Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

The Form of Emptiness and the “Emptiness of Form”

The design concepts of the Borobudur based on the Buddha Sutras

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Former General Manager -Go Airlines (India) Pvt Ltd.

Introduction - The Buddhist monument Borobudur, central Java, Indonesia. It

was constructed about 778–850 ce under the Shailendra dynasty and has
three major levels representing individual stages toward perfection. The dharma
wheel, or dharma chakra in Sanskrit, is one of the oldest symbols of Buddhism.
Around the globe it is used to represent Buddhism in the same way that a
cross represents Christianity or a Star of David represents Judaism. It is also
one of the Eight Auspicious Symbols of Buddhism.The Borobudur stupa is
therefore made in such a way that the devotees went round and round from a
earlier-lower level climbing to a higher Upper level and reading or looking at the
various reliefs carved on one side of the circumambulatory staircase.
Borobudur, also transcribed Barabudur is a 7th-century Mahayana
Buddhist temple in Magelang, Indonesia. 

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In 1931, a Dutch artist and scholar of Hindu and Buddhist

architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was
once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the
lake. Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often
serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of
Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in
Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana
Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts.
Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to represent a lotus petals.
Borobudur's vertical organization reflects Buddhist cosmology, according to
which the universe is divided into three superimposing spheres: kamadhatu
(desire), rupadhatu (forms) and arupadhatu (formlessness ).
The Borobudur Temple Compounds is one of the greatest Buddhist
monuments in the world, and was built in the 8th and 9th centuries AD during
the reign of the Syailendra Dynasty.
However the construction and the style of terraced structure where one climbs
from one to the hiher terrace suggests another design concept. The Sutra
famously states, "Form is emptiness (śūnyatā), emptiness is form." It is a
condensed exposé on the Buddhist Mahayana teaching of the Two Truths
doctrine, which says that ultimately all phenomena are sunyata, empty of an
unchanging.essence. This word sunyata or shunyata translated most often
as emptiness, vacuity, and sometimes voidness[2] – is a concept that found in
diverse religions from Buddhist, Shaivite and Vaishnavite, which has multiple
meanings depending on its doctrinal context.
In Theravāda Buddhism, Suññatā often refers to the non-self (Pāli: anattā,
Sanskrit: anātman) nature of the five aggregates of experience and the six sense
spheres. Suññatā is also often used to refer to a meditative state or experience.
However in  Mahāyāna Buddhism, practiced by the builders of the Borobodur
stupa- śūnyatā refers to the tenet that "all things are empty of intrinsic existence
and nature (svabhava)", but may also refer to the Buddha-nature teachings and
primordial or empty awareness, as in Dzogchen, Shentong, or Chan.

At Borobudur, geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct adherents toward

the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures
mediate a physical and spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively
toward higher states of consciousness. The entire site contains 504 statues of
the Buddha. An aerial view of Borobudur shows the overall plan forms a giant
tantric Buddhist mandala. All tiers are connected with more than a
hundred staircases. Some say the numbers are even higher — close to 500! —
and others just lost count during the ascent.

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HeartSutra (Sanskrit: प्रज्ञापारमिताहृदय Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya ) is a
popular sutra in Mahāyāna Buddhism. In Sanskrit, the
title Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya translates as "The Heart of the Perfection of
Wisdom". Mahayana Buddhism (or the Mahayanas) can be defined as a major
movement in the history of Buddhism which has its origins in northern India.
It is made up of many schools and reinterpretations of fundamental human
beliefs, values, and ideals not only those of the Buddhist teachings.

The recorded starting point for Mahāyāna, also known as the 'Great Vehicle'
because it embraces so much, is the 2nd century CE, but it is assumed that
this tidal wave of shifts began to grow before that date, building on existing
schools and systems, and it continues today. Its exact origins are still not
completely understood, but in contrast to previous Buddhist aspirations, great
emphasis was placed equally on the doctrines of compassion (Skt: karunā) and
insight (Skt: prajñā). In addition, the Bodhisattva, the human being who
devotes him or herself to the service of others, became the new model for
religious practice as opposed to the Arhat (Hīnayāna-Hearer or Seeker) who is
concerned only with the self-interested pursuit of liberation.

This age also represents a massive social change in the way Buddhists
practised because householders, lay practitioners, ie. those who have not
renounced life to become monks or nuns, became equally as important as the
clergy, ie. monastic practitioners devoting their whole lives to Buddha. Also, a
new body of literature is associated with this movement known as
the Perfection of Insight texts (Prajñā-pāramitā Sūtras) in which Buddha
Sakyamuni (the historical Buddha) is seen in a new light as a supernatural
being (later formalized as the trikāya - three bodies) and the concept and
doctrine of emptiness (Skt: śūnyatā) became of major importance. Today,
Mahayana Buddhism is predominant in north Aisa and has been strongly
influenced culturally and by existing religions there such
as Taoism and Confucianism.

Classification
To clarify this complex movement of spiritual and religious thought and
religious practice, it may help to understand the three main classifications of
Buddhism to date: Theravada (also known as Hinayana, the vehicle of the
Hearers), Mahayana, and Vajrayana. These are recognised by practitioners as
the three main routes to enlightenment (Skt: bodhi, meaning awakening), the
state that marks the culmination of all the Buddhist religious paths. The
differences between them are as follows:
Theravada is the only remaining school from the Early Buddhist period, its
central texts are in Pali (Pāli Canon), the spoken language of the Buddha; and
its exclusively monastic devotees strive to become enlightened for their own
liberation.

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Mahayana uses Sanskrit as its main language, and monastic and lay followers

work for the liberation of all sentient beings, making compassion and insight
(wisdom) its central doctrines.
Vajrayana, the Diamond School, originally exclusive to Tibet (in 20th century
CE the Chinese occupation of Tibet forced it out of the country), emphasizes
the permanence of the Buddha's teachings as symbolized by
the vajra (thunderbolt), a ritual implement used for ceremonies, employs
Tantra (techniques to reach enlightenment quickly) and focuses mainly on lay
practitioners.
The main schools of Buddhism practised today are Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren,
Shingon, and Tendai (all Mahayanas); and Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayāna). It is
significant that Theravāda texts exclusively concern the Buddha's life and early
teachings; whereas, due to widespread propagation (spreading of the
teachings), Mahāyanā and Vajrayāna texts appear in at least six languages.
Mahāyāna texts contain a mixture of ideas, the early texts probably composed
in south India and confined to strict monastic Buddhism, the later texts
written in northern India and no longer confined to monasticism but lay
thinking also.

