Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

Organization
Introduction and Architecture Applications and Challenges Media Access Control Routing in Ad Hoc Networks Transport Layer Issues Overarching Issues

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MANETs: Introduction
MANETs are mobile nodes that form a network in an ad hoc manner The nodes intercommunicate using single or multi-hop wireless links Each node in MANETs can operate as a host as well as a router The topology, locations, connectivity, transmission quality are variable

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MANETs: Operations
D
Y X D Z S

X
S

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MANET: Applications
Civil
Wireless LANs/WANs mobile and stationary Remote data collection and analysis Taxi/Cabs, Buses scheduling Disaster recovery Communications over water using floats Vehicular Ad Hoc Network

Defense
Battlefield communications and data transfer Monitoring and Planning

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Issues and Challenges

Operating in presence of unpredictable mobility and environmental changes Operating in an error prone media Low bandwidth channels Low power devices with limited resources Maintaining and retaining connectivity and states Security: infrastructure and communication
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MAC for MANET

Special requirements
Avoid interferences among simultaneous transmissions
Yet, enable as many non-interfering transmissions as possible Fairness among transmissions

No centralized coordinators, should function in full distributed manner No clock synchronization, asynchronous operations
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Carrier-Sensing in MANET
Problems
Hidden terminal problem Exposed terminal problem

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MACs Suitable for MANET

MACA [Karn90]
Propose to solve hidden terminal problem by RTS/CTS dialog

MACAW [Bharghavan94]
Increase reliability by RTS/CTS/DATA/ACK dialog

IEEE 802.11 [IEEE 802.11WG]

Distributed and centralized MAC components
Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) Point Coordination Function (PCF)

DCF suitable for multi-hop ad hoc networking

Also use RTS/CTS/DATA/ACK dialog
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IEEE 802.11 DCF

Uses RTS-CTS exchange to avoid hidden terminal problem
Any node overhearing a CTS cannot transmit for the duration of the transfer Any node receiving the RTS cannot transmit for the duration of the transfer
To prevent collision with ACK when it arrives at the sender

Uses ACK to achieve reliability

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IEEE 802.11 DCF

CSMA/CA
Contention-based random access Collision detection not possible while a node is transmitting

Carrier sense in 802.11

Physical carrier sense Virtual carrier sense using Network Allocation Vector (NAV)
NAV is updated based on overheard RTS/CTS packets, each of which specified duration of a pending Data/Ack transmission

Collision avoidance
Nodes stay silent when carrier sensed busy (physical/virtual) Backoff intervals used to reduce collision probability
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Disadvantage of IEEE 802.11 DCF

802.11 DCF not considered perfect for MANET
High power consumption Hidden terminal problem not totally solved, exposed terminal problem not solved Cause fairness problem among different transmitting nodes Can only provide best-effort service

Active research area in MAC for MANET

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MAC: Advanced Topics

Support for QoS provisioning Power Efficiency MAC for Directional Antenna

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QoS-aware MAC protocols

IEEE 802.11 Real-time extension Black burst contention scheme MACA/PR (Multihop Access Collision Avoidance with Piggyback Reservation)

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Extend 802.11 DCF for Service Differentiation [Campbell01]

For high priority packets
Backoff interval in [0,CWh]

For low priority packet

Backoff interval in [CWh+1, CW]

After collision, packet with smaller CW is more likely to occupy medium earlier
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Black Burst [Sobrinho99]

Provides differentiation among real-time flow and best-effort flow Provides fairness and priority scheduling among real-time flows Fully distributed

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Black Burst
A

Media Busy
A

B
C
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Carrier Sense

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Black Burst
A

DIFS

Media Busy A

B
C
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Black Burst
C

DIFS

Media Busy A

B
C
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Black Burst
C

DIFS

Media Busy A

B
C
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Black Burst
C

Media Busy A

B
C
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Black Burst
C
DIFS

Media A

Busy

RT A
RT A

B
C
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Black Bursts
All nodes begin the priority contention phase together Higher priority node transmit a longer burst than low priority node After transmitting its burst, a node listens to the channel If channel still busy, the node has lost contention to a higher priority node
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MAC: Advanced Topics

Power Efficiency
Power Saving: Make wireless interface sleep at appropriate times Power Control: Use the appropriate transmission power

