Interaction of Charged Particles

x
atomic
electron
charged
particle
(virtual)
photon
real
photon
charged
particle
nucleus
Interaction of charged particles
with medium via
Electromagnetic interaction
Three possible processes:
Ionization (see above)
Cherenkov Radiation
Transition Radiation
For the derivation of or the energy loss
or the intensity of the emitted radiation consider ...
Charged particle with velocity v = c
Medium with dielectric constant =
1
+ i
2
...
Represents/describes interaction of
(virtual) photons with atoms of medium
u() =
c

()
The Dielectric Constant
1 10 100 1000 10
4
10
5
photon energy [eV]
optical
region resonance
region
X-ray
region
Im
Re -1
(Virtual) photons interact
with atoms of the medium ...
=
1
+ i
2
Overall effect is described
by dielectric constant
Imaginary part:
Photon absorption
[ absorption cross section]
Real part:
Refraction
[modication of phase velocity]
Typical from of real and imaginary
part of the dielectric constant
[from Gilmore]
d
dE
=
z
2

(E)
EZ
ln

(1
2

1
)
2
+
4

2
2

1
2
d
dE
+
z
2

(E)
EZ
ln

2mc
2

2
E

d
dE
+
z
2

1
E
2

E
0

(E

)
Z
dE

Interaction Cross Section

[Allison, Cobb; Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 30 (1980) 253.]
Cherenkov &
Transition Radiation
Compton scattering;
Prod. of -electrons
Rutherford scattering;
photoelectric emission
Relativistic rise;
polarization effect;
saturation ...
Photo-absorption
cross section
Phase of
1-1
2
+ i2
2
Density of medium
Yields
energy loss
dE/dx
Particle charge
d
dE
+
z
2

1
N

1
||
2

d
dE
+
z
2

1
E
2

E
0

(E

)
Z
dE

d
dE
=
z
2

(E)
EZ
ln

(1
2

1
)
2
+
4

2
2

1
2
d
dE
+
z
2

(E)
EZ
ln

2mc
2

2
E

+ . . .
dE
dx
=

0
EN
d
dE
dE
dE
dx

1

2
ln
2mc
2

2
T
max
I
2
Bethe Bloch from d/dE
Integrate cross section
over all -energies:
Energy of exchanged
photon; E = h
Electron density
within medium
Bethe-Bloch results as an approximation:
1
2
3
3
2
1

v
c
cos
C
= 1
d
dE
=
z
2

1
N

1
||
2

Cherenkov Radiation
For photon energies below the
excitation energy:

2
= 0 and

= 0 only last term of d/dE contributes ...

4
= arg(1-
1

2
+i
2

2
) = arg(1-
1

2
)
Threshold behavior via phase :
Jumps from 0 to for:
1
> 1/
2
or
1 < v/c 1 Cherenkov threshold.

[c: Cherenkov angle]

Kinematics: = v k = v k cosc
[from p' = p - p assuming h Mc
2
]

Dispersion relation:
2
= k
2
c
2
/1
v
2
/c
2
cos
c
= 1
cos =
1
n
c
n =
[refractive index]
wavefront
fast particle
light
d
2
N
dEdx
=
z
2

1
1

2
n
2
()

=
z
2

c
sin
2

C
d
2
N
ddx
=
2z
2

1
1

2
n
2
()

=
2z
2

2
sin
2

C
d
2
N
dx
=

550 nm
350 nm
d
d
2
N
ddx
= 475 z
2
sin
2

C
photons/cm
d
2
N
dEdx
= 370 sin
2

C
eV
1
cm
1
dN
d
dN
dE

E
const
Cherenkov Radiation Properties
Number of emitted photons
per unit length:
Integrate over sensitivity range:
[for typical Photomultiplier]
For single charged
particle:
4 from
Cherenkov Radiation Radiators
Medium n
thr

max
[=1] N
ph
[eV
-1
cm
-1
]
Luft 1.000283 0.9997 1.36 0.208
Isobutan 1.00127 0.9987 2.89 0.941
Wasser 1.33 0.752 41.2 160.8
Quartz 1.46 0.685 46.7 196.4
Parameters of Typical Radiator
Note: Energy loss by Cherenkov radiation very small w.r.t. ionization (< 1%).
Example:
[Proton with Ekin =1 GeV passing through 1 cm water ]
= p/E 0.875; cosC = 1/n = 0.859 C = 30.8
d
2
N/(dEdx) = 370 sin
2
C eV
-1
cm
-1
100 eV
-1
cm
-1

Eloss = <E> d
2
N/(dEdx) E x
= 2.5 eV100 eV
-1
cm
-1
5 eV 1 cm = 1.25 keV
Visible light only!
[E = 1 - 5 eV; = 300 - 600 nm]
E
loss
= 1.25 keV
Cherenkov Radiation Application
Threshold detection:
Observation of Cherenkov radiation >
thr
, K, p
[ momentum p ]

n
1 n
2
> n
1
C
1
C
2
Choose n
1
, n
2
in such a way that for:
n
2
:
n
1
:

