SHAIV AND SHAKTA SCHOOLS OF SPIRITUALITY :

Temples of East, West, and Central India (8th–13th Century). In Eastern India, particularly in

Orissa between 750–1250 CE and in Central India between 950–1050 CE, many
gorgeous temples were built. They were probably dedicated to a sun god, Shiva and Vishnu.
The temple were constructed using granite blocks and bricks, one with a small stepped pond. The
cultural sphere often called Greater India extended into South-East Asia. The word Hindu is an
exonym, and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, many practitioners
refer to their religion as Sanātana Dharma (Sanskrit: सनातन धर्म, lit. ''the Eternal way''), which
refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history, as revealed in the Hindu texts.T
Hindus worship one Supreme Being called Brahman though by different names. This is because
the peoples of India with many different languages and cultures have understood the one God in
their own distinct way. Supreme God has uncountable divine powers.
Once a dominant religion on the Indian subcontinent (before the rise of reform Hinduism in the
7th century CE), Jainism has fairly obscure origins.

India’s Oldest Surviving Temples

Anshika Jain https://www.livehistoryindia.com/amazing-india/2019/11/06/indias-oldest-
surviving-temples
 
Temples in India are usually elaborate structures, be it scale, ornamentation or both. Think
Meenakshi Temple in Madurai, the magnificent temples of Khajuraho, or the ornate Dilwara
Temple of Rajasthan. So it may be a bit of a surprise that the oldest surviving temple in the
country is a small, nondescript shrine in Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh.The tradition of temple
building in India can be traced to the Gupta period (3rd to 6th century CE).
This does not mean that temples were not built before this time. Remnants of a Mauryan-era,
brick-and-stone structure believed to be a temple have been excavated in Bairat district in
Rajasthan and dated to the 3rd century BCE, and a similar oval, brick temple plan has been
excavated at Besnagar, Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh dated to the 2nd century BCE. Also, as living
shrines, many temples of great antiquity have undergone frequent renovation, making it very
difficult to trace their origins and history.
That’s why ‘Sanchi 17’, a Gupta-period shrine, is so significant. Dated to the 5th century CE, it
is the oldest surviving complete temple found in India to date. Sure, there are early apsidal
(round-ended) shrines like those from the Kushana period (30 CE to 375 CE) excavated at Sonkh
near Mathura by Dr Herbert Hartel, but once again they exist only on plan and not on elevation.

The exterior of one of the Barabar Caves in 1870|British Library

We don’t find intact temples predating the Gupta period probably because the modes of worship
were different then or temples were built either from perishable materials like bamboo, wood,
mud brick or even burnt brick, or were cut out of rock as we see in Udayagiri in Odisha or
Barabar in Bihar.
Besides temple worship, yagyas were performed on fire altars, and one can see the influence of
these altars on the design and layout of the early temples. Since tradition dictated that these
sacrificial altars be built on the outskirts of a settlement and abandoned on completion of the
ceremony, they have been lost over time.
Still, we have a lot to go on. Considering the heights temple architecture later achieved, it is
difficult to imagine the simplicity of the earliest shrines but couched in that apparent simplicity
are the basic elements that define the elaborate temples of the later, medieval period.
Let us explore some of the earliest temples in the country and see how temple architecture
evolved from the 5th to the 7th centuries CE.
Sanchi 17|Wikimedia Commons

Sanchi Temple 17: The oldest surviving temple in India

The town of Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh is known for the Sanchi Stupa, an icon of ancient Indian
architecture and religion. Sanchi also houses another significant milestone in the development of
Indian architecture and religion, albeit a lot less glamorous. Located within the Stupa complex is
one of the oldest surviving stone temples in India. ‘Sanchi 17’ may look basic but it holds the
seeds of temple architecture in India.Sanchi 17 is dated to around 400 CE or the late 4th or early
5th century CE, during the reign of Gupta dynasty.