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Power Saving
Power Consumptions
From Spec. of Orinoco 11b WLAN PC Card [Proxim Co. 2003] Battery Voltage: 5V Dose mode: 9 mA (= 45 mW) Receiver mode: 185 mA (= 925 mW) Transmit mode: 285 mA (= 1425 mW)

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MAC Layer Approach

Basic idea: turn on/off the radio of specific nodes at appropriate times IEEE 802.11 PAMAS S-MAC STEM Asynchronous Wakeup patterns
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PS Mode in WLANs
ATIM (Ad hoc Traffic Indication Map) window : short interval during which the PS hosts wake up periodically. Assume that hosts are fully connected and synchronized. In the beginning of each ATIM window, each mobile host will contend to send a beacon frame. Successful beacon serve for synchronizing mobile hosts clock. This beacon also inhibits other hosts from sending their beacon To avoid collisions among beacons, use random back-off [0-2*CWmin 1]
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PS Mode in WLANs
- After the beacon, host can send a

direct ATIM frame to each of its intended receivers in PS mode.

- After transmitted an ATIM frame, keep remaining awake - On reception of the ATIM frame, reply with an ACK and remain active for the remaining period

- Data is sent based on the normal DCF access.

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Problems
PS mode of 802.11 is designed for single hop (fully connected) ad hoc network. If applied for multi-hop
Clock synchronization Communication delay and mobility are all unpredictable network merging Neighbor discovery When a host in PS mode, both its chance to transmit and to hear others signal is reduced ==> inaccurate neighbor information Network partitioning Inaccurate neighbor information may lead to long packet delay or even network (logically) partitioning problem.

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PAMAS [Singh98]
A node avoids overhearing packets not addressed to it
so, reduce power consumption of processing unnecessary packets

Use of a separate channel for signaling

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PAMAS
When to turn off?
when a node has no packets to send, it should power itself off if a neighbor starts transmitting if at least one neighbor is transmitting and another is receiving, the node should power itself off

How long to be powered off?

It knows the duration of others transmission

What if the intended receiver is powered off?

Have to wait for it to wake up

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STEM [Schurgers02]
Sparse Topology and Energy Management Basic idea: to wake up nodes only when they need to forward data
using asynchronous beacon packets in a separate control channel to wake up nodes latency is traded off for energy savings

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Wakeup mechanisms
On-demand wake-up
STEM, Remote Activated Switch(RAS)

Scheduled rendezvous
802.11, Bluetooth, etc

Asynchronous wakeup
Power saving protocols [Tseng02] Asynchronous wake-up [Zheng03]

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MANET Power Saving Protocols [Tseng02]

Three asynchronous wakeup patterns
Dominating-awake-interval Periodically-fully-awake-interval Quorum-based

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Tsengs Protocol
Beacon interval
For each PS host, it divides its time axis into a number of fixed length interval
Active window
On state

Beacon window
PS hosts send its beacon

MTIM window
Other hosts send their MTIM frames to the PS host.

Excluding these three windows, PS host with no packet to send or receive may go to the sleep mode.
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Dominating-Awake-Interval
Dominating awake property
AW >= BI/2 + BW This guarantees any PS hosts beacon window to overlap with any neighboring PS hosts active window. In every two beacon interval, PS host can receive all its neighbors beacon short response timesuitable for highly mobile

The sequence of beacon intervals are alternatively labeled as odd and even interval

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Periodicallyfully-awake-interval
Two types of beacon interval
Low power intervals
AW is reduced to the minimum PS host send out its beacon to inform others its existence

Fully awake intervals

AW is extended to the maximum Arrives periodically every T intervals PS hosts discover who are in its neighborhood, and can predict when its neighboring host will wake up.

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Quorum-based
PS host only picks 2n-1 intervals (one column and one row) out of the n x n quorum Quorum interval
Beacon + MTIM, AW = BI

Non quorum intervals

Start with an MTIM window, after that, host may go to sleep mode, AW=MW

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Asynchronous Wakeup: Formalized

[Zheng03]
Formalize the asynchronous wakeup schedule as a block design problem in combinatorics Give theoretical analysis and an optimal design Three components:
neighbor discovery neighbor prediction neighbor reservation

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Slot Assignments
124 235 346 457 561 672 713
SLOTS

Slot assignment for (7,3,1) design: The schedule repeats after 7 slots, has three ON slots, and any two schedules overlap at least 1 slot.
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MAC for Directional Antenna

