INTRODUCTION

History, as you know, is as much a story of continuity as of change. Taking a long-term view of
the past and with the wisdom of hindsight, historians discover certain broad continuities for a
long stretch of time that distinguish it from the preceding and succeeding stretches when there
is a break in these continuities, i.e. when change occurs. In Indian history, three such major
periods are known as ancient, medieval, and modern periods. The transition from the ancient to
the medieval period in Indian history, the first subdivision of which is called ‘early medieval’, was
a long-drawn-out affair. This transition encompassed a series of significant changes over a wide
spectrum of human activity and thought. The term early medieval denotes an immediate period
between the ancient and the medieval. The early medieval period of Indian history may be seen
as a transitional period wherein changes in almost all institutions and spheres of society viz.
political, social, cultural as well as economy took place. In political sphere, due to the
continuation as well as acceleration of land grants, the emergence of petty landed estates, the
fragmentation or decentralization of political authority and the growth of lord-vassal relationship
may be noticed as emerging new trends. During the early medieval period, the horizontal and
vertical linkages of political power are more visible than ever before and the emergent political
elites can be connected with alliances with landed groups, some of them created and buttressed
by royal grants. In economic sphere, the decline of trade and commerce, decay of urban
centres, paucity and irregular slow circulation of metallic money, the growing agrarian character
of society and emergence of self-sufficient economy were the salient features of economy. In
social sphere, the modification of varṇ a system, proliferation of castes into hundreds of number
and their rigidity were the most striking developments of this period.

Among other developments, the growing regional identities in art, script, language and in
religious sphere the construction of temples, the theory of incarnation, visit to holy places,
concepts of pūjā, bhaktī and tantrā, etc. were significant developments.

Since the beginning of early medieval period, Indian subcontinent was marked with the feudal
establishments. Rise of caste proliferation, regional identity in art and culture were prominent.
The time bracket allotted to the early medieval period in India is between 600-1200 CEDuring
these centuries, kingdoms in both the north and south proliferated and regularly turned over.
Therefore, at any one time, India was fragmented by numerous regional kingdoms. As the rulers
of these warred and formed alliances, they employed the system of paramountcy and
subordination begun during the Gupta era, with some rulers being overlords and others vassals.

These rulers also demonstrated their power—and enhanced it—by patronizing Hindu institutions
and developing local traditions in the regions where their courts resided. They adopted titles
showing their devotion to the great Hindu deities, declared their intent to uphold dharma, built
fabulous Hindu temples in urban centers, and charged Brahmins with attending to them and
serving at their courts. One outstanding example of a feudal kingdom is the Chola Kingdom of
southern India.

In north India, the period c. 750 – 1200 CE can be further divided into two phases:
 1. Phase Ⅰ (from c. 750 – 1000 CE) – This age in north India included three important empires,
the Gurjara Pratiharas in north India, the Palas in eastern India and the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.
2. Phase Ⅱ (from c. 1000 – 1200 CE) – This phase is also known as the age of conflict. There was a
splitting of the tripartite powers into smaller kingdoms. The Gurjara Pratihara empire in north India
disintegrated into various Rajput states which were under the control of different Rajput dynasties like
Chahamanas (Chauhans), Paramaras of Malwa, Chandellas and so on. These Rajput states showed
resistance against the Turkish attacks (from north-west India) which were led by Mahmud Ghazni and
Mohammad Ghori in the 11th and 12th centuries.

 In south India, the period from c. 850 – 1200 CE was ruled by the Cholas.

Language and literature during early medievalperiod

 Sanskrit continued to be used as the language of the ruling class. Sanskrit was still

used at administrative levels though this language has become verbose and decorative.

 In interior or tribal areas Aryan and pre-Aryan languages were used. But Brahmanas

forced various forms of Sanskrit onto the existing Aryan and pre-Aryan languages. This

consequently gave birth to regional languages.

