ELE4205 Antennas

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1

AWM ELE4205 ANTENNAS ELECTRICAL ENG DEPT MAKERERE UNIVERSITY
Electromagnetic Radiation
A system of conductors/material media which is connected to a power source so as to
produce a time varying electromagnetic field in an external region will radiate energy. When
this system is arranged so as to optimise the radiation of energy from some portion of the
system while at the same time minimising/suppressing radiation from the rest of the system,
that portion of the system is called an antenna.
Antenna Fundamentals
An antenna acts as a transducer for converting a movement of charge on a conductor into
electromagnetic waves propagating in free space (transmitter function) and the reverse
process (receiver function). It is assumed that the antenna is connected to a known power
source by means of a transmission line/waveguide. Reception and transmission antennas have
similar characteristics and therefore the two words will be used synonymously and sometimes
the same antenna is often used for both purposes. The antenna is an integral part of any radio
communication system and thus its design is of paramount importance to a Radio Engineer.

Vector () and Scalar () Potentials
The electric and magnetic fields are so closely inter-related that one can never be defined
without the other unlike in electrostatics and magnetostatics. This relationship is shown in
Maxwells equations of electromagnetics.
t
B
E
c
c
= V (1)
J
t
D
H +
c
c
= V (2)
= - V D (3)
0 = - V B (4)
Note: In a material media with electrical properties
r
and
r
, the constitutive electric and
magnetic field equations are re-written as:
E D
o r
c c =
(5a)
H B
o r
=
(5b)
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
2

In electromagnetic waves, the magnetic and electric are related to the vector () and scalar
() potentials. These are in turn also related to their sources which are: current density (J) and
charge density (). Consider the distribution of charge density, (r,t) which varies with space
and time. The relationship between the charge density and current density is manifested in the
continuity equation.
( )
( )
t
t r
t r J
c
c
= - V
,
,

(6)
We wish to relate the magnetic and electric fields to their sources, i.e. current density, J and
charge density, . However, equations 1 and 2 are coupled in a complex fashion, with the
result that it is difficult to relate H and E to J and directly.
Taking the curl of 1 and 2 with substitutions of Maxwells equations yields:
t
J
t
E
E
c
c
c
c
= V V c
2
2
(7)
J
t
H
H V +
c
c
= V V
2
2
c
(8)

Using the vector identity:
( ) F F F
2
V - V V = V V
and equation 3 in equations 7 & 8:
t
J
t
E
E
c
c
+ |
.
|
\
|
V =
c
c
V
c
c
2
2
2
(9)
J
t
H
H V =
c
c
V
2
2
2
c
(10)
The LHS of equations 9 & 10 are travelling wave equations.

In order relate the vector () and scalar () potentials to the sources J and , it is necessary to
make use of supporting functions, i.e.
( ) 0 V - V F
and
( ) 0 V V V

Therefore the vector potential, is defined as:
A B V =
(11)
Thus from eq. 1 & 11
( )
t
A
E
c
V c
= V
(12)
0 =
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ V
t
A
E
(13)
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
3

Hence,

| V =
c
c
+
t
A
E
(14)
Equations 2, 3 and 14 are used to show how and are related to their respective sources J
and . Using equation 2 and 11, we obtain:
( ) J
t
E
A +
c
c
= V V c
1
(15)
Note: All the vectors have space and time functional relationships, i.e. (r,t).

Using 14 and 15 together with the above vector identity gives:
( ) | | J
t t
A
A A + |
.
|
\
|
c
c
V
c
c
= V - V V
|
c c
2
2
2
1
(16)
Using 3 and 14 also gives:
( )
c
| = V
c
- V c
2
t
A
(17)
The partial differential equations 16 and 17 are coupled since each of them contains and .
Since
A V
is already known, its also necessary to determine
A - V
in order to define
completely. A vector field is completely specified only if its curl and divergence are defined.
The Lorentz gauge condition (equation 18 below) defines completely and is used to
decouple and .
0 =
c
c
+ - V
t
A
|
c
(18)
Substituting 18 in 16 gives:
J
t
A
A c =
c
c
V
2
2
2
(19)
Substituting 18 in 17 gives:
c
|
c | =
c
c
V
2
2
2
t
(20)
Consider the following cases;
Case 1: is independent of time, then
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
4

c
| = V
2
, such that }
c =
t
t
tc
|
r 4
1

Case 2: = 0, then
0
2
2
2
=
c
c
V
t
|
c |
, such that
( ) ( ) ( ) vt r g vt r f t r + + = , |

where f and g are arbitrary functions.
The solutions of equation 19 and 20 are given as:
( )
}
' c
'
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
| '
'
=
t
t
t
r r
v
r r
t r J
t r A
,
4
,
(21)
( )
}
' c
'
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
| '
'
=
t
t
tc
|
r r
v
r r
t r
t r
,
4
1
,
(22)
Where
v
r r
t t
'
= '