The Sutra under our discussion, famously states, "Form is emptiness

(śūnyatā), emptiness is form." It is a condensed exposé on the Buddhist
Mahayana teaching of the Two Truths doctrine, which says that ultimately all
phenomena are sunyata, empty of an unchanging essence. This emptiness is a
'characteristic' of all phenomena, and not a transcendent reality, but also
"empty" of an essence of its own. Specifically, it is a response to Sarvastivada
teachings that "phenomena" or its constituents are real.

It has been called "the most frequently used and recited text in the entire
Mahayana Buddhist tradition. The text has been translated into English
dozens of times from Chinese, Sanskrit and Tibetan as well as other source
languages.

In the sutra, Avalokiteśvara addresses Śariputra, explaining the fundamental

emptiness (śūnyatā) of all phenomena, known through and as the five
aggregates of human existence (skandhas): form (rūpa), feeling (vedanā),
volitions (saṅkhāra), perceptions (saṃjñā), and consciousness (vijñāna).
Avalokiteśvara famously states, "Form is Emptiness (śūnyatā). Emptiness is
Form", and declares the other skandhas to be equally empty—that
is, dependently originated.

Avalokiteśvara then goes through some of the most fundamental Buddhist

teachings such as the Four Noble Truths, and explains that in emptiness none
of these notions apply. This is interpreted according to the two truths
doctrine as saying that teachings, while accurate descriptions of conventional
truth, are mere statements about reality—they are not reality itself—and that

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they are therefore not applicable to the ultimate truth that is by definition
beyond mental understanding. Thus the bodhisattva, as the archetypal
Mahayana Buddhist, relies on the perfection of wisdom, defined in
the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra to be the wisdom that perceives reality directly
without conceptual attachment, thereby achieving nirvana.

The sutra concludes with the mantra gate gate pāragate pārasaṃgate bodhi
svāhā, meaning "gone, gone, everyone gone to the other shore,
awakening, svaha.

BOROBUDUR Design

Borobudur ground plan taking the form of a Mandala

Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when viewed from above, takes
the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the
Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind. [73] The original foundation is a
square, approximately 118 metres (387 ft) on each side. It has nine platforms,
of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular.[74] The upper
platform contains seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central
stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative
openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures.
The design of Borobudur took the form of a step pyramid. Previously,
the prehistoric Austronesian megalithic culture in Indonesia had constructed
several earth mounds and stone step pyramid structures called punden
berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolok

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Kuningan.[76] The construction of stone pyramids is based on native beliefs that

mountains and high places are the abode of ancestral spirits or hyangs.
[77]
 The punden berundak step pyramid is the basic design in Borobudur,
[78]
 believed to be the continuation of older megalithic tradition incorporated
with Mahayana Buddhist ideas and symbolism. [79]

Aerial view of Borobudur, it took the form of a step pyramid and mandala plan

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3 Realms of Buddhist Cosmology

The monument's three divisions symbolize the three "realms" of Buddhist

cosmology, namely 
1.Kamadhatu (the world of desires), 
2.Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally 
3.Arupadhatu (the formless world).

Ordinary sentient beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of
desire. Those who have burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the
world of desire and live in the world on the level of form alone: they see forms
but are not drawn to them. Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form and
experience reality at its purest, most fundamental level, the formless ocean of
nirvana.

 The liberation from the cycle of Saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no
longer attached to worldly form corresponds to the concept of Śūnyatā, the
complete voidness or the nonexistence of the self. Kāmadhātu is represented by
the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the body),
and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa.
The architectural features between the three stages have metaphorical
differences. For instance, square and detailed decorations in
the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to
represent how the world of forms—where men are still attached with forms and
names—changes into the world of the formless.

Congregational worship in Borobudur wsas( and also is) performed in a

walking pilgrimage. Pilgrims are guided by the system of staircases and
corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage
of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed to
symbolize Buddhist cosmology.

In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The

"hidden footing" contains reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the
real Kāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that
apparently provide instructions for the sculptors, illustrating the scenes to be
carved.[83] The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose of which
remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to
prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument into the hill. There is
another theory that the encasement base was added because the original
hidden footing was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian
ancient book about architecture and town planning.[42] Regardless of why it was

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commissioned, the encasement base was built with detailed and meticulous
design and with aesthetic and religious consideration.

STEPPED PYRAMID; You will need to climb 625 steps up and 625 steps
down to see what gorgeous nature looks like. It's going to be worth it! Choose
your level of difficulty at Suroloyo Peak: The first level is an easy track, where
you can enjoy the Borobudur silhouette from afar.

BOROBUDUR: Mountain, Mandala, Monument (770 - 830)

 
 

 
SUDHANA LISTENING TO ONE OF THIS "52 FRIENDS," BOROBUDUR (770 - 830)

“The liturgical advantages of linear addition for temple design does not fully
explain why, despite the paramount importance Indian architects attached to
the concept of the “temple mountain” and their genius for finding ever more
ingenious forms with which to express it, they do not appear to have attempted
to build a pyramid in stone. Mountains, specifically the Himalayas, had long
been seen as the haunt of the Hindu deities and the furthest reach from
pedestrian, dust-bound humanity. The Khmer built temples on every
mountain, or what passed for one, in their water-logged homeland and, where
there were no hillocks, they erected mountains of masonry. Nor were they
alone; one need not hypothesize improbable trans-continental “cultural
transmission” to account for the appearance of pyramids as thresholds to the
divine around the globe – but not in India. In the absence of the arch and steel
girder, heaping mounds of earth and rubble or laying diminishing courses of
stones were the only practical means for making a man-made, imitation
mountain of sufficient breadth and height to be convincing. The earliest
“temple mountain” was probably the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara (2667 -
2648 B.C.E.,) followed by the “ziggurats” of Mesopotamia, a name meaning “to
build a raised place” in Akkadian. The 14th Century B.C.E Babylonian Dur
Kurigaizu may possibly have been the original “Tower of Babel,” to the
conquered Hebrews a symbol of pagan hubris competing with their

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monotheistic, unnamable god. In Mesoamerica, isolated from the Eastern

Hemisphere for millennia, the largest, if no longer most impressive temple
mountain, was built at Cholula near Puebla, in the 9th Century, the aptly
named Tlachihualtepetl, “the mountain built by hand” in Nahuatl, all 4.45
million cubic meters of it, now a grassy hill crowned by a Christian church.