,
K
> 1/n
2
and
p
< 1/n
2

> 1/n
1
and
K
,
p
< 1/n
1
Light in C
1
and C
2
Light in C
2
and not in C
1
Light neither in C
1
and C
2

identied pion
identied kaon
identied proton
Cherenkov Radiation Application
Measurement of Cherenkov angle:
Use medium with known refractive index n
Principle of:
RICH (Ring Imaging Cherenkov Counter)
DIRC (Detection of Internally Reected Cherenkov Light)
DISC (special DIRC; e.g. Panda)
LHCb RICH
LHCb RICH Event
[December 2009]
Cherenkov Radiation Momentum Dependence
Typische Werte
n = 1 +
c
dN
dx
[
Phot
cm
]
th

th
=
Pth
mc
2
H
2
1 + 0.14 10
3
0.96
0
0.32 59.8
N
2
1 + 0.3 10
3
1.4
0
0.7 40.8
Freon 13 1 + 0.72 10
3
2.2
0
1.7 26.3
Plexiglas 1.49 47.8
0
630 0.91
Aerogel 1.005 ... 1.05 11.4
0
... 17.8
0
45 ... 107 3 ... 5
Einige Schlufolgerungen:
In Plexiglas gilt (E

2 eV )

dE
dx

ion,Anr
Min

dE
dx

C
=
2 10
6 eV
cm
800
eV
cm
2 10
3
.
Wenn man

CStrahlung zum Teilchennachweis nutzen will, dann mu man also sicher-
stellen, da die angeregten Atome der durchlaufenen Materie kein Szintillationslicht
aussenden.
Wenn man f ur ein geladenes Teilchen messen will, dann mu man eine Mindestan-
zahl von emittierten

CerenkovPhotonen fordern. Da die

CerenkovPhotonen statistisch
emittiert werden, kann man die Fluktuationen mit Hilfe der PoissonStatistik be-
schreiben.
Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, kein

CerenkovPhoton nachzuweisen, ist
w
0
= e
n
e
,
n
e
= Photonenzahl = # n

(

C) (Licht)

0.8
(Quantenausbeute des Photomultipliers)

0.1 ... 0.2
Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, ein

CerenkovPhoton nachzuweisen (Abb.3.2), ist dann
Abbildung 3.2: Relative Zahl der Photonen als Funktion der Teilchenenergie
w = 1 e
n
e
.
Forderung w 0.999 n
e
6.9 n

100.
F ur Freon braucht man dann etwa eine Lange von 0.5 m f ur den Radiator. Anwendung
fand ein solcher Zahler am SFMDetektor [63].
48
N
n

=

N
/
N

0 5 10 15 20 25
0.1
0.5
0
0.5
1.0

n

=

m
a
x

n
=

1 1/
2
n

K
p
Cherenkov angle
Number of photons
grow with and reach asymptotic value for = 1
[max = arccos (1/n); N = x370/cm (1-1/n
2
)]
p [GeV]
|

E
n
| =
2 p
(a
2
+
2
)
3
2
p = 2ea
Transition Radiation
Transition radiation occurs if a relativist particle (large ) passes the
boundary between two media with different refraction indices ...
[predicted by Ginzburg and Frank 1946; experimental conrmation 70ies]
Effect can be explained by
rearrangement of electric eld ...
Simple model: Electron moves
towards conducting plate ...
particle
mirror
charge
n
1
n
2
transition
radiation
a
b
with dipol moment:
and electric eld
at surface
v
= 2e vt (t)
p = 2e a(t) (t)
dS
d
= p
2
sin
2

4r
2
c
3
p = 2e v (t) 2e vt (t)
p = 2e v (t) 2e v (t) 2ve vt

(t) = 2e v (t)

(t) = (t)

(t) = (t)/t
= 2ev

e
it
d

d
2
S
dd
=
4e
2
v
2
sin
2

4r
2
c
3
Transition Radiation Classical Derivation
mirror
charge
p(t)
t 0
Changing
dipol moment:
Heavyside
function
Energy ow density
of dipol:
using:
...
= r
2

4e
2
v
2
sin
2

4r
2
c
3
d =
8
3
4e
2
v
2
4c
3
= 8
e
2
v
2
3c
3
=
16
3

E
mc
2

sin
2
d
dP
d()
= 2
8
3
e
2
c
1
2
mv
2
mc
2
=
16
3
e
2
c
E
mc
2
Transition Radiation Classical Derivation
dP ~
via Energy dependence
dP ~
one per boundary
dP -independent
classically expect white spectrum
dP
d
= r
2

d
2
S
dd
d
Radiated power:
Transition Radiation Properties

1/
Angular distribution strongly forward peaked
[Interference; coherence condition]
D = c/
p
Coherent radiation is generated only
over a very small formation length
Plasma frequency
[from Drude model]
Volume element from which coherent
radiation is emitted ...
V = D
2

max
Maximum energy of radiated photons
limited by plasma frequency ...
[results from requiring V 0 =
p
]
E
max
= h
p

