Bharat and Dvipantara

Dr Uday Dokras
The rise of esoteric Buddhism on SE asian trade routes
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime
Southeast Asia refers to the traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found
in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in the 7th century along the
maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesian
islands of Java and Sumatra as well as in Malaysia. These esoteric forms were
spread by pilgrims and Tantric masters who received royal patronage from
royal dynasties like the Sailendras and the Srivijaya. This tradition was also
linked by the maritime trade routes with Indian Vajrayana, Tantric Buddhism
in Sinhala, Cham and Khmer lands and in China and Japan, to the extent that it
is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of a complex of
"Esoteric Buddhism of Mediaeval Maritime Asia”.  In many of the key South
Asian port cities that saw the growth of Esoteric Buddhism, the tradition
coexisted alongside Shaivism.
Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism in the region,
with monumental architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The
capital of the Buddhist empire of Srivijaya in Palembang, Sumatra was another
major center.
The decline of Buddhist-Hindu states and the rise of Islamic states in the
region during the 13th-16th centuries saw the steep decline of this tradition
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism (Vajrayāna, Mantrayāna  or Tantrayāna)
emerged along the maritime trade routes and port cities of Java, Sumatra and
Malaysia. This tradition was also linked with Indian Vajrayana, Tantric
Buddhism in Sinhala, Cham, Cambodia and all the way to China and Japan.

It is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of a complex of

“Esoteric Buddhism of Maritime Asia.” In many of the key South Asian port
cities that saw the growth of Esoteric Buddhism, the tradition coexisted
alongside Shaivism.

Buddhism in Indonesia decreased with the fall of Majapahit because of the civil

war that saw the appearance of the Mohammedans. By that time, the Javanese

1
Buddhists started to resorb within Kejawen, the original Javanese ascetic
religion.
Pockets of original Javanese Buddhists still exist in Central and East Java. The
regencies of Temanggung, Blitar and Jepara count about 30.000 Javanese
Buddhists. Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism is also experiencing a revival among
the educated classes in Jakarta and Surabaya.

----------------------------

2
1.100 years-old Pustakashala Temple dedicated to Ganesha, located within the Central Library of the
Islamic University of Indonesia, Yogyakarta   (ABOVE)

India and Indonesia have celebrated their 73rd and 75th independence
anniversaries this year. Although India declared its independence three years
after Indonesia, it was the leadership and activism of the Indian independence
movement in international forums that guaranteed and paved the way
for  Indonesia’s independence. 

At that time, it was the conviction of the founding fathers of India that
Indonesia would be India’s partner for the long run just as it had been in the
ancient past. Relations between Bharat and Dvipantara (or in another
term, Nusantara) had endured against all odds long before the advent of the
Westphalian nation-state order. With this deep-rooted historical memory, the
first independent leaders of India and Indonesia believed that this linkage
would eventually become an anchor for a lasting partnership.

Relations between Bharat and  Dvipantara  (or in another term, Nusantara)

had endured against all odds long before the advent of the Westphalian nation-
state order. 

Consequently, during the early years of the Cold War, both countries
promoted similar values, particularly on the idea of Non-Alignment. The
relations between the two countries suffered some setbacks due to the
circumstances forced by the Cold War, which eventually affected both
countries in their political choices. Nevertheless, the realities of the post-Cold
War global order stimulated them to build a closer relationship than ever
before.

The sentiment of close relations could be felt when Prime Minister Narendra
Modi addressed his speech at the Ram Mandir in early August. He mentioned
Indonesia when he referred to the legacy that the Ramayana had left behind in
the Asian countries. Although Indonesia is a predominantly Muslim country,
the Prime Minister emphasised that most of the Indonesian people still
cherish the Indic values left behind by their ancestors. The preservation of
oral, textual and visual Indic tradition through literary works like Kakawin
Ramayana, the legendary architectural heritage like the Prambanan
Temple and the continuing usage of Sanskrit for the motto of governmental
3
agencies stands as proof that Indonesia is willing to keep to the exhortation of
its founding father, Soekarno: “Never ever forget history.” It is also widely
known that Islam in Indonesia was propagated using the infusion of Indic
culture with Islamic values. This style of propagation was done by Wali Songo,
the revered nine Muslim saints in Java. 