Did Indian sthapakas disdain a mass of masonry as too literal an interpretation

of what was at best a metaphor with many possible metaphysical tenors? Or was
their anti-materialistic theology offended by the notion of making an imitation
mountain – an illusion of an illusion – preferring an obvious “aedicule” or icon of a
mountain, thus emphasizing that a temple, a mountain and Mt. Meru were merely
“dependently-originated” emanations and mirages which would be destroyed, like
their creator, Brahma, every 311 trillion 40 billion years ––just a “flash in eternity”
in the words of the Bhagavad Gita. Still, it comes as a surprise that the first, great
“temple mountain” in the Indic cultural ambit was built at a remote inland site
surrounded by volcanoes on the Kedu Plain of South Java, 40km from present-day
Yogyakarta. The temple mountain of Borobudur is estimated to have taken sixty
years, from 770 to 830, to complete during the peak of the Mahayana Buddhist
Sailendra Kingdom. Jayavarman II (790 - 835) may have been a feudatory of the
Sailendras and even have spent time in Java before he declared the independence
of the Khmer Empire in 802, while the temple was still under construction.

Perhaps as surprising as Borobudur’s location is that this first “temple

mountain” achieved a level of architectural and theological sophistication never
again equaled or attempted. The temple appears not only to have been laid-out
according to a mandala, like those of India, but to have functioned as one as
well, a yantra, a diagram or device for “consciousness raising,” here a literal
pathway for attaining “enlightenment in this life-time” – or at least simulating its
path over a weekend. Mandalas are intended to aid their makers’ meditations
and visualizations and then destroyed once their outward, illusory form had
been internalized; hence, they have always been regarded as ephemeral, painted
on perishable fabric or even drawn in sand. At Borobudur, however, groups of
pilgrims were presumably intended in the coming centuries to make their way
around the padas of each of mandala’s concentric squares, upward and inward
along a 3km long “liturgical path,” towards its central stupa and tip, the
primal bindu or dot, literally climbing towards satori stone by stone and
footstep by footstep. 

Upwards of 3500 mandalas are recorded from the 9th Century and although
scholars have been unable to find one which corresponds exactly with
Borobudur’s site plan, its similarities with several widely-used types are striking.
For example, the 504 Buddha statues which line its terraces are aligned in
accord with the Diamond World Mandala, one of the most widely used Tantric
models. The 368 statues in the niches above the first four terraces sign with
the mudra of the four Mahayana dhyani, tathagata or “wisdom” Buddhas,

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associated with the direction they face; the 72 Buddhas in the dagobas or

stupas of the three round terraces (gold circles) have been associated with
Vairocana, the central Buddha of that mandala of whom the other four are
aspects or manifestations.

The identity of the 64 Buddhas on the 5th terrace (dark green) has occasioned
considerable scholarly debate because 1) the Diamond World mandala has only
five Buddhas and 2) the 64 statues are depicted in vitarka or teaching mudra, not
used in that mandala. Some have speculated that the Buddhas of the 5th terrace
and in the stupas are both Vairocana, while others have suggested the “extra,”
“sixth” Buddha is the historical Buddha, born Siddhartha Gautama. A third group
has put forward Vajradhara, a Buddha found especially in Vajrayana or
Tantric sutras, the Adi-Buddha or source of the other five, representing
the dharmakhana, the non-manifest or “subtle” “Buddha body,” “nature” or
“essence,” equivalent to ultimate reality, sunyata or emptiness of thought and
substance. Thus, Borobudur still withholds some of its secrets despite the great
advances of modern research. All the Buddhas, significantly, face outward towards
the world in keeping with the temple’s primarily didactic mission.

From templemountains.org

The texts illustrated on Borobudur’s 2670 bas relief panels (1460 of them
narrative, the rest decorative) in two registers on the walls and balustrades of its
four concentric, redented terraces seem deliberately selected and sequenced to
illustrate the three dhatus, lokas or “realms” of Buddhist cosmology, subdivided
into thirty-three (or thereabout,) ranked levels of consciousness,  The original
base, (now hidden by a “false foot,” added when the temple began to subside
under its own massive weight,) the 1st terrace and the balustrade of the 2nd,
depict events from the kamadhatu, the ten “desire worlds” inhabited by
humans as well as the Vedic gods and demons

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The panels on the three upper terraces are taken from the Gandavyuha, (The
Structure of the World Compared to a Bubble or The Entrance into the Dharma)
which constitutes the 39th chapter of the Flower Ornament Sutra and its
sequel, the Bhadraari Sutra. These are important, if obscure, Mahayana texts
describing the quest for enlightenment of a youth, Sudhana, in the course of
which he is instructed by no fewer than fifty-two “good friends,” gurus,
bodhisattvas and Buddhas, populating the rupadhatu, the eighteen “form
worlds” of those who are no longer subject to cataleptic desires, experiencing
only self-delight, but still occupy discrete territory in space and a unified
consciousness capable of instructing others. On the fifth terrace bas reliefs are
replaced by Buddhas in lattice-work stupas or dagobas, some with square, some
with hexagonal matrices, which presumably represent the arupadhatu, the four
“formless worlds” of beings who have transcended individual form and spatial
dimension; since they therefore cannot be represented, they are bracketed in a
kind of “architectural parenthesis” or "under erasure," partially visible within
the dagobas as Buddhas withdrawn in meditating on the emptiness of their
own meditations.
See my Paper below LEFT

