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Training school pupils in the scientific method: student participation in an international VLF radio experiment

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Training school pupils in the scientic method: student participation in an international VLF radio experiment
J J Denton1, M H Denton2, A J Kavanagh2 , H Harron1 , T Ulich3 and J S Denton4
1 2 3 4

Headlands School and Community Science College, Bridlington, Y016 6UR, UK Department of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YB, UK Sodankyl Geophysical Observatory, 99600 Sodankyl , Finland a a Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YQ, UK

Abstract We report on a schooluniversity collaboration to involve students in the deployment, testing, and operation of a very low frequency (VLF) radio receiver as part of an international network of such experiments. A background to the collaboration is presented, along with a summary of planning and development, and the ultimate deployment of the hardware. The integration and involvement of students in data analysis and testing is discussed and we summarize how students further develop their application of the scientic method via their role as custodians of the experiment. Such enrichment activities allow the students access to carry out non-curricular activities they would not normally have access to. We consider that the project as a whole may be used as a template for other schooluniversity experimental collaborations.

Introduction
In this paper we discuss the foundation of a project to measure very low frequency (VLF) waves by means of an experiment deployed at Headlands School and Community Science College, Bridlington. We describe the planning and rationale of the project, its role in an international consortium of similar experiments, and pupils participation in the experiment. We also discuss how locating small experimental research projects within schools has the potential to benet all participants. Firstly, pupils gain valuable training in how the scientic method works in practice, and they further develop concepts learnt as part of the National Curriculum.
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Secondly, academic users of such experiments can rely on conscientious custodians of their experiments as well as assistance in monitoring the experiment, performing data analysis, and experiment maintenance. We outline details of the project, emphasize our belief that pupils better develop an understanding of the scientic method through participation, and also detail our plans for the future. The project discussed below originally arose primarily via a family connection between J J Denton (a science teacher at Headlands School) and M H Denton (principal investigator of the VLF experiment). Initially a series of science talks was given to pupils at Headlands School on the broad topic

0031-9120/12/010064+05$33.00 2012 IOP Publishing Ltd

School pupils and the scientic method: a VLF radio experiment of space physics and the SunEarth system. Following this a process was put in place by which deployment of the equipment to Headlands School could begin. After construction of the hardware by Sodankyl Geophysical Observatory (SGO), Fina land, and initial testing at Lancaster University, the experiment was deployed at Headlands School in November 2010 (Kavanagh et al 2011). The experiment is now part of the international AARDDVARK network of similar experiments deployed around the world (e.g. Clilverd et al 2009).
free electrons in the atmosphere form a conducting layer that extends above 7590 km, known as the ionosphere VLF signals travel along the natural waveguide between the ground and the bottom of the ionosphere

VLF TX RX

received signals provide information on the ionosphere between TX and RX

Background to VLF waves

VLF waves can be detected with relatively simple equipment, which can be constructed with a reasonably low budget requiring little more than a PC, a commercial sound card and an antenna (see, for example, Fullerkrug (2009) or www.vlf.it/ obs1/monitoringstation.html). More sophisticated experiments, such as that deployed at Headlands, aim to increase the signal-to-noise ratio, and to record data at high time resolution from a number of different narrow-band sources. Two prominent signals dominate the VLF spectrum between 3 and 50 kHz: the natural VLF waves generated by lightning and the articial VLF waves from various high power transmitters used to communicate with the worlds submarine eets. VLF waves can travel large distances (thousands of kilometres) due to their relatively low attenuation. Whilst some researchers are interested in the study of lightning using VLF (see, for example, the World Wide Lightning Location Network: http://wwlln.net/) the primary focus for the Lancaster scientists is in using the articial signals generated by high power transmitters to probe the geospace environment. VLF waves are ducted between the Earths surface and either the lower portion of the ionospheric D region at an altitude of 75 km during sunlit hours or the lower portion of the ionospheric E region at an altitude of 90 km during darkness. This cavity between the Earths surface and the lowest conducting layer in the atmosphere acts as a natural waveguide (see gure 1). The measured amplitude and phase of these signals uctuates in response to changes in the atmosphere on the path between the transmitter and the receiver. By analysing articial VLF transmissions it is possible to monitor the charged
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Figure 1. The cavity between the Earth's surface and free electrons in the lower ionosphere forms a natural waveguide. VLF transmissions propagate large distances along this waveguide, between transmitter (TX) and receiver (RX). The amplitude and phase of the signal can be studied to derive information about the ionosphere between transmitter and receiver.

