyar shrine in the northwest corner of the third courtyard.
Halls: sabha
The temple has many halls called sabha (lit. "community gathering", also
called ambalams or sabhai) inside the complex. Two of these are the Chit Sabha and the Kanaka
Sabha inside the sanctum area of the Nataraja shrine, described earlier. The other halls are:

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Nritta sabha- DANCE HALLS
Nrithya sabha (also called Nritta Sabha, Natya sabha, or "Hall of Dance") is a "so-called 56-
pillared" hall. It is in the south section of the second courtyard that circumambulates the Nataraja
sanctum of the complex. This second courtyard is near the temple's flag mast (kodi
maram or dwaja sthambam). The 13th-century Nritta Sabha is traditionally considered as the
place where Shiva and Kali originally entered into a dance competition. Shiva won with
the urdhva-tandava pose that raised his right leg straight up, a posture that Kali refused because
she was a woman. The hall is rectangular consisting of three stacked squares, a 15-meter-sided
square that is the main hall, which is connected to 4 meters by 8 meters rectangular mukha-
mandapa to its north. The hall now has 50 pillars, but evidence suggests that it may have had 56
or more pillars earlier. These pillars are intricately carved from top to bottom. The lower levels
have dancers in Natya Shastra mudras accompanied with expressive musicians as if both are
enjoying creating the music and the dance. The pillars also have embedded narratives of legends
from Hindu texts, such as of Durga fighting the buffalo demon, as well as humorous dwarfs
frolicking. Below the kapota, the structures show reliefs of seated people, many
in namaste posture, some with a beard and yogi like appearance representing saints and rishis.
Nearly 200 of these are still visible, rest appear to have been damaged or eroded over time.
The Nritta Sabha platform's base is carved as a chariot, with horses and wheels, as if it is rising
out the ground. Historic texts state that the wheels were exquisitely carved and visible in the past,
each about 1.25 meter diameter with 28 spokes and 33 medallions, the chariot had 1.55-meter-
high (5.1 ft) ornamented horses, on the wheel was a seated rishi as if he was guiding the
movement. Only remnants of this structure remains now. The northern niche of the hall is carved
with 14 figures in addition to Shiva as Kanakamurti. The Shiva image had been damaged and is
now restored. The 14 figures include Surya (sun god), Chandra (moon god) and 12 rishis of
which Narada and Tumburu with Vina can be identified, the others have been too damaged to
identify but are likely Vedic rishis. Near them are women in seductive postures, some nudes,
likely the wives of the rishis. Next to the northern niche with Shiva are two smaller niches, one
for Patanjali seated on coiled serpent and another for bald headed Vyaghrapada, the two mythical
Chidambaram saints. The western wall also has a niche with a large Shiva image in his
Vrisabhantika form. Once again rishis are with him, this time in namaste posture. A few figures
are dressed royally like warriors and these may be representation of the Chola kings.
The hall's center is an open square, with an ornate inverted lotus ceiling decoration. Around this
lotus are 108 coffers, each with two human figures in namaste posture, all oriented to be along
the north–south axis likely to suggest the direction to performance artists who would perform
live and aligning themselves to the chit sabha in the sanctum.

Carved pillars in a temple hall./The damaged 1,000 pillar hall.

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 ceiling

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Raja sabha: 1,000 pillar hall
Raja sabha or the 1000-pillared hall is to the east of the Shivaganga pool, in the northeast part of
the third courtyard. A pillared pathway from the eastern gopuram leads to it. It was a choultry for
pilgrims with a convenient access to the pool. The hall's lower mouldings have dance mudras
and medieval era musical instruments being played by musicians. The pillars have reliefs. It is
now kept closed, except for festivals.
Shatasila sabha: 100 pillar hall[

This is northwest of the sanctum, south of the Devi shrine. It is badly damaged and closed to
public.
Deva sabha
Deva Sabhai is on the eastern side of the second courtyard. It is called Perampalam, literally
"Great Hall" in the inscriptions, which suggests that it is an early structure and was historically
important. According to Nanda and Michell, this may be the hall where Shaiva bhakti
saints Nayanars came and sang hymns. It may also have hosted royal visits during the Chola era
times.

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The Deva sabha (divine gathering hall) houses the temple's revered collection of historic bronze
sculptures and modern era frescoes. One of the paintings show Parvati seated in a chair,
watching the Nrtta sabha hall.

Temple Tanks
Sacred pool sketched in the 1870s.

It is locally called the Sivaganga (சிவகங் கக).

The Chidambaram temple is well endowed with several water bodies within and around the
temple complex.

 Sivaganga tankis in the third corridor of the temple opposite to

the shrine of Shivagami. It is accessed by flights of stone steps
leading from the shrine.[
 Paramanandha koobham is the well on the eastern side of the
Chitsabha hall from which water is drawn for sacred purposes.

Temple Tank in Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram

 Kuyya theertham is situated to the north-east of Chidambaram in Killai near

the Bay of Bengal and has the shore called Pasamaruthanthurai.
 Pulimedu is situated around a kilometer and a half to the south of
Chidambaram.
 Vyagrapatha Theertham is situated on to the west of the temple opposite to the
temple of Ilamai Akkinaar
 Anantha Theertham is situated to the west of the temple in front of the
Anantheswarar temple.
 Nagaseri tank is situated to the west of the Anantha thirtham

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  Brahma Theertham is situated to the north-west of the temple at
Thirukalaanjeri.
 Underground channels at the shrine drain excess water in a northeasterly
direction to the Shivapriyai temple tank of the Thillai Kali Temple,
Chidambaram. Due to poor maintenance, it has not been in use
 Thiruparkadal is the tank to the south-east of the Shivapriyai tank
Inscriptions
Even though the history of the temple goes back to the Prabhandas and Tevaram, that is
the Pallava period, the earliest known inscriptions are only that of Rajendra
Chola and Kulothunga I followed by Vikrama Chola and other later rulers. The Nataraja temple
inscriptions are notable for mentioning a library of manuscripts in temple premises. Two
inscriptions dated to the early 13th century mention re-organization of old temple library.
According to Hartmut Scharfe, the older library mentioned may date to the early 12th century.
The inscriptions, states Scharfe, recite that the temple employed twenty librarians, of which eight
copied old manuscripts to create new editions, two verified the copy matched the original and
four managed the proper storage of the manuscripts.
There are many Chola inscriptions in the temple, both in Tamil and Sanskrit. These are attributed
to Rajendra Chola I (1012-1044 CE), Kulothunga Chola I (1070-1120 CE), Vikrama
Chola (1118-1135 CE), Rajadhiraja Chola II (1163 -1178 CE), Kulothunga Chola III (1178-1218
CE) and Rajaraja Chola III (1216-1256 CE). Pandya inscriptions date from Thribhuvana
Chakravarthi Veerapandiyan, Jataavarman Thribhuvana Chakravarthi Sundarapaandiyan (1251-
1268 CE) and Maaravarman Thribhuvana Chakravarthi Veerakeralanaagiya Kulashekara
Pandiyan (1268-1308 CE). Pallava inscriptions are available for king Avani Aala Pirandhaan
Ko-pperum-Singha (1216-1242 CE). Vijayanagara Kings mentioned in inscriptions are
Veeraprathaapa Kiruttina Theva Mahaaraayar (1509-1529 CE), Veeraprathaapa Venkata Deva
Mahaaraayar, Sri Ranga Theva Mahaaraayar, Atchyutha Deva Mahaaraayar (1529-1542 CE) and
Veera Bhooopathiraayar. One of the inscriptions from the descendant of Cheramaan Perumal
nayanar, Ramavarma Maharaja has been found.
Temple Car

The temple car of Natraja used during festival processions./ An 1820 painting of Nataraja in a temple chariot.
Temple carsare chariots that
are used to carry representations of Hindu gods. The car is usually
used on festival days, when many people pull the cart.

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The size of the largest temple cars inspired the Anglo-Indian term Juggernaut (from Jagannath),
signifying a tremendous, virtually unstoppable force or phenomenon.
The procession of the Asia's largest and greatest temple car of Thiruvarur Thiyagarajar
Temple in Tamil Nadu features prominently in an ancient festival held in the town.[3] The annual
chariot festival of the Thygarajaswamy temple is celebrated during April – May, corresponding
to the Tamil month of Chitrai. The chariot is the largest of its kind in Asia and India weighing
300 tonne with a height of 90 feet. The chariot comes around the four main streets surrounding
the temple during the festival. The event is attended by lakhs of people from all over Tamil Nadu
The Aazhi Ther is the biggest temple chariot in Tamil Nadu. The 30-foot tall temple car, which
originally weighed 220 ton, is raised to 96 feet with bamboo sticks and decorative clothes, taking
the its total weight to 350 tons. Mounted on the fully decorated temple car, the presiding deity –
Lord Shiva – went around the four streets with the devotees pulling it using huge ropes. Two
bulldozers were engaged to provide the required thrust so that devotees could move the chariot.[5]
As of 2004, Tamil Nadu had 515 wooden carts, 79 of which needed repairs. Annamalaiyar
Temple, Tiruvannamalai, Chidambaram Natarajar Temple are among the temples that possess
these huge wooden chariots for regular processions. The Natarajar Temple celebrates the chariot
festival twice a year; once in the summer (Aani Thirumanjanam, which takes place between June
and July) and another in winter (Marghazhi Thiruvaadhirai, which takes place between
December and January). Lord Krishna of Udupi has five temple cars, namely Brahma ratha (the

largest), Madya ratha (mediu

m), kinyo (small), and the silver and gold rathas.