When Prime Minister Narendra Modi addressed his speech at the Ram Mandir
in early August. He mentioned Indonesia when he referred to the legacy that
the Ramayana had left behind in the Asian countries- highlighting the close
sentiments.

Recently, despite the rising tendency of radicalism and anti-historicism

stemming from close-minded religious groups, the Indonesian government
and Indonesian people are still not willing to forsake the past. One of the
recent examples of the effort to preserve the Indic heritage of Indonesia can
be seen in the institution to which the writer is affiliated. 

When the excavation began in 2010 to build a new university library in the
Islamic University of Indonesia, the construction team found two 1,100-year-
old temples with two altars, lingam, yoni, and the statue of Ganesha within the
complex. Given the presence of a murti of Ganesha, there is a probability that
our ancestors thought the place where they built the temple could be a place
of study and knowledge.  TOP PIC

When the Waqf Board of the Islamic University of Indonesia discussed the fate
of the temple, it was finally decided that the construction of the institute
library would continue with necessary modifications so as to ensure the
protection and conservation of the original foundations of the monument. The
temple was then named as Pustakashala Temple as it is located within the
library complex. Until now, the temple is still standing close to the University’s
grand mosque, as a symbol of respect toward Indic heritage by Indonesian
Muslims. The existence of a historical Hindu temple in an Islamic university is
also proof that Indonesia has shown that it could be a ground of harmony
between different cultures and civilisations.

4
The preservation of oral, textual and visual Indic tradition through
literary works like  Kakawin Ramayana, the legendary architectural
heritage like the Prambanan Temple  and the continuing usage of Sanskrit
for the motto of governmental agencies stands as proof that Indonesia is
willing to keep to the exhortation of its founding father, Soekarno: “Never
ever forget history.”

With this strong civilisational and enduring cultural linkage, Indonesia and
India should realise that the advancement of bilateral relations between the
two countries could have a positive impact on the dynamic and young
population of both countries. 

There are three points that could be improved upon to further strengthen the
cultural and people-to-people exchanges between India and Indonesia. As
both countries signed the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in 2018, India
and Indonesia expressed intent to expand collaborations not only at high-level
official levels, amongst governmental bodies and Multi-National Companies
but also between the people of both the countries.

Firstly, India and Indonesia need to have more city-to-city

collaborations. Paradiplomacy or diplomacy conducted by regional
governments could be a way to close the existing gaps between the two
countries. Driven by a more local-centric developmental outlook, local
governments in India and Indonesia are both playing important roles to
contribute to the national economy and development projects. The significant
economic growth experienced by regional governments in India and
Indonesia has influenced positively toward the welfare and well-being of local
citizens. Based on this achievement, India and Indonesia must venture a new
approach and work to benefit from the best local practices of each other.
Recently, India and Indonesia have agreed to strengthen connectivity between
two neighbouring regions, the Province of Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam and the
Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This connectivity would
help strengthen a  shared vision on the future of the Indian Ocean. 

Nevertheless, this kind of arrangement should also be expanded into cities in

different sectors. One of the possible models that can be considered is a city-
to-city or state-to-state collaboration between the Yogyakarta Special Region

5
in Java and the State of Uttar Pradesh in India in the field of cultural
interactions. As both provinces have a lot to offer in terms of their
architectural and cultural heritage, both Yogyakarta and Uttar Pradesh could
learn from each other on how to protect historical sites and advance cultural
development. Both provinces could also exchange art students and art
workers to learn best practices and ideas.

As the Indian foreign policy analyst Falguni Tiwari has said in her report, the
development of paradiplomacy in India is still at a nascent stage. A lot of work
needs to be done in terms of formulating a common ground between the
Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India and regional governments.
Whereas in Indonesia, Indonesian Foreign Policy experts, Surwandono and Ali
Maksum explained that the implementation of paradiplomacy in Indonesia
still needs more improvement because of the strongly bureaucratic nature of
the local governments. Keeping these challenges in mind, India and Indonesia
should consider paradiplomacy as a key part of the agenda for bilateral
relations. 