 Brahmanas who migrate from place to place systematized the local dialects into

languages. Writing and grammar based on Sanskrit was introduced into these languages.

 By 7th century regional languages became much pronounced. And to decipher a single

regional language, one had to learn several scripts.

 
Regional cultures during early medieval period

 During this period various cultural units like Andhra, Assam, Bengal, Gujarat,

Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu etc. existed.

 During 6th century, Rajputs emerged with local tribes and absorption of Hunas and

other foreign elements into brahmanical society. This gave rise to the formation of Rajputana or

Rajasthan.

 Bengal was divided into West Bengal (Gauda) and East Bengal (Vanga). Later whole

Bengal came to be known as Vanga.

 Hiuen-tsang also mentioned about the prevalence of various nationalities in Indian Sub-

Continent during 6th century.

 Even in Southern parts of India, regional cultures became popular after decline of

Pallavas and rise of Cholas.

 The Mudrarakshasa, a historical play written by Vishakhadatta narrates about different

regions with inhabitants following different customs, clothing and language.

 

1.LITERARY SOURCES

 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT BY INDIGENOUS

SCHOLARS
The Sanskrit literature of the early medieval period has usually been described
as characterized by pedantry, ornateness, and artificiality. The literature includes
philosophical commentaries and religious texts, bhanas (monologue plays),
stotras (hymn compositions), story literature, and anthologies of poetry. Historical
and epic–Puranic themes were popular in kavya. The technical literature includes
works on metre, grammar, lexicography, poetics, music, architecture, medicine,
and mathematics. The growth of regional polities was accompanied by the
composition of royal biographies by court poets. Banabhatta’s Harshacharita is
one of the well-known works of this genre. Sandhya karanandin’s Ramacharita is
written in shlesha (with double meaning) and simultaneously tells the story of the
epic hero Rama and the Pala king Ramapala. The few works of poetry woven
around quasi-historical themes or characters included Padmagupta’s
Navasahasankacharita, which tells the tale of king Sindhuraja Navasahasanka of
Malwa, and his winning of the hand of a princess named Shashiprabha. Bilhana
wrote the Vikramankadevacharita, a eulogistic work about Vikramaditya VI, the
Chalukya king of Kalyani. Hemachandra’s Kumarapalacharita (in Sanskrit and
Prakrit) tells the story of Kumarapala, king of Anahilawada, while illustrating the
rules of grammar.
Hindu law (vyavahara) emerged from the shadow of dharma and established its
independent identity. This was accompanied by an increasing formalization of
law and legal procedures, and there was a tendency to empower the state to
regulate and arbitrate in the social life of subjects, including with regard to
marriage issues. A large number of important and influential Dharmashastra
compilations, digests, and commentaries were written during this period. The
compilations include the Chaturvimshatimata, which put together the teachings of
24 law-givers. Jimutavahana wrote a work on procedural law called the
Vyavaharamatrika and a digest of laws on inheritance called the Dayabhaga,
which became extremely influential in Bengal. Major commentaries include those
of Medatithi (9th century), Govindaraja (11th/12th century), and Kulluka (12th
 century) on the Manu Smriti. Vijnaneshvara (11th–12th centuries) and Apararka
(12th century) wrote commentaries on the Yajnavalkya Smriti. Vijnaneshvara’s
commentary, titled the Mitakshara, became an authority on various aspects of
Hindu law. Other important Dharmashastra works include Lakshmidhara’s Kritya
Kalpataru (12th century) and Devanabhatta’s Smritichandrika (11th/12th
century).
The few available Pali texts show a strong Sanskrit influence. Apabhramsha
represents the last stage of the Prakrit languages, out of which the various
modern north Indian languages emerged. Apabhramsha works of this time
include several texts on Jaina doctrines and saints, epic poems, short stories,
and dohas (couplets). The devotional songs of the Alvars and Nayanmars and
the hagiographies of the saints were among the important Tamil texts. Royal
biographies include the anonymous Nandikkalambakam, a poem in some 80
stanzas, giving a eulogistic account of the reign of the Pallava king Nandivarman
III. Several works in Kannada, many of them associated with Jainism, were
written as well, some under the royal patronage of the Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas,
and Chalukyas. Literary sources offers both direct as well as indirect informations
about their time. An example of a text that gives direct, useful historical
information is the anonymous Lekkapaddhati , a work in Sanskrit and Prakrit
composed in Gujrat in about the 13the century which contains models of various
legal documents. Another example is Krishi-Parashara, an early medieval text of
Bengal dealing with agriculture.
Chand Bardai’s Prithvirajraso is an Epic woven around the exploits of the
Chauhan king Prithviraj Chauhan. Kalhana’s Rajatarangini is a historical
chronicle of the Rulers of Kashmir from the earliest time upto the 12th century
CE.