Benefits of Directional Antenna More spatial reuse
With omni-directional antenna, packets intended to one neighbor reaches all neighbors as well

Increase range, keeping transmit power constant Reduce transmit power, keeping range comparable with omni mode
Reduces interference, potentially increasing spatial reuse
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More Spatial Reuse

Omni-directional antenna Directional antenna

A A B C C D

While A is transmitting to B, C cannot transmit to D

Both A and C can transmit simultaneously

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Antenna Model
2 Operation Modes: Omni and Directional

A node may operate in any one mode at any given time

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Antenna Model
In Omni Mode: Nodes receive signals with gain Go While idle a node stays in omni mode

In Directional Mode: Capable of beamforming in specified direction Directional Gain Gd (Gd > Go) Symmetry: Transmit gain = Receive gain
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Directional Packet Transmission

A

D-O transmission

Bs omni receive range

A
Bs directional receive beam
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D-D transmission

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MAC Designs for Directional Antenna

Most proposals use RTS/CTS dialog They differ in how RTS/CTS are transmitted
Omni-directional transmit: ORTS, OCTS Directional transmit: DRTS, DCTS

Current proposals:
ORTS/OCTS [Nasipuri00] DRTS/OCTS [Ko00] DRTS/DCTS [Choudhury02]
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ORTS/OCTS
Sender sends omni-directional RTS Receiver sends omni-directional CTS
Receiver also records direction of sender by determining the antenna on which the RTS signal was received with highest power level Similarly, the sender, on receiving CTS, records the direction of the receiver

All nodes overhearing RTS/CTS defer transmissions Sender then sends DATA directionally to the receiver Receiver sends directional ACK
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ORTS/OCTS cont.
Protocol takes advantage of reduction in interference due to directional transmission/reception of DATA All neighbors of sender/receiver defer transmission on receiving omni-directional RTS/CTS spatial reuse benefit not realized

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D-MAC
Uses directional antenna for sending RTS, DATA and ACK in a particular direction, whereas CTS sent omni-directionally Directional RTS (DRTS) and Omni-directional CTS (OCTS)

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DMAC: DRTS/OCTS
A B C
D

DRTS(B) OCTS(B,C) OCTS(B,C) DRTS(D)

OCTS(D,E) DATA DATA ACK ACK

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DMAC: Pros and Cons

Benefit: Can allow more simultaneous transmissions by improving spatial reuse Disadvantage: Can increase ACK collisions

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Directional NAV
Physical carrier sensing still omnidirectional Virtual carrier sensing be directional directional NAV
When RTS/CTS received from a particular direction, record the direction of arrival and duration of proposed transfer Channel assumed to be busy in the direction from which RTS/CTS received

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Directional NAV (DNAV)

Nodes overhearing RTS or CTS set up directional NAV (DNAV) for that Direction of Arrival (DoA)
D CTS C X Y

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Directional NAV (DNAV)

Nodes overhearing RTS or CTS set up directional NAV (DNAV) for that Direction of Arrival (DoA)
D C X DNAV Y

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Directional NAV (DNAV)

New transmission initiated only if direction of transmission does not overlap with DNAV, i.e., if ( > 0)
B D A DNAV

RTS

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Routing in Ad Hoc Networks

Unicast
Source node to destination node Single or multiple hops

Multicast
Source node to multiple destination nodes Varied number of hops Members could join and leave

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Issues in MANET Routing

Factors affecting the routing of packets in MANETs:
Bandwidth limitation Power limitation Node heterogeneity Multi-hops Mobility

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Classification of Unicast Routing Protocols

Flooding-based Routing Precomputed (proactive) Routing On-demand (reactive) Routing Location or Position-Based Routing Hybrid Routing Power/Energy-Aware Routing

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Flooding-Based Routing
D

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Proactive Routing
Nodes maintain global state information Consistent routing information are stored in tabular form at all the nodes Changes in network topology are propagated to all the nodes and the corresponding state information are updated Routing state maintenance could be flat or hierarchical
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Examples of Proactive Routing

Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP) Hierarchical State Routing Scheme

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Destination Sequenced Distant Vector (DSDV) Routing [Perkins94]

Table-Driven algorithm based on Bellman-Ford routing mechanism Every node maintains a routing table that records the number of hops to every destination Each entry is marked with a sequence number to distinguish stale routes and avoiding routing loops Routes labeled with most recent sequence numbers is always used Routing updates can be incremental or full dumps
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Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP) [Murthy96]