Paradiplomacy or diplomacy conducted by regional governments could be

a way to close the existing gaps between the two countries.

Secondly, people-to-people engagements, either people-led or government-

led, should be encouraged by both governments. Until recently, most
Indonesian people only knew India and Indian people mainly from Bollywood
series and documentary movies. Most Indians have relatively minor
knowledge about Indonesia and the Indonesian people. A more grounded
diplomacy effort needs to be conducted by both governments with the help of
research institutes and civil society organisations. An excellent example of a
recent people-led initiative is the webinar recently conducted online between
CSIS, Jakarta and ORF, New Delhi on the issue of the Indian Ocean. 

Additionally, there are events such as Bali Yatra, an annual festivity which
celebrates the age-old India-Indonesia relation. However more such venues
must be discovered and encouraged for cooperation. Deeper cultural and
civilisational ties could be revived through inter-faith and inter-cultural
dialogues conducted not only between prominent figures but also especially
between academics, youth and women. 

6
Finally, the reinforcement and multiplication of cultural and civilisational ties
between the two countries should not solely rely upon formal agreements and
mere paperwork. Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore had led the way in this
regard when he visited Indonesia in 1913 to find inspiration for the
foundation of Visva Bharati. India and Indonesia could be Gurus for each other
to create a better future.

- Hadza Min Fadhli Robby, 2020

https://chintan.indiafoundation.in/articles/bharat-and-dvipantara-advancing-cultural-and-civilizational-
ties-between-india-and-indonesia/Bharat and Dvipantara: Advancing Cultural and Civilizational ties between
India and Indonesia

Maha Vihara Mojopahit in  Trowulan

7
Esoteric Buddhism and Dvipantara - The whole South Asian continent
was a continuum of civilization. This is mentioned in the Matsya Purana,
where for the first time is mentioned the cultural unity of Jambudvipa and
Dvipantara. So there was no “Indianization” per se, but more of a cultural
continuum over two millenia where local cultures and religious traditions
were standardized and somewhat uplifted within the fold of Hinduism. The
Hindu kingdoms of Dvipantara were a result of centuries of socio-economic
interaction having incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion,
statecraft, administration, culture, literature and architecture.
Hinduism in Southeast Asia often became richer and more complete due to its
integration of local wisdom. The climate, flora and fauna of India and Southeast
Asia are very similar, fostering the merging of similar lifestyles and culture.

References to the Dvipantara or Yawadvipa, a Hindu kingdom in Java and

Sumatra appear in Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE. In India's earliest epic, the
Ramayana, Sugriva, the chief of Rama's army dispatched his men to
Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita.
According to the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai Java had a kingdom with a
capital called Nagapuram. The earliest archaeological relic discovered in
Indonesia is from the Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java, where an early
Hindu statue of Ganesha estimated from the 1st century CE was found on the
summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan island. There is also archaeological
evidence of Sunda Kingdom in West Java dating from the 2nd-century, and
Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, West Java was probably built around this
time. South Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the south Indian
Pallava dynasty in the 4th and 5th century. and by the 5th century, stone
inscriptions written in Pallava scripts were found in Java and Borneo.
Hindu beliefs arrived in the archipelago before the second century AD with
traders and missionaries from India, these beliefs were greatly modified when
adapted to Indonesian society. Traders, Buddhist monks, and Shaivite
Brahmans spread art, architecture and material culture all
over Dvipantara (Southeast Asia). The book lays emphasis on the mobile
networks of human agents (‘Masters’), textual sources (‘Texts’) and images
(‘Icons’) through which Esoteric Buddhist traditions spread.

The Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms all over Southeast Asia acted as crossroads
of political power, mercantile entrepreneurship, and centers of learning,

8
worship, and pilgrimage where esoteric forms of Hinduism and Buddhism
coexistedThe central concept of ritual purity, maintained through a division of
society into occupational groups, or castes (varna, literally color), was never
rigidly applied in Indonesia. The categories of Brahman (priests; brahmana in
Indonesian), Kshatriya (ruler-warrior; satria in Indonesian), Vaishya
(merchant-farmer; waisya in Indonesian), and Shudra (commoner-servant;
sudra in Indonesian) do exist in Bali; besides the category of Brahman,
however, they appear to have little influence over occupational choices, or
even over social status and marital opportunities. Two Hindu epics, the
Mahabharata (Great Battle of the Descendants of Bharata) and the Ramayana
(The Travels of Rama), have become classics among Indonesians, both Hindu
believers and others, especially in Java, and are rendered in wayang and dance
performances.
Nusantara is a historical Old Javanese term which literally means "outer
islands in essence referring to the islands surrounding Java (or parts of it).
The word is taken from an oath by Gajah Mada in 1336, as written in the Old
Javanese Pararaton and Nagarakretagama: Gajah Mada was a powerful
military leader and prime minister of Majapahit credited with bringing the
empire to its peak of glory. Gajah Mada delivered an oath called Sumpah
Palapa, in which he vowed not to eat any food containing spices until he had
conquered all of Nusantara under the glory of Majapahit.
The concept of Nusantara as a unified region was not invented by Gajah Mada
in 1336. Earlier in 1275, the term Cakravala Mandala Dvipantara is used to
describe the Southeast Asian archipelago by Kertanegara of Singhasari.
Dvipantara on the other hand is a “sister term”- a Sanskrit word for the
"islands in between", making it a synonym to Nusantara as
both dvipa and nusa mean "island". Kertanegara envisioned the union of
Southeast Asian maritime kingdoms and polities under Singhasari as a
bulwark against the rise of the expansionist Mongol Yuan dynasty in mainland
China.
In modern Indonesia specifically, the name is generally taken to mean areas in
the Southeast Asian archipelago in the sovereignty of Indonesia. On the other
hand (plus in a wider sense), neighbouring countries use Nusantara to
describe Malay-related cultural and linguistic lands not just in Indonesia but
also namely Malaysia, Singapore, Southern Thailand,
the Philippines, Brunei, East Timor and Taiwan, while excluding Papua New
Guinea."

9
Without conquest or invasion, Hindu culture and organization had helped to
organize and shape kingdoms and principalities from Malaysia to Borneo, from
Java to Vietnam.  The creative influence of Indian ideas alone, combined with
trade, led to the emergence of the brilliant civilization of Dvipantara.

While South-East Asia became was a flourishing center of Indian culture, they
were never subjects of any Indian king. They were perfectly free, politically
and economically and their people representing an integration of Indian and
indigenous elements had no links with any Indian kingdom.

Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Southeast Asia

Ancient Indians travelers and traders had a famous motto: ‘Wasudhaiva-
Kutumbakam’ (‘the whole world is one entity, one family’).

From Burma to Indonesia and the Philippines, was a chain of settlements along
the coasts from which they traded for gold, precious stones, perfumes, and
spices. Sanskrit was the linga franca, Hindu art, technology, science and
mathematics circulated freely along the coastlines. Adoption of Indian
civilization stimulated the development of highly organized societies. Kings
ruled in accord with universal moral principles, through the spiritual concept
of the chakravartin.

The region’s ruling classes invited Hindu Brahmans to serve at their courts as
priests, astrologers and advisers. Art, architecture, rituals, and cultural
elements such as the Rā mā yaṇ a and the Mahābhā rata had been adopted and

10
customized increasingly with a regional character. Borobudur in Java and
Angkor in Cambodia are examples of a distinctly developed regional culture,
style, and expression.

