Solar Energy 76 (2004) 33 43 www.elsevier.com/locate/solener New and emerging developments in solar energy D.Y. Goswami *, S. Vijayaraghavan, S. Lu, G.

Tamm Solar Energy and Energy Conversion Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Florida, P.O. Box 116300, Gainesville, FL 32611-6300, USA Abstract Solar energy can potentially play a very

important role in providing most ofthe heating, cooling and electricity needs ofthe world. With the emergence ofsolar photocatalytic detoxification technology, solar energy also has the potential to solve our environmental problems. However, we do not see widespread commercial use ofsolar energy. Some ofthe emerging developments in solar may change that situation. This paper describes some ofthe new and emerging developments,

with special emphasis on: (1) nanoscale antennas for direct conversion of sunlight to electricity with potential conversion efficiencies approaching 80 90%; (2) new thermodynamic cycles for solar thermal power, that have the potential to reduce capital costs by 50%; and (3) solar photocatalytic oxidation for cleanup of industrial wastewater, drinking water, soil and air. The paper describes the fundamentals ofeach ofthese

developments, their potential, present status and future opportunities for research. (1) Nanoscale antenna solar energy conversion: The current photovoltaic technologies rely on the quantum nature of light and semiconductors which are fundamentally limited by the band-gap energies. A revolutionary new approach suggested by Professor Robert Bailey in 1972 revolves around the wave nature of light. Professor Bailey suggested

that broadband rectifying antennas could be used for solar to d.c. conversion. These rectennas would not have the fundamental limitation ofsemiconductor band-gap limiting their conversion efficiencies. Rectennas for solar conversion would have dimensions ofthe order ofthe wavelengths ofsolar radiation which falls mostly in the sub-micron range. The challenges in actually achieving the objectives are many. This paper describes the challenges

and approaches to their solution. (2) New thermodynamic cycles for solar thermal power: It is recognized that the capital costs of solar thermal power will have to be reduced by about 50% in the near future in order to make it competitive with fossil fuels (especially natural gas) based power systems. Potential exists for meeting this goal by reducing the

costs and improving the thermodynamic performance of power cycles by hybridization and combined cycle approaches and by employing new and innovative ideas in thermal power cycles. This paper describes the new thermodynamic approaches with an emphasis on an innovative new thermodynamic cycle using ammonia and water mixtures as the working fluids. (3) Solar photocatalytic detoxification and disinfection of water and

air: Although the potential of solar radiation for disinfection and environmental mitigation has been known for years, only recently has this technology been scientifically recognized and researched. Solar photocatalytic oxidation has been demonstrated to effectively treat groundwater, drinking water, and industrial wastewater. In some applications such as decoloration and reduction of COD it may be the only effective method oftreatment.

Treatment ofindoor air by the photocatalytic method has been demonstrated as the most effective technology for that application. This paper describes the recent developments and identify challenges and future research opportunities. . 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Antenna solar energy conversion Direct solar energy conversion to electricity is con * ventionally done using photovoltaic cells, which

makes Corresponding author. Fax: +1-352-392-1071. E-mail address: goswami@ufl.edu (D.Y. Goswami). use ofthe photovoltaic effect. The photovoltaic effect 0038-092X/$ -see front matter . 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0038-092X(03)00103-8

D.Y. Goswami et al. / Solar Energy 76 (2004) 33 43 depends on interaction ofphotons, with energy equal to, or more than the band-gap ofthe photovoltaic materials. Over many years ofresearch, the efficiency of photovoltaic cells has incrementally increased. Although silicon is the most commonly used material till date, other materials such as GaAs have also been used. Compound (multiple

junction) cells have been developed with two or more layers ofcells. Some ofthe losses due to the band-gap limitations are avoided by cascading semiconductors ofdifferent band-gaps. The antenna concept, on the other hand, relies on the fact that solar radiation is electromagnetic in nature. In other words, the waves are oscillating electric and magnetic fields propagating from the

sun to the earth. The use ofantennas for signal (and power) transmission and reception is a very well-developed science in the microwave frequencies. Brown (1984), of the Raytheon Company, a pioneer ofmicrowave power transmission, coined the term rectenna , for rectifying antenna. Reception and conversion ofmicrowave radiation (at 2.45 GHz) at close to 90% efficiencies have been recorded in the literature.