Table-based protocol Each node is responsible for maintaining four tables:
distance table, routing table, link-cost table, and message retransmission list (MRL) table

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WRP - Continued
The mobile nodes inform each other of link changes through the use of update messages Update messages are sent only between neighboring nodes, which modify their tables and send updates to their neighbors The existence and status of the neighboring nodes is determined through ACKs of messages or periodic hello messages
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Hierarchical Routing Schemes

Cluster Gateway Source Routing (CGSR)
Nodes are divided into clusters; each cluster has a cluster-head (uses a distributed clusterhead selection algorithm) Uses DSDV for cluster-head-to-gateway routing

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CGSR [Chiang97]

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On-demand (Reactive) Routing

A path is computed only when the source needs to communicate with a destination The source node initiates a Route Discovery Process in the network After a route is discovered, the path is established and maintained until it is broken or is no longer desired

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Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) Routing [Perking99]

AODV builds on the DSDV algorithm Creates route on a demand basis and maintains only as long as they are necessary Loop freedom is routing is achieved through the maintenance of sequence numbers AODV uses routing table to store routing information; the routing table contains the destination and the next-hop IP addresses AODV is able to provide both unicast and multicast ability
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AODV: Route Discovery

When a source desires to send a message to any destination, and if the routing table does not have a corresponding entry, it initiates a route discovery process. The source broadcasts a route request (RREQ) packet to its neighbors, which in turn, forwards it to their neighbors, and so on, until either the destination node or an intermediate node with a valid route to the destination is located. The intermediate nodes set of a reverse route entry for the source node in their routing table. The reverse route entry is used for forwarding a route reply (RREP) message back to the source. An intermediate node while forwarding the RREP to the source, sets up a forward path to the destination
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AODV
F?
S A C E

D
B F

I am F

RREQ Backwards learning

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AODV
To F, Next-hop is B

A S

C E

D
B F

Backwards learning RREP

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Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

[Johnson96]

On-demand source-based routing approach Packet routing is loop-free Avoids the need for up-to-date route information in intermediate nodes Nodes that are forwarding or overhearing, cache routing information for future use Two phases: Route Discovery and Route Maintenance
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DSR: Route Discovery

Route discovery is initiated if the source node does not have the routing information in its cache The source node broadcasts a route request packet that contains destination address, source address, and a unique ID Intermediate nodes that do not have a valid cached route, add their own address to the route record of the packet and forwards the packet along its outgoing links
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DSR: Route Reply

Route reply is generated by the destination or a node that has a valid cached route The route record obtained from the route request is included in the route reply The route is sent via the path in the route record, or from a cached entry, or is discovered through a route request Route maintenance is accomplished through route error packets and acknowledgments

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DSR
F? SA

F?
S

C E

I am F Route1: SACEF Route2: SBDF

D
B To F, route is SBDF F Choose Route2

RREP Unicast

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Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)

[Haas97] ZRP is a hybrid of reactive/proactive protocol A routing zone is defined for each node, which includes nodes whose minimum distance in terms of number of hops is less than a predefined number A proactive routing approach is used for intrazone communication and a reactive approach is used for inter-zone communication For intra-zone route discovery, bordercasting technique is used
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ZRP-Example
F E
G H A D G M F E D A B I J K L

B
I J

L
K

Border nodes Routing Zone of A (Zone radius = 2) IARP: Intra-zone routing protocol IARP runs at the center of each zone IARP uses proactive routing method Each node has its own zone
BoarderCast: efficiently deliver route request to all boarder nodes.

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ZRP-Example
F E
G H A D N M Q V R S W

B
I J

L
K O

U
T

Source/Destination node

Center of zone

IERP: Inter-zone routing, uses reactive routing method

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ZRP-Example
F E
G H A D N M Q V R S W

B
I J

L
K O

U
T

Source/Destination node

Center of zone

IERP: Inter-zone routing, uses reactive routing method

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ZRP-Example
F E
G H A D N M Q V R S W

B
I J

L
K O

U
T

Source/Destination node

Center of zone

IERP: Inter-zone routing, uses reactive routing method

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Location Informed Protocols for MANET

Location informed approach: assume each mobile node is aware of its location, for example, by means of GPS This approach is practical with the development of low-cost GPS receiving device Categorization:
Location aided routing (route discovery)
LAR, LAKER, PANDA, ...