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Bright Flame Banner Bodhisattva,
Sumeru Banner Bodhisattva,
Jeweled Banner Bodhisattva,
Unobstructed Banner Bodhisattva,
Flower Banner Bodhisattva,
Leaving Filth Banner Bodhisattva,
Sun Banner Bodhisattva,
Wonderful Banner Bodhisattva,
Leaving Dust Bodhisattva,
Universal Light Banner Bodhisattva,
Earth Awesome Might Bodhisattva,
Jeweled Might Bodhisattva,
Great Might Bodhisattva,
Vajra Might Wisdom Bodhisattva,
Leaving Filth Might Bodhisattva,
Proper Dharma Sun Might Bodhisattva,
Meritorious Virtue Mountain Might Bodhisattva,
Wisdom Light Reflection Might Bodhisattva,
Universal Auspicious Might Bodhisattva,
Earth Treasury Bodhisattva,
Empty Space Treasury Bodhisattva,
Lotus Treasury Bodhisattva,
Jeweled Treasury Bodhisattva,
Sun Treasury Bodhisattva,
Pure Virtue Treasury Bodhisattva,
Dharma Seal Treasury Bodhisattva,
Brightness Treasury Bodhisattva,
Navel Treasury Bodhisattva,
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Wisdom Banner Bodhisattva,
Dharma Banner Bodhisattva,
Spiritual Penetrations Banner Bodhisattva,
Light Banner Bodhisattva,
Flower Banner Bodhisattva,
Mani Banner Bodhisattva,
Bodhi Banner Bodhisattva,
Brahma Banner Bodhisattva,
Universal Light Banner Bodhisattva,
Brahma Sound Banner Bodhisattva,
Mountains Clanging Together Sound Bodhisattva,
Pervading All Sounds of the Dharma Realm
Bodhisattva,
Shaking All Dharma Seas Thunderous Sound
Bodhisattva,
Subduing Demon Sound Bodhisattva,
Great Compassion Expedient Cloud and
Thunderous Sound Bodhisattva,
Quelling All Worlds' Sufferings Comforting Sound
Bodhisattva,
Dharma Ascended Bodhisattva,
Utmost Superior Bodhisattva,
Wisdom Superior Bodhisattva,
Meritorious Virtue Sumeru Superior Bodhisattva,
Meritorious Virtue Coral Superior Bodhisattva,
Renown Superior Bodhisattva,
Universal Light Superior Bodhisattva,
Great Kindness Superior Bodhisattva,
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Lotus Virtue Treasury Bodhisattva,
Good Eyes Bodhisattva,
Pure Eyes Bodhisattva,
Leaving Filth Eyes Bodhisattva,
Unobstructed Eye Bodhisattva,
Universal Seeing Eyes Bodhisattva,
Good Contemplating Eyes Bodhisattva,
Blue Lotus Flower Bodhisattva,
Vajra Eyes Bodhisattva,
Jeweled Eyes Bodhisattva,
Eye of Emptiness Bodhisattva,
Happy Eyes Bodhisattva,
Universal Eyes Bodhisattva,
Heavenly Crown Bodhisattva,
Universally Illumining the Dharma Realm Wisdom
Crown Bodhisattva,
Way-place Crown Bodhisattva,
Universally Illumining the Ten Directions Crown
Bodhisattva,
All Buddhas’ Treasury Crown Bodhisattva,
Transcending All the Worlds Crown Bodhisattva,
Universally Illumining Crown Bodhisattva,
Indestructible Crown Bodhisattva,
Maintaining All Thus Come One’s Lion Throne
Crown Bodhisattva,
Universally Illumining the Dharma Realm and
Emptiness Crown Bodhisattva,
Brahma King Cowl Bodhisattva,
Dragon King Cowl Bodhisattva,
All Transformation Buddhas’ Light Cowl
Bodhisattva,
Way-place Cowl Bodhisattva,
Sounds of All the Ocean-like Vows Jeweled King
Cowl Bodhisattva,
All Buddhas' Light Mani Cowl Bodhisattva,
Manifesting All of Emptiness' Level Marks Mani
King Adorned Cowl Bodhisattva,
Manifesting All Thus Come Ones’ Spiritual
Transformations Mani King Banner Net Draped
Cowl Bodhisattva,
Emitting All the Sounds of Buddhas Turning the
Dharma Wheel Cowl Bodhisattva,
Speaking All Names and Sounds of the Three
Periods of Time Cowl Bodhisattva,
Great Light Bodhisattva,
Leaving Filth Light Bodhisattva,
Jeweled Light Bodhisattva,
Leaving Dust Light Bodhisattva,
Flaming Light Bodhisattva,
Dharma Light Bodhisattva,
Still and Quiet Light Bodhisattva,
Sun Light Bodhisattva,
Self-Mastery Light Bodhisattva,
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Wisdom Sea Superior Bodhisattva,
Buddha Seed Superior Bodhisattva,
Light Victory Bodhisattva,
Virtuous Victory Bodhisattva,
Superior Victory Bodhisattva,
Universal Brightness Victory Bodhisattva,
Dharma Victory Bodhisattva,
Moon Victory Bodhisattva,
Empty Space Victory Bodhisattva,
Jeweled Victory Bodhisattva,
Banner Victory Bodhisattva,
Wisdom Victory Bodhisattva,
Sala Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva,
Dharma Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva,
Elephant Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva,
Brahma Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva,
Mountain Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva,
Multitude Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva,
Swift Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva,
Still and Quiet Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva,
Non-Moving Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva,
Strength Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva,
Most Superior Self-Mastery King Bodhisattva
Still and Quiet Sound Bodhisattva,
Unobstructed Sound Bodhisattva,
Earth Shaking Sound Bodhisattva,
Ocean Shaking Sound Bodhisattva,
Cloud Sound Bodhisattva,
Dharma Light Sound Bodhisattva,
Empty Space Sound Bodhisattva,
Proclaiming All Living Beings' Good Roots Sound
Bodhisattva,
Manifesting the Sound of All Great Vows
Bodhisattva,
Way-place Sound Bodhisattva,
Sumeru Light Enlightenment Bodhisattva,
Empty Space Enlightenment Bodhisattva,
Leaving Defilement Enlightenment Bodhisattva,
Unobstructed Enlightenment Bodhisattva,
Good Enlightenment Bodhisattva,
Universal Illumining the Three Periods
Enlightenment Bodhisattva,
Vast Great Enlightenment Bodhisattva,
Universal Bright Enlightenment Bodhisattva,
Dharma Realm Light Enlightenment Bodhisattva.
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Heavenly Light Bodhisattva,

Blessings and Virtue Banner Bodhisattva,

These Bodhisattvas Mahasattvas, five hundred in all, were Bodhisattvas who had
accomplished Universal Worthy's conduct and vows.