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The Chidambaram temple car is used for processions twice a year, where it is drawn by several
thousand devotees during the festivals. There are five temple cars, with the biggest one for Lord
Nataraja. The main deity in the sanctum santorum will be taken out on the procession, unlike the
other temples where Utsava idols are generally taken out. The four feet idols of Lord Nataraja
and Goddess Sivagamasundari, adorned with precious gem-studded jewellery and flowers, are
taken out of the main sanctum amidst a grand number of devotees in a golden platforms. Fifties
of men hold the huge wooden log connected to the platform making a circumbulation around the
Chitsaba, before being taken out to the temple car. After the procession across four car streets,
the deities are taken in a similar fashion to the Rajasabha at night, where Laksharchana happens
(chanting the 1000 names of Lord Nataraja by 100 priests; laksha - 1 lakh). The next day, before
dawn, the deities are bathed with holy products. Unlike other temples, the holy bathing ritual
goes for 4–5 hours which consists of several products like milk, holy ash, turmeric, curd, honey,
rose water sugarcane juice, fruits, flowers, coconut water. For every Mahabisheka during
Margazhi festival, Swarnabhisheka is done (bath with golden coins). After abisheka, Lord
Nataraja and Goddess Sivagamasundari offers ROYAL DARSHAN to devotees in the Rajasabha

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(the royal hall). Around late afternoon, the deities are taken inside temple in a grandeur manner,
which forms the prime Arudhra Darshan (Margazhi festival) or Uttra Darshan (Aani
Thirumanjanam festival). These two annual festivals coincidence with Winter and Summer
solstice (of Northern Hemisphere), respectively.
Significance of the architecture
The temple sanctum contains a silver sculpture of Shiva in his Ānanda-tāṇḍava Nataraja aspect.
It signifies:

 The demon under Lord Nataraja's feet signifies that ignorance is

under His feet.
 The fire in His hand (power of destruction) means He is the
destroyer of evil.
 The raised hand (Abhaya or Pataka mudra) signifies that He is
the savior of all life forms.[113]
 The arc of fire called Thiruvashi or Prabhavati signifies the
cosmos and the perpetual motion of the earth.
 The drum in His hand signifies the origin of life forms.
 The lotus pedestal signifies Om, the sound of the universe.
 His right eye, left eye and third eye signify the sun, moon and
fire/knowledge, respectively.
 His right earring (makara kundalam) and left earring (sthri
kundalam) signify the union of man and woman (right is man,
left is woman).
 The crescent moon in His hair signifies benevolence and beauty.
 The flowing of river Ganges through His matted hair signifies
eternity of life.
 The dreading of His hair and drape signify the force of His
dance.[113]

6.

Sri Rama sculpture with Seeta and Lakshmana

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 7.

Sculpture of Vishnu seated on Garuda

8.

Dilapidated sculpture

9.

Thousand Pillared Hall

Dance and performance arts are not unique to Shiva in Hindu texts, including the Tamil
literature. Many other deities, including Vishnu, Durga, Krishna, Ganesha, Kartikeya are all
envisioned as dancers amongst other things. However, with Shiva the idea is most evolved.[31]

^ Sharada Srinivasan states that the Nataraja bronze has roots in 7th- to 9th-century Pallava
innovations.

Srinivasan, Sharada (2004). "Shiva as 'cosmic dancer': On Pallava origins for the Nataraja
bronze". World Archaeology. Informa UK Limited. 36 (3): 432–450.

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 Chidambaram Temple
Center Of Earths Magnetic Field Cdm Tmpl City

After 8 long years of research, Western scientists have proved that at Lord Nataraja's Temple
Chidambaram, in Tamil nadu, the big toe is the Centre Point of World 's Magnetic Equator.

It has been proved by our ancient Tamil ScholarThirumoolar about Five thousand years ago! His
treatiseThirumandiram is a wonderful Scientific guide for the whole world.

Chidambaram temple embodies the following characteristics :

1) This temple is located at the Center Point of world 's Magnetic Equator.

2) Of the "Pancha bootha" i.e. 5 temples, Chidambaram denotes the skies. Kalahasthi denotes
Wind. Kanchi Ekambareswar denotes land. All these 3 temples are located in a straight line at 79

354
degrees 41 minutes Longitude. This can be verified using Google. An amazing fact &
astronomical miracle !

3) Chidambaram temple is based on the Human Body having 9 Entrances denoting 9 Entrances
or Openings of the body.

4) Temple roof is made of 21600 gold sheets which denotes the 21600 breaths taken by a human
being every day (15 x 60 x 24 = 21600)

5) These 21600 gold sheets are fixed on the Gopuram using 72000 gold nails which denote the
total no. of Nadis (Nerves) in the human body. Thesetransfer energy to certain body parts that are
invisible.

6) Thirumoolar states that man represents the shape of Shivalingam, which again represents
Chidambaram .this represents Sadashivam which represents HIS dance !

7) "Ponnambalam " is placed slightly tilted towards the left. This represents ourHeart. To reach
this, we need to climb 5 steps called "Panchatshara padi"Si, Va, Ya, Na, Ma " are the 5
Panchatshara mantras.
There are 4 pillars holding the Kanagasabha representing the 4 Vedas.

8) Ponnambalam has 28 pillars denoting the 28 "Ahamas "as well as the 28

methods to worship Lord Shiva. These 28 pillars support 64+64 Roof Beams which denote the
64 Arts. The cross beams represent the Blood Vessels running across the Human body.

9) 9 Kalasas on the Golden Roof represent the 9 types of Sakthi or Energies.

The 6 pillars at the Artha Mantapa represent the 6 types of Sashtras.
The 18 pillars in theadjacent Mantapa represents 18 Puranams.

10) The dance of Lord Nataraja is described as Cosmic Dance by Western Scientists. Whatever
Science is propounding now has been stated by by our saints thousands of years ago

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CHIDAMBARAM TEMPLE SECRET‐ CENTER OF MAGNETIC FIELD OF EARTH

SPIRITUALITY SCIENCE – ESSENCE AND EXISTENCE – CHIDAMBARA RAHASYAM:

LORD SHIVA’S ESSENCE IN THIS IMAGE IS DESCRIBED AS “ARDHANARISHWARA”,
HALF‐MALE AND HALF‐FEMALE, A PERFECT UNION OF MATTER, ENERGY, AND THE

ENERGY CONTROLLER
SPIRITUALITY SCIENCE – ESSENCE AND EXISTENCE: CHIDAMBARA RAHASYAM – THE GREAT MYSTERY OF CHIDAMBARAM. LORD
NATARAJA DESTROYS MAN’S IGNORANCE TO RELEASE MAN FROM THE INFLUENCE OF COSMIC ILLUSION.

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SPIRITUALITY SCIENCE – ESSENCE AND EXISTENCE: IN BOTH CHRISTIAN AND INDIAN
TRADITIONS, EARTH IS THOUGHT TO BE THE CENTER OF THE UNIVERSE. IN INDIA,
CHIDAMBARAM IS THE CENTER OF THE UNIVERSE. THE PLACE IS VIEWED AS THE
CENTRE OF GEOMAGNETIC EQUATOR OF PLANET EARTH. THE GREEN HORIZONTAL
LINE REPRESENTS THE GEOMAGNETIC EQUATOR.

After 8 years of R & D, Western scientists have proved that at Lord Nataraja 's big toe is the
Centre Point of World 's Magnetic Equator.
Our ancient Tamil Scholar Thirumoolar has proved this Five thousand
years ago! His treatise THIRUMANDIRAM is a wonderful Scientific guide for the whole
world.

To understand his studies, it may need a 100 years for us.

Chidambaram, in Southern India’s state of Tamil Nadu, is also known as Thillai, since the place
was originally a forest of the thillai shrubs. It is an important pilgrim center, a major shrine of
Lord Shiva and as the famous Nataraja Temple. In fact, Chidambaram offers a combination of
the three aspects of Shiva worship – the form Lord Nataraja (dance), the form and the
formlessness (linga) and the formless omnipresence.The temple has influenced worship,
architecture, sculpture and performance art for over two millennium. Now, that is an old temple.

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 The ancient temple is located in the center of the town and covers 40 acres with four sevenstory
gopurams ( those huge gateways facing North, South East and West) each with around fifty stone
sculptures. There are also five sabhas or courts. The presiding deity of the temple is formless,
represented by air, one of the five elements of the universe. The temple is dedicated to Lord
Nataraja, and is unique as it one of the rare temples where Shiva is represented by an idol rather
than the customary lingam. (I’d been introduced to lingams earlier, they are black phallic looking
statues.) This temple also has exquisite carvings of Bharathanatya dance postures, the Classical
Dance of Tamil Nadu. At Chidambaram, the dancer dominates, not the linga.
Temple dancer The eastern tower of the temple rises to a height of 134 feet with 108
Bharathanatyam dance poses as well as on Western tower. The Northern tower rises to a height
of 140 feet and is the tallest. This temple is also noted for its Gold Plated roof that adorns the
sanctum sanctorum, or called the kanakasabha. NonHindus are not allowed inside the sanctum
sanctorum. The temple as it stands is mainly from the 12th and 13th centuries, with later
additions in similar style. It was believed to have been originally constructed during the early
Chola period (900’s AD).