The advantage ofthe antenna approach to solar energy conversion is that, primarily, conversion would not be band-gap limited as in photovoltaic cells. It is assumed while making this assertion that the process of rectifying these high frequency electromagnetic waves will not involve any such lossy quantum effects. The idea ofconverting solar energy into useful d.c. electricity

using antennas was first patented by J.C. Fletcher ofNASA, and R.L. Bailey ofthe University of Florida, based on a summer project at the NASA Goddard Center in the late 1960s. The patent describes the idea as a device for converting electromagnetic wave energy into electric power consisting ofa number of relatively close spaced electromagnetic wave absorber elements having tapered portions

responsive to a wide band electromagnetic wave radiation. A few figures of the proposed device from the patent (Fletcher and Bailey, 1973) are shown in Fig. 1. Pyramidal antennas were tested at microwave frequencies (100 1000 MHz) to verify their broadband characteristics and to provide some preliminary concept validity evidences (Bailey, 1972). It is in this paper that Bailey

proposed the use ofhis electromagnetic wave energy converter as a solar energy converter. Subsequently, Bailey et al. (1975) did some initial theoretical work and literature search, to identify important parameters and to determine the future direction of research. The study focused on the absorption (or reception) ofEM radiation by the antennas, while indicating that rectification ofthe signals was an equally

critical issue and a tough challenge. Some analogies to insect antennas and to the rods and cone structures present in the eye were drawn. These antennas were also used as a basis to predict the geometry and materials of solar antenna construction. Fig.1.AdescriptivefigureshowingthetaperedbroadbandEWECelementsconnectedtoarectif icationarrangement(FletcherandBailey,1973). Subsequently, Farber (1988) worked on the antenna based energy conversion concept at

the University of Florida s Solar Energy and Energy Conversion Laboratory. As a part ofhis work, he transmitted microwave radiation in the 0.2 3 GHz range using broadband metallic pyramidal antenna elements across the laboratory, where it was picked up by pyramidal dielectric antennas and rectified to d.c. This d.c. power was used to run a small motor as a proofofconcept. Farber s

work covered three frequency ranges, 0.2 3, 10 and 100 GHz. Bulk ofhis work was done at 10 GHz, where he characterized hollow dielectric pyramidal antennas to determine parameters such as optimum base size, length over base ratio, array spacing etc. Some spot checks of those results were performed at 100 GHz. Farber also used a suitably modified carborundum paper in

which the paper backing was scraped thin and metallic current collector wires randomly applied, to test under visible

D.Y. Goswami et al. / Solar Energy 76 (2004) 33 43 light. The grade ofthe paper was such that the SiC particles were approximately ofthe right size as determined from his earlier experimentation. Some output was observed on his instruments by testing, but it is not clear as to whether that was because ofthe antenna effect. Lin et

al. (1996) reported seeing a short circuit current using a fabricated sub-nanostructure consisting of a parallel dipole array connected to a rectification arrangement. This is possibly the first and only experimental observation ofresonance light absorption and rectification in the visible light range. The idea ofconverting optical radiation to electrical energy was also suggested by Gustafson and Billman (1974). Much of

their research in the past had been focused on optical diodes. Brown (1984) reviews the development ofmicrowave rectennas (rectifying antennas). Most of the initial testing was done at 2.45 GHz. Dipole antenna arrays coupled to semiconductor rectifier bridges were placed in the front of a microwave beam to absorb the energy and convert to d.c. Over time, very

good microwave to d.c. efficiencies were obtained. For instance, at a demonstration at the JPL Goldstone Facility, the power was transmitted over a distance ofmore than 1 mile. Over 30 kW ofd.c. power was obtained from the rectenna with a ratio ofd.c. output to incident microwave power of0.84. All these results go to prove that high efficiency microwave to d.c.

