The Endocrine System

Primary endocrine organs: main function is to secrete hormone(s) Secondary endocrine organs: secrete hormones as a secondary function

Chp. 6

Primary endocrine organs

Hypothalamus and pituitary gland secrete hormones and regulate other endocrine organs. They are the main regulatory organs of the endocrine system.

Hypothalamus
Located below the thalamus and above the pituitary gland (=epiphysis)

Regulates the pituitary gland secretions through two different mechanisms

Hypothalamus - neurohypophysis
1- Neurons, receiving information from receptors, fire APs which travel down to the post pituitary gland and stimulate the release of stored neurohormones Oxytocin (OT) and anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

Hormones of the posterior pituitary

Regulation Reflex Hormone Oxytocin Target organ - Uterus (smooth muscle) - breast tubules (smooth muscles) Action -labor and delivery - milk-let down Pathology ---

Reflex (osmoreceptor)

ADH (vasopressin)

- DCT in kidney tubules

- promote H2O reabsorption

- not enough: diabetes insipidus - too much: BP?

Hypothalamus adenohypophysis
2- Upon stimulation, secretory cells located in the hypothalamus secrete releasing hormones which travel down a capillary bed toward the anterior pituitary gland (adenopituitary). Each type of releasing hormones will stimulate the secretion and release of a pituitary hormone. Hormones which control the secretion of other hormones are tropic hormones (found in hypothalamus and pituitary gland

Hormones of the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland

Figure 6.5

Anterior pituitary
Regulation GHRH and GHIH Hormone Growth hormone (GH) Target organ Many cells (bones..) Action Stimulate cell growth and cell division Pathology - not enough: children pituitary dwarfism too much: gigantism (children) acromegaly (adult) -- not enough: hypothyroidism (cretinism in children) - too much: hyperthyroidism - not enough: Addison's disease - too much: Cushing syndrome - infertility

PRH - PIH TRH

Prolactin (PL) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

Breast secretory cells Thyroid gland

- milk secretion - promote thyroid gland secretion (T3 and T4)

CRH

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Adrenal cortex (3 layers)

- stimulates secretion of adrenal cortex Stimulate gonadal gland secretion and gamete formation

GnRH

Gonadotropin - Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) - Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Stimulate gamete maturation

Figure 6.8

Same Individual with Acromegaly

(evolution over 20 years)

Figure 23-17

Mechanism of control

Figure 6.6

The thyroid gland - Chp 21 p 623-625

Located in the neck, just below the larynx Secrete 2 types of hormone: - thyroid hormones stimulate cell metabolism, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) iodine is needed to synthesize these hormones

- calcitonin decrease blood calcium

Figure 6.8a

Thyroid hormones
T3 and T4 secreted by the follicular cells Stored as colloid

Parafollicular cells (C cells) secrete calcitonin (Chp 19)

Thyroid Hormones T3 and T4

Target organs: all cells Role: Increase cell metabolism, oxygen consumption Permissive role for some other hormones (growth hormone)

Thyroid hormone regulation

Figure 6.7

Goiter
Both hypo and hyperthyroidism can have goiter as a symptom Goiter is a swelling of the neck due to hypertrophy of the thyroid gland How can one explain that?

Goiter in hypothyroidism
Most often due to a lack of dietary iodine The thyroid hormone is unable to synthesize a functional thyroid hormone (T3 and T4) The person express symptoms of hypothyroidism The nonfunctional T3/T4 cannot promote a negative feedback on TRH and TSH the hypotalamus and pituitary gland increase their secretions the thyroid gland is stimulated to secrete more T3 and T4 In children, the lack of functional T3/T4 result in cretinism, a form a mental retardation

Goiter in hyperthyroidism
The cells secreting TRH or TSH on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland (respectively) have become abnormal and no longer are sensitive to the negative feedback they continue to secrete TRH or TSH continuous stimulation of the thyroid gland with excess thyroid hormones being formed symptoms of hyperthyroidism

Parathyroid glands
Four nodules located in the back of the thyroid gland Secreted parathyroid hormone or parathormone or PTH Action of PTH opposes action of calcitonin Both hormones play a role in calcium metabolism

Roles of calcium
Most calcium ions are stored in the bones Calcium is an important cofactor for enzymatic activity, plays a role in blood coagulation and action potentials.

Calcitonin and PTH participate in calcium regulation

Vitamin D helps PTH activity

Calcium regulation:

Calcitonin promotes blood calcium decrease, by: - 1. calcium deposition on bone - 2. calcium dumping by the kidney

PTH promotes blood calcium increase by: - 1. bone resorption - 2. calcium reabsorption by kidney - 3. increase calcium absorption by intestine

Calcium Metabolism:

Figure 23-20: Calcium balance in the body

Figure 19.20

The adrenal glands

Two endocrine glands: 1- Adrenal medulla: an extension of the sympathetic ANS cell secrete epinephrine 2- Adrenal cortex: 3 layers with 3 different hormones

Figure 6.12b

Figure 21.15

Adrenal gland hormones

Regulation Glands Hormones Target organs
ANS target organs

Action

Pathology

Reflex

Adrenal medulla

Epinephrine

Fight/flight

Stress

Blood Pressure

Adrenal cortex

- Mineralocorticoid = aldosterone

DCT from renal tubule

- promote sodium reabsorption

Not enough" Addison disease

CRH ACTH

Glucocorticoid = cortisone

Many cells

Mobilize fuels stress adaptation

Excess hormone: Cushing syndrome

GnRH GN

Estrogen Testosterone

Sexual organs

- Sex organ maintenance - Gamete development

Infertility

The pancreas
Located in the left upper abdominal cavity Exocrine and endocrine glands The endocrine function is due to the cells of the islets of the Langerhans -- cells glucagon -- insulin -- somatostatin

Glucose regulation
Glucose level controlled by insulin and glucagon Insulin promotes a decrease in blood glucose Glucagon promotes an increase in blood glucose

Glucose regulation

Fate of glucose

Figure 3.21

Diabetes mellitus
Type I: autoimmune disease beta cells of the islets of Langerhans are destroyed by antibodies Type II: The cells become insulin-resistant glucose does not enter the cells as readily http://faculty.weber.edu/nokazaki/Human_Physio logy/Class%20notes/diabetes.htm

Diabetic foot