[ X-Rays large !! ]
Typical values: CH
2
:
p
= 20 eV; = 10
3
[ Air:
p
= 0.7 eV ]
D = 10 m
[d > D: absorption dominates]
max = v/
[transversal range ...
... with large polarization]
Transition Radiation Properties
36 27. Passage of particles through matter
divergence. For a particle with = 10
3
, the radiated photons are in the soft x-ray
range 2 to 40 keV. The dependence of the emitted energy thus comes from the
hardening of the spectrum rather than from an increased quantum yield.
10
3
10
2
10
4
10
5
10 1 100 1000
25 m Mylar/1.5 mm air
= 2 10
4
Without absorption
With absorption
200 foils
Single interface
x-ray energy ! (keV)
"
#
$
"
(
!
!

)
,

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
i
a
l

y
i
e
l
d

p
e
r

i
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

(
k
e
V
/
k
e
V
)
Figure 27.25: X-ray photon energy spectra for a radiator consisting of 200
25 m thick foils of Mylar with 1.5 mm spacing in air (solid lines) and for a
single surface (dashed line). Curves are shown with and without absorption.
Adapted from Ref. 85.
The number of photons with energy >
0
is given by the answer to problem
13.15 in Ref. 32,
N

( >
0
) =
z
2

ln

p

0
1

2
+

2
12

, (27.46)
within corrections of order (
0
/
p
)
2
. The number of photons above a xed
energy
0

p
thus grows as (ln )
2
, but the number above a xed fraction
of
p
(as in the example above) is constant. For example, for >
p
/10,
N

= 2.519 z
2
/ = 0.59%z
2
.
The particle stays in phase with the x ray over a distance called the
formation length, d(). Most of the radiation is produced in a distance
d() = (2c/)(1/
2
+
2
+
2
p
/
2
)
1
. Here is the x-ray emission angle,
characteristically 1/. For = 1/ the formation length has a maximum at
d(
p
/

2) = c/

2
p
. In practical situations it is tens of m.
February 2, 2010 15:55
- Threshold effect
due to absorption
- dS ~ ; only small
number of photons
need X-rays
need many foils
- interference between
successive interfaces
oscillations
Transition Radiation Application
4.3

Ubergangsstrahlendetektoren
Ein

Ubergangsstrahlendetektor besteht aus zwei Komponenten:
Radiator D unne Folien aus Materialien mit kleinem Z
Nachweisgerat Proportionalkammern
a)
Radiator
dE/dx
TR
!
0
+
e
Anode
b)
Q>Q
S
TR !!Elektronen
Driftzeit
Abbildung 4.1: a) Schema der Meapparatur; b) mit einem FADC gemessene Ladung in
einer Driftkammer als Funktion der Driftzeit
Typische Resultate zeigen die nachfolgenden Abb.4.14.3.
Drei Informationen konnen f ur die Trennung hochrelativistischer Teilchen ( 1), d.h. Elek-
tronen genutzt werden.
Die Ladung der Photonen wird in der Nachweiskammer lokal deponiert, bei Verwen-
dung eines Flash ADC (FADC) kann diese Information f ur die Analyse genutzt werden
(Abb.4.1b).
Die Absorption der TRQuanten ist breit um die Teilchenspur verteilt (Abb.4.2).
Die gesamte, um ein Elektron in einer Driftkammer deponierte Ladung ist groer als
die von Pionen, weil zur ublichen Ionisation der Beitrag der TRQuanten hinzukommt
(Abb.4.3).

Ubergangsstrahlendetektoren werden heute vorwiegend zur Identizierung der Elektronen,

d.h. zur Abtrennung von M uonen, Pionen, . . . verwendet. Bei einer Nachweiswahrscheinlich-
keit von 95 % . . . 90 % f ur e

ist die Verwechslungswahrscheinlichkeit von Pionen etwa 1 %

. . . 10 %. Diese Rejektionsrate ist nicht sehr gro, aber in Kombination mit anderen Me-
geraten (RICH, Schauerzahler) f uhrt dies zu guten Identizierungswahrscheinlichkeiten von
Elektronen (totale Rejektionsrate bis 10
4
) [35].
64
Detection Principle:
Radiator foils
TR
-Absorption
dE/dx
Wires
Electron
+

TR
[Transition Radiation]
Drift time
dE/dx
-electron
Detector Signal:
[Electron-ID]
Transition Radiation ATLAS as Example
Straw Tube Tracker
with interspace lled with foam
Tracking & transition radiation
End-cap
assembly
Barrel
assembly
Transition Radiation ATLAS as Example
factor a
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
H
i
g
h

t
h
r
e
s
h
o
l
d

p
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Pion momentum (GeV)
1 10
Electron momentum (GeV)
1 10
TRT endcap
Electron candidates
Generic tracks
Fit to data
Electron candidates
Generic tracks
Electrons (MC)
Generic tracks (MC)
ATLAS preliminary
ATLAS Preliminary
TRT endcap
Mainly Pions
Electrons
from Conversions
dI = I dx
[ : absorption coecient ]
I(x) = I
0
e
x