Chidambaram temple embodies the following characteristics :

1) This temple is located at the Center Point of world 's Magnetic Equator.
2) Of the "Pancha bootha" i.e. 5 temples, Chidambaram denotes the Skies. Kalahasthi denotes
Wind. Kanchi Ekambareswar denotes land. All these 3 temples are located in a straight line at 79
degrees 41 minutes Longitude. This can be verified using Google. An amazing fact &
astronomical miracle !
3) Chidambaram temple is based on the Human Body having 9 Entrances denoting 9 Entrances
or Openings of the body.
4) Temple roof is made of 21600 gold sheets which denotes the 21600 breaths taken by a human
being every day (15 x 60 x 24 = 21600)
5) These 21600 gold sheets are fixed on the Gopuram using 72000 gold nails which denote the
total no. of Nadis (Nerves) in the human body. These transfer energy to certain body parts that
are invisible.
6) Thirumoolar states that man represents the shape of Shivalingam, which represents
Chidambaram which represents Sadashivam which represents HIS dance !
7) "Ponnambalam " is placed slightly tilted towards the left. This represents our Heart. To reach
this, we need to climb 5 steps called "Panchatshara padi " "Si, Va, Ya, Na, Ma " are the 5
Panchatshara mantras.
There are 4 pillars holding the Kanagasabha representing the 4 Vedas.
8) Ponnambalam has 28 pillars denoting the 28 "Ahamas "as well as the 28 methods to worship
Lord Shiva. These 28 pillars support 64 +64 Roof Beams which denote the 64 Arts. The cross
beams represent the Blood Vessels running across the Human body.

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9) 9 Kalasas on the Golden Roof represent the 9 types of Sakthi or Energies.
The 6 pillars at the Artha Mantapa represent the 6 types of Sashtras.
The 18 pillars in the adjacant Mantapa represents 18 Puranams.
10) The dance of Lord Nataraja is described as Cosmic Dance by Western Scientists.
Whatever Science is propounding now has been stated by Hinduism thousands of years ago
Greatness Of Temple:

Lord Shiva is in three forms in Chidambaram, as visible idol form, formless as Akasha or space
and form and formless as a Spatika Linga. What is Chidambara Rahasyam – secret: There is
small entrance near Lord Sabanayaka in the Chit Saba. The screen is removed and an arati is
offered. There is nothing in a form inside. But there hangs a golden Vilwa garland without a
Murthi. The secret is that Lord is here as Akasha which has no beginning or an end. This can be
understood only by experience. Of the Panchabhoodha Sthals, Chidambaram belongs to Akasha.
Chit + Ambaram= Chidambaram. Chit means wisdom. Ambaram means broad open space not
measurable. “We have nothing with us” is the lesson from this philosophy. The reputation of
Chidambaram is still greater, because it is here that the hymns of three great Saivite Saints were
discovered. They sang thousands of hymns in many Shiva Sthals they visited. Where were they
for the use of the devotees? Tirunarayur Nambiandar Nambi and king Tirumurai Kanda
Chozhan fell at the feet of Lord Polla Pillayar – Vinayaka to guide them in the matter. With the
blessings of Lord Vinayaka, they came to know that all these great spiritual literatures with the
signatures of the respective authors are hidden in this temple. They rushed to Chidambaram and
worshipped the authors with respectful festivals. They found the palm leaves covered by anthill
and mostly consumed by insects. Yet they picked up the available full leaves and saved them.
All these invaluable spiritual literatures would have been totally lost but for the painstaking and
devout labour of Nambiandar Nambigal and Tirumurai Kanda Chozhan.

Chidambaram Lord Nataraja probably is the first social reformer. Nandanar, a dalit farm worker
was a staunch Shiva devotee. He desired to have the darshan of Lord but could not secure a
holiday from his upper caste boss who said that as a low born he was not entitled for the
privilege. Nandanar did not lose hope. Naalai Pohalam – Let me go tomorrow – was his hope.
After many tomorrows, he finally reached Chidambaram but could not enter the temple due to
his community problem. He tried to have the glimpse of Lord, but Nandhi the bull vehicle of
Lord Shiva blocked the view. Lord asked Nandhi to move and enabled Nandanar to have his
darshan. Nandanar attained salvation here and merged with Lord to the shock and surprise of the
upper class. It is said that the four Saivite Saints entered the temple through the four entrances of
the temple, Manickavasagar through the east, Gnanasambandar from south, Appar from west and
Sundarar from the north. ApparTirunavukkarasar did his Angapradakshina in the car strees
(Ratha Veedhi) of Chidambaram. Saint Manickavasagar cured the dumb daughter of the
Buddhist king of Lanka with the blessings of Lord in the temple. There are five Sabhas in the

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temple – Chittrambalam, Ponnambalam, Perambalam, Niruddha Sabha and Rajatha Sabha.

The shrines of Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu are so structured that the devotee can have twin
darshan from one spot in the temple. This is a temple where Brahmma, Vishnu and Rudra grace
the devotees together. Saint Arunagirinathar had praised Lord Muruga of this temple in ten of
his Tirupugazh hymns. Many believe that Lord Nataraja is the presiding deity of this temple.
The presiding deity is Adhimoola Nathar in the Linga form. Sages Patanjali and Vyakrapada
wished that people of this earth too should have the chance to view and enjoy the great dance of
Lord Shiva performed at Mount Kailash. They came to earth and sat in penance on
Adhimoolanathar for the purpose. Responding to their selfless penance for the common people,
Lord Shiva along with Tri Sahasra Muniswaras – 3000 sages came to this place and granted His
dance darshan in Thai month (JanuaryFebruary) on Poosam Star day at 12.00 a.m. These 3000
Muniswaras then came to known as Thillai Moovayiravar. Chidambaram is a holy place that
ensures total salvation to the souls. For salvation, one should have his/her birth at Tiruvarur or
live in Kanchi or think of Tiruvannamalai or die in Kasi. If one worships Lords Tirumoolanathar
and Nataraja at Chidambaram at least once in life time, salvation is reserved for the soul.

Despite strong opposition to Nandanar to enter the temple due to community reasons, he
entered the temple with all honours and merged with the Lord. His bhaktidevotion was too deep
and true that transcended all blockades of caste discriminations. Every one in the world,
irrespective of race, colour, country, language, religion throng he temple for Lord Nataraja
darshan and also participate in pulling the carrath. Lord Brahmma organized a yajna and invited
the 3000 Muniswaras to join in the pujas. They simply replied that no great soulful gain could
be achieved by attending the yajna than the darshan of Nataraja at Thillai Chidambaram. Lord
advised them to go and attend the yajna and promised to appear there at the end of the yajna.
That form of His appearance in the Brahmma Loka is praised as Rathna Sabapathy. This idol is
under the Nataraja idol. Every day, between 10.00 a.m and 11.00 a.m. Arati is shown to Lord
Rathna Sabapathi, both at front and back. There is a similarity in the design of Nataraja shrine
and the human body, it is said. The 21,600 golden tiles engraved with the Na Ma Shi Va Ya
mantra represent the number of times one breathes each day. The 72,000 nails used in the
Ponnambalam represent the number of nerves of the human body. The 9 entrances represent the
nine conveniences in the body activating our movements. Five steps to Ponnambalam represent
the five letters of Na Ma Shi Va Ya Mantra. Wooden supports numbering 64 represent 64 arts,
96 windows the 96 philosophies, the pillars the 4 Vedas, 6 Sastras and Panchaboodas. Sri
Chakra installed by Acharya Adi Sankara is in the Ambica shrine. The Arthajama puja in the
temple has its own significance when, it is believed that all other Gods assemble here for
worship. Great Saivite poet Sekkizhar released His magnum Opus Periapuranam in this temple.
Saint Arunagiriar had praised Lord Muruga of this temple in his Tirupugazh hymns.

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Temple History:

Sage Vasishta, revered as leader of Rishis had a relative Madyandinar by name. He had a son
named Maadyandinar (the first name is short in sound, the next longer – spelling differs). Sage
Vasishta advised that the boy should worship the Swayambulinga in Thillai Vanam forests for
gaining complete spiritual wisdom. Son Maadyandinar reached this place. He was sad that he
lost his puja time in picking up flowers after sunrise and these flowers were not pure as the
honey in the same are taken away by the bees. He appealed to Lord Shiva saying that he was
unable to pick the flowers in darkness due to lack of light and the flowers become unfit if picked
after sunrise. Lord granted him hands and legs as that of a tiger to climb the tree and a bright
vision to the eyes functioning well even in utter darkness. Lord also said that he would be
known henceforth as Vyakrapada as had the legs as a tiger. Vyakrapada was
too happy with the boon and name and continued his worship in Thillai.