Cultural and trading relations between the Chola dynasty of South India and
the Southeast Asian Hindu kingdoms led the Bay of Bengal to be called “The
Chola Lake”. The Cholas developed links all over south India. They then
brought Srilanka, South — East Asia and even China under the network of
trade-mostly barter system was employed in trade and commerce where even
paddy was used as a unit of exchange. Large scale exchanges of gold coins
such as Pon, Kasu, Kalanju were used. In 1025, Rajendra Chola I,
the Chola Emperor from Tamil Nadu in South India, launched naval raids on
the city-state of Srivijaya in maritime Southeast Asia, Rajendra's overseas
expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's history and its
otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. Several places
in present day Indonesia and Malaysia were invaded by Rajendra Chola I of
the Chola dynasty. The Chola invasion furthered the expansion
of Tamil merchant associations such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole and
Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia. The Cholan invasion led to the fall of the
Srivijays. Cholan rule or influence on Srivijaya would last until 1070.These

11
attacks on Srivijaya in the 10th century are the only example ever of military
attack by Indian kings in Southeast Asia.
The Buddhist Pala dynasty of Bengal also maintained close economic, cultural
and religious ties with the Srivijaya empire, which itself competed with the
Khmer Empire to the north for influence in the region.

For a thousand years, the Javanese were a major influence over Southeast Asia
and especially the great Khmer kingdoms had a great maritime influence,
trading from the Philippines to India and all the way to Japan. They took all the
knowledge they needed from abroad, merged it into their own culture, while
trading in gold, precious woods and gemstones.
A Hindu realm. Indian religion was profoundly absorbed by local
cultures that formed their own distinctive variations of these structures
in order to reflect their own ideals. Hinduism does not have a single
historical founder nor a centralized authority, thus ensuring religious freedom.
It also allowed for multiple forms of divinity that harmoniously integrated
local traditions, instead of imposing a foreign form of worship.

The Hindu worldview, especially the relationship to the sacrality of the land
and social structures, was already present in local traditions, and thus
Hinduism only structured older beliefs, such as that of the Cosmic Mountain in
Java. The Mahā bhārata and the Rā mā yaṇ a were recognized by local rulers,
who easily identified with a divine ruler who battled and defeated the wrong
doers that threaten the ethical order of the world.
Culture spread via the trade routes that linked India with southern Burma,
central and southern Siam, the Malay peninsula and Sumatra to Java, lower
Cambodia and Champa. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script,
together with Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, Brahmanism and
Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact as well as through sacred
texts and Indian literature.
The caste system, although adopted, was never applied universally and was
not as strict as in India. It stated that no one is equal within society, while
everyone has their own place.
Buddhism arrived in Burma in the first century and reached Funan in the
second century and by the fifth century had spread all across Southeast Asia
where Hinduism and Buddhism became interwoven. In Thailand, Cambodia,
Myanmar, Malaysia, Laos and Vietnam, both Buddhism and Hinduism are
intertwined to this day, with for example Lord Ganesha appearing
predominantly as a protector, guardian and deity of success.

12
In Indonesia, Hinduism was so intermingled with Buddhism, that Shiva and the
Buddha were incorporated in the same religion. Balinese Hinduism maintains
this syncretism to this day, and the Saiva and Buddhist priests sit side by side,
although dressed differently, as they bless the laity.

Art and Architecture in Dvipantara

Art and architectural creations rivaled those built in India, in size, design and
aesthetic achievements. The most notable examples are Borobudur in Java and
Angkor in Cambodia.
Many of the Indian artists came from Kalinga (today’s Orissa). Many of the
motifs on the walls of Borobudur and Angkor Wat resemble carvings of the
temples of eastern India. Modelled after Gupta period icons, the Khmer
sculpture of 8th to 13th centuries are very different in appearance and form
uniquely Southeast Asian stylised figures of gods, goddesses, Buddhas, Apsaras
and demons.
The art which the Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Dvipantara produced owes its
extraordinary qualities to the genius of the native people. Indian spirituality
only provided themes and patterns for transformation opening up local
avenues of cultural and artistic development, as can be seen in the art of Java,
Bali, Burma and Thailand and Cambodia.
In short, Southeast Asia built its own indigenous civilization based on an
Indian blueprint. The Hindu-Buddhist culture and achievements of Southeast
Asia often surpassed that of India. Sculptors and artists integrated Indian
motifs with local artistic motifs to arrive at something distinctively Southeast
Asian and produced stylized masterpieces of their own.