= 1/ = 1/n
[ mean free path ]
Characteristic for interactions of
photons with matter:
A single interaction
removes photon from beam !
I
I - dI
depends on
E, Z,
Beer-Lambert law:
with
Possible Interactions
Photoelectric Effect
Compton Scattering
Pair Production
Rayleigh Scattering (A A; A = atom)
Thomson Scattering (e e; elastic scattering)
Photo Nuclear Absorption ( pK/nK)
Nuclear Resonance Scattering (K K* K)
Delbruck Scattering (K K)
Hadron Pair production (K h
+
h

K)
Interactions of Photons with Matter
Interactions of Photons with Matter
24 27. Passage of particles through matter
Photon energy
100
10
10
4
10
5
10
6
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
10 eV 100 eV 1 keV 10 keV 100 keV 1 MeV 10 MeV 100 MeV 1 GeV 10 GeV 100 GeV
A
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n

l
e
n
g
t
h

(
g
/
c
m
2
)
Si
C
Fe Pb
H
Sn
Figure 27.16: The photon mass attenuation length (or mean free path) =
1/(/) for various elemental absorbers as a function of photon energy. The
mass attenuation coecient is /, where is the density. The intensity I
remaining after traversal of thickness t (in mass/unit area) is given by I = I
0
exp(t/). The accuracy is a few percent. For a chemical compound or
mixture, 1/
e

elements
w
Z
/
Z
, where w
Z
is the proportion by weight of
the element with atomic number Z. The processes responsible for attenuation
are given in Fig. 27.10. Since coherent processes are included, not all these
processes result in energy deposition. The data for 30 eV < E < 1 keV are
obtained from http://www-cxro.lbl.gov/optical constants (courtesy of
Eric M. Gullikson, LBNL). The data for 1 keV < E < 100 GeV are from
http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData, through the courtesy of John H.
Hubbell (NIST).
27.4.4. Energy loss by photons : Contributions to the photon cross section in a
light element (carbon) and a heavy element (lead) are shown in Fig. 27.14. At
low energies it is seen that the photoelectric eect dominates, although Compton
scattering, Rayleigh scattering, and photonuclear absorption also contribute. The
photoelectric cross section is characterized by discontinuities (absorption edges)
as thresholds for photoionization of various atomic levels are reached. Photon
attenuation lengths for a variety of elements are shown in Fig. 27.16, and data for
30 eV< k <100 GeV for all elements is available from the web pages given in the
caption. Here k is the photon energy.
The increasing domination of pair production as the energy increases is shown
February 2, 2010 15:55
from PDG
Interactions of Photons with Matter
22 27. Passage of particles through matter
Photon Energy
1 Mb
1 kb
1 b
10 mb
10 eV 1 keV 1 MeV 1 GeV 100 GeV
(b) Lead (! = 82)
- experimental
tot

p.e.

"
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n


(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n


(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
10 mb
1 b
1 kb
1 Mb
(a) Carbon (!#= 6)

Rayleigh

g.d.r.

Compton

Compton

Rayleigh

nuc

nuc

"

p.e.
- experimental
tot
Figure 27.14: Photon total cross sections as a function of energy in carbon
and lead, showing the contributions of dierent processes:

p.e.
= Atomic photoelectric eect (electron ejection, photon
absorption)

Rayleigh
= Rayleigh (coherent) scatteringatom neither ionized nor excited

Compton
= Incoherent scattering (Compton scattering o an electron)

nuc
= Pair production, nuclear eld

e
= Pair production, electron eld

g.d.r.
= Photonuclear interactions, most notably the Giant Dipole
Resonance [48]. In these interactions, the target nucleus is
broken up.
27.4.3. Critical energy : An electron loses energy by bremsstrahlung at a
February 2, 2010 15:55
22 27. Passage of particles through matter
Photon Energy
1 Mb
1 kb
1 b
10 mb
10 eV 1 keV 1 MeV 1 GeV 100 GeV
(b) Lead (! = 82)
- experimental
tot

p.e.

"
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n


(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n


(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
10 mb
1 b
1 kb
1 Mb
(a) Carbon (!#= 6)

Rayleigh

g.d.r.

Compton

Compton

Rayleigh

nuc

nuc

"

p.e.
- experimental
tot
Figure 27.14: Photon total cross sections as a function of energy in carbon
and lead, showing the contributions of dierent processes:

p.e.
= Atomic photoelectric eect (electron ejection, photon
absorption)

Rayleigh
= Rayleigh (coherent) scatteringatom neither ionized nor excited

Compton
= Incoherent scattering (Compton scattering o an electron)

nuc
= Pair production, nuclear eld

e
= Pair production, electron eld

g.d.r.
= Photonuclear interactions, most notably the Giant Dipole
Resonance [48]. In these interactions, the target nucleus is
broken up.
27.4.3. Critical energy : An electron loses energy by bremsstrahlung at a
February 2, 2010 15:55
22 27. Passage of particles through matter
Photon Energy
1 Mb
1 kb
1 b
10 mb
10 eV 1 keV 1 MeV 1 GeV 100 GeV
(b) Lead (! = 82)
- experimental
tot

p.e.