Most scholars agree that the temple was used for Buddhist worship. While temple-building in
Buddhism didn’t gain popularity, many of the elements of this temple would go on to be
incorporated into Hindu temple architecture. The structure of Sanchi 17 is extremely simple. It
has a square, flat-roofed sanctum with a porch that as four pillars in the front. The interior and
exterior of the temple are undecorated but the pillars are carved. They are carved with inverted
lotuses while the capital, which supports the roof, is carved with lions. Near Sanchi 17 is Sanchi
18, which might have been a stone-and-brick temple from the 2nd century CE but little of its
original structure survives.
Kevalanarasimha Temple, Ramtek, Maharashtra
The Kevalanarasimha Temple is the oldest extant Vakataka temple and the oldest stone temple in
Maharashtra. The temple, dated to the 5th century CE, is a little younger or contemporary with
Sanchi 17.The temple has a square garbagriha with a slightly smaller square mandapa in front. It
has a square doorway with rectangular door jambs carved with typical Vakataka-style ganas.

Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh|Wikimedia Commons

Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh

The Dashavatara Temple is in Deogarh, in Lalitpur district of Uttar Pradesh. This temple is also a
Gupta-period shrine and dated to the late 5th century CE, between 475 and 500 CE. The temple
is dedicated to Vishnu and it is believed that his various avatars were once depicted here.
The temple has exquisite relief sculptures and the doorway is elaborately adorned. One can see
sculptures of Vishnu in his various forms here along with representations of deities like Ganga,
Yamuna, Indra, Shiva and Kartikeya.Archaeologist Sir Alexander Cunningham visited the site in
1875 and found several Gupta-era inscriptions here.
The temple at Deogarh is the oldest-known Panchayatana-style temple in India, where a main
shrine is surrounded by four smaller shrines. Sadly, it is believed that most of the reliefs on the
walls were stolen during the first few decades of the 20th century. A few others were taken to
major museums such as the National Museum in Delhi and Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Museum in
Ahmedabad.

Bhitargaon Temple|

Bhitargaon Temple, Uttar Pradesh: Oldest surviving brick temple

This temple in Bhitargaon in Kanpur district in Uttar Pradesh is one of the largest ancient brick
temples to have survived. Like the one at Deogarh, this one too is a Gupta-era shrine dating back
to the 5th century CE. It also has one of the earliest shikharas seen in Indian temples. The temple
at Bhitargaon is also significant because it possibly has one of the earliest known ‘true arches’ in
the country.
The Temple at Bhitargaon in 1875|British Library

The temple has depictions of Shiva, Vishnu, Ganesha, Durga and scenes from Hindu mythology
on its walls. The temple has been heavily damaged over the centuries, most notably by a
lightning strike in the mid-1800s. In 1894, the local administration ‘repaired’ the temple, which
caused a bit of damage to the original structure. In 1909, many objects were sent from here to the
Lucknow State Museum. Facing official apathy for decades, it was only in the 1960s that
historians began taking an interest in the temple. Today, it is an ASI protected monument.
The Kapoteswara Temple in the present day in Chejerla, Andhra Pradesh|Wikimedia Commons

Kapoteswara Temple, Chejerla, Andhra Pradesh; and Trivikrama Temple, Ter, Maharashtra
The Kapoteswara Temple at Chejerla in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, and the Trivikrama
Temple at Ter in Osmanabad district of Maharashtra are very similar in architecture and
relatively small. Both have been dated to approximatel 5th century CE. They are some of the
earliest examples of barrel-vaulted, apsidal temples (with a semi-spherical end) in India. They
are essentially built like rock-cut chaitya halls but freestanding and in brick.
According to some historians, the Chejerla Temple was built by the Ananda kings of coastal
Andhra, while the Trivikrama Temple was built during the Vakataka period (3rd to 5th century
CE), making it the oldest standing structure in Maharashtra.
Many scholars believe that these shrines may have been Buddhist chaityas or prayer halls that
were later converted for worship by Hindus. Today, the temple in Ter is used to worship
Trivikrama, a form of Vishnu, while the temple in Chejerla is used to worship Shiva as
Kapoteswara. The image inside the Ter temple is in the Vakataka style, which points towards it
being a Hindu shrine from its inception.
Shiva Temple, Bhumara in the 1920s|Wikimedia Commons