Thillai Nataraja Kovil (or Temple, in English) situated in Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu is
dedicated to Lord Shiva, who is worshiped in the form of Nataraja in dancing posture. The
Presiding Deity of the temple is Thirumoolanathar (Lord Shiva) and the Goddess of the temple is
Umayambikai (Goddess Parvathi).The unique feature of the temple is the bejeweled image of
Nataraja. Lord Shiva is depicted as the Lord of dance radiating universal power. It is one of the
temples where Shiva is represented as an anthropomorphic idol, rather than a Lingam. The
worship of Lord Shiva in the form of Lingam is associated with the five elements water, fire,
wind, earth and ether. Lord Shiva is worshiped in the form of Murthi (idol) in Chidambaram and
is considered as one of the Pancha Bootha Sthalas.The dance stage of the temple is called as
Chittrambalam and the holy tree is considered as the Thillai (Exocoeria agallocha) tree. The holy
water source of the temple is Sivagangai and the hymns of the temple is Thevaram, sung by Sri
Manickavachagar.

Popularity:

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 The Anandha Thandava posture of Lord Nataraja (Lord Shiva in the Cosmic Dance) is one of
the postures recognized all over the world. This celestial dance posture tells us how
Bharathanatiyam, an ancient form of Tamil Nadu dance, should be performed. The demon under
Lord Nataraja’s feet signifies that ignorance is under his feet. The Fire in his hands signifies Him
as the destroyer of all evil. His raised hand signifies that He is the savior of life. The ring at His
back indicates the cosmos. The drum in His hand signifies the birth of life. It is believed that
there is a secret message conveyed through the embossed figure near the shrine of Shiva in
Chidambaram temple. It is believed that both Lord Shiva and his consort Parvathi are living here
and they are not viewable to the naked eye. The Chidambara Rahasyam (Secret of
Chidambaram) is hidden behind the curtains present at the right side of Lord Nataraja sanctum.
Worship or darshan is possible only when the priests open the curtain for pooja, acquiring
Godliness. Behind the curtain, there are two golden leaves as from the vilva maram (Aegle
Marmelos tree), signifying the presence of Lord Shiva and his consort Goddess Parvathi whose
physical form is believed to be viewable by the priests. The real meaning of the phrase
Chidambara Rahasyam lies behind the curtain, which means that a person could know the secret
of himself only when he removes the curtain of “Maya”. It is said that one can never reveal the
secret until he removes the screen of Maya from one’s mind, To Realise Onself. The Chidambara
Rahasyam also tells us another truth that relates to the period of Moses. It is said that according
to the God’s commandments, Moses constructed a Garba Graha but did not place any idol
and covered it with a screen. This implies that God should need not only be worshiped with any
idol as there is only one religion on the earth.

https://techera99.blogspot.com/2016/11/chidambaram-temple-secret-center-of.html

Shiva's Karanas in the temples of Tamil Nadu: the Natya Shastra in stone

by Liesbeth Pankaja Bennink, and Kandhan Raja Deekshithar, Jayakumar Raja Deekshithar,
Sankar Raja Deekshithar

The origin of dance: Bharata's Natya Shastra

Karana means 'action' and in the context of dance it indicates a coordinated action of the body,
the hands and the feet [1]. 108 such karana or units of dance are named and defined in the Natya
Shastra, the most ancient text on the performing arts composed by Bharata Muni. This text is
dated to a period of around 2000 years ago, within a margin of 500 years and has been the most
influential in defining and shaping Indian performing arts

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Fig. 1At the request of Indra, Brahma extracted the essence of the four Vedas and created the
fifth, the Natya Veda, or drama Veda. It is accessible to all. Its purpose is not only to entertain,
but to mirror the world, and to offer counsel, courage and comfort. Bharata Muni is given the
responsibility to produce the first play. After the first successful performance it was presented
before Shiva, the Cosmic Dancer, on Mount Kailasha. Shiva is deeply moved and is reminded of
his Sandhya Tandava, his dance at twilight. “Brahma and Bharata supplicate Shiva for a
knowledge of dancing. Thereupon the Lord of the Worlds bids Tandu initiate His devotees into
the secrets of the difficult art.” Tandu proceeds to teach Bharata the 108 karanas. These are
combined into angaharas and into larger choreographies. After Tandu initiates Bharata the art of
dance is given to humanity through Bharata’s sons and the apsarasas, the heavenly dancers.

Therefore according to the Natya Shastra all Indian dance has its origin from Shiva's tandava.
Tandava is a vigorous, masculine and divine dance. Shiva is pre-eminently a god whose divinity
expresses through dance. The Sandhya Tandava is his divine dance performed at twilight on
Mount Kailasha, his sacred abode. Witnessed by his consort and accompanied by all devatas
playing various instruments. Other tandava's performed by Shiva are Tripura, after the
destruction of the Three Cities, and of course the Ananda Tandava, the Dance of Bliss performed
in Chidambaram

Karanas and temples

Fig. 2The art of dance in India has always been intertwined with sculpture, architecture, ritual
and doctrine. For this there is no better illustration than the karanas (figure 1). Not only do we
know these 108 dance movements from their description in the Natya Shastra, we also have
sculptural illustrations of them in ritually significant locations in temples in South India. Five
temples are well known for the depiction of the karanas in their sculptural program. They are the
Rajarajeshvara temple in Tanjore, the Nataraja temple in Chidambaram, the Sarangapani temple
in Kumbakonam, the Arunachaleshvara temple in Thiruvannamalai and the Vriddhagirishvara
temple in Vriddhachalam.

The oldest of these five examples is the Rajarajeshvara temple in Tanjore (figure 2). Built by

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Rajaraja Chola around the year 1000 CE, this temple features an incomplete karana frieze found
in a circumambulatory passage around the grabhagriha. A four-armed Shiva is shown dancing
the first 81 karanas in a horizontally placed relief which is on one's right hand side as the passage
is followed in the clock-wise direction. The series has been left incomplete. The place where it is
found was never intended for public viewing.

Fig. 3In Chidambaram the passages through all four gopurams have been decorated with
complete representation of all 108 karanas (figure 3). We are sure of this because in the east and
west gopuram the panels are accompanied by the relevant verse from the Natya Shastra. Here a
female dancer accompanied by two musicians performs the movements. The east, south and west
gopuram have been dated to the 12th and 13th century, the north gopuram somewhat later .The
series are largely identical in all four gopuram's.

In the east gopuram of the Sarangapani temple in Kumbakonam a more or less complete series is
depicted as danced by a male dancer (figure 4). The panels are positioned in a horizontal band
around the outside of the gopuram. Here many of the panels are captioned with inscriptions
written in grantha script. Again this is the main reason it is sure the reliefs are intended as
representations of Bharata's karanas. In this temple Vishnu is the presiding deity and it has been
suggested these dance reliefs may have originally belonged to a Shiva temple and for some
reason moved here. Among the karanas we find a relief of Shiva dancing the Urdhva Tandava
and also goddess Kali dancing, possibly referring to the myth of the dance-contest between them

Fig. 4

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 Fig. 5///Fig. 6
Two more temples are known to have the karanas from the Natya Shastra represented. In
Vriddhachalam (figure 5) and in Thiruvannamalai (figure 6). In both temples the karanas are
found in the gopuram passages. In the Vriddhagirishvara temple depictions of the karanas are
found in all four gopurams, but are incomplete. Only 101 karanas are represented and in a
strikingly unusual ordering. The construction date of the gopuram is not exactly known. On the
basis of architecture, sculptural style and costume a date in the 14th century is likely, which
would place this gopuram after the construction of the Chidambaram gopuram and before the
gopuram of Thiruvannamalai.

In Thiruvannamalai all the karanas are systematically arranged in the east gopuram passage.
Besides the 108, possibly copied from Chidambaram, there are many more dance movements
depicted, besides panels depicting deities, rishis and other mythological figures. Depictions are
found on 20 pilasters with 9 panels arranged vertically, making 180 panels in all, of which 108
constitute the karanas as defined in the Natya Shastra. This Raja Gopuram of the
Arunachaleshvara temple in Thiruvannamalai was constructed in the 16th century.

Karanas and the history of dance

The karanas have always fascinated me, as a dancer and as a historian. They were the reason to
visit Chidambaram, and to connect to Raja Deekshithar. My guru Smt. Rajamani taught me
about them and raised my curiosity and also academic interest. 108 Dance movements described
in an ancient text and depicted in sculpture constitute a unique source in the history of dance.
They seemed to be lost for the most part with only fragments included in some choreographies.
My first idea was to try and reconstruct them.

Several attempts at reconstruction have been undertaken. Dr. Padma Subrahmanyam's was an
early one. Raja Deekshithar and I did not pursue this direction of research because we came to
the conclusion early on in our research that reconstruction was impractical. The text and the
image, a frozen moment in a sequence of movement, allow for many different alternative
interpretations. Every dancer will reconstruct them differently, based on training and insight.
This was also the ultimate conclusion of Dr. Alessandra Lopez y Royo [6].