 FOREIGNERS ACCOUNT
Apart from the indigenous texts, Chinese and Arab accounts are useful sources
of information for early medieval India. Foremost among the former are the
accounts of the monks Xuanzang (c. 600–64 CE) and Yijing (635–713 CE), both
of whom visited India. One of Yijing’s works gives an account of Buddhist
doctrines and practices in India, while the other provides brief biographical
sketches of 56 Chinese monks who visited India in the 7th century. The important
Arab works include the 9th–10th century writings of travellers and geographers
such as Sulaiman, Al-Masudi, Abu Zaid, Al-Biduri, and Ibn Haukal. Later Arab
writers include Al-Biruni, Al-Idrisi, Muhammad Ufi, and Ibn Batuta. Such accounts
are especially useful for information on trade.

2. ARCHAELOGICAL EVIDENCE

 EPIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE
Inscriptions are the most important part of archeological sources. They can be
considered as the most authentic and reliable source. These are comparatively
less biased. Inscriptions in early India are of many kinds: royal edicts, votive
inscriptions recording gifts, brief biographical statements, eulogies of rulers,
records of particular events, legal documents pertaining to rights and obligations
over land, and such like. As with all categories of historical data, they reflect
historical change. The inscriptions were engraved in public spaces such as
temple walls, or else on copper plates. The copper plates became the property of
a family, passed down from one generation to the next. The inscriptions were
usually consulted by later authors and also picked up by the bards. The
inscriptions were meant for public consumption and hence were open to the
comments of the elite — the samantas, sreshthins, kayasthas, brahmanas etc.
The inscriptions begin with a prashasti which gives historical information about
the dynasty. It is in the form of a eulogy on the kings and their achievements.
Initially it is of the king but soon included his dynasty. When prasasti records the
change in the title of the king, then one can know that it marks a significant
political moment. Prashatis give information regarding the religious affiliation of
the king, updated version of dynastic history, important kings, ancestry and much
more.The incriptions tell us about the identity of the grantee, nature of the gift
whether it was a gift of revenue from land or land itself; the extent of the area that
was granted — it could be a small area or several villages; the religious affiliation
of the grantee — it could be a Buddhist matha as was the case earlier or
brahmanas. The inscriptions recording grants simply were not a new feature
marking the new transformations that the economy was undergoing, but they
record a shift from yajna to dana — from the sacrificial ritual to the gift — as
methods of legitimating the donor as the patron and the donee as the legitimizer.
With the pratice of land grants, brahmanas become owners of landed wealth and
hence powerful. The brahmana grantees settled on gifted land with the full
support of royalty. They introduced brahmanical traditions and fostered the
acceptance of kingship.
The official royal inscriptions (rajakiyam) included categories such as Sasanam
(instructions), jayapatram (legal decisions), ajnapatram (orders), and
prajnapanam (proclamations). The instructions were meant for future kings as
well which necessitated its keeping in the royal custody. Many inscriptions
carried the royal seal for authentication purposes. The inscriptions gave the
genealogy of the person issuing the statement, its purpose and a precise date.
The pre-Gupta inscriptions were in Prakrit but subsequently they were in
Sanskrit. Sanskrit became the common language in the post-gupta period. By the
second millennium CE, regional languages started getting used in inscriptions.
However the prashasti continued to be in Sanskrit. Sanskrit was widely used by
administrators, selective religious sects, philosophers and literateurs.
The early medieval inscriptions carry useful information on subjects which have
become central to the major debates concerning this period. Land grants, which
beame very prolific from the Gupta period onwards, are especially relevant for
 the reconstruction of the eonomy, society, status of craftsmen and crafts, crops,
samantas, feudatories, kings and queens etc.
Royal inscriptions which are common in this period record not only information
related to governance but other aspects of life as well. A study of the inscriptions
of this period tell us about a number of points. The pre-Gupta inscriptions were
ususally of the grant of revenue from the land in lieu of salaries. But later the
grants of land came to be made in perpetuity and hence land itself came to be
claimed by the grantee. The brahmana donees became very wealthy and
powerful. They were mostly responsible for constructing inflated genealogies
through their familiarity with the vamsanucharita of the Puranas. The inscriptions
help us to reconstruct the process of gradual state formation in the early
medieval period.