Position based routing (packet forwarding)

DREAM, GPSR, GRA, ...

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Location Aided Route Discovery

Example: Location aided routing (LAR) protocol [Ko98]

Lake

Expected zone

B
Network area

Request zone

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Position Based Packet Forwarding

Examples: geodesic forwarding (in GPSR)

A B S C D

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Position Based Packet Forwarding: Void Area

Difficulty in geodesic forwarding: void area

B
S C D

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LAKER: Knowledge Guided Route Discovery [Li03]

Even more limited search space compared to LAR

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LAKER: Dealing With Void Area

Bypassing void area smartly

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Multicasting in MANETs
Ad hoc multicasting should
Guarantee message delivery to all interested members Minimize control messages in order not to interfere with data transmission Maintain membership information as nodes join and leave at will Repair broken links because of topology change
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Route structure consideration

Tree structured protocols
More optimal route More suitable for high load More expensive to maintain
1 4 8 12 16 5 9 2 6 10 14 18 3 7 11 15 19

Mesh structured protocols

More resilient to topology change More likely to repair link breakage locally Link redundancy

13
17

4 Multicast source Multicast receiver Forwarding node Group neighbor node

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Taxonomy of current protocols

Tree structured

Mesh structured

Group shared

Source based

Group shared

Source based

MAODV AMRoute

ADMR

CAMP MCEDAR

ODMR ODMR-MP

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Hierarchical Multicasting
S

Clusterhead
G1 G2

Gateway Source Subscriber

G3

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Relation to Underlying Unicast Protocol

Closely coupled: MCEDAR[Sinha99] Unicast-independent: AMRoute [Liu99] Double role: serve both using one protocol
MAODV [Royer99] ODMRP [Lee99]

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Tree-Structured Routing: MAODV [Royer99]

MAODV Multicast operation of Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector Multicast tree shared by the group.
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Multicast group member Multicast tree member Non-Tree nodes Multicast Tree Link
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MAODV- Route Request

Step 1: Flooding of Join Request

1 2 4 3 5 6 d b c 7 Multicast group member Multicast tree member Non-Tree nodes

Multicast Tree Link

ROUTE_REQ Message

f
e

a
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MAODV- Route Request

Step 2: Join Reply trace back to source

1 2 4 3 5 6 b f 7 Multicast group member Multicast tree member Non-Tree nodes

Multicast Tree Link

ROUTE_REP Message

e c

d a
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MAODV- Route Request

Step 3:Route Activation

1 2 4 3 5 6 b f 7 Multicast group member Multicast tree member Non-Tree nodes

Multicast Tree Link

ROUTE_ACT Message

e c

d a
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MAODV- Route Request

Step 4: Tree branch addition

Multicast group member Multicast tree member Non-Tree nodes

Multicast Tree Link

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MAODV--Repairing
Link break detection
Periodical hello messages between neighbors Hello message time_out:

hello_interval(1+allowed_hello_loss)

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MAODV--Repairing
Down-stream node of the broken link is responsible of repairing Route Request is first given small TTL to hope the local operation
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Mesh-based Routing: ODMRP

[Lee99] On-Demand Multicast Routing Source-based mesh Membership information is maintained by the source

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ODMRMesh setup
Step 1: Source periodically flood JOIN DATA packet
2 1 7 5 8 10 3 6

JOIN DATA packet

Receiver Source

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ODMR Mesh setup

Step 2: Receiver broadcasts JOIN TABLE
Sender Next Node
2 1 7 5 8 10 3 6

1 1

3 2 1

Sender Next Node

Sender Next Node

1
Finally, forwarding group is set to be {2,3,5,8}
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TCP in Ad hoc Networks

TCP is tuned for wired networks, in which:
Low BER Loss is mainly due to congestion Route is relatively fixed during a connection life time

However, in wireless ad hoc networks:

High BER Route Changes Network Partitions Multi-path Routing

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Effect of High BER

Bit errors cause packets to get corrupted and dropped
result in losses of TCP data segments or ACKs

Either fast retransmit or Retransmission Time-Out (RTO) is triggered

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Effect of Route Changes

Discovering a new route may take significantly longer than TCP sender RTO Route change may cause packets to arrive outof-order
Time t0 Time t1

A S S B B
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Effect of Network Partitions

