EEE 414, Optoelectronics

KHAIRUL ALAM
Professor, EEE Department
East West University
 Electron-Photon Interaction
The optical processes (electron-photon interaction) in
semiconductors can be classified into two categories.
(1) Carrier generation, in which an electron in the valence
band absorbs an incoming photon and therefore, an
electron hole pair (EHP) is generated. The parameter is
generation rate (Gn & Gp) measured in number of EHP
per unit volume per unit time.
(2) Carrier recombination, in which an electron in the
conduction band recombines with a hole in the valence
band, and therefore releases the energy as either light
or heat. The parameter is recombination rate (Rn & Rp)
measured in number of EH recombined per unit volume
per unit time.
Generation-Recombination at Equilibrium
1. For the direct band-to-band generation. the electrons
and holes are created in pairs, so we must have that Gn0
= Gp0.

2. In direct band-to-band recombination, electrons and

holes also recombine in pairs, so that Rn0 = Rp0

In thermal equilibrium, the concentration of electrons

and holes are independent of time. Therefore, the
generation and recombination rates are equal, and we
have
Gn 0 = G p 0 = Rn 0 = R p 0
 Carrier Generation
There are two types of generation mechanism
1. Generation due to light and
2. Generation due to impact ionization.
In optoelectronics, we are interested in optical generation

In optical generation, the energy of the incoming photons is

used to bring an electron from the valence band to the
conduction band. In direct band-to-band generation,
electrons and holes are generated in pairs.
 Carrier Generation
In the case of EHP generation, a necessary condition is Eph >
EG. Generation rate (cm-3s-1) is related to incident light and
material property as follows: n p Pop
G =G = = =
n p
n p
E ph
Here, α is the absorption coefficient (1/cm), Pop is the optical
power density (W/cm2) of incident light, and Eph is the photon
energy.
 Absorption Coefficient
Direct gap: Absorption is
high
Indirect gap: Absorption is
a second order process
and weak
See the absorption
coefficient curves in the
next slide

 d ( ) = A(E ph − E g )1 / 2
i ( ) = B (E ph − E g )2
 Absorption Coefficient
Photon energy
N = n + i
E ph =  = h
Photon energy &
wave length relation
 m =
1.24
E ph eV 

4 Light propagation
=  through a material

Pop (x ) = Pop (0)e −x

Pop optical intensity [W/cm2], α is absorption coefficient

Pop
Photon flux density [#/cm2/s]  ph = E GL =  ph
ph
 Excess Carrier: Quasi Fermi
At equilibrium, Fermi level is same for both electron &
hole. Also, at equilibrium, the product n0p0 = ni2 is true.

At non-equilibrium, when excess carriers are present,

electrons and holes have two separate Fermi levels,
called Quasi-Fermi levels. Also, at non-equilibrium, the
product np = ni2 is not true.
 Fn − EC 
 
n = NC e  B 
k T

 EV − Fp 
 
p = NV e  k BT 

Fn and Fp are quasi-Fermi levels for electrons and

holes, respectively. At equilibrium, Fn = Fp = Ef
Problems
 Carrier Recombination
Recombination is a process in which an electron and a hole
annihilate each other.
Type of Recombination
1. Band to band (radiative) recombination (spontaneous &
stimulated)
2. Trap assisted (Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH)) recombination
3. Auger recombination
4. Surface recombination

In recombination process, the energy released can be emitted

as photon (radiative) or get lost as heat (non-radiative)
 Radiative Recombination
Band-to-band recombination occurs when an electron moves
from its conduction band state into the empty valence band
state associated with the hole. This band-to-band transition is
typically a radiative transition in direct bandgap
semiconductors. Radiative recombination means that we get
light from this type of recombination. Band-to-band
recombination depends on the density of available electrons
and holes. Both carrier types need to be available in the
recombination process. Radiative recombination is
characterized by a radiative recombination lifetime, τr.
R = Br np = Br (n0 + n )( p0 + p ) R0 = Br n0 p0
= Br (n0 p0 + n0 p + np0 + np ) Rex = Br n(n0 + p0 + n )
= Br (n0 p0 + n0 n + np0 + nn ) n 1
r = =
= Br n0 p0 + Br n(n0 + p0 + n ) Rex Br (n0 + p0 + n )
 Radiative Recombination
At very high excitation level : Δn >> n0 & p0
n 1
r = =
Rex Br n

At low excitation level : n0 & p0 >> Δn

n 1
r = =
Rex Br (n0 + p0 )

At steady-state : G = R

G=R
G
 G = Br (n0 + n )( p0 + p ) Br =
(n0 + n )( p0 + n )
 G = Br (n0 + n )( p0 + n )
 Radiative Recombination : Example
Optical beam irradiating an intrinsic GaAs semiconductor
produces 5x1022 cm-3s-1 EHPs. The steady-state concentration
of photoelectron is Δn = 1014 cm-3.
a) Calculate the radiative recombination coefficient Br
b) Calculate the radiative lifetime τr

n 1
Br =
G r = =
(ni + n )( pi + n ) Rex Br (n0 + p0 + n )
5 10 22 1
= =
( )(
2.1106 + 1014 2.1106 + 1014 ) 5 10 −6 (
2  2.1106 + 1014 )

= 5 10 −6 cm3 / s  = 2 10 −9 s 
Radiative Recombination : Example

G
Br =
(n0 + n )( p0 + n )
n 1
r = =
Rex Br (n0 + p0 + n )
∆n (107 cm-3) n0 (107 cm-3) p0 (107 cm-3) Br (10-7 cm3/s) τ (sec)

0 10-2 102 1 0.0100

1 10-1 10 0.0826 1.0901
3 1 1 0.0625 3.2000
10 10 10-1 0.0050 10.0498
30 102 10-2 0.0003 30.0077
 Non-radiative Recombination

The other three types of recombination, that is,

1. Trap assisted (Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH)) recombination
2. Auger recombination
3. Surface recombination
Are collectively called non-radiative recombination. We will
use a non-radiative recombination lifetime, τnr to characterize
these recombination mechanism as a whole.