 COINS

Coins of early medieval India suggest that there was a fairly logical
reconstruction of the monetary systems. During the five centuries from AD 750 to
AD 1250, a few superficially uniform coin types comprised monetary systems
startling in their complexity and diversity. While some money forms remained
within their locality of issue, others passed far and wide. The physical evidence is
incontrovertible, that money and exchange were alive and vibrant throughout
much of the area. Further, it has also been established by historians that there
was some apparent shortages of the precious metals necessary for coinage in
early medieval India. Far from being an era of static decline, monetary history
reveals a time of sagacious and practical adjustments which maintained vigorous
metal-based monetary systems.
urther, it is quite suspected that in comparison to the earlier Gupta period and
later Sultanate period, there was a paucity or scarcity of coinage throughout
North India in the early medieval era. This is interpreted as indicating a general
low level of exchange transactions, and hence a quiescence of trade and
commerce. Gold coins were rarely issued after the fall of the Gupta Empireand
even the silver and copper coinages are scarce and poor. Interpretation of the
early medieval propensity for alloy coins is based on the actual pattern of
coinage use. Until the end of the Gupta period, rulers took an active interest in
the forms of their coinage, causing a great variety of coin types to be issued, all
differentiable as to issuing state, king, legend, artistic design and sometimes
even year of issue. This is reflected in numismatic literature, and museum
catalogues, by the amount of attention devoted to these coins. When, as in the
period AD 500 to AD 1000, coins ceased to be used as a message-bearing
 medium, a conservative retention of old coin-styles became the rule in North
India. Specific series, notably the Indo-Sassanian and bull-and-horseman types,
were issued by a number of dynasties with virtually no distinguishing marks to
indicate the place of issue, issuing authority or date of manufacture. Only a
barely perceptible evolution of style over the centuries is notable.

Historians clarify that there is a definite paucity of coin types in this period, but
this is not evidence of a scarcity of circulating medium. So far, in the literature,
there has been no assessment, rigorous or otherwise, of the numbers of coins
originally produced and circulated. When reference is made to coin hoards of the
early medieval period, rather than museum holdings, quite different conclusions
are drawn about the abundance of coinage in the early medieval period. The
northern portion of the subcontinent in the period AD 800 to AD 1200 contained a
number of distinct currency zones or spheres. Within each zone, a single coinage
form prevailed, and there was little overlap in areas of circulation of the major
currencies. Two distinct distribution patterns of coins existed - some currency
spheres were congruent with political boundaries, while other currency spheres
seemed to have been unconstrained by political frontiers. It is remarked that only
the coin forms of the latter show consistency of intrinsic value over time. While
the regulation of manufacture and resultant control over the physical nature of
the circulating medium remained a powerful privilege of government, the
acceptableness of the circulating medium was subject to the influences and
preferences of trading communities.