Building structure

Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of andesite stones were

taken from neighbouring stone quarries to build the monument. [84] The stone
was cut to size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs,
indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. The roof of
stupas, niches and arched gateways were constructed
in corbelling method. Reliefs were created in situ after the building had been
completed.

The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater to the area's

high stormwater run-off. To prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each
corner, each with a unique carved gargoyle in the shape of a giant or makara.

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Half cross-section
with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively

Stairs of Borobudur through arches of Kala/A narrow corridor with reliefs on

the wall

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Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other structures built
for this purpose. Instead of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on
a natural hill. However, construction technique is similar to other temples in
Java. Without the inner spaces seen in other temples, and with a general
design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more
likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple.[84] A stupa is intended as
a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional
symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of
worship. The meticulous complexity of the monument's design suggests that
Borobudur is in fact a temple.

Little is known about Gunadharma, the architect of the complex. His name is

recounted from Javanese folk tales rather than from written inscriptions.

The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined
as the length of a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin
or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when
both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance. [86] The unit is thus
relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact
measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a
ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay
out the precise dimensions of the fractal and self-similar geometry in
Borobudur's design.[86][87] This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon and
Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have conjectured that the
4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical and cosmological
significance, as is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.

The main structure can be divided into three components: base, body, and top.
[85]
 The base is 123 m × 123 m (404 ft × 404 ft) in size with 4 metres (13 ft)
walls.[84] The body is composed of five square platforms, each of diminishing
height. The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from the edge of the base.
Each subsequent terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor
at each stage. The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage
supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is
one main dome at the center, the top of which is the highest point of the
monument, 35 metres (115 ft) above ground level. Stairways at the center of
each of the four sides give access to the top, with a number of arched gates
overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates are adorned with Kala's head carved
on top of each and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif
is commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples. The main entrance is on
the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the
slopes of the hill also link the monument to the low-lying plain.

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Pradakshina, in Hinduism and Buddhism, the rite of circumambulating in a

clockwise direction an image, relic, shrine, or other sacred object.
Circumambulating in a counterclockwise movement—i.e., keeping the left
shoulder toward the central object—called prasavya, is observed in funeral
ceremonies. Circumambulation (from Latin circum around and ambulātus to
walk) is the act of moving around a sacred object or idol. Circumambulation of
temples or deity images is an integral part of Hindu and Buddhist devotional
practice (known in Sanskrit as pradakśiṇā). The notion of the  middle way refers
to the Buddha's resistance to unconditionally accept any extreme ways of
practice or theoretical viewpoints. ... This practical middle path, which is
the way to the attainment of nirvāṇa, is separated into eight sections which
together bear the name of the noble eightfold path.

The position of narrative bas-reliefs stories on Borobudur wall

Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it reveals various levels of
terraces, showing intricate architecture that goes from being heavily
ornamented with bas-reliefs to being plain in Arupadhatu circular terraces. The
first four terrace walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are
exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient
Buddhist world.

The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century

ancient Java, from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of
commoners in the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace, various flora
and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People depicted here are
the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant,
commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical beings in
Buddhist.beliefs.such.as asuras,

Gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The images depicted

on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain
subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and
also mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the
famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double outrigger ship
is Borobudur Ship.[90] Today, the actual-size replica of Borobudur Ship that

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had sailed from Indonesia to Africa in 2004 is displayed in the Samudra Raksa

Museum, located a few hundred meters north of Borobudur.

The Borobudur reliefs also pay close attention to Indian aesthetic discipline,
such as pose and gesture that contain certain meanings and aesthetic value.
The reliefs of noblemen, noble women, kings, or divine beings such
as apsaras, taras and boddhisattvas are usually portrayed in tribhanga pose,
the three-bend pose on neck, hips, and knee, with one leg resting and one
upholding the body weight. This position is considered as the most graceful
pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding a lotus

During Borobudur excavation, archeologists discovered colour pigments of

blue, red, green, black, as well as bits of gold foil, and concluded that the
monument that we see today – a dark gray mass of volcanic stone, lacking in
colour – was probably once coated with varjalepa white plaster and then
painted with bright colors, serving perhaps as a beacon of Buddhist teaching.
[93]
 The same vajralepa plaster can also be found
in Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temples. It is likely that the bas-reliefs of
Borobudur was originally quite colourful, before centuries of torrential tropical
rainfalls peeled-off the colour pigments.

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Narrative panels distribution

Section Location Story No. of panels
hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160
Lalitavistara 120
main wall
Jataka/Avadana 120
first gallery
Jataka/Avadana 372
balustrade
Jataka/Avadana 128
second balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100
gallery main wall Gandavyuha 128
main wall Gandavyuha 88
third gallery
balustrade Gandavyuha 88
main wall Gandavyuha 84
fourth gallery
balustrade Gandavyuha 72
Total 1,460

Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative

and 1,212 decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The
total relief surface is 2,500 square metres (27,000 sq ft), and they are
distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the five square platforms
(Rupadhatu).

The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara, are

grouped into 11 series that encircle the monument with a total length of 3,000
metres (9,800 ft). The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative
panels, and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout walls and
balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the
left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while those on the
balustrade read from left to right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of
circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction
while keeping the sanctuary to their right.

The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first
gallery have two superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels.
The upper part depicts the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of the
wall and also the balustrades in the first and the second galleries tell the story
of the Buddha's former lives. [94] The remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana's
further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of
the Perfect Wisdom.