Equations 21 and 22 say that sources which had the configurations J and at a t (previous
time instant) produce a potential and at a point P at time t which is later than the time t
by an amount that takes into account the finite velocity of propagation of waves in the
medium. Because of this time delay aspect of the solutions, the potentials and are known
as Retarded Potentials and the phenomenon itself is known as Retardation. These retarded
potentials give rise to fields only after their sources are brought into existence.
The solutions to 19 and 20 remain unchanged if we change v to v, i.e.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
5

( )
}
' c
'
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
| '
+
'
=
t
t
t
r r
v
r r
t r J
t r A
,
4
,
(23)
( )
}
' c
'
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
| '
+
'
=
t
t
tc
|
r r
v
r r
t r
t r
,
4
1
,
(24)
This shows that the solutions to 19 and 20 have two parts, i.e. two waves travelling in
opposite directions. The potentials in 23 and 24 are called Advanced Potentials and they give
rise to fields only before the current and charge distributions are brought into existence.
However, in all physical phenomena, effects should occur after their cause. Consequently
Advanced Potentials are outside the scope of this work.
For time harmonic variation of current and charge density, the expressions for the retarded
potentials are given as:
( )
( )
}
' c
'
'
=
'
t
|
t
t
r r
e r J
r A
r r j
4
(25)
( )
( )
}
' c
'
'
=
'
t
|
t
tc
|
r r
e r
r
r r j
4
1
(26)
Where
t e
c e |
2
= = =
v
is wave number
Once the retarded vector and scalar potentials are obtained, then the magnetic and electric
fields at a point away from the sources J and can also be obtained using equations 11 and
14.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
6

Radiation from a Current Element
Characteristics of a Current Element
- It should be of negligible thickness and if its length is dl, then dl << .
- The current in the element should vary harmonically with time and have a constant
amplitude along the length of the element.
A constant current element of infinitesimal length can not be realised practically but its
however important to study its radiation characteristics as a foundation to understand how
antennas work. This infinitesimal length current element is called a Hertzian dipole. The
dipole we consider is a cylindrical tube of length dl and we wish to find the vector potential at
a point P(r,,).

Figure
Assuming the current density on the cylindrical tube to be only in the z-direction then the
resultant vector potential at P is also in the z-direction and is given by equation 25, i.e.
( )
( )
}
' c
'
'
=
'
t
|
t
t
r r
e r J
r A
r r j
z
z
4
(27)
The position vector to any point on the cylindrical tube is denoted as r. If the radius a, of the
tube is very small in comparison to the wavelength , such that a<<1 and also the length of
the element is infinitesimally small, then it is proper to omit r in equation 27. Thus:
( )
( )
}
' c
'
=

t
|
t
t
r
r J e
r A
z
r j
z
4
(28)
The current density integrated over the cross-section of the cylindrical tube gives the total
current Io which we assumed to be constant along the length of the current element. Thus
( ) dl I r J
o
z = ' c '
}
' t
t
(29)
Hence
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
7

( )
( )
r j o
z
e
r
dl I
r A
|
t

=
4
(30)
I
o
dl is called the moment of current (current moment).
Expressing the vector potential at P in spherical coordinates we obtain:
( ) ( )
( )
u
t
u
|
cos
4
cos
r j o
z r
e
r
dl I
r A r A

= =
(31a)
( ) ( )
( )
u
t
u
|
u
sin
4
sin
r j o
z
e
r
dl I
r A r A

= =
(31b)
( ) 0 = r A
|
(31c)
Thus:
( )
( )
( ) u
|
u u
t
a a e
r
dl I
r A r
r j o
sin cos
4
=

(32)
The scalar potential can now be easily obtained from the vector potential by considering the
harmonic time variation equation of the Lorentz gauge condition, i.e.:
( ) ( ) r A
j
r - V =
ec
|
1
(33)
Hence,
( )
( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

2
1
4
cos
r r
j e
j
dl I
r
r j
o
|
tc
u
e
|
|
(34)
Magnetic and Electric Fields from a Current Element
The magnetic and electric fields due to the current element can now be easily obtained from
the vector and scalar potentials obtained above, i.e.
( ) ( ) r A r H V =
1
(35)
Thus:
( )
( )
|
|
|
u
t
a
r r
j e dl I
r H
r j
o
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