conversion is possible. Dipole antennas are linearly polarized antennas. Suh et al. (2000) obtained a maximum conversion efficiency of60% using a circularly polarized truncated-corner square patch microstrip antenna at 5.8 GHz. Yoo and Chang (1992) also tested rectennas at 10 and 35 GHz with conversion efficiencies of60% and 39%, respectively. The limitation in these tests was found to

be with the diodes used for rectification. A primary question is whether antennas can be used to receive high frequency, small wavelength signals. There are several references in the literature to antenna coupled radiation detectors (see Codreanu et al., 1999; Chong and Ahmed, 1998; Osterman et al., 1997). These detectors use several kinds ofantennas, such as bow-tie, log-periodic,

and spiral antenna, etc. The antennas are coupled to a resistance which dissipates the power picked up by the antenna into heat. Table 1 Length and time scales ofelectromagnetic radiation Therefore, it does appear feasible that conversion of solar radiation from electromagnetic radiation to useful electric power is possible. In the past, one ofthe biggest factors

preventing any significant development in this area has been the ability to work at the length scales of the wavelengths ofthe visible radiation. With the advent ofnanotechnology and the improvements in semiconductor processing technologies, we might be at a point where experiments can be done to test this concept. It is hypothesized that EM wave to d.c. conversion

can be done at solar frequencies with potentially much higher conversion efficiencies than with present day photovoltaic technologies. The challenges in actually achieving this objective are many. They are summarized below:

Scale: Antennas for solar conversion have to have dimensions ofthe order ofwavelengths ofsolar radiation that falls in the sub-micron range. This size range brings up the

associated challenges offabrication, interconnection, quality control, mass-manufacturing and such. Material: What type ofmaterials are best suited for working at solar frequencies? The antennas will probably have to be made ofdielectric materials, the choice being decided by the effect on antenna losses. Rectification: The received waves will have to be rectified to d.c. to be useable. Such high frequency

rectification would be quite a challenge, which will have to be overcome. Antenna properties: The antenna array will have to be optimized in order to achieve good conversion efficiencies. The antenna geometry and materials will have to be selected such that the array is broadband, ofgood beam-width, circularly polarized, and with a center frequency in the solar range.

Impedance matching: Good impedance matching while working with broadband signals will be another challenge to be overcome. The length scales for the antennas have to be of the order ofthe wavelength ofthe radiation as seen in Table 1. The antenna length for solar radiation would be in the range ofless than a micron to a few microns while

the width at its broadest point (assuming a conical structure) would be in the sub-micron down to nanometer Frequency (Hz) Wavelength (in vacuum) (m) Time period (s) Regime/source 109 3 101 1 109 Microwave 1011 3 103 1 1011 Millimeter wave 1012 3 104 1 1012 Far infrared 1014 3 106 1

1014 Infrared 1015 3 107 1 1015 Ultraviolet

D.Y. Goswami et al. / Solar Energy 76 (2004) 33 43 range. The structures would evidently have high aspect ratios. The diode structures would be sized again depending on the wavelengths involved. Typically, most devices have to be made such that their physical dimensions are small compared to the wavelength ofthe signals propagating through them. For

lumped rectifying structures, the dimensions could easily slip into the nanoregime. The work in molecular electronics and nanoelectronics could prove to be useful, in achieving antenna solar energy conversion (ASEC) goals. In fact, molecular diodes are already a reality. Work in the field ofnanotechnology has resulted in molecular diodes, molecular wires, carbon nanotubes and many such technologies that open up

exciting opportunities in the area molecular or nanoelectronics. The diodes developed so far have demonstrated very poor high frequency characteristics. Fig. 2 shows an array ofcarbon nanotubes that could form the antenna array for ASEC concept. Alternatively, biological antenna array could be formed from algae cells (Yamazaki et al., 1988). Fig. 3 shows a schematic representation ofmulti-layered structures