13
Trade and Culture
The traders brought gold, spices and natural resources from Southeast Asia to
India, while the Brahmins brought the Hindu religious and philosophical
traditions from India to the various kingdoms of Dvipantara. Brahmins
influenced beyond just the fields of religion and philosophy however. They also
brought their very efficient codes of law and architecture. It was therefore a
natural symbiosis rooted in a similar geographical environment.
The food and flavours of South East Asia are closely related to the Indian ones.
Indian herbal medicines also reached Southeast Asia from ancient times and
are used even today in many countries. The Indonesian ‘jamu’ medicine of
today is only a remnant of the Ayurvedic practices from the time of the
Javanese Hindu kingdoms.
The trade networks also allowed the influx of Brahmin scholars, who
impressed many Southeast Asian elites with their knowledge of law, arts,
philosophy. The Brahmin scholars, who through their knowledge were able to
stir prosperity in all kingdoms, became sought after and their practices were
propagated throughout all of Southeast Asia.
The Brahmins were not only experts in performing religious rites but were
also knowledgeable in political affairs, art and architecture. They were invited
by rulers to serve as advisors, administrators and priests. Sanskrit was the
vehicle for the transmission of knowledge. Sanskrit terminology was used in all
legal aspects of government and spirituality. Similar codes of law and public
administration wee adopted everywhere.

The ancient city of Polonnaruwa in Sri Lanka, the Thousand Pagodas at Pagan in Burma, the
imperial city of Angkor Wat in Cambodia, the holy temples of Borobudur and Prambanan in
Java are all testimony to the classical cultures of Dvipantara.

14
Reconstruction in the Majapahit style

Indian knowledge found a fertile environment in Southeast Asia, a fertile

land of spices, precious woods, gemstones and other natural
resources. As the various kingdoms developed and prospered through their
knowledge of the scriptures and shastras, Hindu-Buddhist religion and
civilisation spread to in Southeast Asia. Indian spirituality, political thought,
literature, mythology and art were absorbed deeply into local culture.

All over Southeast Asia, the Ramayana is seen as the founding myth of
society, and has long been the theme for art, drama, dance and
poetry. Southeast Asia incorporated and blended the best of Indian culture.
This complementary unity-in-diversity of that vast area springs from the fact
that while Indian philosophy and wisdom is the most profound, its most

15
perfect means of expression are to be found in Southeast Asia (Angkor,
Borobudur).
The epic traditions of the Mahābhā rata and the Rā mā yaṇ a gave legitimacy to a
ruler identified with a god who battled the demonic forces that threaten the
ethical order of the world. In Southeast Asia, as in India, local ancestor and
spirit worship traditions were blended with Hindu and Buddhist conceptions.
In the 9th century, King Yashvarman of Angkor is said to have built hundreds
of ashrams. Each of these, headed by a priest called a Kuladhyaksha, or visitor,
was primarily a centre for higher learning and promoting religious and
spiritual practices attracting large followings of devotees.
The kings of Cambodia, Jayavarman VII (the founder of Angkor) and his
successors were addressed by the people as King of the Mountain and they
built their palaces and temples on hill peaks (as with the Bayon temples).

The Sanskrit Cosmopolis

All names of places in Southeast Asia are Sanskrit in origin. Jeyapora is a

derivation of the name Jaipur. Aranya Prathet in Thailand is simply ‘the jungle
province’ or Aranya Pradesh.
‘Indianization’ did not come from outside, but was the product of the
indigenous cultures using Sanskrit as a linga franca and Hinduism as the
cultural and spiritual frame.
The political cultures of Java, Cambodia, Burma, and Thailand today still reflect
the heritage of early kingdoms in which Indian religious concepts were welded
to local traditions.
All Southeast Asian scripts derive from the Brahmi script used to write
Sanskrit. Languages from Burmese, Thai, Laos, Cambodian and Indonesian
languages are all derived from Sanskrit.