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The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)

The Karmavibangga scene on Borobudur's hidden foot, on the right depicting
sinful act of killing and cooking turtles and fishes, on the left those who make
living by killing animals will be tortured in hell, by being cooked alive, being
cut, or being thrown into a burning house.
The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel
provides one complete illustration of cause and effect.[94] There are depictions of
blameworthy activities, from gossip to murder, with their corresponding
punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that include charity and
pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell and
the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life,
complete with the full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and
death). The encasement base of the Borobudur temple was disassembled to
reveal the hidden foot, and the reliefs were photographed by Casijan Chepas in
1890. It is these photographs that are displayed in Borobudur
Museum (Karmawibhangga Museum), located just several hundred meters
north of the temple. During the restoration, the foot encasement was
reinstalled, covering the Karmawibhangga reliefs. Today, only the southeast
corner of the hidden foot is revealed and visible for visitors.
The story of Prince Siddhartha and the birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

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Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to

Prince Siddhartha Gautama
The story starts with the descent of the Buddha from the Tushita heaven and
ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares. The relief shows the
birth of the Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen
Maya of Kapilavastu (in Nepal).

The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in the

heavens and on the earth, to welcome the final incarnation of
the Bodhisattva. Before descending from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva
entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He
descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated
to Queen Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which
was interpreted that his son would become either a sovereign or a Buddha.

A relief of Jataka story of giant turtle that saving drowned sailors.

Prince Siddhartha Gautama became an ascetic hermit.
While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to
the Lumbini park outside the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree,
holding one branch with her right hand, and she gave birth to a son, Prince
Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until the prince becomes the
Buddha.

The stories of Buddha's previous life (Jataka) and other legendary people
(Avadana

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Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince

Siddhartha.[97] They are the stories that tell about the previous lives of the
Buddha, in both human and animal form. The future Buddha may appear in
them as a king, an outcast, a god, an elephant—but, in whatever form, he
exhibits some virtue that the tale thereby inculcates. [98] Avadanas are similar to
jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds
in avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas
are treated in one and the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.

The first twenty lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict
the Sudhanakumaravadana, or the saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135
upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades are devoted to the 34
legends of the Jatakamala.[99] The remaining 237 panels depict stories from
other sources, as do the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some
jatakas are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's
forefather).

Sudhana's search for the ultimate truth (Gandavyuha)- Gandavyuha Sutra

on 2 nd level North wall

The Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra or The Excellent Manifestation Sūtra (Tib. sdong po

bkod pa'i mdo, Sutra of the Tree's Display; cf. Skt "gaṇḍi", "the trunk of a tree from
the root to the beginning of the branches" ) is a Buddhist Mahayana Sutra of
Indian origin dating roughly c. 200 to 300 CE.
It depicts one of the world's most celebrated spiritual pilgrimages, and comprises
the 39th chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra, or Flower Ornament Scripture.
In Buddhabhadra's Chinese translation of the Avatamsaka, this 39th chapter is
entitled "Entrance into the Dharma Realm".The Sutra is described as the
"Sudhana's quest for the ultimate truth", as the sutra chronicles the journey of a
disciple, Sudhana ("Excellent Riches"), as he encounters various teachings
and Bodhisattvas until his journey reaches full circle and he awakens to teachings
of the Buddha.

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A relief of the Gandavyuha story from Borobudur 2nd level north wall. RIGHT
Sudhana learning from one of the fifty-two teachers along his journey toward
enlightenment. Sanskrit manuscript, 11-12th century.
In his quest for enlightenment, recounted in the last chapter of the Flower
Ornament Scripture, Sudhana would converse with a diverse array of 53 kalyāṇa-
mittatā (wise advisors), 20 of whom are female, including an enlightened prostitute
named Vasumitrā, Gautama Buddha's wife and his mother, a queen, a princess
and several goddesses. Male sages include a slave, a child, a physician, and a
ship's captain. The antepenultimate master of Sudhana's pilgrimage is Maitreya. It
is here that Sudhana encounters the Tower of Maitreya, which — along
with Indra's net – is a most startling metaphor for the infinite:
In the middle of the great tower... he saw the billion-world universe... and
everywhere there was Sudhana at his feet... Thus Sudhana saw Maitreya's
practices of... transcendence over countless eons (kalpa), from each of the squares
of the check board wall... In the same way Sudhana... saw the whole supernal
manifestation, was perfectly aware of it, understood it, contemplated it, used it as
a means, beheld it, and saw himself there. 2222
The penultimate master that Sudhana visits is the Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva, the
bodhisattva of great wisdom. Thus, one of the grandest of pilgrimages approaches
its conclusion by revisiting where it began. The Gaṇḍavyūha suggests that with a
subtle shift of perspective we may come to see that the enlightenment that the
pilgrim so fervently sought was not only with him at every stage of his journey, but
before it began as well—that enlightenment is not something to be gained, but
"something" the pilgrim never departed from.
The final master that Sudhana visits is the bodhisattva Samantabhadra, who
teaches him that wisdom only exists for the sake of putting it into practice; that it
is only good insofar as it benefits all living beings. Samantabhadra concludes with
a prayer of aspiration to buddhahood, which is recited by those who practice
according to Atiśa's Bodhipathapradīpa, the foundation of the lamrim textual
traditions of Tibetan Buddhism.

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Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka

Sutra about Sudhana's tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect
Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and fourth) and also half of the second
gallery, comprising in total of 460 panels. [100] The principal figure of the story,
the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th
panel. The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles
during Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.

Sudhana was instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, his first
spiritual friend. As his journey continues, Sudhana meets 53 teachers, such as
Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka,
the monk Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme
Enlightenment),Bhismottaranirghosa,

the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy

called Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda,
King Anala, the god Siva Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and
then back to Manjusri. Each spiritual friend gives Sudhana specific teachings,
knowledge, and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the third gallery.

After a second meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of

Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of
the fourth gallery is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative
panels finally end with Sudhana's achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and
the Ultimate Truth.

A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra mudra”

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Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur

has many statues of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in
a lotus position and distributed on the five square platforms
(the Rupadhatu level), as well as on the top platform (the Arupadhatu level).