If the sender and the receiver of a TCP connection lie in different partitions
Multiple consecutive timeouts Inactivity for up to 1 or 2 minutes after partitions get connected

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Effect of Multi-path Routing

Routes are short-lived due to frequent link breaks To reduce delay due to route re-computation, some routing protocols (such as TORA) maintain multiple routes between a sourcedestination pair

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Effect of Multi-path Routing

Multi-path routing can result in packet arrival out-of-order

D
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Consequences
TCP sender misinterprets losses as congestion
Retransmits unACKed segments Invokes congestion control Enters slow start recovery

These are undesirable because

Why retransmit when there is no route Throughput is always low as a result of frequent slow start recovery

Why use TCP at all in such cases?

For seamless portability to applications like file transfer, e-mail and browsers which use standard TCP
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Approaches to Improve TCP

Hide error losses from the sender
So the sender will not reduce congestion window

Let the sender know, or determine, cause of packet loss

If due to errors, it will not reduce congestion window

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Where to Do Modifications?
At the sender only
ATCP [Liu01]

At the receiver only At intermediate node(s) only Combinations of the above

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ATCP Approach
ATCP utilizes network layer feedback (from the intermediate nodes) to take appropriate actions Network feedback is:
ICMP: The Destination Unreachable ICMP message indicates route disruption ECN: Indicates network congestion
With ECN enabled, time out and 3 dup ACKs are assumed to no longer be due to congestion

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ATCP in the TCP/IP Stack

Sender TCP Receiver TCP

A-TCP
IP IP Link layer Link layer

Note: from now on, the terms ATCP and TCP are referred to as ATCP sender and TCP sender, respectively
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Adapt to Ad-hoc Environment

High BER:
Retransmits lost segments without shrinking the congestion window.

Delays due to route change and partition :

Stops transmitting and resumes when a new route is found.

Multi-path routing:
On receipt of duplicate ACKs, TCP sender should not invoke congestion control, because multi-path routing shuffles the order in which segments are received.
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TCP/ATCP Behavior
RTO or 3rd dup ACK:
Retransmits unACKed segments

ACK with ECN flag:

Invokes congestion control

Destination Unreachable ICMP message:

Stops transmission Wait until a new route is found resume transmission

ATCP monitors TCP state and spoofs TCP in such a way to achieve the above behaviors
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ATCP states
Normal (when a connection is opened) Congested Disconnected Loss
During operation, ATCP transits from one state to another and put TCP in Persist mode when appropriate

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TCP Persist Mode

Triggered by an ACK carrying zero advertised window size from TCP receiver Parameters are frozen Persist timer is started TCP sender sends a probe segment each time persist timer expire When TCP sender receives an ACK carrying non-zero advertised window size from TCP receiver TCP sender resumes transmission

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Advantages of ATCP
ATCP improves TCP performance
Maintains high throughput since TCPs unnecessary congestion control is avoided Saves network resources by reducing number of unnecessary re-transmissions

End-to-End TCP semantics are maintained ATCP is transparent

Nodes with and without ATCP can set up TCP connections normally

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Overarching Issues
Power Aware Communication Quality of Service (QoS) Security

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Power Aware Routing

Aka: Energy efficient, Maximum Battery lifetime, Minimum transmission power: multiple small hops instead of single hop transmission Residual battery capacity: attempt balance traffic among different nodes Geographical Adaptive Fidelity (GAF) Routing Consider other factors: e.g. link quality and retransmission
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Quality of Service (QoS)

QoS: A set of service requirements that are met by the network while transferring a packet stream from a source to a destination QoS metrics could be defined in terms of one or a set of parameters Examples: delay, bandwidth, packet loss, delay-jitter, etc.
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QoS in MANETs [Mohapatra03]

The use of QoS-aware applications are evolving in the wireless environments Resource limitations and variations adds to the need for QoS provisioning Use of MANETs in critical and delay sensitive applications demands service differentiation

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Compromising Principles
Soft QoS
After the connection set-up, there may exist transient periods of time when QoS specification is not honored The level QoS satisfaction is quantified by the fraction of total disruption

QoS Adaptation
As available resources change, the network can readjust allocations within the reservation range (dynamic QoS) Applications can also adapt to the re-allocations

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QoS Support in Physical Channels