"
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n


(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n


(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
10 mb
1 b
1 kb
1 Mb
(a) Carbon (!#= 6)

Rayleigh

g.d.r.

Compton

Compton

Rayleigh

nuc

nuc

"

p.e.
- experimental
tot
Figure 27.14: Photon total cross sections as a function of energy in carbon
and lead, showing the contributions of dierent processes:

p.e.
= Atomic photoelectric eect (electron ejection, photon
absorption)

Rayleigh
= Rayleigh (coherent) scatteringatom neither ionized nor excited

Compton
= Incoherent scattering (Compton scattering o an electron)

nuc
= Pair production, nuclear eld

e
= Pair production, electron eld

g.d.r.
= Photonuclear interactions, most notably the Giant Dipole
Resonance [48]. In these interactions, the target nucleus is
broken up.
27.4.3. Critical energy : An electron loses energy by bremsstrahlung at a
February 2, 2010 15:55
Carbon (Z = 6) Lead (Z = 82)
1 MeV
1 MeV
Photo effect
Rayleigh
scattering
photo effect
Compton scattering
Pair Production
Pair
production
Photon Total Cross Sections

ph
= 2r
2
e

4
Z
5
(mc
2
)/E

ph
= a
B
Z
5
(I
0
/E

)
7/2

Photon Interactions Photo Effect

X
Photon
Electron
Nucleus
Electron Electron
Nucleus

+ atom e

+ atom
+
Naive
picture
Feynman
diagram
Energy of
outgoing electron:
E
e
= h I
b
Photon energy
Binding energy
[strongly Z dependent]
Typical energy dependence:
[for E

mc
2
]
[for I
0
E

mc
2
]
Example values:
aB = 0.5310
-10
m; I0 =13.6 eV; =1/137; 1 b = 10
-24
m
use E = 100 keV
ph(Fe) = 29 barn
ph(Pb) = 5000 barn

ph
= 2r
2
e

4
Z
5
(mc
2
)/E

ph
= a
B
Z
5
(I
0
/E

)
7/2

Photon Interactions Photo Effect

Energy of
outgoing electron:
E
e
= h I
b
Photon energy
Binding energy
[strongly Z dependent]
Typical energy dependence:
[for E

mc
2
]
[for I
0
E

mc
2
]
Example values:
aB = 0.5310
-10
m; I0 =13.6 eV; =1/137; 1 b = 10
-24
m
use E = 100 keV
ph(Fe) = 29 barn
ph(Pb) = 5000 barn
1
10
3
10
6
1 keV 1 MeV
Absorption
edges
~ Z
5
/E

ph
Cross Section
Photoelectric Effect
Photon Interactions Photo Effect
Important for the photon detection is what happens to the excited atom ...
Two effects:
[Time scale: 10
-16
s]
Auger effect :
Fluorescence:
atom** atom* + e

atom** atom* +
+
+
++
+
Remark: Auger electrons deposit energy locally due to their small energy (< 10 keV)
Photons (X-rays) must interact via photo effect; signicant longer range.
Fluorescence yield w
k
increases with Z:
w
k
=
P[Fluorescence]
P[Fluorescence] + P[Auger]
Probabilities
Abbildung 2.2: Fluoreszenzausbeute als Funktion der Kernladung [44]
2.3.1 Kinematik des Prozesses
E
(E

, p

B
(E

e
, p

e
)
)

r
r
r
r
r
rj
(E

, p

)
E

=
E

1 +
E

mc
2
(1 cos )
(2.2)
F ur die kinetische Energie des R uckstoelektrons diese Groe ist im Detektorbau wichtig
erhalt man:
T

e
=
E

mc
2
(1 cos )
E

mc
2
(1 cos ) + 1
E

.
Folgende Grenzfalle sind im Detektorbau besonders interessant:

e
E

MAX
=
E

mc
2
2
1 + 2
E

mc
2
E = E

T
e MAX
=
E

1 +
2 E

mc
2

mc
2
2
= 255.5 keV E

mc
2
.
Der Ausdruck (2.1) legt die Lage der ComptonKante relativ zur PhotonLinie in
Detektoren fest (siehe Kap.5, 6).
2.3.2 Wirkungsquerschnitt
Der Wirkungsquerschnitt f ur die ComptonStreuung ist in seiner Groenordnung durch den
ThomsonQuerschnitt festgelegt:

Th
=
8
3
r
2
e
= 0.66 barn.
36
w
k
Z
Fluorescence yield
E

=
E

1 +
E

m
e
c
2
(1 cos )
T
e
=
E
2

m
e
c
2
(1 cos )
1 +
E

m
e
c
2
(1 cos )
Photon Interactions Compton Scattering

Electron
Electron
Photon
Photon
Electron
+ e

()' + (e

)'
Naive
picture
Feynman
diagram
Energy of
outgoing photon:
-Angle w.r.t. direction
of incoming photon
Simple 4-vector algebra;
[ Ansatz: p4
2
= (p1
2
+ p2
2
- p3
2
) ]
Kinetic energy of
outgoing electron:
Forward Scattering: E

= E

'; T
e
= 0
Backward
Scattering: E

' = mc
2
(1 + mc
2
/2E

)
-1
T
e
= E

(1 + mc
2
/2E

)
-1
T
e
=
E
2

m
e
c
2
(1 cos )
1 +
E

m
e
c
2
(1 cos )
Photon Interactions Compton Scattering
Kinetic energy of
outgoing electron:
Backward
Scattering: E

' = mc
2
(1 - mc
2
/2E

)
T
e,max
= E

(1 + mc
2
/2E

)
-1
F ur den ComptonQuerschnitt erhalt man nach KleinNishima:

c
=
Th
(1
2 E

mc
2
) E

mc
2

c
=
3
8

Th

mc
2
E

n (
2 E

mc
2
) +
1
2

.
E

mc
2
Die Winkelverteilung ist bei hohen Energien in Vorwartsrichtung geb undelt
d
d
=
r
2
e
2

2

E

+
E

sin
2

bzw.
d
d
= r
2
e

1
1 + (1 cos )

1 + cos
2

1 +

2
(1 cos )
2
(1 + cos
2
)(1 + (1 cos ))

Die Energieverteilung des Elektrons ist gegeben durch den Ausdruck (Abb.2.3).
Abbildung 2.3: Energieverteilung der durch ComptonStreuung angestoenen Elektronen
d
d T

e
=
r
2
e

2
mc
2

2 +

T

e
E

T

e

2
+

2
+
E

T

e
E

T

e
E

(2.3)
F ur den Massenabsorptionskoezienten gilt:

c
= n Z
c
=
L
A
Z
c

Z
E

.
Die Abhangigkeit von
c
von E

ist in Abb.2.1 gezeigt;

incoh
ber ucksichtigt, da die
Elektronen in Atomen gebunden sind.
Eine ausf uhrliche Diskussion ndet sich in [57].
37
Compton edge
for different photon energies
T
e
[MeV]
C
r
o
s
s

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

Transfer of complete
-energy not possible:
[maximum energy transfer]
E = E

- T
e,max
= E

(1 + 2E

/mc
2
)
-1
Important for single photon detection; if photon
is not complete absorbed a minimal amount of
energy is missing ....
d
d
=
r
2
e
2
1
[1 + (1 cos )]
2
...
...

1 + cos
2
+

2
(1 cos )
2
1 +
2
(1 cos )

d
dT
e
= ...
C
= ...
Photon Interactions Compton Scattering
Cross Section:
[use QED ...]
F ur den ComptonQuerschnitt erhalt man nach KleinNishima:

c
=
Th
(1
2 E

mc
2
) E

mc
2

c
=
3
8

Th

mc
2
E

n (
2 E

mc
2
) +
1
2

.
E

mc
2
Die Winkelverteilung ist bei hohen Energien in Vorwartsrichtung geb undelt
d
d
=
r
2
e
2

2

E

+
E

sin
2

bzw.
d
d
= r
2
e

1
1 + (1 cos )

1 + cos
2

1 +

2
(1 cos )
2
(1 + cos
2
)(1 + (1 cos ))

Die Energieverteilung des Elektrons ist gegeben durch den Ausdruck (Abb.2.3).
Abbildung 2.3: Energieverteilung der durch ComptonStreuung angestoenen Elektronen
d
d T

e
=
r
2
e

2
mc
2

2 +

T

e
E

T

e

2
+

2
+
E

T

e
E

T

e
E

(2.3)
F ur den Massenabsorptionskoezienten gilt:

c
= n Z
c
=
L
A
Z
c

Z
E

.
Die Abhangigkeit von
c
von E

ist in Abb.2.1 gezeigt;

incoh
ber ucksichtigt, da die
Elektronen in Atomen gebunden sind.
Eine ausf uhrliche Diskussion ndet sich in [57].
37
Compton edge
for different photon energies
T
e
[MeV]
C
r
o
s
s

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

[Klein-Nishina Formula]
Substitution/integration yields:
Small photon energies [E mec
2
]:

C
=
th
(1 - 2E

/mc
2
)
[with th = 8/3 re
2
= 0.66 barn]
Large photon energies:
C
(ln E

)/E

[E mec
2
]
Thomson
cross Section

pair
= 4 Z
2
r
2
e

7
9
ln
183
Z
1
3

1
54

4 Z
2
r
2
e

7
9
ln
183
Z
1
3

Photon Interactions Pair Production

Electron
Positron
Photon
Electron
Positron
Nucleus
+ atom e
+
+ e

X
Nucleus
[also electron]
Energy threshold:
E

2m
e
c
2
(1+m
e
/m
n
)
2 x electron mass
Kinetic energy
transferred to nucleus
Cross Section:
Rises above threshold, but reaches saturation for
large E [screening effect] ...
For E

m
e
c
2
:

pair

7
9

4 r
2
e
Z
2
ln
183
Z
1
3

}
Photon Interactions Pair Production
Cross Section:
A/N
A
X
0
[X
0
: radiation length]
Absorption coefcient:
= n [with n: particle density]
= N
A
/A
pair
= 7/9
Photon
Electron
Positron
Nucleus
[in cm or g/cm
2
]
1
X
0
[for E

m
e
c
2
]
[g/cm
3
] X0 [cm]
H2 [.] 0.071 865
C 2.27 18.8
Fe 7.87 1.76
Pb 11.35 0.56
Luft 1.210
-3
3010
3
[where now X0 is in cm]
Photon Interactions Pair Production
27. Passage of particles through matter 23
rate nearly proportional to its energy, while the ionization loss rate varies only
logarithmically with the electron energy. The critical energy E
c
is sometimes
dened as the energy at which the two loss rates are equal [46]. Berger and
Seltzer [46] also give the approximation E
c
= (800 MeV)/(Z + 1.2). This formula
has been widely quoted, and has been given in older editions of this Review [47].
Among alternate denitions is that of Rossi [2], who denes the critical energy
as the energy at which the ionization loss per radiation length is equal to the
electron energy. Equivalently, it is the same as the rst denition with the
approximation |dE/dx|
brems
E/X
0
. This form has been found to describe
transverse electromagnetic shower development more accurately (see below).
These denitions are illustrated in the case of copper in Fig. 27.12.
The accuracy of approximate forms for E
c
has been limited by the failure
to distinguish between gases and solid or liquids, where there is a substantial
dierence in ionization at the relevant energy because of the density eect. We
distinguish these two cases in Fig. 27.13. Fits were also made with functions of the
form a/(Z + b)

, but was found to be essentially unity. Since E

c
also depends
on A, I, and other factors, such forms are at best approximate.
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
0
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
x = E/k
Pair production
(
X
0
N
A
/
A
)

d

L
P
M
/
d
x
1 TeV
10 TeV
100 TeV
1 PeV
10 PeV
1 EeV
100 PeV
Figure 27.15: The normalized pair production cross section d
LPM
/dy,
versus fractional electron energy x = E/k.
February 2, 2010 15:55
from PDG
Interactions of Photons with Matter
22 27. Passage of particles through matter
Photon Energy
1 Mb
1 kb
1 b
10 mb
10 eV 1 keV 1 MeV 1 GeV 100 GeV
(b) Lead (! = 82)
- experimental
tot

p.e.

"
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n


(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n


(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
10 mb
1 b
1 kb
1 Mb
(a) Carbon (!#= 6)

Rayleigh

g.d.r.

Compton

Compton

Rayleigh

nuc

nuc

"

p.e.
- experimental
tot
Figure 27.14: Photon total cross sections as a function of energy in carbon
and lead, showing the contributions of dierent processes:

p.e.
= Atomic photoelectric eect (electron ejection, photon
absorption)

Rayleigh
= Rayleigh (coherent) scatteringatom neither ionized nor excited

Compton
= Incoherent scattering (Compton scattering o an electron)

nuc
= Pair production, nuclear eld

e
= Pair production, electron eld

g.d.r.
= Photonuclear interactions, most notably the Giant Dipole
Resonance [48]. In these interactions, the target nucleus is
broken up.
27.4.3. Critical energy : An electron loses energy by bremsstrahlung at a
February 2, 2010 15:55
22 27. Passage of particles through matter
Photon Energy
1 Mb
1 kb
1 b
10 mb
10 eV 1 keV 1 MeV 1 GeV 100 GeV
(b) Lead (! = 82)
- experimental
tot

p.e.

"
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n


(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n


(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
10 mb
1 b
1 kb
1 Mb
(a) Carbon (!#= 6)

Rayleigh

g.d.r.

Compton

Compton

Rayleigh

nuc

nuc

"

p.e.
- experimental
tot
Figure 27.14: Photon total cross sections as a function of energy in carbon
and lead, showing the contributions of dierent processes:

p.e.
= Atomic photoelectric eect (electron ejection, photon
absorption)

Rayleigh
= Rayleigh (coherent) scatteringatom neither ionized nor excited

Compton
= Incoherent scattering (Compton scattering o an electron)

nuc
= Pair production, nuclear eld

e
= Pair production, electron eld

g.d.r.
= Photonuclear interactions, most notably the Giant Dipole
Resonance [48]. In these interactions, the target nucleus is
broken up.
27.4.3. Critical energy : An electron loses energy by bremsstrahlung at a
February 2, 2010 15:55
22 27. Passage of particles through matter
Photon Energy
1 Mb
1 kb
1 b
10 mb
10 eV 1 keV 1 MeV 1 GeV 100 GeV
(b) Lead (! = 82)
- experimental
tot

p.e.