Shiva Temple, Bhumara, Madhya Pradesh

The Shiva Temple in Bhumara in Satna district of Madhya Pradesh is dated to the 5th-6th
centuries CE and is ascribed to the Gupta period. This temple, built from red sandstone, has
some exquisite sculptures like the depictions of Ganga and Yamuna on the door jambs. The
Ekmukh Shivling inside is one of the most significant sculptures of the Gupta period.The temple
also contains one of the oldest surviving images of Ganesha in India, along with the one at the
Udayagiri caves in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.
Although the temple is badly damaged and many of its sculptures have been taken to museums
across the world, the sanctum has survived and one can see the remnants of a mandapa.
The temple at Gop in the 1870s|British LIbrary

Gop Temple, Gujarat

The Gop Temple is located in Jamnagar district of Gujarat. Dated to the 6th-7th century CE as
there is a lack of clarity about its exact dates, the temple is believed to have been built during the
Maitraka Dynasty. It is the oldest surviving temple in Gujarat.
Colloquially called the Gopnath Mahadev Temple, it is believed to have originally been a Sun
temple even though some believe that it may have always been a Shiva temple.
How to get there: Gop Temple is 60 km from Jamnagar city
The remains at Dah Parbatia|Wikimedia Commons

Dah Parbatia Temple, Assam

While most early temples are found in Central India and the Gangetic plains, with a few to the
west and south, an interesting find are the remains of a temple at Dah Parbatia, a village on the
banks of the Brahmaputra in Tezpur district in Assam. Only the base of the garba briha, door
jambs and lintel of the temple survive. It is considered a pre-Ahom period temple by art
historians and scholars, and is believed to date to the late 5th or 6th centuries CE.

Lakshmana Temple, Sirpur|Wikimedia Commons

The Lakshmana Temple is a brick temple dated to the 7th century CE and is located in Sirpur
district of Chhattisgarh. The temple is surmounted by a brick shikhara. According to an
inscription found in the temple, it was constructed by Queen Vasata, the mother of King
Shivagupta Balarjuna of the Panduvamshis of South Kosala. Although the image of the deity
from the sanctum sanctorum has been lost, the depiction of Vishnu on the lintel and his various
avatars on different panels of the temple suggest that it must have been a Vaishnav temple.
How to get there: Lakshmana Temple is 80 km from Raipur city

Uttareshwara Temple, Ter|Dr. Kurush Dalal

Uttareshwara Temple, Ter, Maharashtra

The Uttareshwara Temple is the oldest surviving brick temple in Maharashtra, dated to the
immediate post-Vakataka period of the 6th-7th centuries CE. The temple consists of a garbha
griha surmounted by a shikara with a small square mandapa in the front. The temple is
particularly noteworthy because of its moulded brickwork as well as the carved wooden door
frame of the sanctum, which is the oldest surviving wooden architectural feature in India.
How to get there: Uttareshwara is approximately 20 km from Osmanabad in Maharashtra
Mundeshwari Temple, Bihar|Wikimedia Commons

Mundeshwari Temple, Bihar

The Mundeshwari Temple in Kaimur district of Bihar is regarded as the oldest temple in Bihar.
According to an inscription here, it is dated to the year 635 CE. The temple is made of stone and
has an octagonal plan. The original shikhara collapsed and was lost over the centuries. The
temple’s walls are elaborately carved with vases and foliage. The door jambs have the image of
Ganga, Yamuna and Dwarapalas on them. Inside the temple, a Chaturmukhi Shivling is
worshipped.
How to get there: Mundeshwari Temple is 102 km from Varanasi city in Uttar Pradesh