Since wireless channel is time varying, the SNR in channels fluctuates with time Adaptive modulation which can tune many possible parameters according to current channel state is necessary to derive better performance Major challenge: channel estimation accurate channel estimation at the receiver and then the reliable feedback to the transmitter Wireless channel coding needs to address the problems introduced by channel or multipath fading and mobility Cross-layer issue: Joint source-channel coding takes both source characteristics and channel conditions into account

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QoS Provisioning at the MAC Layer

For providing QoS guarantee for real-time traffic support in wireless networks, several MAC protocols based on centralized control have been proposed For multihop networks:
The MAC protocol must be distributed in nature It should solve the hidden and exposed terminal problems
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QoS Support using IEEE 802.11 DCF

IEEE 802.11 DCF is a best-effort type control algorithm The duration of backoff is decided by a random number between 0 and the contention window (CW). Service differentiation can be achieved by using different values of CW When packets collide, the ones with smaller CW is more likely to occupy the medium earlier
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MACA/PR [Lin97]
Multihop Access Collision Avoidance with Piggyback Reservation provides guaranteed bandwidth support for real-time traffic The first packet in a real-time stream uses RTS/CTS dialogs to make reservations in the path The sender schedules the next transmission after the current data transmission and piggybacks the reservation in the current data packet Upon receiving the data packet correctly, the receiver updates its reservation table and sends an ACK ACK serves for the renewal of reservation, not for recovering from packet losses
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QoS-aware Routing at the Network Layer

Types of MANET routing protocols:
Proactive, table-based routing schemes Reactive, on-demand routing schemes Constraint-based routing schemes

These algorithms are based on the discovery of shortest paths QoS-aware routing protocol should find a path that satisfies the QoS requirements in the path from source to the destination
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CEDAR [Singha99]
Core Extraction Distributed Ad hoc Routing scheme dynamically establishes the core of the network, and then incrementally propagates the link states of stable high-bandwidth links to the core nodes The route computation is on demand basis Components of CEDAR
Core extraction Link-state propagation Route computation

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Integrating QoS in Flooding-Based Route Discovery

Ticket-based probing algorithm [Chen99]
During the QoS-satisfying path search, each probing message is provided a limited number of tickets to reduce the scope of flooding When one or more probes arrive at the destination, the path and delay/bandwidth information is used to perform reservation for the QoS-satisfying path A simple imprecise model is used for the algorithm

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PANDA Approach [Li03]

Positional Attributes based Next hop Determination Approach (PANDA) discriminates the next hop based on the desired QoS metric Instead of using a random rebroadcast delay, the receiver opts for a delay proportional to its ability in meeting the QoS demands The decisions at the receivers are made based on a predetermined set of thresholds

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QoS Support using Bandwidth Calculations [Lin99]

The end-to-end bandwidth can be calculated and allocated during the admission control phase Using TDMA, time is divided into slots, which in turn are grouped into frames Each frame contains two phases: control and data. During the control phase, each node takes turns to broadcast its information to all the neighbors in a predetermined slot. At the end of control phase, each node knows about the free slots between itself and its neighbors Thus bandwidth calculation and allocation can be done in a distributed manner
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Multi-path QoS Routing [Liao01]

The algorithms searches for multiple paths between the source and the destination that collectively satisfies the QoS requirements Suitable for ad hoc networks with limited bandwidth A ticket based probing scheme is adopted for the path searching process
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Transport Layer Issues for QoS Provisioning

TCP performs poorly in terms of end-to-end throughput in MANETs
The assumption used in Internet that packet losses are due to congestion is not valid in MANET environments

TCP performance improvement in wireless networks:

Local retransmissions Split-TCP connections Forward error corrections (FEC)

Explicit feedback mechanisms to distinguish between losses due to errors and congestion is necessary for QoS provisioning in MANETs Efficient techniques for resource management is necessary for QoS provisioning
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Application Layer Issues

Application level QoS adaptation belong to adaptive strategies that play a vital role in supporting QoS
Flexible user interfaces, dynamic QoS ranges, adaptive compression algorithms, joint sourcechannel coding, joint source-network coding schemes

Adaptive real-time audio/video streaming support can be provided by enhancing:

Compression algorithms, layered encoding, rate shaping, adaptive error control, and bandwidth smoothing
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Inter-Layer Design Approaches