"
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n


(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n


(
b
a
r
n
s
/
a
t
o
m
)
10 mb
1 b
1 kb
1 Mb
(a) Carbon (!#= 6)

Rayleigh

g.d.r.

Compton

Compton

Rayleigh

nuc

nuc

"

p.e.
- experimental
tot
Figure 27.14: Photon total cross sections as a function of energy in carbon
and lead, showing the contributions of dierent processes:

p.e.
= Atomic photoelectric eect (electron ejection, photon
absorption)

Rayleigh
= Rayleigh (coherent) scatteringatom neither ionized nor excited

Compton
= Incoherent scattering (Compton scattering o an electron)

nuc
= Pair production, nuclear eld

e
= Pair production, electron eld

g.d.r.
= Photonuclear interactions, most notably the Giant Dipole
Resonance [48]. In these interactions, the target nucleus is
broken up.
27.4.3. Critical energy : An electron loses energy by bremsstrahlung at a
February 2, 2010 15:55
Carbon (Z = 6) Lead (Z = 82)
1 MeV
1 MeV
Photo effect
Rayleigh
scattering
photo effect
Compton scattering
Pair Production
Pair
production
Photon Total Cross Sections

p
t
p

p
t
p
=
2Zze
2
b
1
pv
p
t
=
2Zze
2
bv

2
k
=
k

m=1

2
m
= k
2

Multiple Scattering
16 27. Passage of particles through matter
Eq. (27.14) describes scattering from a single material, while the usual problem
involves the multiple scattering of a particle traversing many dierent layers and
mixtures. Since it is from a t to a Moli`ere distribution, it is incorrect to add the
individual
0
contributions in quadrature; the result is systematically too small. It
is much more accurate to apply Eq. (27.14) once, after nding x and X
0
for the
combined scatterer.
Lynch and Dahl have extended this phenomenological approach, tting
Gaussian distributions to a variable fraction of the Moli`ere distribution for
arbitrary scatterers [35], and achieve accuracies of 2% or better.
x
s
plane
y
plane

plane

plane
x/2
Figure 27.9: Quantities used to describe multiple Coulomb scattering. The
particle is incident in the plane of the gure.
The nonprojected (space) and projected (plane) angular distributions are given
approximately by [33]
1
2
2
0
exp

2
space
2
2
0

d , (27.15)
1

2
0
exp

2
plane
2
2
0

d
plane
, (27.16)
where is the deection angle. In this approximation,
2
space
(
2
plane,x
+
2
plane,y
),
where the x and y axes are orthogonal to the direction of motion, and
d d
plane,x
d
plane,y
. Deections into
plane,x
and
plane,y
are independent and
identically distributed.
February 2, 2010 15:55
Gaussian Approximation:
27. Passage of particles through matter 15
1 3 0.3 30 300 10 100 1000
(= p/m)
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
(

p
/
x
)

/

d
E
/
d
x
m
i
n
80 m (18.7 mg/cm
2
)
160 m (37.4 mg/cm
2
)
x = 640 m (149 mg/cm
2
)
320 m (74.7 mg/cm
2
)
Figure 27.8: Most probable energy loss in silicon, scaled to the mean loss of
a minimum ionizing particle, 388 eV/m (1.66 MeV g
1
cm
2
).
27.3. Multiple scattering through small angles
A charged particle traversing a medium is deected by many small-angle
scatters. Most of this deection is due to Coulomb scattering from nuclei, and
hence the eect is called multiple Coulomb scattering. (However, for hadronic
projectiles, the strong interactions also contribute to multiple scattering.) The
Coulomb scattering distribution is well represented by the theory of Moli`ere [33].
It is roughly Gaussian for small deection angles, but at larger angles (greater
than a few
0
, dened below) it behaves like Rutherford scattering, with larger
tails than does a Gaussian distribution.
If we dene

0
=
rms
plane
=
1

2

rms
space
. (27.13)
then it is sucient for many applications to use a Gaussian approximation for the
central 98% of the projected angular distribution, with a width given by [34,35]

0
=
13.6 MeV
cp
z

x/X
0

1 + 0.038 ln(x/X
0
)

. (27.14)
Here p, c, and z are the momentum, velocity, and charge number of the incident
particle, and x/X
0
is the thickness of the scattering medium in radiation lengths
(dened below). This value of
0
is from a t to Moli`ere distribution [33] for
singly charged particles with = 1 for all Z, and is accurate to 11% or better for
10
3
< x/X
0
< 100.
February 2, 2010 15:55
When deriving energy loss via ionization
we considered transverse momentum transfer ...
After k collisions:
from PDG
At small momenta this limits resolution
of momentum measurement ...
By averaging over many collisions and
integrating over b ...