ofa biological antenna ofalgae (Fig. 3a) and an antenna made up ofLangmuir Blodgett (L B) films (Fig. 3b). Yamazaki et al. (1988) have shown experimentally that energy transfers at wavelengths of 620 and 560 nm are possible. They also showed that biological antennas are more efficient in energy transfer than the artificial L B films. 1.1. Material At higher frequencies, the

losses are higher in metallic antennas. Metals have very high conductivities, which, based on solutions to Maxwell s equations and electroFig.2.ArrayofcarbonnanotubesthatcouldformtheantennaarrayforASECconcept.(Courtesy :Dr.A.Rao,Clemson, University). magnetic property models, would imply a very lossy propagation through the medium. For this reason, at higher frequencies, the tendency is to use dielectric antennas. Dielectric antennas are generally oftwo types, dielectric loaded antennas

and true dielectric antennas. Dielectric loaded antennas consist ofa dielectric structure between the metallic part (wires) and free space. True dielectric antennas are lens-like structures without any metals involved in guiding the wave in. 1.2. Rectification The biggest stumbling block in achieving the ASEC concept is the ability to rectify electromagnetic waves at the high frequency range of

visible and IR radiation. Conventional rectification devices are available for freFig. 3. (a) Schematic representation ofmulti-layered structures ofa biological antenna ofalgae; and (b) an antenna made up ofL B films (from Yamazaki et al., 1988, p. 5036).

D.Y. Goswami et al. / Solar Energy 76 (2004) 33 43 quencies that are several orders ofmagnitude lower. As stated earlier, recent developments in nanotechnologies and molecular electronics could prove to be very useful. In addition, a search ofthe literature reveals two areas ofwork that may be ofinterest. In the 1970s, Professor Javan s group at MIT and Professor

Gustafson and colleagues at UC Berkeley worked on metal oxide metal (MOM) devices. These devices consist ofa thin barrier layer, an oxide, sandwiched between two metal electrodes. The device works when a large enough field causes the tunneling ofelectrons across the barrier layer. Initially these devices consisted ofa fine tungsten wire ( cat whisker ) pressed against a metal plate. Some dirt or

other insulating material caught between the whisker and the plate provided the barrier. Such diodes were difficult to fabricate reproducibly. Heiblum et al. (1978) reviewed the state ofthe art until then and described some MOM diodes fabricated using microfabrication techniques. The performance of these diodes appears promising, and has been shown up to the far infrared frequencies. The

other rectification idea is that ofIshii (1969) where Ishii proposed a distributed parameter power rectifier (DPPR). In a more recent paper, Ishii (1991), proposed a design for a DPPR for use in a Tokamak nuclear fusion reactor for the conversion of 1 30 THz radiation into d.c. power this is just a few orders of magnitude below optical frequencies. In

general, diodes have to have certain characteristics that would enable their efficient operation at such high frequencies. The diodes should have a size that makes them lumped devices. They should have incredibly small switching times. The space charge layer (ifthat is the type energy band used for rectification) should not absorb the incoming radiation. Just as in transmitting

or receiving antennas, it will be necessary to implement impedance matching arrangements between the antenna and the rectifier, or between the antenna and the transmission line. The broadband nature further increases the complications in implementing impedance matching. Impedance matching is important to ensure maximum power transfer between components and thus to minimize reflection losses. In conclusion, the concept

ofantenna solar energy conversion is an extremely challenging and interesting idea. Ifthe conversion can be achieved, and ifit turns out that the conversion process is actually as effective as it appears to be, based on the current optimistic predictions, that would mean a revolution in solar energy utilization. It needs to be stressed that most ofthe analyses as oftoday have