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 Fig. 7///Fig. 8////Fig. 9
The subject never lost its fascination though. Many questions remain unanswered. Why, from all
the millions of movement combinations the human body is capable of, were these 108 were
considered to be the constituents of Shiva's tandava, the divine dance? What is the relationship
between the karanas and the units of movement called adavus, which constitute Bharata Natyam
today? How did the various regional dance styles develop from this Marga, or main tradition?
What is the meaning of their placement within the temple complex? Why were they included in
these five temples? And what is the meaning of their inclusion in these gopurams where in other
gopurams (figures 8 and 9) we find only miscellaneous dance figures or mythological scenes?

Thiruvadigai

Fig. 10When Raja Deekshithar and I visited the Veerateshvara temple in Thiruvadigai in 2005
we were on a field trip related to his research into the history of the sphinx in the Indian
traditions . The Deekshithar almost immediately discovered a relief of the sphinx-purushamriga
on one of the pillars in the vestibule of the gopuram. But he also realised the passageway of this
gopuram was decorated with 108 dance reliefs, reminiscent of the karanas depicted in his own
temple, the Shiva Nataraja temple of Chidambaram.

The gopuram is a pleasant but unimposing gateway with quality artwork in its inner passage
(figure 10). The architectural features and style indicate it was built in the Nayaka period in the
15th or 16th century. This is among other things indicated by the base, the design of the podikai
or corbel and the style of the reliefs. This would make it a contemporary of the Rajagopuram of
Thiruvannamalai. It has a granite base with a superstructure of six levels of tapering brick and
lime work topped with a barrel roof and seven shikaras.

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 Fig. 11The walls of the passage way which offers access to the temple courtyard is decorated
with 108 panels of dancing figures (figure 11). They are organised in four groups of three
pilasters very similar to the organisation of the karanas in Chidambaram, Thiruvannamalai and
Vriddhachalam. Each pilaster has 9 panels. Each group covers one of the four wall spaces in the
passage. Besides the dance panels there are several other interesting reliefs on these walls, and
there are two decorated pillars in the vestibules.

On the right side upon entering, one relief depicts Shiva as Tripurantaka, Destroyer of the Three
Cities, the presiding deity of the temple (figure 12). Another relief below the first depicts Shiva
as Gajantaka, Destroyer of the Elephant Demon (figure13). Whereas the Tripurantaka seems to
be a sculpture from the Nayaka period, the Gajantaka could be much older, based on the pose of
the body and the representation of the elephant [8]. Opposite these two reliefs we find a relief of
Murugan on his peacock (figure 14). Crossing the threshold and the vestibules towards the
temple courtyard we find on the northern wall Shiva with Parvati on the sacred bull Nandi
(figure 15). On the Southern wall a king is standing with hands folded in worship (figure 16).

Fig. 12/ig. 13/Fig. 14/Fig. 15/ Fig. 16

1.
Fig. 17
On one of the pillars in the vestibules which define the centre of the gopuram we find among the
sculpture a Nayaka period sphinx or purushamriga (figure 17).

A dancing figure in a temple gateway is not automatically a depiction of a defined karana

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 (figures 8 and 9). Of course every dance movement can be called a karana, a coordinated action.
But the karanas of Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra are specifically defined and ordered. From the
known examples it can be concluded there is a connection between the 108 karanas and
gopurams. Even a connection between gopurams and dance in general [9]. Many gopurams
include depictions of dance in their sculptural program. Only four of those are known to be the
series of defined movements as described by Bharata Muni. The question to be answered here is
whether the 108 dance reliefs in Thiruvadigai represent the karanas as defined and ordered in the
Natya Shastra.

The number of the reliefs, the way they are organized, and a handful of recognizable poses led
Raja Deekshithar to the hypothesis the 108 dance reliefs in the east gopuram of Thiruvadigai
could be Bharata's 108 karanas.

The karanas which can be readily identified are [10]

Karana 50: Lalata Tilaka: Thiruvadigai 91 (figure 18)

Karana 53 Chakramandala: Thiruvadigai 90 (figure 19)

Karana 52 Kuncita: Thiruvadigai 20 or 93 (figure 20)

Karana 57 Argala: Thiruvadigai 33 (figure 21)

Karana 107: Shakatashya: Thiruvadigai 27 or 29 (figure 22)

Karana 108: Gangavatarana: Thiruvadigai 27 or 29 (figure 23)


Fig. 18


Fig. 19

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 Fig. 20

Fig. 21

Fig. 22

Fig. 23
Some more karanas can be identified tentatively:
Talapushpaputa (1) or Talasamsphotita (69): Thiruvadigai 66 (figure 24)
Alata(18) or Urdhva Janu (25) Nagasarpita (106) (figure 25a) could be : Thiruvadigai 104, 106,
92 (figure 25b)

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Bhujangatrasita (24), Bhujangancita (40) en Talasanghattita (93) (figure 26a) could be either one
of Thiruvadigai 35, 62, 99 (figure 26b).
Sannata (75) and Nitamba (85) could be Thiruvadigai 59 (figure 27)
Katibhranta (43) or Urudvritta (98) could be Thiruvadigai 18 or 88 (figure 28)

Fig. 24

Fig. 25a

Fig. 25b

Fig. 26a

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 Fig. 26b

Fig. 27

Fig. 28

Shiva's.Karanas?

Recognising many of the poses also found in the other karana series, together with the number
108, and the location in the sculptural program gave us the anticipation this would be another
karana series. It would be a wonderful discovery because it would give us one more window into
the history of dance in the subcontinent. Further analysis raises question though.

From the sculptural style and the dress worn by the dancers these reliefs seem to be from the
later period and, like the rest of the gopuram, probably belong to the earlier phase of the Nayaka
period (1300-1600). It could be argued on the basis of the dance costumes these reliefs are
somewhat later then the panels in the East gopuram at Thiruvannamalai. The dancers wear
pyjamas covered with a pleated, skirt-like or apron-like, garment, but don't seem to wear blouses,
as came into usage later. In earlier panels we see dancers wear draped lower garments worn in a
fashion similar to a dhoti worn as 'katchai', draped between the legs in a fashion creating a kind
of trousers. The costumes worn by the dancers in Thiruvannamalai closely resemble those worn

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in Chidambaram and Kumbakonam. Pleated fan-shaped skirts are still part of today's dance
costume.

Fig. 29/ Fig. 30/ Fig. 31/ fig. 32/ Fig. 33

The dancers occupying the lowest row of panels have been depicted with more ornamental
costumes, including some large head-dresses and ornaments (figure 29). Some of these also hold
some kind of implements or possibly weapons like knives or swords (figure 30). This is
reminiscent of costumes worn in traditional dance-dramas and ritual dances even today [11]. In
only 10 of the panels does a musician accompany the dancer. In contrast, in Chidambaram two
musicians accompany the dancer in all the panels and in Thiruvannamalai at least one musician
is seen in most of the panels. A few panels do not seem to depict a dancer at all. Two panels
depict male drum players (figure 31), another male figure plays a kind of tambourine-like drum
or kanjira [12] (figure 32). One female figure holds a string instrument (figure 33). Five female
figures stand holding camaras or ritual fly whisks (figure 34). One unusual panel centrally placed
panel depicts two male figures dancing while holding one another around the shoulders while at
the same time holding a fly-whisk and other attributes (figure 35). Two figures are seated on a
kind of stool.

Fig. 34/ Fig. 35

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 Fig. 36/Fig. 37/ Fig. 38
Some of the characteristics of the karana series as known from the other five temples are
missing: movements where the dancer shows the back (karana 16, prsta svastika, figure 36) ;
where the dancer is jumping (karana 99, madaskhalita, figure 37); where the dancer is depicted
sitting on the floor (karana 55, aksipta, figure 38). There are few movements depicted showing
svastika or crossing positions of the feet.

Shiva's Tandava and Tripurantaka

It would have been agreeable if we could state with definite confidence these 108 reliefs of
dancers in the gopuram of Thiruvadigai represent the 108 karanas as enumerated in Bharata
Muni's Natya Shastra. There are several reasons to support the hypothesis they were indeed
intended as a defined series. The number 108, the identified karanas, the location. But these are
not conclusive against the counter arguments given above. Therefore we cannot offer a final
conclusion.

On the other hand there is one argument to support the idea these are indeed Bharata's karanas.
This argument lies with the deity to whom this temple is dedicated, Shiva as Tripurantaka, the
Destroyer of the Three Cities. The myth of Shiva's destruction of the Three Cities is an early one.
The earliest reference is found in the Yajur Veda [13]. In Tamil texts known as Sangam literature
Shiva is described as dancing after he destroyed the Three Cities. This dance is referred to as
Kotukotti and also as Pantarankam. His dance is witnessed by his consort Uma who beats the
rhythm

Fig. 39The connection between Shiva dancing and Tripurantaka Murti has not received much
attention. Bindu S. Shankar points to the importance of the Tripurantaka Siva in the iconography
of the Rajarajeshvara temple in Tanjore. In her dissertation she makes a connection between the
first appearance of the karanas in the sculptural program with the significance of Tripurantaka in

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the doctrine of this temple.