2
1
sin
4
(36)
Also
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
8

( ) ( ) r H
j
r E V =
ec
1
(37)
Thus:
( )
( ) ( )
u
| |
|
|
u
t
q
|
u
t
q
a
r j r r
j e dl I
a
r j r
e dl I
r E
r j
o
r
r j
o
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

3 2 3 2
1 1
sin
4
1 1
cos
2
(38)
where
c
q =
, is the intrinsic impedance of the media between the source and observation
points.
It is recognised that the magnetic and electric field components involve inverse terms of r, r
2

and r
3
. Since the antennas primary function is to radiate energy to distant points, it is
possible and valid most of the time to ignore the components that do not contribute to energy
radiation. In this case, we can neglect the higher order terms for large distances, and thus call
these fields (that are inverse functions of r) radiation fields. These are given as:
( )
( )
|
|
u
t
|
a
r
e dl I
j r H
r j
o
sin
4
=
(39)
( )
( )
u
|
u
t
| q
a
r
e dl I
j r E
r j
o
sin
4
=
(40)
The inverse r
2
term is called the induction field and this term dominates at short distances
(i.e. r<<). Essentially it is the field you find near the source (current element). At r>>, the
radiation field dominates. It is possible to determine the Induction field from the Biot-Savart
law.
In the case of the electric field, the inverse r
2
term represents the electric field intensity of an
electric dipole. The inverse r
3
term is called the electrostatic field term. Since we are dealing
with antennas, both the induction and electrostatic field terms will be dropped.
On close examination of H
(r) and E
(r), the inverse r and r

2
terms are equal in magnitude
when;
r v
1
=
e
(41)
Therefore;
6 2
e
~ = =
v
r
(42)
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
9

Far-zone and Near-zone Fields
The far zone and near zone are defined respectively by the inequalities r >> 1 and r << 1.
The terms of the fields whose amplitudes vary as the inverse of r are called the far-zone
fields, i.e.
( ) |
|
a
r
e H
r H
r j
o
=
(43)
( ) u
|
q a
r
e E
r E
r j
o
=
(44)
where
( )
u
t
|
sin
4
dl I
j E H
o
o o
= =
(45)
Its observed that the ratio of the magnitude of the far-zone electric field to the magnitude of
the far-zone magnetic field is equal to the intrinsic impedance, of the medium, i.e.
( )
( )
q =
r H
r E
(46)
For a lossless medium, the intrinsic impedance is real. The electric and magnetic vectors are
thus both in time phase and space phase. The electric field, magnetic field and the direction of
propagation form a triad of mutually perpendicular right handed system of vectors; thus in the
far-zone the fields due to a current element constitute a plane transverse electromagnetic
wave (TEM mode)
In the near-zone, the exponential e
-jr
is expanded into a power series in r and since r << 1;
( )
( )
u
t
|
sin
4
2
r
dl I
r H
o
=
(47)
( )
( )
u
tc
q cos
2
3
r
dl I
r E
o
r
=
(48)
( )
( )
u
tc
q
u
sin
4
3
r
dl I
r E
o
=
(49)
Therefore the fields in the near-zone are equivalent to the field obtained due to a current
element by application of the laws of magnetostatics.

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10

Power Radiated by a Current Element & Radiation Resistance
The power flow per unit area (power density) at the point P due to a current element will be
given by Poyntings vector at that point.
( )
2
/ m W H E P =
(50)
The time-averaged power density is then obtained from;
( )
2
/
2
1
2
1
m W H E P Pav = =
(51)
Since the far-zone fields of the current element are perpendicular to each other, then;
( )
2
sin
32 2
1
|
.
|
\
|
= =
r
dl I
H E P
o
av
t
u | q
(52)
Hence,
( )
r
o
av a
r
dl I
P
2
sin
32
|
.
|
\
|
=
t
u | q
(53)
Then the total power radiated, P
rad
(W) by the current element is obtained by carrying out the
integration of the time-averaged power density over the closed spherical shell surrounding the
element, i.e.
}} }
- = - = r av
s
av
rad
a d d r P ds P P | u u sin
2
(54)

Fig. X: Current element at the centre of the sphere
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
11