been rather simplistic. They have not answered the key question ofwhether antenna theory would actually hold at the extremely high frequencies involved, even theoretically. Solar frequency rectification is a problem, the domain ofwhich lies at frequencies several orders of magnitude above current capabilities. In a way, what is sought is a way to imitate the mechanisms in nature,

such as the eye, except that the goal, like in photosynthesis is to collect energy, efficiently. That statement alone should bring into focus the enormous magnitude ofthe challenge. It would require an interdisciplinary team ofresearchers and some very well-focused, innovative research. Needless to say, such an endeavor would be quite expensive. 2. Novel combined power/refrigeration thermodynamic cycle During

the last two decades a number ofresearchers have worked on developing new thermodynamic cycles or improving existing ones. One approach to improve thermal power cycles is to use multi-component working fluids (Goswami, 1998). A single component working fluid, such as steam, boils isothermally at constant pressure. However, a multi-component working fluid boils at variable temperatures with a change in the

liquid composition ofthe components. This variable temperature boiling process yields a better thermal match with sensible heat sources than a constant temperature boiling process and therefore improves the resource effectiveness. An important type ofmulti-component fluid is ammonia/water mixture. Kalina (1983) proposed the use Fig.4.Schematicofcombinedpower/refrigerationcycle(Xuetal.,2000).

D.Y. Goswami et al. / Solar Energy 76 (2004) 33 43 Fig.5.Efficienciesoftheoptimizedcycleatvariousheatsourcetemperatures,optimizedfo rsecondlawefficiency(Tammetal., inpress). ofammonia/water mixtures as working fluids in the bottoming cycle ofa combined cycle power plant. Other investigators who have analyzed Kalina cycle using ammonia water mixtures include Marston (1990), Park and Sonntag (1990), Ibrahim and Klein (1996) and Rogdakis and Antonopoulos (1991). Goswami and

Xu (1999) have given a detailed review ofthe literature. Goswami (1995, 1998) proposed a new thermodynamic cycle, which is an ammonia-based combined power/refrigeration cycle. In addition to combining the advantages ofmixed working fluids, the novel cycle uses very high concentration ammonia vapor in the turbine, which allows the vapor to be expanded to a much lower temperature without

condensation, thus providing refrigeration. The ammonia vapor is then condensed by absorption. This cycle will be able to use low quality heat sources, including geothermal energy and solar energy, while achieving high thermal efficiency. The proposed cycle is shown schematically in Fig. 4. The relatively strong basic solution ofammonia water leaves the absorber as saturated liquid at the cycle

low Table 2 pressure. It is pumped to the system high pressure and is preheated before entering the boiler by recovering heat from the weak solution returning to the absorber. As the boiler operates between the bubble and dew point temperatures ofthe mixture at the system high pressure, partial boiling produces a high concentration saturated ammonia

vapor and relatively low concentration saturated liquid. The liquid weak solution gives up heat in the recovery unit and is throttled into the absorber. The rectifier condenses out water to further purify the vapor, by rejecting heat to a secondary strong solution line before entering the boiler. The vapor is superheated and expanded through the turbine to produce work. Due

to the low boiling point ofammonia the vapor expands to low temperatures yielding the potential for refrigeration. The vapor is finally absorbed back into the liquid giving off heat, which is rejected to the ambient environment. Xu et al. (2000) conducted an analysis ofthe cycle and concluded that the cycle can utilize low temperature heat sources, such as

solar and geothermal energy, and produce both power and refrigeration at efficiencies approaching the Carnot efficiency. Goswami and Xu (1999) conducted a parametric study to analyze the effect of cycle parameters on the performance and found that the cycle maybe optimized for thermal performance. Fig. 5 shows an example that points out that optimum conditions may be found to maximize

the efficiency. In fact, the cycle may be optimized for second law efficiency or other performance parameters, such as power output, refrigeration output, etc. Lu and Goswami (2002) optimized the cycle using a generalized reduced gradient (GRG) algorithm. They analyzed the performance of this cycle under optimized conditions for a heat source temperature of 360 K which is