The early medieval period is considered to be an era of base metal alloy

coinages, when the precious metals were not used in pure form in money. The
value of a coin historically was related to its precious metal content, and
determination of the proportion of precious metal in a coin is a necessary
precondition to assessing its denomination. There-was some regional variation in
this effect: the relative precious metal content of coins was not uniform from
country to country. In the Ganga basin, the high price of silver was evident as
early as the eighth century, but that of gold not until the eleventh century. It was
only later, in the thirteenth century that pure gold and silver coins were restored
at Delhi. The material requirements of the prolific coin production outstripped
available sources of precious metals. The naturally-occurring gold and silver
resources of North India were insufficient to support such a scale of coinage
issues; only copper was available in significant quantities. Thus, the result was
increased dependency on collected stock and foreign supplies of these precious
metals for coinage purposes.

 Monumental evidence
Monuments are one of the most important elements of archeological sources.
The study of these monuments not only helps us to interpret about the technical
 skills, living standard, economic condition of the time but also help us to know
about the architectural style of the time.
We have evidence of construction of massive monuments in the form of temple
architecture and new capital cites by the kings to commemorate their victory of
other kings or dynasties or neighbouring regions. For example:- The Chola king
Rajendra I ,to commemorate victories over Mahendra V the ruler of Sri Lanka
and against the Pandyas,the Chalukyas and the ruler of Kerala, built a new
capital at Gangaikondacholapuram. The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal,
Karnataka was constructed at the behest of queen Lokamahadevi to
commemorate the conquest of Kanchipuram by her husband king Vikramaditya
II.