The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on

the outer sides of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as
platforms progressively diminish to the upper level. The first balustrades have
104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64. In
total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At
the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are
placed inside perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the
second 24 and the third 16, which adds up to 72 stupas. [4] Of the original 504
Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly headless), and 43 are missing.
Since the monument's discovery, heads have been acquired as collector's
items, mostly by Western museums. Some of these Buddha heads are now
displayed in numbers of museums, such as
the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, Musée Guimet in Paris, and The British
Museum in London. Germany has in 2014 returned its collection and funded
their reattachment and further conservation of the site.

Head from a Borobudur Buddha statue in Tropenmuseum,

Amsterdam./Headless Buddha statue in Borobudur. Since its discovery,
numbers of heads have been stolen and installed in museums abroad.

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Emblem of Central Java displaying Borobudur. RIGHT -Lion gate guardian

At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle
difference between them in the mudras, or the position of the hands. There are
five groups of mudra: North, East, South, West and Zenith, which represent the
five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana. The first four balustrades
have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which the Buddha
statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra.
Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top
platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five
Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism.

Following the order of Pradakshina (clockwise circumumbulation) starting from

the East, the mudras of the Borobudur buddha statues are:
Symbolic
Statue Mudra Dhyani Buddha Location of the Statue
meaning

Rupadhatu niches on
Bhumisparsa Calling the Earth
Aksobhya the first four eastern
mudra to witness
balustrades

Rupadhatu niches on
Benevolence, alms
Vara mudra Ratnasambhava the first four southern
giving
balustrades

Rupadhatu niches on
Concentration and
Dhyana mudra Amitabha the first four western
meditation
balustrades
Rupadhatu niches
Courage,
Abhaya mudra Amoghasiddhi on the first four
fearlessness
northern balustrades
Vitarka mudra Reasoning and Vairochana Rupadhatu niches in all

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Symbolic
Statue Mudra Dhyani Buddha Location of the Statue
meaning
directions on the
virtue fifth (uppermost)
balustrade

Arupadhatu in 72
Dharmachakra Turning the Wheel perforated stupas
Vairochana
mudra of dharma (law) on three rounded
platforms

The rediscovery and reconstruction of Borobudur has been hailed

by Indonesian Buddhists as the sign of the Buddhist revival in Indonesia. In
1934, Narada Thera, a missionary monk from Sri Lanka, visited Indonesia for
the first time as part of his journey to spread the Dharma in Southeast Asia.
This opportunity was used by a few local Buddhists to revive Buddhism in
Indonesia. A bodhi tree planting ceremony was held in Southeastern side of
Borobudur on 10 March 1934 under the blessing of Narada Thera, and some
Upasakas were ordained as monks. [107] Once a year, thousands of Buddhist
from Indonesia and neighboring countries flock to Borobudur to commemorate
national Vesak ceremony.

The emblem of Central Java province and Magelang Regency bears the image

of Borobudur. It has become the symbol of Central Java, and also Indonesia on
a wider scale. Borobudur has become the name of several establishments, such
as Borobudur University, Borobudur Hotel in Central Jakarta, and several
Indonesian restaurants abroad. Borobudur has appeared on Rupiah banknotes
and stamps and in numbers of books, publications, documentaries and
Indonesian tourism promotion materials. The monument has become one of
the main tourism attraction in Indonesia, vital for generating local economy in
the region surrounding the temple. The tourism sector of the city
of Yogyakarta for example, flourishes partly because of its proximity to
Borobudur and Prambanan temples.
   
   
The Form of Emptines and the “Emptiness of Form”

The explicit theological program, such as that depicted on the walls and
balustrades of Borobudur’s five terraces, “terraces,” edges,
galleries, gopuras and thresholds along the stupa’s east-west “liturgical axis”
marks significant stages on a monk’s path to enlightenment and his attainment
of the ten Mahayana paramitas, perfections or insights, necessary to become a
bodhisattva, 

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Nonetheless, a monk, like today’s visitors, would pass through 92 limens or

“thresholds” in the course of crossing just these three enclosures; the succession
of gates and doors along this “pilgrim’s progress” would frame an unobstructed
view from the profane space of the 4th enclosure on the east, to its counterpart
on the west and beyond, the forest around the temple. The Buddha image in
the cella would be barely visible, though it marked the point where the two
cardinal axes of the terrestrial plane intersect the vertical axis of spiritual ascent
vanishing at the tip of the shikhara or summit of Mt. Meru, into formless space;
in a literal sense, then, the “vanishing point.” From here, the bodhicitta, who
had advanced far on the path to enlightenment, might perceive the statue, the
shrine, the temple and the world beyond, even his perceiving them,
as maya, just thoughts and hence illusions. The series of empty

92 east-facing Buddhas: Buddha: Akshobhya ("immovable") Buddha

wisdom: vajra (diamond, clarity) mudra: bhumisparsa (earth-touching,
dispelling.ignorance)
92 south-facing Buddhas: Buddha: Ratnasambhava (“born from a jewel”)
Buddha wisdom: ratna (jewel, all-inclusive
equanimity) mudra: varada (generosity, granting wishes)
 
92 west-facing Buddhas: Buddha: Amitabha (“infinite light”) Buddha
wisdom: padma (lotus, compassion) mudra: dhyani (meditation)
 
92 north-facing Buddhas:  Buddha: Amoghasiddhi (“infallible
accomplishment”) Buddha wisdom: karma (effective
means) mudra: abhaya (fearlessness, reassurance)
 
*64 Buddhas on the 5th terrace:  Buddha: the historical Buddha (“the
awakened one”) Buddha wisdom: dharma (doctrine) mudra: vitarka (teaching) 
 
*72 Buddhas in stupas or dagobas:  Buddha: Vairocana (“essential radiance”)
Buddha wisdom: tathagata (“thusness”) mudra: dharmachakra (“first turning of
the wheel of dharma,” Buddha’s first sermon at the deer park, Sarnath)
Key to texts illustrated on the 1460 narrative bas relief panels
 
1. Karmavibhangga (The Law of Karma, moral fables) 160 panels hidden by
the added base or “false foot”
 
2. Jatakas (Birth stories of the 547 previous incarnation of the historical
Buddha from the Pali Canon) 600 panels on the 1st and 2nd terrace
balustrades 
 