achievable by using high efficiency flat plate collectors, and 440 K which is achievable by using inexpensive parabolic trough collectors. Use ofsuch collectors has the potential to reduce the cost ofa solar thermal power plant by 30 50%. Lu and Goswami (2002) optimized the Optimum working conditions for maximum second law efficiency (360 K heat source temperature, 290 K

ambient temperature) Point T (K) P (bar) h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg K) X Flow-rate (kg/s) 1 295.0 5.5 )105.1 0.1989 20.6733 1.0000 2 295.1 13.0 )104.1 0.1989 0.6733 1.0000 3 325.2 13.0 45.7 0.6805 0.6733 1.0000 4 333.1 13.0 1371.9 4.4956 0.9935 0.2066 5 311.1 13.0 102.9 0.5923 0.8949 0.0110 6 311.1 13.0 1302.7 4.2793 0.9990 0.1956 7

311.1 13.0 1302.7 4.2793 0.9990 0.1956 8 280.6 5.5 1195.5 4.2793 0.9990 0.1956 9 285.0 5.5 1278.3 4.5730 0.9990 0.1956 10 333.1 13.0 45.2 0.7305 0.5942 0.8044 11 300.1 13.0 )106.8 0.2500 0.5942 0.8044 12 300.2 5.5 )106.8 0.2532 0.5942 0.8044

D.Y. Goswami et al. / Solar Energy 76 (2004) 33 43 Table 3 Cycle performance for optimum conditions in Table 2 Boiler heat input 272.9 kJ/s Superheat input 0 kJ/s Absorber heat rejection 269.1 kJ/s Turbine work output 21.0 kW Vapor quality at turbine exit 93.93% Pump work input 1.0 kW Refrigeration capacity 16.2 kW Total heat input

272.9 kJ/s Net work output 19.99 kW First law efficiency 13.26% Heat source flow-rate 2.183 kg/s Heat source entrance temperature 360 K Heat source exit temperature 330.2 K Work output per 1 kg/s mass flow-rate 9.16 kW ofheat source fluid Refrigeration output per 1 kg/s mass 7.42 kW flow-rate ofheat source fluid Second law efficiency 54.22% cycle for

first law and second law efficiencies defined by Eqs. (1) and (2), respectively, using a COP of1: Wnet Qcool =COP g1 1 . hout mhshin hs hs Wnet Qcool =COP g2 2 mhshin . h0. T0sin . s0 hs hs

Tables 2 and 3 show the optimum working conditions and cycle performance parameters optimized for maximum second law efficiency for a source temperature of360 K and a sink temperature of290 K. It is seen that for a working fluid flow-rate of 1 kg/s, the ideal cycle produces about 20 kW ofpower and 16.2 kW ofrefrigeration at a second law efficiency

of 54.22%. Fig. 5 shows efficiencies ofthe optimized cycle at various heat source temperatures, optimized for second law efficiency, using the energy removed from the heat source in the denominator and a Carnot COP in Eq. (2). 3. Photocatalytic detoxification and disinfection of water and air Although the potential ofsolar radiation for disinfection and environmental mitigation has been

known for years, only recently has this technology been scientifically recognized and researched. This research is especially important in view ofthe enormous environmental problems created by industrial development. In the United States alone, more than 30 000 hazardous-waste sites have been identified as causing groundwater contamination, and more than 100 million tons ofaqueous process waste is estimated to be generated

by industry each year. Also, it is well known that underground petroleum storage tanks have contaminated soil and groundwater by leakage at sites all over the world. Conventional treatment methods such as activated charcoal absorption and air stripping simply transfer the pollutants from one medium to another. Solar photocatalytic technology, on the other hand, breaks up the toxic

chemicals and completely mineralizes them. In many cases, such as removal ofcolor or reduction ofchemical oxygen demand (COD) in industrial wastewater, solar technology may provide the only effective treatment that does not cause any additional problems. Potential applications ofthe solar detoxification process include groundwater remediation, industrial wastewater treatment, soil decontamination, disinfection ofhospital waste, disinfection ofdrinking water, and detoxification

ofindoor air. Because ofthe enormous potential ofthe process, extensive research is being conducted all over the world (Blake, 1995). A number of review articles have been published covering the fundamental aspects ofthe photochemistry, reactor designs, and engineering systems. Blake et al. (1992), Hoffmann et al. (1995), Kamat (1993), Legrini et al. (1993), Linsebigler et al. (1995), Ollis et al. (1989),