The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was combined with local deities and
ancestor worship. Hinduism and Buddhism apparently were not clearly
differentiated, as rulers often patronized both religions.
In most of the kingdoms, like Cham in coastal Vietnam, Cambodia and Java, the
predominant strain of Hinduism was Shaivism. The Śailendras of Java and
Śrīvijaya identified with Buddhism, as did the rulers of Pagan in today’s Burma.

16
Angkor Borei Temple, Cambodia

The Majapahit  was  Javanese Hindu thalassocratic empire in Southeast

Asia that was based on the island of Java (in modern-day Indonesia). It existed
from 1293 to circa 1527 and reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam
Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 was marked by conquests that
extended throughout Southeast Asia. His achievement is also credited to his
prime minister, Gajah Mada. According to
the Nagarakretagama (Desawarñana) written in 1365, Majapahit was an
empire of 98 tributaries, stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea; consisting
of present-day Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei,
southern Thailand, East Timor, southwestern Philippines (in particular
the Sulu Archipelago) although the scope of Majapahit sphere of influence is
still the subject of debate among historians. The nature of Majapahit relations
and influences upon its overseas vassals, and also its status as an empire are
still provoking discussions.
Majapahit was one of the last major Hindu empires of the region and is
considered to be one of the greatest and most powerful empires in the history
of Indonesia and Southeast Asia. It is sometimes seen as the precedent for
Indonesia's modern boundaries. Its influence extended beyond the modern
territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies

17
After the 13th century, the decline of Southeast Asian civilization
followed that of India, when the Indian coast and interior fell under
attack from the Mughals and other Mohammedan tribes, who then made
their way through the trade routes all the way to Malaysia and Indonesia,
where a slow, creeping islamization progressively destroyed the native
kingdoms that had flourished for fifteen centuries.
With the Moslem destruction of Buddhist universities in India, particularly
Nalanda University, Buddhism in India was almost obliterated by the 12th
century, yet became very dominant in Southeast Asia.
Later, Southeast Asia was dismembered into British colonies: Myanmar and
Malaysia; French: the Indochinese states of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam;
Dutch: Indonesia; and Spanish: the Philippines (which was later to become a
US colony). In this process, the cultures of Southeast Asia were totally
obscured by these new colonial dominions.1

 Today, the complete Indonesian Buddhist teachings can be found

in Buddhayana, a syncretism between Vajrayana, Mahayana and
Theravada, as a continuation of the 2000-years old syncretic Indonesian
Buddhist tradition. Buddhayana was established by the Venerable Ashin
Jinarakkhita after Indonesian independence.

In China and countries with large Chinese populations such

as Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore, Chinese Esoteric Buddhism is commonly
referred to as Tángmì, or Hànchuán Mìzōng Its manifestation through
subsequent Japanese transmission is sometimes referred as Dōngmì-"Eastern
Esotericism", meaning the succession of Tang Esoterica in Japan (east of
China) transmitted by the Japanese monk Kū kai.
During the Tang dynasty the actual term widely used to refer to these
teachings by Tantric masters was "mantra teaching" and "path of mantras.
Chinese tantric masters like Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra also used the
term Vajrayana.
In a more general sense, the Chinese term Mìzōng "Esoteric Tradition"
and Mìjiào "Esoteric Teaching" are popular Chinese terms used when
referring to any form of Esoteric Buddhism.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
1. https://medium.com/@Kalpavriksha/dvipantara-the-golden-age-of-
southeast-asia-127fc22c9fce

18
Timeline of Buddhism in Indonesia- RIGHT Javanese Buddha in gold, 33,7 cm, 11th century

A Pan-Asian Network of Buddhist Masters

Researcher Andrea Acri demonstrated in a groundbreaking book
called Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia: Networks of Masters,
Texts, Icons how from the early 7th century, Esoteric Buddhist masters, texts,
and icons traveled far and wide across Asia in a circular manner through
multiple centers of diffusion.