3. Avadanas  (Legends of Illustrious Men) 120 panels on the 1st terrace’s lower
register
 

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4. Lalitavistara (The Unfolding of the Play, scenes from the life of the

historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, the bodhisattva, Sakyamuni, up to
his first sermon at Sarnath) 120 panels on the 1st terrace’s upper register 
 
5. Gandavyuha (The Structure of the World Compared to a Bubble from
the Flower Ornament Sutra and its sequel the Bhadraari Sutra, the youth
Sudhana’s journey to enlightenment) 460 panels on the 2nd, 3rd and 4th
terraces’ two registers and balustrades doors in all four directions would
frame sunyata or emptiness, stretching to infinity, while the concentric
structures would be like echoes of the primal A-U-M, just reverberations.
Paradoxically, the closer the adept approaches the  realization that “form is
emptiness,” represented by the emptiness at the void at the temple’s center, the
statue of Buddha who himself achieved nirvana or non-existence,  the more
the architecture, its diamonds, rectangles, dimensions and alignments
dematerialize and become mere reminders of their own lack of independent
existence or origination. Might this help explain, in part, the architectural anti-
climax and axial slackening of Jayavarman’s VII’s Buddhist complexes compared
with the monumental massifs at the centers of the Baphuon or Angkor Wat?  

FROM-https://templemountains.org/borobudur-compared-with-the-angkor-
temple-mountain.html   

Narrative Panels Distribution

section location story #panels
hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160
Lalitavistara 120
main wall
Jataka/Avadana 120
first gallery
Jataka/Avadana 372
balustrade
Jataka/Avadana 128
main wall Gandavyuha 128
second
gallery ballustrad
Jataka/Avadana 100
e
main wall Gandavyuha 88
third gallery ballustrad
Gandavyuha 88
e
main wall Gandavyuha 84
fourth gallery ballustrad
Gandavyuha 72
e
30 Total 1,460
 Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

Lake Borobudur is an ancient lake that has been suggested once existed

surrounding Borobudur Buddhist monument in Kedu Plain, Central
Java, Indonesia.
Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built
on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the
floor of the dried-out paleolake.[1] The lake's existence had been the subject of
intense discussion among archaeologists in the 20th century; Borobudur was
thought to have been built on a lake shore or even surrounded by a lake.

In 1931, a Dutch artist and scholar of Hindu and Buddhist

architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was
once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the
lake. Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often
serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of
Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in
Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana
Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts.
Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to represent a lotus petals.

Nieuwenkamp has suggested that the landscape near Borobudur included

lakes, and that the temples were arranged around these lakes in form of
flowers and mathematical patterns considered to be auspicious, and that the
temples were connected by paved brick roads lined by walls. These lakes and
roads were later filled with metres of volcanic ash from the multiple eruptions
of Mount Merapi, which lies very closely to the east of the area.

Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists, such

as Dumarçay and Soekmono, arguing the natural environment surrounding
the monument was dry land. This theory is controversial, but recent geological
evidence supports Nieuwenkamp proposal.

Palynological investigation and geomorphology analysis

Dumarçay together with Professor Thanikaimoni had taken soil samples in
1974 and again in 1977 from trial trenches that had been dug into the hill, as
well as from the plain immediately to the south. These samples were later
analysed by Professor Thanikaimoni, who examined their pollen and spore
content in order to identify the type of vegetation that had grown in the area
around the time of Borobudur’s construction. They were unable to discover any
pollen or spore samples that were characteristic of any vegetation known to
grow in an aquatic environment. The area surrounding Borobudur appears to
have been surrounded by agricultural land and palm trees at the time of the
monument’s construction, as is still the case today.

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 Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

Caesar Voûte and the geomorphologist Dr J.J. Nossin in 1985–86 field studies
re-examined the Borobudur lake hypothesis and concluded the absence of a
lake around Borobudur at the time of its construction and active use as a
sanctuary.
These findings were endorsed by UNESCO in A New Perspective on Some Old
Questions Pertaining to Borobudur compiled within the 2005 UNESCO
publication titled "The Restoration of Borobudur".

In 2000s, geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing

out clay sediments found near the site. A study of stratigraphy, sediment
and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of a paleolake
environment near Borobudur,[1] which tends to confirm Nieuwenkamp's theory.
The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that Borobudur
was near the lake shore c. 13th and 14th centuries. River flows and volcanic
activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most
active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi's has been very active since
the Pleistocene.

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 Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

The location Borobudur surroundings, the ancient lake as suggested once

located in south-southeast from Borobudur, and probably south from Mendut
temple on Progo and Elo rivers confluence.

To reconcile among these findings, it seems that there was once a lake near
Borobudur during its construction and at the time of its initial active use in the
9th century. However contrary to Nieuwenkamp's theory — of Borobudur as a
blossoming lotus in the center of the pond — the lake was not surrounding the
whole Borobudur of the bedrock hill completely, but just some small sections
of it[

It might be possible that the lower parts of the Kedu plains surrounding
Borobudur near the river, was once naturally flooded and created a small
shallow lake for at least until 13th to 14th century. The nearest portion of this
elongated lake was estimated to be located around 500 metres south from
Borobudur along the small river that drained to the southeast where it joins
the Progo river. The lake just flooded the lower portion of the valley located in
south and southeast from the temple, while the east, west and northern sides
are dry lands probably cultivated as rice paddies, orchards and palm trees just
like today. There were probably other lakes located several hundred metres
south from Mendut temple on Progo and Elo rivers confluence, and north
from Pawon temple along Progo river. These lakes existed until the 13th to
14th centuries, when Merapi's volcanic activity, collapsed the natural dam
barrier and finally drained the lake. 5555

REFERENCES

2222Yoshifumi, U., & Hirota, D. (1985). Reflections on the Study of Buddhism: Notes on the
Approaches of Ui Hakuju and D. T. Suzuki. The Eastern Buddhist, 18(2), new series, 114-130.
Retrieved July 19, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/44346133

5555 See my paper TEMPLE TRIAD on academia and also refer to my book
The Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur temple

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