Ventaktadri and Peters (1993) and Goswami (1995, 1997) have described in detail engineering aspects ofthe photocatalytic process, practical solar reactor designs and an engineering system design methodology for wastewater treatment, and will not be repeated here. Despite the great potential for detoxification of water, there has been very little commercial or industrial use ofthis technology. Published literature shows

only three engineering scale demonstrations for groundwater treatment in the USA and one industrial wastewater treatment in Spain. Engineering scale field experiments were conducted by National Renewable Energy Laboratory at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory to treat groundwater contaminated with trichloroethylene (TCE) (Mehos and Turchi, 1993). The field system consisted of1700 ft2 (158 m2) ofparabolic trough reactors, using Degussa P25 TiO2

particles as the catalyst in a slurry flow configuration. With 0.1% TiO2 concentration in the slurry, the TCE concentration was reduced from 220 to less than 5 ppb. Engineering scale demonstration ofthe nonconcentrating solar reactor technology was conducted at Tyndall Air Force Base in 1992 (Goswami et al., 1993). Groundwater contaminated with fuel, oil and lubricants leaking from

underground storage tanks was treated. Contaminants ofinterest included benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX) although there were other chemicals also present in the groundwater. The field tests were successful in demonstrating the feasibility ofdestroying BTEX in the groundwater (Goswami et al., 1993), as seen in Fig. 6. In a recent commercial application, Goswami (1998) used nonconcentrating reactors to

treat groundwater

D.Y. Goswami et al. / Solar Energy 76 (2004) 33 43 Fig.6.FieldtestssuccessfulindemonstratingthefeasibilityofdestroyingBTEXingroundw ater(Goswamietal.,1993). contaminated with BTEX leaked from underground gasoline tanks. Fig. 7 shows a schematic diagram ofthe field solar treatment facility. It consists of six 1.22 2.44 m2 reactors and a 1900-l storage tank. In this system the contaminated groundwater is pumped from the

ground into the 1900-l storage tank, the catalyst is mixed with the water, which is then circulated through the reactors until the water is sufficiently clean. From the experimental results it was shown that this system can clean 1900 l ofwater from 1000 ppb ofBTEX to less than 10 ppb in about 3 h ifthe average UV intensity is 28

W/m2. Goswami (1998) showed that ifthis system is used to treat 1900 l ofwater per day, it would save approximately 430 000 kW h per year as compared to the Fig.7.Schematicdiagramofafieldsolartreatmentfacilityforgasolinecontaminatedgroun dwaterinGainesville,FL(Madabushietal.,1998). conventional method ofactivated carbon adsorption, if the energy to reactivate the carbon is considered. Other investigations ofreal industrial wastewater treatment, although not to

engineering scale, do show the potential ofthe solar process where conventional treatment methods have been unsuccessful. A demonstration ofthe potential ofsolar photocatalytic oxidation for decolorization and COD reduction in wastewater from a 5-fluorouracil (a cancer drug) manufacturing plant was shown by Anheden et al. (1996). 3.1. Application of photocatalytic oxidation for disinfection of air A number ofstudies on