In this book, he makes an argument for the important role played by regions
such as Sri Lanka, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Malaysia and Indonesia in the genesis
and propagation of Esoteric Buddhist lineages, scriptures and art across Asia.
The book is divided into three thematic sections on (1) monks, texts, patrons,
(2) art, architecture, and material culture, and (3) Buddha-Shaiva dynamics.
This research provides a treasure trove of detail on the ‘networks of masters,
texts and icons’ of Esoteric Buddhism that united monastic, dynastic and lay
practitioners in a vast geographical zone that stretched from South Asia
through Southeast Asia to China, Korea and Japan. . It demonstrates how the
region was both a crossroads and terminus of Buddhist lineages. The book also
draws our attention to the links between the kingdom of Srivijaya and Tibet,
studied through the life of the monk Atisha not justn ‘passively’ received
overseas influences’.

19
 Esoteric Buddhism in the Indonesian Kingdoms

The kingdom of Śrīvijaya, located near the current city of Palembang in

Sumatra, was for many centuries a prominent international center in the
Buddhist world. A stronghold of Esoteric Buddhism, the Srivijaya empire
patronized Buddhist monks and institutions and attracted pilgrims and
scholars from all parts of Asia.

20
These included Yi Jing, who made several long visits to Sumatra on his way to
study at Nalanda University in India, and the Buddhist scholar Atisha who
played a major role in the development of Vajrayana Buddhism in Indonesia
and Tibet. Atisha lived in Sumatra from 1011 to 1023. He studied under the
guidance of Dharmakirti, a leading monk of Srivijaya.

The Kalingga Kingdom was one of the first Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms in

Central Java, located between present-day Pekalongan and Jepara. The
kingdom was described as being surrounded by wooden fortresses, with the
King residing in a multiple storied palace covered with a roof made of the
leaves of Arengga pinata trees. The kingdom exported silver, gold and elephant
tusks.
The Kalingga kingdom was very orderly and serene, and led by Queen Sima. It
was a center of Buddhist studies and practice, and the Chinese came to
Kalingga to study Buddhism., which around that time became the official
religion in China. Two temples remain from the Kalingga Kingdom: Candi
Angin and Candi Bubrah in Tempur Village, the present day Jepara.
The great Manjusrigrha Templeof Medang.

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the

construction of the great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the
Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is the original name of the Sewu Temple
complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in Indonesia after Borobudur,
with 249 buildings.

Singhasari and Majapahit

Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism, with
monumental architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The largest
Buddhist stupa in the world is the Borobudur temple in central Java, built as a
mandala, a giant three-dimensional representation of Esoteric Buddhist
cosmology. The temple shows both Indian and Javanese influences. The reliefs
depict stories from the Lalitavistara sūtra, Jataka tales and the Gandavyuha
sūtra.
In the 13th century, Buddhism thrived in Eastern Java, where King
Kertanegara of Singhasari patronized Esoteric Buddhism (Vajrayana).
Buddhism continued to thrive under the Majapahit Empire. Some of their kings
were Vajrayana practitioners, such as King Adityawarman whose inscriptions
state he was “always concentrated on Hevajra”.

21
World-famous Indonesian Buddhist Art
The oldest Buddhist statue in Indonesia was found in West Sulawesi, at the
mouth of the Sampaga river, Sikendeng Village, Mamuj. It
represents Dīpankara Buddha, the protective deity in Buddhism. The statue is
in the Amarawati style.
Buddhist holy sites in Indonesia include the Kalasan Temple, near Yogjakarta,
the Sari Temple, near Kalasan Temple, Borobudur, the Mendut and Pawon
temples on the eastern side of Borobudur, the Ngawen temples complex near
Muntilan, the Sewu temples complex near Prambanan, the Plaosan temples
complex on the Eastern side of the Sewu Temple and a few others.
The classical era of ancient Java also had produces some of the exquisite
examples of Buddhist art, such as the statue of Prajnaparamita of Java and that
of Buddha Vairochana and Boddhisttva Padmapani and Vajrapani in Mendut
temple.

22
An important gold artefact was recovered from the Ratu Boko temple near Prambanan. The inscribed
gold foil consisting of two connected diamond-shaped leaves recalling a vajra, bears the Sanskrit mantra
oṁ ṭakī hūṁ jaḥ svāhā repeated on each of its four sides.

23