portion of the atmosphere along this path. In general the more energy the particles from space have, the deeper they will penetrate into the atmosphere, and the most energetic particles may reach ground level. However, most incoming particles collide with neutral atomic species such as oxygen or nitrogen at altitudes between 60 and 400 km. Since most of the particles and radiation incident on the Earth originate from the Sun, the VLF experiment at Headlands School allows us to study changes in different regions of the ionosphere which are due directly to so-called space weather effects. The VLF wave properties of the signals from these transmitters are analysed and can detect the presence of high-energy charged particles from space which can precipitate or rain down into the atmosphere (Clilverd et al 2006, Rodger et al 2007, Longden et al 2008, Gamble et al 2008) under certain conditions (Kavanagh and Denton 2007, Denton et al 2009). A selection of propagation paths from various VLF transmitters to the Headlands receiver in Bridlington are shown in gure 2.

Relevance to international projects

Members of the AARDDVARK project, involving nine different institutes from seven countries, operate a network of VLF receivers around the globe (see www.physics.otago.ac.nz/space/ AARDDVARK homepage.htm). Each partner
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J J Denton et al
high power, narrow band signals from VLF transmitters 15 40 frequency (kHz) 10 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 time (s) 8 10 intermittent broadband signals from lighting or unknown sources 5 0 5 power (dB)

10 15

intermittent broadband noise: cause unknown

Figure 2. A selection of ray paths between VLF transmitters and the Bridlington receiver at Headlands School. Information can be derived about the upper atmosphere along these ray paths.

Figure 4. An example of the data analysed by pupils at Headlands School. The figure shows the level of wave power between 0 and 48 kHz during a 10 s period on 14 April 2011. VLF transmitters broadcast on specific narrow frequencies and are easily identified. Lightning strikes produce short-lived VLF waves with wave power spread over a number of frequencies. Broadband intermittent noise can also be identified in the data. The cause of this is under investigation.

Figure 3. The gure shows construction of the VLF antenna at Headlands School and a selection of pupils who are custodians of the experiment.

may be lost via collisions with the upper atmosphere (e.g. Ukhorskiy et al 2011). The equipment deployed at Headlands School is able to detect this particle precipitation and can thus provide groundbased support for missions such as RBSP. The connections between Headlands School and the above international projects mean that there are many opportunities to stimulate pupils with the real-world applications of their knowledge.

Methodology, student interaction and learning

shares data to enable all participants to utilize the largest dataset possible for application to individual research projects. Lancaster University is the most recent institute to join the AARDDVARK network with the deployment of the Bridlington VLF receiver. The site has reasonably low radio noise and its location on the east coast of the UK ensures that the transmitter-to-receiver paths complement existing AARDDVARK receivers. One exciting opportunity for further international collaboration will arise with the launch of the NASA Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP) mission in 2012. One aim of this mission is to study how particles from the Earths radiation belts
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The hardware for the experiment was assembled at Headlands School in November 2010 (gure 3). Despite initial plans to include students in building the antenna itself, this proved unworkable given health and safety considerations due to the rooftop location. After initial testing the system started producing meaningful data in January 2011 and this allowed student interaction with the equipment to begin. An example of raw data recorded at Headlands School is shown in gure 4. The signatures of lightning strikes, VLF transmitter signals, and broad-band noise are all present. In the few months that the project has been running mixed gender students aged
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School pupils and the scientic method: a VLF radio experiment 1418 have been encouraged to plan and carry out (in their own time!) a variety of tasks and experiments based on the VLF data. A sixth form special interest group of 25 students has been particularly active in analysing data and attempting to determine the sources of the noise seen in the data. Their learning objectives were primarily based around greater understanding of waves and the electromagnetic spectrum, and the principles of scientic enquiry. The GCSE science specication contains a large section on the use of waves for communication and the equipment deployed at Headlands School has given staff the opportunity to enrich and enlighten students, broadening their understanding of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum whilst exploring the theme of How Science Works. The pupils suggested a testable hypothesis that interference from local electrical devices caused some of the noise recorded in the dynamic spectra. This hypothesis was based upon (a) the reasonably high strength of the noise, (b) regular pattern spacing, and (c) a clear start point, suggesting an anthropogenic source. As part of the experimental design pupils listed numerous potential local independent variables (electrical sources) and dependent variables (local harmonics), along with other non-local sources of VLF emissions beyond their control (e.g. electrical sub-stations which were presumed to remain static through the course of an experiment). The initial experimental phase involved the identication of a test area and a synchronized deactivation of electrical equipment within that area. The pupils designed a spreadsheet to plan the deactivation and ensure that it was carried out in a timed manner such that any reduction in noise in the data could be attributed to a particular piece of equipment. The initial experiment returned a null result, neither supporting nor disproving the original hypothesis. Hence, further tests are being planned to explore radio-noise sources in the area surrounding the school. In addition the students are themselves designing an experiment to test whether electrical discharges from a Van der Graff generator will produce a VLF signature in the data in a manner analogous to lightning. from a research perspective. Enrichment activities, such as this project, allow students the chance to experience non-curricular activities they would not normally have access to. Discussions with the students indicate that they enjoy being part of the project and are intellectually stimulated by the challenges involved. In the future we aim to involve other pupils in further experimental studies to support core activities at Key Stages 35. This will involve year 711 students carrying out observations and photography of the Sun using specialized equipment. Students in year 1213 will perform similar observations and also carry them further by studying the subsequent effects of solar activity on the VLF measurements. Headlands School will also carry out outreach work within the community and with Key Stage 2 pupils from local feeder primary schools. Lancaster University Faculty of Science and Technology (FST) has funded the purchase of a solar telescope and camera equipment for Headlands School to facilitate these activities. Such projects aim to reinforce and strengthen the learning the students undertake as part of the National Curriculum, and to enhance their understanding of the SunEarth system. However, given the scope of experimental research carried out in UK universities in numerous subject areas, many other opportunities must be available for forming productive partnerships with schools in the community. We encourage such efforts which, in our opinion, stimulate an interest in and appreciation of science in the upcoming generation.