 ART AND ARCHITECTURE EVIDENCE

The early medieval period was marked by remarkable developments in the
spheres of art and architecture. Distinct regional architectural and sculptural
styles emerged in different areas, including Kashmir, Rajasthan, and Orissa. In
peninsular India, major edifices were built through the patronage of the
Rashtrakutas, early Western Chalukyas, Pallavas, Hoysalas, and Cholas. In
contrast to previous centuries, when a great proportion of the major architectural
remains were Buddhist, in this period, the remains are dominated by Hindu
temples.
No less significant is the emergence and consolidation of distinct regional styles
in temple architecture: the Nagara style of temples, the Dravida style of temples
and the Vesara type of temples. The Nagara style is associated with the land
between the Himalayas and Vindhyas, the Dravida style with the land between
the Krishna and Kaveri rivers, while the Vesara style is sometimes associated
with the area between the Vindhyas and the Krishna river. A number of
architectural texts known as the Shilpashastras were written in early medieval
times.
The basic plan of the Nagara temple is square, with a number of projections in
the middle of each side, giving it a cruciform shape. The temple’s elevation is
marked by a conical or convex shikhara or temple tower, consisting of several
layers of carved courses, usually crowned by an amalaka (notched ring stone).
These two features—the cruciform plan and curvilinear shikhara—are visible in
northern temples from the 6th century CE (the ‘late Gupta’ period), for example in
the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh and the brick temple at Bhitargaon (both in
UP).
The most striking feature of the Dravida temple is its pyramidal shikhara, which
consists of progressively smaller and smaller storeys, culminating in a slender
pinnacle surmounted by a small dome (stupika). In a later stage, South Indian
temples came to be marked by huge gateways known as gopurams and by
pillared halls and corridors. The earliest traces of such features go back to the
Gupta period and are not restricted to the far south—e.g., they occur in northern
and central India and the Deccan. They can be seen in the Parvati temple at
Nachna Kuthara and the Lad Khan, Kont Gudi, and Meguti temples at Aihole.
The earliest Dravida style architecture is visible in Mahabalipuram where during
the Pallava period were constructed five different structures, popularly known as
rathas named after the five Pandava brothers and Draupadi. The essential
features of a Dravida temple are visible in the Dharmaraja ratha. The more
famous and elegant Shore temple at Mahabalipuram was built during CE 700-
728 period. It is so called because of its location to the proximity to the Bay of
Bengal. Made of granite, it is the earliest of the important structural temples of
Dravida style.
An amazing specimen of Dravida temple architecture is the Kailasa temple at
Ellora. It was built in the eighth century under the patronage of the Rash raku a
ruler Krishna I. The most outstanding feature of this stupendous temple is that
unlike the two other Dravida temples mentioned before, it is not a structural
temple, but a rock-cut shrine, hewn out, as it was of live rock.
The Vesara style is a hybrid style (vesara literally means ‘mule’) that borrowed
from the northern and southern styles. It is difficult to define, as the mixture of
northern and southern elements may vary. Temples built in the Deccan under the
later Chalukyas of Kalyani and Hoysalas are considered examples of this style.
However, looking at the temple architecture of the Deccan simply as a
combination of northern and southern elements means missing out on its
distinctiveness and variations.
The caves at Ellora (7th–8th centuries) represent the last phase of Buddhist cave
architecture in western India. Their architecture and sculpture shows some
continuities with earlier centuries (e.g., with Ajanta, Bagh, and Kanheri), but there
are also some changes. These include an increase in the size of the side shrines
and a double row of stone benches (in Cave 5).
In the Deccan, major examples of early medieval rock-cut shrines and structural
shrines are found at several places in Karnataka. The early architectural phase
(6th–early 8th centuries) is represented at Badami and Aihole.
The history of stone architecture in South India begins in the 7th century and can
be connected with the increasing popularity of the bhakti cults. The Pallava kings,
especially Mahendravarman I (600–625 CE), Narasimhavarman I (625– 670 CE),
and Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha (700–728 CE), were great patrons of the
arts. The remains of the architecture of the Pallava period are mostly found at
Mamallapuram and Kanchipuram. They comprise cave temples, monolithic
temples, and structural temples.
The celebrated and gigantic stone sculpture at Mahabalipuram depicts a
fascinating world of flora and fauna, along with the figures of ascetics and the
scene of a cascading stream. The scene is identified either with the legend of
Bhagiratha's bringing the Ganga down from the matted locks of Siva
(Gangavatarana) or Arjuna's penance, which is described in the Mahabharata
and also the theme of the drama, Kiratarjuniyam.
The visual art of the early medieval times can be complete without referring to
the bronze sculptures in south India, belonging largely to the Chola times (ninth
 to thirteen century). Royal figures, images of Parvati were curved out in bronze.
The Chola bronze par excellence is the figure of Nataraja, During the Early
Medieval period c. 600–1200 CE, there was an efflorescence and refinement in
temple architecture and sculpture, and distinct regional styles became apparent.

 CONCLUSION
The period between AD 750–AD 1200 is no more treated as a ‘dark phase’ of
Indian history. It was marked by various political, social and cultural activities.
Politically, the period between AD 750–AD 1200 is early Medieval period with the
rise of numerous regional states. In North India Gurjara- Prathiharas, Palas in
east & Rashtrakutes in South India rose to power in early years (750–1000) while
in later years (1000–1200) Rajput states in North & Cholas in South fetched
power from previous rulers. The nature of state is a decentralized political system
wherein the king at the top is assisted by small chiefs or Samanthas. Land grants
become very common to religious people & to state officials in lieu of salary.
Sabha (Brahaman predominant village), Ur (non brahaminical settlements) were
local administering authorities in South India. It is a period of economic decline
due to diminishing overseas trade. During this period several tribes gave up
hunting, start tilling lands, and subsequently included into brah- manical society.
This period is of robust cultural development. Regional languages & Regional
literature developed around this time.Nagara, Dravida & Vesara style of temple
architecture evolved during this period. Cultural contacts with South east Asia
(Java, Sematra, Malay, Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia), though
developed on settlting of Indian traders on these regions.