This connection is also significant with respect to the Nataraja temple in Chidambaram. In an
oral tradition of this temple it is told that after the destruction of the Three Cities Shiva landed
his chariot opposite the main sanctum. After getting down from the chariot he ascended into the
Sabha and commenced his dance. In the place where the chariot landed is now the Edirambalam,
the Opposite Hall, in the form of a stone chariot. Today this hall is known as the Nritta Sabha. It
is situated exactly opposite the Sabha where Shiva is dancing the Ananda Tandava. From this
Nataraja's dance in Chidambaram is also known as Shanti Kuttu, or Dance of Peace .

Conclusions

Fig. 40The Veerateshvara temple dedicated to Shiva as Tripurantaka in Thiruvadigai was build
by the Pallava king Mahendravarman in the 6th century. It is a large pyramidal structure similar
to the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram . The pyramid shape replicates the form of Kailasha,
the cosmic mountain . Also the Rajarajeshvara temple in Tanjore with its pyramidal vimana is a
representation of Kailasha, the Cosmic Mountain as Shiva's abode [19]. The presence of the
karanas in the circumambulatory passage around the vimana underlines this identification and is
a clear statement of the importance of this relationship to the king Rajaraja and his architect. The
presence of 32 murtis of Shiva as Tripurantaka in the niches of the second elevation of the
vimana is another statement pointing to the relationship between Kailasha and Shiva's Tandava
dance in the conquest of evil.

Fig. 41A relationship of Tripurantaka, Kailasha, Shiva as divine dancer and the presence of the
karanas is tentatively appearing. This relationship is pointed out by Bindu Shankar in her
dissertation . The discovery of 108 dance reliefs in a gopuram of a temple dedicated to Shiva
Tripurantaka corroborates this relationship. And at the same time this connection between
Dancing Shiva, Tripurantaka, Kailasha and karanas makes it very likely the 108 dance panels in
the gopuram in Thiruvadigai represent the 108 karanas as conveyed to humanity by Bharata
Muni.

There can be no doubt these 108 dance panels could represent the karanas as described and

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defined by Bharata Muni in the Natya Shastra as practiced at the time of the Nayaka dynasty.
They thus represent a valuable document of a living and evolving dance tradition which the
sculptor shaped on the basis of dancers performing for him. It allows us a glimpse into the art of
dance in the 15th and 16th century. And offers insight into its evolution through this unique
sculptural resource.

Liesbeth Pankaja Bennink, and Kandhan Raja Deekshithar, Jayakumar Raja Deekshithar, Sankar
Raja Deekshithar

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 Pic[1] Natarāja. By permission from Shri Raj Mutharasan, Scientist at National science
foundation (NSF) and Drexel University

Astronomical Association Of Natarāja’s Dance With

Apasmara And Agastya
The study will try to understand Apasmāra in the iconography of Natarāja and also if it has
any significant link with loss of memory of some astronomical event which was confined to
certain latitude. It will mainly touch different parts of graphical representations of Natarāja.
A research paper by Rupa Bhaty,Indology | 12-09-2018

This paper deals with understanding human’s first interaction with time and its relationship with
Cosmic Consciousness or Awareness. Significance of stellar readings by early humans, who got

376
connect between the movements of Earth vs Celestial beings, is being studied and elaborated.
Indic scripture assigns Lord Śiva as kaal, i.e time, and Agastya-as a muni, who is closely
associated with Lord Śiva and is celebrated as one of the lead proponent of Shaivism. The paper
here will try to understand relationship between “Natarāja – Śiva’s one form and Agastya-muni-
the propagator of Shaivism” vs “Iconography of Natarāja in sky as Orion constellation and its
connection, if any, with Agastya as Canopus navigational star”. The study will try to understand
Apasmāra in the iconography of Natarāja and also if it has any significant link with loss of
memory of some astronomical event which was confined to certain latitude. It will mainly touch
different parts of graphical representations of Natarāja. A computational astronomical study has
been undertaken to understand different part of iconography of Natarāja with Celestial star
movements. Approach and emphasize has been on the visibility and availability of Canopus in
southern India in various epochs to understand the significance of the latitude of Chidambaram
where Natarāja dances to the cosmic bliss.
Introduction
Music and Dance are a tradition and an alleyway to divinity. Not only it is a Hindu tradition but
it is a worldwide phenomenon from prehistoric times which could easily be sensed through cave
arts and observing remotest untouched tribes. The Hindu conception of two main God’s
attributed to Dancing via God Śiva as Natarāja within the Cosmos and Krishna in his
Rāsamanadal stresses the idea of a divine urge of spiritual eurhythmics which finds its way from
the display of dance in India. Every Hindu philosophy arrives from metaphysics and many a
times directly from sciences such as astrophysics and astronomy. Astral evidences are braided in
Indic scriptures in the form of puzzling philosophies of which many are yet to be explored and
revealed. The Hindu god Śiva is not only the Lord of Dance but also the deity of creation,
destruction, rebirth, dissolution, and salvation. Since He is creating and destroying He is a
metaphor for time. He is thus pulsating, and thus dancing the tune of time in macro to
microcosmic form.
While everyone is familiar with Natarāja –the dancing Shiva, this paper explains the specific
astronomy aspects of Natarāja metaphor.
#. What does Natarāja has to do with Orion, i.e. Mṛgaśīrṣa + Ardra Nakshatra,
#. Identification of Apasmāra as an impression of Agastya-Canopus. Apasmāra is a symbol of
loss of memory in regard to an astronomical event, i.e. rise of Agastya
#. Visibility of Agastya was never an issue in the Southern Indian Peninsula
In a nutshell;
1. Before going into astronomical details let us first understand the iconographies-characters
involved in the study undertaken.
1.1 Natarāja,
1.2 Apasmāra, and
1.3 Agastya as a Muni and Agastya as a Canopus Star
Apasmāra means forgetfulness and epilepsy. It represents Agastya when Agastya is not visible
from parts of India.
2.1 Natarāja in sky represents Orion (Indian Mṛgmandala= Ardra + Mṛgaśīrṣa)
2.2 Apasmāra represents western constellation Lepus-hare which is loss of memory of some
astronomical event which was confined to certain latitude.
3. Cosmic Natarāja has to do with identification of Agastya’s location. All of these have deep
connection to ancient Indian tradition of navigation. However, elaboration of that subject is
beyond the purview of this paper.

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1.1 Natarāja
Let us see some of the important and most likely known characteristics of Natarāja
posture.
(1) He dances within a circular or cyclically closed arch of flames (Prabhāsmandal or
Prabhāvalli), which symbolically represent the cosmic fire that in Hindu cosmology creates
everything and consumes everything.
(2) His legs are bent, which suggests an energetic dance with a posture of balance or equilibrium
corresponding to time.
(3) His long, matted tresses are shown to be loose and flying out in thin strands during the dance,
also touches the Prabhāsmandal, sometimes it is shown as flowing down on his back especially
in Chidambaram. Shilpashāstra bring in oral tradition to do as per Śruti.
(4) On the matted hair of right side is adorned with Gangā on the thin strand spread into a fan
behind his head personified as a goddess.
(5) And the other side on the matted lock is the Soma-Chandra.
(6) The upper right-hand holds a small drum shaped like an hourglass that is called a ḍamaru in
Sanskrit. A specific hand gesture (mudrā) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for “surprising-hand”) is
used to hold the drum. It symbolizes rhythm and time.

(7) The upper left hand contains Agni or fire, which signifies fos of creation and destruction.
Agni is one of the five elements of equilibrium in a body.
(8) A cobra uncoils from his lower right forearm, while his palm shows the Abhaya mudrā.
Abhaya means not to fear, since destruction is the seed of new creation.
(9) The second left-hand points towards the raised foot which suggests the viewer to be active
and dance to the circumstances, or alternatively as a sign of upliftment and liberation; liberation
from dissolution.
(10) The face shows two eyes plus a slightly open third on the forehead, which symbolize the
triune in Shaivism.
(11) The dwarf, on the lotus pedestal on which Natarāja dances, is the demon Apasmāra(
Muyalaka, as it is known in Thamizh) Purusha who is the conjunction point of two Makara
adjacent on both sides and which symbolizes action and dance that leads to victory over demonic
evil or ignorance.
(12) The two Makara at the base creates an overall oval shape around the mūrti. Sometimes it is
seen on the summit of the Prabhāsmandal. Makara is a Sanskrit word which means ‘sea dragon’
or ‘water-monster’, a porpoise or a Gangetic dolphin which is similar to Shishumāra [2] of Indic
scriptures. In a Hindu temple, the Makara often serves as the structural bookends of a thoranam
or archway around a deity. The arch emerges up from the jaws of one Makara, rises to its peak,
the Kīrtimukha (the ‘Face of Glory’), and descends into the gaping jaws of another Makara, but
they both never meet. Example of Makara anklet is given in a picture below where two Makara
(or any other animal head figure) never meets, but still complete a circle at one point.