Durga Temple, Aihole|Wikimedia Commons

Durga Temple, Aihole, Karnataka

The Durga Temple in Aihole, Karnataka, is an excellent example of an apsidal temple and has
been dated from the mid-6th to the mid-7th century CE. It is ascribed to the Chalukyan period.
The temple is very similar to the temples at Ter and Chejerla but lacks doesn't have a barrel-
vaulted roof. The temple was built on an elevated platform and surrounded by an open corridor.
The temple had many subsequent additions made to it, including the addition of a shikhara.

here is a one essential and  fundamental question that arises when one see Vaishnavs fighting
with Shaiv and misconstruing and misrepresenting Dharma at global level.But when one keeps
Vaishnavs aside for a moment, and look only at Shaiv tradition, there also one will find many
conflicts with Shakta tradition in Shaiv.Some would claim Shiva is supreme and is the greatest,
like this there is another tradition of Shakta which believes that Shakti, which is the divine
feminine energy to be the supreme essence and through this Shakti all forms of divinity and
gross reality manifests and that Shakti is the fundamental energy driving the cosmos responsible
for creation, maintainance and dissolution of universe.When sadhana or spiritual practices from
Himalaya went forth in mainstream society, two distinct groups of practitioners or sadhaka
emerged in Shaiv traditions.A group emerged which gave prime and sole importance to feminie
principle with spiritual practices focused on this principle. This Shakta tradition is very vast,
amazing and magical. There are nine forms of Durga, the ten Maha Vidyas or Consious Energies
of the Universe, sixteen Matrikas or Divine Feminie Matrix, sixty four yoginis, sixty four krityas,
gandharvas, kinners, apsaras and many more shaktis working at different dimensions and
different levels of the cosmos comes under the Shakta tradtition.And another group emerged and
gave sole and prime importance to Male principle, “Purush”. And thus various spiritual practices
based on this principle were evolved. This Shaiv tantra is no less rich and equally expanive as
Shakta. At some schools of Shaiv Tantra, there are 58 Bhairava, 52 Veer, many Yaksha,
Gandharva, Kinners who come under the Shaiva tradition.Both these two schools have their own
specialties. But then the question about which is greatest among these two still remains to be
answered.

At different times in the cosmos, different sages, rishis, at different places have praised Shaiv or
Shakta over the other to people with different mindset.Where Shaiva tattva or essence is
representative of the visible dimensions, Shakti tattva represents the hidden dimensions.
Shiv is mass and inert, and presents all elements in gross form. Like water is Shiv tattva but the
waves and fluidity of water is the Shakti principle. Fire is Shiv Tattva and the burning is Shakti.
By looking at fire we can infer Shiv tattva, but when we look at this fire from a distance we
cannot experience the burning or the Shakti present in fire is not apparent from distance. By
looking at a lamp or lighted candle from a distance we can make out the form of the flame
burning but we cannot make out the temperature. Only when we go near the flame, and put our
hand on it then we can know about the temperature of that flame.Like this, Shiv tattva is
omnipresent, it is everywhere in the cosmos, and has  Shakti tattva in its core.In devanagiri
varnmala or the alphabets of Sankrit, hindi and other such derived language, given by ancient
seers and rishis, we have some independent varna or akshar or for lack of proper term in english,
an alphabet. These independent varna or alphabet is Shiva like “a-kar”, “u-kar”, uptil “gya” are
all Shiva tattva. But the nasal varna or anunasik, bindu, and “ee-kar” are representing shakti
tattva.