Efficient intercommunication protocols need to conserve scarce resources something difficult to achieve following the strict separation of the protocol layer functionalities Inter-layer or cross-layer issues needs to be examined Examples: INSIGNIA and iMAQ
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Security Issues
Environments and Philosophies:
Closed vs. open world assumption Prevention vs. Detection Malicious vs. Selfish behavior

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Vulnerabilities
Wireless links vulnerable to jamming Inherent broadcast nature facilitates eavesdropping Tradeoffs between resource constraints and security Mobility/dynamics make it difficult to detect anomalies such as bogus routes Self organization is inherent, cannot have central authorities/infrastructures, such as for key management

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Attacks
Motivation:
Better service Monetary benefits Gaining confidential information Power saving Preventing someone else from getting proper service

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Attacks: Indications
Create routing loops Black holes Misrouting along sub-optimal paths Incorrect forwarding: acknowledge ROUTE REQUEST, and do not forward it at all Bogus routing information: advertise a non-existent route Choose a very short reply time, so the route will be prioritized and stays in cache longer Do not send error messages in order to prevent other nodes from looking for alternative routes Use promiscuous mode to listen in on traffic and gather information Cause DoS attack caused by overload, by sending route updates at short intervals

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Solutions
Authentication by imprinting (closed world) Incentives to cooperate per hop payment in every packet/counters embedded in nodes Localized certification based on Public Key Infrastructure ARIADNE: Secure on-demand routing protocol which prevents attackers from tampering SEAD: One way hash functions used to add security to DSDV (adds latency)

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Detection
Intrusion detection techniques
Distributed and cooperative Using statistical anomaly detection approaches Cooperate with other network layers Majority voting to classify behavior

Watchdog and Pathrater CONFIDANT

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Nodes bearing Grudges

[Buchegger02]
Give the nodes incentive for cooperation Nodes must behave in a manner that is best both for them and the group Punish the non cooperating nodes (A beautiful mind !!)

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Selfish Gene [Dawkins76]

In many schemes, the malicious nodes are relieved of carrying traffic for others, while their traffic is still transferred Looks more like encouragement Biological example
Suckers Cheats Grudgers

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From Birds to Network Nodes

The Monitor Trust Manager Reputation System Path Manager

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Components
The Monitor
Neighborhood watch Look out for deviations no forwarding, route salvaging, unusually frequent route updates

Trust Manager (Distributed and adaptive)

Trust function to calculate trust levels Forwarding of ALARM messages Filtering ALARMs based on trust level of reporting node

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Components
Reputation System
Own experience: greatest weight Observations: smaller weight Reported experience: weight function according to trust level

Path Manager
Remove malicious nodes from routes between well behaved nodes Educate nodes to not provide paths between malicious nodes

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ARIADNE [Hu02]
Aims to create a secure on-demand routing protocol Uses TESLA, an authentication scheme that requires loose time synchronization Incorporate security features into DSR Focuses on active attackers

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Attacker Model
Passive versus Active
Passive : only eavesdrops
Threats against privacy/anonymity

Active : injects packets as well as eavesdrops

Active-n-m attacker
Compromises n good nodes and owns m nodes in the network

Attacker have all keys of compromised nodes and distributes it among all its nodes Active-VC attacker
Owns all nodes on a vertex cut

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Overview of TESLA
Broadcast authentication protocol
Authenticate routing messages Only one MAC(Message Authentication Code)
Secure authentication in point-to-point communication Asymmetric primitive by clock synchronization and delayed key disclosure

One-way key chain

Each sender chooses random initial key KN, generates one-way key chain as Ki = HN-i (KN)

Schedule for disclosing keys

Each sender pre-determines the schedule For example, disclose Ki at Ti = T0 + i t
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Overview of TESLA
Receiver can determine which key is disclosed
Based on loose time synchronization() Sender picks Ki which will not be disclosed until + 2 time passes and add MAC using Ki Discard the packet if security condition fails

TESLA security condition

Ki used to authenticate a packet cannot have been disclosed yet tr t0 + i t - implies Ki is not disclosed yet is small may discard some packets is large long delay for authentication does not affect security
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ARIADNE Route Discovery

Target authenticates Route Requests
Initiator includes a MAC with KSD

Data Authentications
Initiator authenticates nodes in Route Reply Target authenticates nodes in Route Request and return only legitimate paths TESLA, digital signatures, standard MACs

Per-hop hashing
One-way hash functions to verify that no hop was omitted

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