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A pair of gold anklets North India with two Makara endings gaping into each other, antique, late
18th cent (courtesy Pinterest; internet)

(13) Natarāja is also known as Koottan in Tamil which has phonetic resemblance with
navigational Kootu for Orion as spoken in Kerala. Mṛgaśīrṣa + Ardra Nakshatra makes Orion
constellation which is also known as Kālapurusha in Bengal; a reference point for all
navigational compass and calendars. In antiquity Kerala, Tamilnadu and parts of southern India
were under the domain of Pandya kings.
1.2 Apasmāra; A dwarf demon, and a sleep state.
Apasmāra; the dwarf demon, trodden underfoot lies facing to its proper right in all statues.
Apasmāra is facing right, but exceptionally noticed to the left also with a strange shift of leg
position of Natarāja. It is depicted as having an anchuli mudra or holding a snake. He is defined
as ignorance (known as Muyalaka in Thamizh), and is danced upon which symbolizes Natarāja’s
action. The dance leads to victory over demonic evil and ignorance. See pic [3] below.

1.3 Agastya- Canopus.

As a Star; Agastya-Canopus moves fast above Dhruvamandala[4]. There are many scriptural
references to Agastya-Canopus being a star starting from Veda, Brāhmanas, Aranyaka[5],
Puranas[6], Śruti[7], smṛti, Epics[8], Poetries[9] and Surya-Siddhānta. 359

As a Muni; See pic[10] above; Agastya (Kumbhayoni)-born from a pitcher into which Mitra and
Varuṇa dropped their vīrya at the sight of the charms of Urvaśī: a brother of Vasiṣṭha.[11] He
had a residence at Malay-Mahāmalaya-(Pothigai)[12]; married the first born daughter of King
Malayadhvaja Pāṇḍya, and had a son Dṛḍhācyuta[13], also present at Rāma’s abhiṣeka. [14]
Dwarfed the Vindhyas roughly parallel to the Narmada River, made a home in Laṅkā: seeing the
universe troubled by Tāraka and other Asuras caused the ocean to dry up by drinking the waters

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and brought relief to the Devas: performed tapas seated on Mount Malaya with his wife
Lopāmudrā: white in colour, with four hands, Akṣa mālā & Kamaṇḍalu, narrated Ajāmila[15] a
contemporary of Kṛṣṇa and Rāma; and a resident of Mt. Malaya. Visited by Balarāma. Came to
Syamantapañcaka to see Kṛṣṇa, Called on Parīkṣit practising prāyopaveśa etc. Kamban has
praised high of Agastya muni as a giver of Tamil grammar. Agastya muni is associated with lord
Śiva. Agastya muni was also a dwarf.

Apasmāra means forgetfulness and epilepsy. It represents Agastya when Agastya is not visible
from parts of India. Astronomical evidences, are philosophically braided in Indian scriptures,
alludes to ignorance and forgetfulness about the star Agastya. It represents a lost memory of an
astronomical event, moreover, which has been a neglected part in understanding of Natarāja’s
iconography.

Evidence of Natarāja mentioned as a “nartaka” in MBH

Rarest of the thought would ever come to our minds that Natarāja may relate to astronomical
phenomena which may be a hypogeal impression for the evolution of “Supreme Cosmic
Consciousness” philosophy. The excerpt on Śiva being a Dancer-“nartaka” comes from
Śivasahastranāmastrotam from MBH[16] where Śiva is mentioned as a continuous Dancer and
who is ardent lover of dance and is continuously dancing. The thirteenth-century Shaiva
Siddhāntic text[17] describes Natarāja as sacchidānanda or “Being Consciousness and
Bliss”[18]; constantly in dancing state. From nartaka to Natarāja, it has been in the memories of
Indian coastal people which come to us through Sangam literature. A verse by Manikavachakar
goes, ‘He who creates, protects, and destroys the verdant world…’ Tamil literature gives extract
as Pray to Śiva, who owns the South. Pray to Him who is the God of all countries.’[19]

The likely worship of Natarāja by the Pallava period at Chidambaram with an idea of cosmic
creation is suggested in Manikavāchakar’s Tiruvachakam which says , ‘Let us praise the dancer
(Kuttan) who in good Tillai’s hall dances with fire, who sports (vilaiyatu) creating, destroying,
this heaven and earth and all else.’ In essence, it represents the continuous cycle of creation and
destruction of time astronomically. Ardra Darshan celebrates this ecstatic dance of Lord Śiva. On
this day Lord Śiva becomes Natarāja with reddish fame aura around.

How Śiva as a Natarāja is a creator, protector and destroyer of time through his dance?
Shloka 59[20] says on Śiva being “nakshatra vigraha”/ analyser and “knower of gati”-speed of
nakshatras, “layaḥ”-He is the place of deluge thus a destroyer, prajāpati- nakshatraadhipati / sire
of all asterisms in sky, which indicates Śiva is the timekeeper of all nakshatras, Vishvabāhuḥ-
emanating his arms on all sides (as if to reach out other nakshatras), vibhaagaḥ- He is the
seperation, sarvagaḥ-He is the universal soul, amukhaḥ-He who is having no mouth. In
astronomical sense He is the point of ending and begining without any celestial logitudinal
difference.

There are two unique star clusters which are used as timekeepers and are common in all parts of
the world from all the ages. They are 1. Orion 2. Big Dipper. The Orion constellation has served
as a timekeeper for eons in every known civilization due to its prominent three waist belt star-
Alnilam, Almitak etc and has not changed for thousands of years. In Indic culture the three belt
stars are known as Mṛgaśīrṣa Nakshatra. He is also called kālayogī-the one who knows the

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time/era/eon through yoking. He is the one who generates new loka-world, and He is the only
one in which the old world gets dissolved[21]. This evidently speaks of the same point of
celestial longitude from where new era starts dissolving the old one. Śiva as a creator is also
known from Vishnupurāna which states Raudra-sṛishti[22] nirmāna; at the begining
of kalpa Brahma thought of creating a son like ownself and while thinking alone a son of bluish
reddish color appeared in his lap.

2.1 Natarāja in the sky representing western star cluster Orionis (Indian Mṛgamandal+
Ardra+Mṛgaśīrṣa)
Natarāja’s association with Archaeo-astronomy Let us look at Archaeo-astronomy pieces of
evidence related to Dance of Natarāja. But before that let’s understand what Archaeo-astronomy
is? It is a scientific discipline that combines mnemonics to know more about the timeline of
history, culture, science and technology of observational astronomy with ancient evidence of
astronomy references, metaphors and ancient civilizations.
2.1.1 Ardra/Arudra Dārisanam; A living culture and an astronomical evidence from past.
The first eye-catching evidence is Arudra /Ardra darisanam festival of Tamilnadu which is a ten
day annual festival in December related to the moon being full in the lunar asterism(nakshatra)

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Ardra (i.e, alpha Orionis), associated with wrathful aspect of Śiva. On this day Śiva becomes
Natarāja or Koothan. In Kerala, the festival is celebrated as the birthday of Lord
Śiva. Thiruvathira is the Ardra nakshatra or “star” as per the Malayalam calendar of Lord Śiva.
Indeed some astronomical event must have had happened in Ardra nakshatra sometime in past
due to which the festival of Arudra Darisanam continues till date. One such is a speculated event
of supernovae explosion which has been assumed by many writers. My conjecture would show
that it has been related to a new-year beginning on vernal equinox day. We come across another
verse in regard of yearly phenomena,-“tasmai te rudra saṃvatsareṇa namaskaromi“[23] This
verse serves as a piece of evidence for year beginning with Rudra (deity of Ardra Nakshatra) on
the ecliptic node and this was happening around 6000 BCE-5000BCE. Another piece of evidence
comes from Shatapatha Brahmana where it has been mentioned ‘with doubt’ whether or not, to
kindle a fire under Mṛgaśirśa. This conjecture gives evidence of shifting of vernal point from
constellation Mṛgaśirśa and reaffirms that once year beginning was happeing near Constellation
Orion. This is also the millennium of Mahabharata war, as established, based on study of 200
Plus astronomy observations of MBH text by Shri Nilesh Oak. It thus makes sense as to
why śivasahastranāmstrotram is so revered in MBH texts.

The other
memory of wrathfulness of Śiva is of deluge in Pumpoohar near Chidambaram. Enormous
evidence exists from around the world for the significant and sudden sea level rise during 6th
millennium BCE. Further a question may arise, why Ardra considered on the point of vernal
equinox and why not on any other cardinal point? For this again the same shloka from MBH
comes to our rescue. Svarbhanu[24], i.e. the ecliptic node as mentioned in MBH. This evidence
again affirms samvatsar[25] phenomena and vernal equinox happening in Ardra, from the very
same verse which also says Śiva is samvatsakaraH- the maker of the year.