Making the necessary substitutions, the total power is given as;
( ) ( )
( )
2
2
3 12
|
.
|
\
|
= =
qt
|
t
q dl I
dl I P
o
o rad
(55)
P
rad
is observed to be a real quantity which shows that the far-zone fields of the current
element give rise to transport of time-averaged power only. I
o
in 55 is the peak value
(amplitude) of the current, which can be expressed in terms of the r.m.s (root mean square)
value of the current, I
r.m.s
i.e.
s m r o
I I
. .
2 =
(56)
Thus
2
2
. .
3
2
|
.
|
\
|
=
qt dl I
P
s m r
rad
(57)
The coefficient of I
2
r.m.s
in 57 has the dimensions of resistance and is called the radiation
resistance, R
rad
of the current element (antenna), i.e.
2
. . s m r rad rad
I R P =
(58)
where
2
3
2
|
.
|
\
|
=
qt dl
R
rad
(59)
In free space, = 120 and so R
rad
is given as:
O |
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
80
t
dl
R
rad
(60)
Antenna Properties
There are several properties/characteristics that determine the operation of all antennas in any
wireless communication network. The following are some of these properties;
Antenna Power Gain, g
Antenna gain g, is the measure of the antennas ability to radiate the power that has been
input into its terminals into the media surrounding it (i.e. free space). It is defined as a ratio of
the radiated power density at a given point P, distant r from the test antenna, to the radiated
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
12

power density at the same point due to an isotropic antenna, both antennas having the same
input power.
G

'
= (61)
Where ' and represent the radiated power densities at a distance r from the test and
isotropic antennas respectively.
Antenna Directive Gain, g
d

Antenna directive gain, g
d
is the measure of the antennas ability to concentrate the radiated
power/energy in a particular direction (,). It is defined as the power density at a point P in a
given direction, distant r from the test antenna, to the power density at the same point due to
an isotropic antenna radiating the same total power.
The maximum value of the directive gain of an antenna is commonly referred to as the
antenna directivity, D.
Antenna gain and directive gain seem quite similar but they slightly differ and are related to
each other through equation 62, where k is the efficiency factor. Antenna gain is usually less
than directive gain because of the losses that occur within the antenna.
d
kg g = (62)
Radiation Pattern
The radiation pattern from an antenna is a three dimensional plot of the radiated power
density from an antenna (at a given distance r) as the directional parameters (| and u in
spherical coordinates) are varied. The radiation pattern will always give an indication of the
direction in which maximum power is radiated from an antenna.
The radiation patterns of an antenna can either be field or power patterns and their shapes
vary with the different antenna types. The figure below shows the power pattern for the
hertzian dipole antenna (current element).
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13


Fig. Y: a) Generic Dipole Elevation Pattern b) Generic Dipole Azimuth Pattern
c) 3-D Radiation Pattern.
Polarisation
This is the orientation of the far-zone electric field vector within the radiated electromagnetic
wave from an antenna. It describes the locus of the tip of the electric field vector. If this locus
is a straight line constantly parallel to a constant direction then the polarisation is linear.
Circular or elliptical polarisations are obtained when the loci are either circular or elliptical
respectively.
Depending on the antenna design, different antenna polarisations can be achieved with each
having its merits and demerits. However, its important to note that in any wireless system
design the transmitting and receiving antennas should always have the same polarisation.
Antenna Bandwidth, BW
This is the range of frequencies (centred about the resonant/design frequency, f
C
) that can be
used by antennas to radiate electromagnetic waves. At resonant frequencies, the antenna has
zero input reactance and will radiate/deliver maximum power due to the fact that matching
has been achieved at this frequency. Depending on the application, some antennas are
designed with narrow bandwidth (i.e. narrowband antennas) while others may have wider
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
14

bandwidth (i.e. broadband antennas). The percentage bandwidth of an antenna can be
obtained using equation 2 from the plot of the reflection coefficient S11, against frequency
shown in figure Z below
100 %
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
C
L H
f
f f
BW (63)
Where f
H
and f
L
are determined by S11
th
-5db (VSWR = 2) which accounts for
approximately 88.9% of the power being radiated (transmitted/received) by the antenna.
Effective Area, A
eff

This is the area of an antenna onto which the power density of a radiated electromagnetic
wave is incident. Equation 3 gives the relationship between the effective area of an antenna
A
eff
, and the antennas gain G, [8].
t
4
2
g
A
eff
= (3)
where is the operating center wavelength of the antenna.
The product of this area with the power density , gives the power received P
r
, by an antenna
from a passing wave. The effective area therefore measures the antennas ability to extract
electromagnetic energy from an incident/radiated electromagnetic wave.

Fr eq (Hz)
f
L
f
C
f
H

S11 (dB)
0
S11
t h

Fi g. Z: S11 vs Fr eq char act er i st i c of pat ch ant enna

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(r), the inverse r and r

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