It is no surprise that Energy also starts with “e”.  And Shiv has “e-kar” in Shiv!
Therefore we can consider Shiv and Shakti as different, but actually they are one and
indistinguishable.
Looking across the vedic era to the modern times, there have been many different spiritual sects
or schools like Shaiv, Shakta, Vaishnav, ganpatya, or of Sun and Fire.But Gayatri sadhana, given
by Rishi Vishwamitra and Vashistha is considered mandatory in all schools.Gayatri is that Shakti
which is neither male principle or female principle. Gayatri is the sole Shakti which is called
“Ubhaylingi” or of both male-female principle. Gayatri by itself is that Shakti which is full male
principle, and also full female principle and is considered as the complete whole divine Shakti
Tattva.For an ordinary person it is difficult to understand Gayatri since what we see around us
are either males – with predominant male principle, and females- with predominant female
principle. “Ubhaylingi” principled beings do not exists amognst us. Shakta temples are found all
over South Asia. Many towns, villages and geographic landmarks are named for various forms of
the Devi. Major pilgrimage sites of Shaktism are called "Shakti Peethas", literally "Seats of the
Devi". These vary from four to fifty one.
Some Shakta temples are also found in Southeast Asia, the Americas, Europe, Australia and
elsewhere.  Examples in the United States include the Kali Mandir in Laguna Beach,
California; and Sri Rajarajeswari Peetam a Srividya temple in rural Rush, New York
Some feminists and participants in New Age spirituality who are attracted to Goddess worship",
suggest Shaktism is a "symbol of wholeness and healing, associated especially with repressed
female power and sexuality." However, these are adaptions and do not share Shakta theology

Ardhanarishwar Shiv Shakti

There comes a unique and amazing manifestation or form which is called as “ArdhaNarishwar”.
At one end Ardhnarishwar is Purush or male and also Shakti or female.Since the dawn of
beginning whatever essential qualities were given priority or importance by males became
“Purush Tattva” and whatever qualities were favorites of females became “Shakti or Stri
Tattva”.But life runs with opposing principles. Therefore many followers of Shiv are women,
and majority of practitioner of Shakti tattva or Shakta tradition of divine feminine are actually
men.So practitioner of these two schools carry on their distinct path but fundamentally they are
the same.Now asking questions like out of Shiv and Shakti which is greater or supreme principle
is actually a very foolish question.It is like holding drops of water in both hands drawn from the
same source, and claiming that the drop of water in one hand is better water and the other hand’s
water is inferior.In Ardhanarishwar, at one half we have Shiv and other half is Shakti and in this
“ubhaylingi” form we have Shiv Shakti in gayatri tattva.Behind the apparent Gayatri tattva, there
is the Brahma Tattva. This formless, attributeless ParaBrahm which when experienced in
manifested form becomes Shiv and Shakti.

So because of distinct form, qualities, traits and practices, sectarian differences arise in Shiv and
Shakti but in truth it is one indistinguishable whole. When Shiva speaks to Shakti it is called as
Agam and when Shakti listens it is called Nigam. This Agam and Nigam is the fountain from
which all tantra, yoga, infact all esoteric knowlege of spiritual worlds has sprouted forth. Asking
questions like out of “Agam” and “Nigam” which is greater is ridiculous. Without ‘Agam” there
is no “Nigam” and without “Nigam” there is no “Agam”.Shakti resides and functions in Shiv.
And knowing thus one would be free from conflicts on Shiv and Shakti.And after realizing this
unity, one would cease to see difference between Shaiv and Vaishnav.

Today, whatever differences and conflicts between different traditions are apparent will
disappear after realization. Vishnu tattva is the representation of continuity and Shiv tattva which
is the representation of its destruction, this when realized will cease to be seen as different from
each other. And Brahma who is the representation of creation will also become indistinguishable
from Shiv and Vishnu. It solely depends on the level of sadhana or spiritual practice.At what
depth or qualities the spiritual path is working will either show difference between these tattva or
no differences between these tattva.At lower levels these differences exists and the higher one
rises up in spiritual practices these differences cease to exists.It is therefore said that without
proper guru one should not even read Vedas, Puranas or other scriptures because there is high
probability to misconstrue the message. When doing sadhana under proper guidance, these
differences between Shiv and Shakti will cease to be and they will become one.

But all these one must experience directly to be true knowledge.