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In Malayalam Koothu is the name of Orion constellation used for N-W navigation while in
Tamil Kuttan-koothan becomes a name of Natarāja, connection giving pratyaksha-evidence of
Natarāja Orion. Once, the whole of South India was under Pandya kings. The evidence of
Pandya kings fighting in Bharata War is found in the MBH texts. śivasahastranāmstrotram from
MBH is abundant in pieces of astronomical evidence which has been not been explored.
2.1.2 Prabhāsmandal of Natarāja; Orb of Flame and its connection to Mṛga-Mandala
encompassing different stars and star clusters in the vicinity
A comparative study of radiating rays around a human figure in Harappa seal (IVC) Rudra and
flame on Chola Bronze Natarāja. Harappa seal (IVC) Standing man who has been identified as
Rudra[26] and the adjacent picture of Natarāja, both with orb of flame, affirms pan Indic nature
of Śiva. Harappa IVC Rudra is being depicted with radiating arrows/rays upon Prabhāsmandal
around the Rudra iconography which is similar to flame marks on the orb of Natarāja statues
from southern part of India. This brings evidence on geographical northern, north-western and
southern regional connection from primitive times. It is evident that Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization
also had an impact of Śiva as Linga which is known to us as one of the significant archaeological
find from Harappa and Kalibanga.

“Prabhāsmandala ”, circle of
flames means a circle emanating rays, bhas- “bhāsyati means to make visible”. It is the inkling
towards astronomy too which points towards “mṛg-mandala”. While mṛg gamanārthaka from
mrij dhātu-verbroot means “to chase”. Therefore, mṛg-mandala stars/constellations, the easiest
star cluster percieved via human eyes from prehistoric times, were used to help chase different
stars nearby in vicinity like Procyon, Sirius-mṛgavyādha in south and Aurigae in north, Castor
Pollux, Plaiedas, Vela, Canopus in their respective directions.

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Nataraja-Koothan overlay on navigational Orion Koothu, chases all the stars around
The MBH says “Amongst the Rudras[27] He is the Sire Rudra and amongst the most effulgent
Gods He is the prabhā-best illumination”, this connect with prabhā-mandala-orb of flame. It also
says “He is the one who achieves or “aims at( different) nakshatras/ asterisms”[28]. Thus, it
make sense to equate Prabhāsmandal with astronomical Mṛga-mandala. In the iconography of
Natarāja Prabhāsmandal, orb or the circle of flame does help chase other stars in vicinity.
The three parallel horizontal lines drawn using ash/bhasma/vibhuti on the forehead
of Śiva devotees with the help of Mṛga-śīrṣa mudra is known as the Tripundra. The thumb and
little finger are raised. It springs from Gauri, who used the Mṛgaśīrṣa hand mudra to draw three
lines on her forehead when practicing tapas for the sake of Śiva. A mnemonic way to
remember Mṛgaśīrṣa three stars from Orion belt. Points above elaborated, discussed and tested
concludes Natarāja in the sky as an Astronomical Case.
2.1.3. Why is Harappan IVC seal -Rudra Orion?

The three emanating lines

from the crown of IVC seal , Next pic depics ‘Tripundra mark sparingly used by shavites on their
forehead and adjacent right pic depicts Mṛgaśīrṣa mudra’
2.2 Apasmāra gets overlay upon western constellation Lepus-hare

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 From the above
Pic it is found that Apasmāra gets superimposed upon a separate constellation called ‘Lepus’,
which is shown trampelled by Śiva-Natarāja, and which rises before Agastya- Canopus during
the rising and setting of Orion in the sky. Lepus is also braided in with Hunter constellation from
greek iconography similar to Apasmāra braided with Natarāja iconography. This is interesting
to note that Lepus constellation of western astronomy alludes Hare iconography which has a
connection with moon[29] and Amarkosha says Indu-Saśi-Soma-are names of Mṛgaśīrṣa
nakshatra and this has noteworthy resemblance with the meaning of Apasmāra from Ayurveda
texts [moon-Luna-lunatic (unpredictable), epilepsy i.e. forgetfulness or ignorance, recollection or
consciousness]. It indicates ignorance about the rise of Canopus which is still present in the sky
but unseen at some horizon at some point of time.

385
 Apasmara with anchuli/drinking mudra is an impression of Agastya indicating loss of memory of
it’s rise from certain latitude at certain epoch in astronomical sense. Agastya drinking ocean is
an indication to unnravel stars at horizon in relative sense.
3. Cosmic Natarāja has to do with identification of Agastya’s location. All of these have deep
connection to ancient Indian tradition of navigation and mobilization. In nutshell, after
evaluating the empirical evidence and by testing them, it was found that the latitude of
Chidambaram30 was the threshold from where Agastya became invisible while navigating due
north away from this latitude when Canopus was at its highest declination, very near to the south
celestial pole being a pole star[31]. This astronomical event happened during 11000BCE-
13000BCE. Below Chidambaram latitudes Canopus was always visible. This is tested via
computational simulation. However, elaboration of that subject is beyond the purview of this
paper.
Conclusion
The paper has comprehensively dealt with each element of Natarāja’s Iconography. It has
elaborated and discussed over the inferences drawn, empirically tested and evidences are
concluded in regard of understanding of each element of Natarāja’s Iconography. The enigma of
Apasmāra is determined via objectively testing of the theory in terms of explanation, prediction
and testing with the context of background knowledge. The representation of Apasmāra as an
impression of Agastya is proven with loss of memory of an astronomical event which was
confined to certain latitude.
Bibliography
1. Coomaraswamy, Ananda K., The Dance of Śiva, 1912
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meenakshi_Amman_Temple (retrieved 14-05-2012)
3. On visibility of Agastya-Canopus in India. By K Chandra Hari
4. Folklore and Astronomy; Agastya- a sage and a star by K D Abhyankar
5. Professor Southworth, an Emeritus Professor of South Asian Linguists, University
ofPennsylvania in his article published in Rice (2011) 4:142-148 notes the deep connectivity of
theDravidian languages.*
6. When did Mahabharata war happen; Mystery of Arundhati. By Nilesh Oak
References
[1] Pic source; Permission has been granted to publish these photographs from Shri Raj
Mutharasan, Scientist at National science foundation (NSF) and Drexel University
[2] Found in Brahmānd Purāna and Vishnu Purāna as one of the northern
constellations. archives.org, Gita press)
[3] Published by permission from Shri Raj Mutharasan, Scientist at the US National science
foundation (NSF) and Drexel University, USA.
[4] Br. II. 21..
[5] Taittirīya- ĀraNyaka 1.11.2), viśvāmitro jamadagnirbhāradvājo’tha gautamaH|atrirvasishthaḥ
kaśyapa ityete saptarishayaḥ ||
[6] Bhā. VI. 18. 5, 28. 32; Br. IV. 5. 38 M. 61. 21-31; 201. 29; 202. 1., Vāyu pu. 48. 23,
[7] saptānām rishīnām agastyāshTamānām yadapatyam tadgotramityācakShate || (Āśvalāyana
Śrauta Sūtra; PariśiSTa)
[8] MBH
[9] Raghuvansham XVI.44, in regard of ‘Agastya- chinhād’
[10] Pic source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agastya
[11] Bhā. VI. 18. 5; Br. IV. 5. 38 M. 61. 21-31; 201. 29; 202. 1.

386
[12] Vāyu pu. 48. 23
[13] Bhā. IV. 28. 32
[14] 2(a) Vishnu. IV 4. 99.
[15] Bhā., VI. 3. 35; M. 61. 17; 36-41; Br. III. 56. 53.
[16] BahubhutaH bahudharaH swarbhaanuH mitogatiH
[17] Text- Kunchitangrim Bhaje by Umapati of Chidambaram
[18] (Smith 1998: 21).
[19] ‘Thennadudaiya S’ivanae PoRRi, Ennattavarkkum IRaiva PoRRi’
[20] न”#$व&हम)तगु -णबु01धल-योऽगम:।8जाप)त$व-<वबाहु$व-भाग: सव-गोऽमुख:॥५९॥ MBH
śivasahastranāmstrotram Anushāsana parva 6th Khanda, 17th adhyāya
[21] यतो लोकााः सEभववGत न भववGत यताः पुनाः ॥२९॥ MBH śivasahastranāmstrotram Anushāsana
parva 6th Khanda, 17th adhyāya*
[22] from Vishnupurāna 8th adhyāya कIपादावाKमनLतु Iयौं सुतौं 8NयायतLतत:।8ाादु रासीठाभोरRके
कुमारो नीललोTहत:॥२॥
[23]-“तLमै ते VW सौंवKसरे ण नमLकरोXम”, तै $YरZयकृ\ण यजुव]द सौं Tहता – taittirīyakṛṣṇa
Yajurveda saṃhitā5।5।7।3-4
[24] Swarbhānu; name of Rahu, also a name of Shiva,. Rahu is an astronomical mate of
ArdraNakshatra
[25] सौंवKसरकराः ॥३९॥ śivasahastranāmstrotram Anushāsana parva 6th Khanda, 17th adhyāya
[26] By Indologist Dr. Rekha Rao
[27] _Wााणम$प यो VW: 8भा 8भवताम$प॥२८॥ śivasahastranāmstrotram, MBH
[28] न”#साधकाः ॥३७॥ śivasahastranāmstrotram, MBH
[29] Ridpath, Ian; Tirion, Wil (2001), Stars and Planets Guide, Princeton University Press, ISBN
0-691-08913-2
[30] Chitt +ambaram; ambaram in Sanskrit means sky, horizon, compass.
[31] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole_star
The paper “Cosmic Consciousness And Astronomical Association Of Natarāja’s Dance With
Apasmara And Agastya” was originally presented at Waves 2018 and has been republished with
permission.

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