Sick Building Syndrome have concluded that microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, molds, mildew), endotoxins from microorganisms along with volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) in indoor air are responsible to a large extent for the allergies and sicknesses ofpeople in the buildings. Conventional technologies to clean the indoor air include the use of activated charcoal filters, HEPA filters, ozonation, air ionization and bioguard

filters. None ofthese technologies is completely effective. Application ofphotocatalytic technology for disinfecting indoor air provides one of the most viable solutions to this problem (Goswami et al., 1997a,b). Initial scientific investigation ofusing this technology was performed by Goswami et al. (1995), and was then transferred to Universal Air Technology. In order to study the effectiveness ofphotocatalytic

technology, Goswami et al. (1995) conducted experiments in a recirculating duct as shown in Fig. 8 using a bacteria, Serratia Marcescens in air. The experiments conducted at the University ofFlorida achieved a 100% destruction ofmicroorganisms in a recirculating loop in 600 min (Goswami et al., 1995). The time for 100% destruction was later reduced to less than 3 min (Goswami,

1999). In a recent experiment to study the effectiveness Fig.8.Schematicofphotocatalyticrecirculatingduct(Goswamietal.,1999).

D.Y. Goswami et al. / Solar Energy 76 (2004) 33 43 Fig. 9. Scanning electron micrographs of B. subtilis with and without photocatalytic oxidation. (a) Bacillus subtilis spores without storage or PCO exposure and (b) B. subtilis spores exposed to PCO for 36 h (Greist et al., 2002). of this technology against biological warfare, for example the spread

ofAnthrax (Bacillus anthracis), the destruction of B. subtilis was studied. The B. subtillis spore is microbiologically similar to B. anthracis but is nonpathogenic. Fig. 9 shows scanning electron micrographs of B. subtilis with and without photocatalytic oxidation. 3.2. Opportunities for research Solar photocatalytic oxidation has been demonstrated to treat contaminated groundwater and industrial wastewater. In some applications such

as decoloration and reduction ofCOD it may be the only effective method oftreatment. However, the technology has not attracted much commercial interest. Additional research and development is needed in the following areas to make this technology commercially viable. Some ofthese include:

Extending the useful wavelength range to utilize complete solar spectrum. Developing engineering modeling and system

design methodologies. Setting up demonstration systems at industrial sites. Developing fiber optics to use solar energy for air disinfection. 4. Conclusions There is worldwide interest in the applications of solar energy because of concern for future energy sources and the environment. However, commercial successes ofsolar energy applications have been limited, mainly due to costs. Some new and emerging

developments in solar energy have the potential to change that situation. This paper has described the following three such developments with which the authors have been personally involved. 1. Solar photocatalytic detoxification technology is an innovative new application ofsolar radiation that has the potential to solve enormous environmental problems created by industrial development. 2. Development ofa novel thermodynamic

combined power/refrigeration cycle has the potential to reduce the cost ofsolar thermal power by utilizing cheaper solar thermal collectors. 3. Antenna solar energy-to-electricity conversion is an innovative concept whose time has come. Extensive additional research is needed to realize the concept in practice. References Anheden, M., Goswami, D.Y., Svedberg, G., 1996. Photocatalytic treatment ofwastewater from 5-fluorouracil manufacturing. J.

Solar Energy Eng. 118 (1), 2 8; Anheden, M. et al., 1995. Photocatalytic treatment ofwastewater from 5-fluorouracil manufacturing. In: Solar Engineering: Proceedings ofthe 1995 ASME International Solar Energy Conference, Maui, pp. 439 448. Bailey, R.L., 1972. A proposed new concept for a solar energy convertor. J. Eng. Power 94, 73 77. Bailey, R.L., Callahan, P.D., Zahn, M., 1975. Electromagnetic

Wave Energy Conversion Research. Final Report April 30 September, NASA-CR-145876. Blake, D.M., 1995. Bibliography ofWork on the Photocatalytic Removal ofHazardous Compounds from Water and Air, Update Number 1 to June 1995. NREL Report NREL/TP-473-20300. Available from NTIS, Springfield, VA. Blake, D.M. et al., 1992. Solar photocatalytic detoxification of water. In: Boer, K.W. (Ed.), Advances in Solar Energy,

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