Shaktas approach the Devi in many forms; however, they are all considered to be but diverse
aspects of the one supreme Goddess. The primary Devi form worshiped by a Shakta devotee is
his or her ishta-devi, that is a personally selected Devi. The selection of this deity can depend on
many factors, such as family tradition, regional practice, guru lineage and personal resonance.
Some forms of the Goddess are widely known in the Hindu world. The common goddesses of
Shaktism, popular in the Hindu thought at least by about mid 1st-millennium CE,
include Parvati, Durga, Kali, Amba, Lakshmi, Rukmini, Sita, Yogmaya and Saraswati. The rarer
forms of Devi found among tantric Shakta are the Mahavidyas,
particularly Tara, Bhairavi, Chhinnamasta, Kamala and Bhuvaneshvari. Other major Goddess
groups include the Sapta-Matrika ("Seven Little Mothers"), "who are the energies of different
major Gods, and described as assisting the great Shakta Devi in her fight with demons", and the
64 Yoginis. 8 forms of goddess Lakshmi called Ashtalakshmi and 9 forms of goddess Durga ,
the Navadurgas worshipped in Navratri 
Shaktas conceive the Goddess as the supreme, ultimate, eternal reality of all existence, or same
as the Brahman concept of Hinduism. She is considered to be simultaneously the source of all
creation, its embodiment and the energy that animates and governs it, and that into which
everything will ultimately dissolve. According to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar – a professor of
Indian history, in Shaktism theology "Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman.
Shaktism views the Devi as the source, essence and substance of everything in creation. Its texts
such as the Devi-Bhagavata Purana states:
I am Manifest Divinity, Unmanifest Divinity, and Transcendent Divinity. I
am Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, as well as Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati. I am the Sun and I am
the Stars, and I am also the Moon. I am all animals and birds, and I am the outcaste as well, and
the thief. I am the low person of dreadful deeds, and the great person of excellent deeds. I am
Female, I am Male in the form of Shiva.
Shaktism's focus on tae Divine Female does not imply a rejection of the male. It rejects
masculine-feminine, male-female, soul-body, transcendent-immanent dualism, considering
nature as divine. Devi is considered to be the cosmos itself – she is the embodiment of energy,
matter and soul, the motivating force behind all action and existence in the material universe. Yet
in Shaktism, the cultural concepts of masculine and the feminine as they exist among
practitioners of Shaktism are aspects of the divine, transcendent reality. In Hindu iconography,
the cosmic dynamic of male-female or masculine-feminine interdependence and equivalence, is
expressed in the half-Shakti, half-Shiva deity known as Ardhanari.
The philosophical premises in many Shakta texts, states June McDaniel – 
The earliest archaeological evidence of what appears to be an Upper Paleolithic shrine for
Shakti worship were discovered in the terminal upper paleolithic site of Baghor I (Baghor stone)
in Sidhi district of Madhya Pradesh, India. The excavations, carried out under the guidance of
noted archaeologists G. R. Sharma of Allahabad University and J. Desmond Clark of University
of California and assisted by Jonathan Mark Kenoyer and J.N. Pal, dated the Baghor formation to
between 9000 B.C and 8000 B.C. The origins of Shakti worship can also be traced to Indus
Valley Civilization. One of the earliest evidence of reverence for the female aspect of God in
Hinduism appears in chapter 10.125 of the Rig Veda, also called the Devi Suktam hymn:

I am the Queen, the gatherer-up of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship.
       Thus Gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in.
Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, – each man who sees, breathes, hears the
word outspoken.
       They know it not, yet I reside in the essence of the Universe. Hear, one and all, the truth as I
declare it.
I, verily, myself announce and utter the word that Gods and men alike shall welcome.
       I make the man I love exceeding mighty, make him nourished, a sage, and one who
knows  Brahman.
I bend the bow for Rudra [Shiva], that his arrow may strike, and slay the hater of devotion.
       I rouse and order battle for the people, I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner
Controller.
On the world's summit I bring forth sky the Father: my home is in the waters, in the ocean as
Mother.
       Thence I pervade all existing creatures, as their Inner Supreme Self, and manifest them with
my body.
I created all worlds at my will, without any higher being, and permeate and dwell within them.
       The eternal and infinite consciousness is I, it is my greatness dwelling in everything.
–Devi Sukta, Rigveda 10.125.3 – 10.125.8,
The Vedic literature reveres various goddesses, but far less frequently than
Gods Indra, Agni and Soma. Yet, they are declared equivalent aspects of the neutral Brahman,
of Prajapati and Purusha. The goddesses often mentioned in the Vedic layers of text include the
Ushas (dawn), Vāc (speech, wisdom), Sarasvati (as river), Prithivi (earth), Nirriti (annihilator),
Shraddha (faith, confidence.  Goddesses such as Uma appear in the Upanishads as another aspect
of divine and the knower of ultimate knowledge (Brahman), such as in section 3 and 4 of the
ancient Kena Upanishad.
Hymns to goddesses are in the ancient Hindu epic Mahabharata, particularly in the later (100 to
300 CE) added Harivamsa section of itThe archaeological and textual evidence implies, states
Thomas Coburn, that the Goddess had become as much a part of the Hindu tradition, as God, by
about the third or fourth century. The literature on Shakti theology grew in ancient India,
climaxing in one of the most important texts of Shaktism called the Devi Mahatmya. This text,
states C. Mackenzie Brown – a professor of Religion, is both a culmination of centuries of Indian
ideas about the divine woman, as well as a foundation for the literature and spirituality focussed
on the female transcendence in centuries that . De vi-Mahatmya is not the earliest literary
fragment attesting to the existence of devotion to a Goddess figure, states Thomas B. Coburn – a
professor of Religious Studies, but "it is surely the earliest in which the object of worship is
conceptualized as Goddess, with a capital G".
Other important texts of Shaktism include the Shakta Upanishads, as well as Shakta-
oriented Upa Puranic literature such as the Devi Purana and Kalika Purana,[21] the Lalita
Sahasranama (from the Brahmanda Purana). The Tripura Upanishad is historically the most
complete introduction to Shakta Tantrism, distilling into its 16 verses almost every important
topic in Shakta Tantra tradition. Along with the Tripura Upanishad, the Tripuratapini
Upanishad has attracted scholarly bhasya (commentary) in the second half of 2nd-millennium,
such as by Bhaskararaya and by Ramanand.These texts link the Shakti Tantra tradition as a
Vedic attribute,[28] however this link has been contested by scholars.
The 18th-century brilliant Shakta bhakti poems and songs were composed by two Bengal court
poets, Bharatchandra Ray and Ramprasad Sen as well as the Tamil collection Abhirami
Anthadhi.
In addition, one of the most influensed Hindu reform-era figure became shakta-
universalist Ramakrishna, for whom all were the same Mother Goddess.

Shaktism

Shaktism "doctrine of energy, power, the eternal goddess" is one of major Hindu denominations,

wherein the metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically a woman and Shakti is regarded as
the supreme godhead. It includes many goddesses, all considered aspects of the same supreme
goddess. Shaktism has different sub-traditions, ranging from those focused on gracious Parvati to
that of fierce Kali.
The Sruti and Smriti texts of Hinduism are an important historical framework of the Shaktism
tradition. In addition, it reveres the texts Devi Mahatmya, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, Kalika
Purana and Shakta Upanishads such as the Devi Upanishad. The Devi Mahatmya in particular, is
considered in Shaktism to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita.
Shaktism is known for its various sub-traditions of Tantra as well as a galaxy of goddesses with
respective systems. It consists of the Vidyapitha and Kulamārga. The pantheon of goddesses in
Shaktism grew after the decline of Buddhism in India, wherein Hindu and Buddhist goddesses
were combined to form the Mahavidya, a list of ten goddesses. The most common aspects of
Devi found in Shaktism
include Durga, Kali, Saraswati, Lakshmi, Parvati and Tripurasundari. The Goddess-focused
tradition is very popular in Northeastern India particularly West
Bengal, Odisha, Bihar, Jharkhand, Tripura and Assam, which it celebrates festivals such as
the Durga puja, which is popular in West Bengal and Odisha.[4] Shaktism's ideas have
influenced Vaishnavism and Shaivism traditions, with the Goddess considered
the Shakti/Energy of Vishnu and Shiva respectively, and revered prominently in numerous Hindu
temples and festivals
This category has the following 9 subcategories, out of 9 total.
B