Acknowledgments
We thank Mark Clilverd (British Antarctic Survey), Craig Rodger (University of Otago, New Zealand), Andrew Senior (Lancaster), and Steve Marple (Lancaster) for useful discussions and advice during the project. We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Markku Postila and the workshop and staff at Sodankyl Geophysical a Observatory (SGO), Finland, during construction of the VLF receiver. MHD acknowledges the hospitality extended by SGO during his visit in May 2011. We thank Bob Bunce (Headlands School) for help during deployment of the equipment. Special thanks are due to all pupils involved with the VLF receiver at Headlands School for their help and support of this project. This
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Summary and future work

We consider the project to date to have been a great success, both in terms of student learning and
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J J Denton et al work was part-funded by a Lancaster University Small Award and FST Grant to M H Denton.
Received 5 June 2011 doi:10.1088/0031-9120/47/1/64

References
Clilverd M A, Rodger C J and Ulich T 2006 The importance of atmospheric precipitation in storm-time relativistic electron ux drop outs Geophys. Res. Lett. 33 L01102 Clilverd M A et al 2009 Space Weather 7 S04001 Denton M H, Borovsky J E, Horne R B, McPherron R L, Morley S K and Tsurutani B T 2009 Introduction to special issue on high speed solar wind streams and geospace interactions J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 71 10113 Fullerkrug M 2009 Exploration of the electromagnetic environment Phys. Educ. 44 1337 Gamble R J, Rodger C J, Clilverd M A, Sauvaud J A, Thomson N R, Stewart S L, McCormick R J, Parrot M and Berthelier J J 2008 Radiation belt electron precipitation by man-made VLF transmissions J. Geophys. Res. 113 A10211 Kavanagh A J and Denton M H 2007 High speed solar wind streams and geospace interactions Astron. Geophys. 48 6.246

Kavanagh A J, Denton M H, Denton J J and Harron H 2011 Probing geospace with VLF radio signals Astron. Geophys. 52 2.2730 Longden N, Denton M H and Honary F 2008 Particle precipitation during ICME-driven and CIR-driven geomagnetic storms J. Geophys. Res. 113 A06205 Rodger C J, Clilverd M A, Nunn D, Verronen P T, Bortnik J and Turunen E 2007 Storm time, short-lived bursts of relativistic electron precipitation detected by subionospheric radio wave propagation J. Geophys. Res. 112 A07301 Ukhorskiy A Y, Mauk B H, Fox N J, Sibeck D G and Grebowsky J M 2011 Radiation belt storm probes: resolving fundamental physics with practical consequences J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 73 141724

Further information
The Lancaster VLF experiment http://vlf.lancs.ac.uk The AARDDVARK network of VLF receivers www. physics.otago.ac.nz/space/ AARDDVARK homepage.htm Live data from Sodankyl Geophysical Observatory a www.sgo.fi/Data/latest.php Build your own VLF receiver www.vlf.it/obs1/ monitoringstation.html also Fullerkrug (2009) The NASA Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP) Mission http://rbsp.jhuapl.edu/ Real-time Space-Weather www.swpc.noaa.gov/

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