► Bhagavathi temples (1 C, 3 P)
D

► Durga temples (64 P)
H

► Hindu temples practicing animal sacrifice (7 P)

I

► Devi temples in India (4 C, 16 P)

K

► Kali temples (21 P)
L

► Lakshmi temples (10 P)
P

► Parvati temples (6 P)
S

► Saraswati temples (8 P)

► Shakti Peethas (1 C, 53 P)
The following 83 pages are in this category, out of 83 total. This list may not reflect recent
changes (learn more).
A

 Akhadachandi Temple
 Ambaji
B

 Badrakali Amman temple, Sivakasi

 Baitala Deula
 Becharaji
 Bhabanipur Shaktipeeth
 Bhattarika Temple
 Bhavani
 Biswanahakani temple
C

 Charchika Temple
 Chaturshringi Temple
 Chausath Yogini Temple, Ranipur Jharial
 Chhatarpur Temple
 Chotila
 Cuttack Chandi Temple
D

 Maa Pitambara (Bagalamukhi) Temple

 Devi Jagadambi Temple
 Dhari Devi
 Draupati Amman Temples, Kumbakonam
 Durgai Amman Temple, Patteeswaram
E

 Egowriamman Temple, Vallam

G

 Gomathi Amman
H

 Hariyali Devi Temple (Jasoli village)

 Hindu Temple of Delaware
J

 Jajwala Mata Temple

 Jambukeswarar Temple, Thiruvanaikaval
 Jasma Odan
 Jivdani Mata
 Jwala Ji
K

 Kalika Mata Temple, Chittorgarh Fort

 Kalyaneshwari Temple
 Kamakhya Temple
 Kamakshi Devi Temple, Pratapgarh
 Kudargarh
L

 Lankeswari Temple
M

 Maa Barunei Temple

 Maa Baulasuni Temple
 Maa Mangala Temple, Kakatpur
 Maa Tarini
 Maa Tarini Temple, Ghatgaon
 Maa Ugra Tara
 Madayi Kavu
 Maha Ganapathi Mahammaya Temple
 Mahamaya Dham
 Mandhradevi
 Manikeshwari Temple
 Mansa Devi Temple, Haridwar
 Mata no Madh
 Mausi Maa Temple
 Mausimaa Temple
 Maya Devi Temple, Haridwar
N

 Nayar Devi Temple

P

 Patan Devi
 Pitambara Peeth
 Pulimukham Devi Temple
S

 Sachiya Mata Temple

 Samaleswari
 Samaleswari Temple
 Saptamatruka Temple
 Template:Shakti temples in Odisha
 Shantadurga Kalangutkarin Temple
 Shree Betal temple
 Shri Ambaji Temple Girnar Parvat Gujarat
 Siddha Bhairavi
 Siddheshwar temple, Toka
 Sureswari temple
T

 Tarapith
 Taratarini Temple
 Thanjavur Bangaru Kamatchiamman Temple
 Thanjavur Nisumbasuthani Temple
 Tripura Sundari Temple
 Tungareshwar Temple
U

 Ugratara Devalaya
 Ujjain Mahaliamman Temple, Thanjavur
 Ujjaini Mahakali Temple
V

 Vaishno Devi
 Vaishno Devi Temple
 Vajreshwari Temple
 Varahi Deula, Chaurasi
 Vazhappully temple
 Vellayani Devi Temple
 Vindhyachal
Y

 Yogmaya Temple