The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2002

2002
THf STATf Of
WORlD flSHfRlfS AND
AQUACUlTURf
1hedesgnutonsempoyedundthepresentutonolmuterunths
nlormuton produtt do not mpy the expresson ol uny opnon
whutsoeveronthepurtoltheloodundAgrtutureCrgunzutonol
the Lnted Nutons tonternng the egu stutus ol uny tountry,
terrtory,ttyorureuoroltsuuthortes,ortonternngthedemtuton
oltslrontersorboundures.
A rghts reserved. Reprodutton und dssemnuton ol muteru n ths
nlormutonproduttloredututonuorothernon-tommertupurposesure
uuthorzedwthoutunyprorwrttenpermssonlromthetopyrghthoders
provdedthesourtesluyutknowedged.Reproduttonolmuterunths
nlormuton produtt lor resue or other tommertu purposes s prohbted
wthout wrtten permsson ol the topyrght hoders. Apptutons lor suth
permssonshoudbeuddressedtotheChel,PubshngMunugementServte,
lnlormutonDvson,lAC,Vuedee1ermedCurutuu,00l00Rome,ltuy
orbye-mutotopyrghtluo.org
fAO 2002
lSN92-5-l04842-8
Ldtng,desgn,gruphtsunddesktoppubshng:
fditoriaICroup
fAOlnformationDivision
ISSN 1020-5489
2002
THfSTATfOf
WORlDflSHfRlfSAND
AQUACUlTURf
lAClsheresDepurtment
fOODANDACRlCUlTURfORCANlZATlONOfTHfUNlTfDNATlONS
Romc,2002
Durng the past two years, the nternatona lsheres communty has acheved many
mportant deveopments the lnternatona Pan ol Acton on lega, Lnreguated and
Lnreported lshng was adopted by lAC members durng the lrst months ol 200l n
Cctober ol the same year, the Reykavk Conlerence on Responsbe lsheres n the
Marne lcosystem caed on the word communty to promote an ellectve ecosystems
lramework lor lsheres management n November 200l, the \ord 1rade
Crganzaton's \1C's) Mnstera Conlerence n Doha pad speca attenton to
lsheres subsdes and decded that partcpants n the next round ol trade negotatons
shoud am to carly and mprove \1C dscpnes on such subsdes, takng nto
account the mportance ol ths sector to deveopng countres at about the same tme,
the LN lsh Stocks Agreement came nto lorce and, n September 2002, the \ord
Summt lor Sustanabe Deveopment \SSD) adopted a Pan ol lmpementaton that s
ceary locused on mprovng the sustanabty ol word lsheres. Aquacuture has
receved ncreasng attenton durng the past two years, as ustrated by the lact that the
word's lrst nter-governmenta body to specaze n ths led, the Sub-Commttee on
Aquacuture ol the lAC Commttee on lsheres, met n eng n the sprng ol 2002.
ln many countres, these nternatona deveopments have been accompaned by
actons amed at broadenng and strengthenng lsheres management lor the purpose ol
achevng sustanabe lsheres and aquacuture. However, resuts are sow to arrve,
partcuary n terms ol rebudng stocks or ncreasng lshers' ncomes. 1hs shoud be
no surprse. Scentsts have warned repeatedy that most heavy expoted stocks w
take tme to recover - l they can do so at a. Patence and perseverance are therelore
essenta, and lsheres management shoud loster such atttudes among a those
concerned.
Cne ol the mportant contrbutons ol lAC n ths regard s the benna pubcaton ol
1he State ol \ord lsheres and Aquacuture SCllA), the purpose ol whch s to
provde some ol the knowedge requred lor understandng the lsheres sector.
As n the past, n Part l ol SCllA 2002 the stuaton n Chna s reported separatey
whenever dong otherwse mght hde sgnlcant dllerences between deveopments n
Chna and deveopments n the rest ol the word. Part 2 hghghts mportant ssues, some
ol whch are not new, such as the dllcuty and mportance ol obtanng reabe lshery
statstcs and the pght ol sma-scae and artsana lshers, whe others have emerged
more recenty, ncudng catch certlcaton, antbotcs and aquacuture and an
ecosystems lramework lor lsheres management. Part 3 contans reports on three studes
that have been pubshed recenty by lAC. Part 4 reports on the lndngs ol studes on
luture lsh consumpton and specuates about the luture mpcatons ol the rsng costs ol
capture lsheres.
lt s the hope ol lAC and ts lsheres Department that ths new edton ol SCllA w
prove to be a uselu too lor lactatng a baanced and comprehensve understandng ol
the lsheres sector, partcuary ts nternatona aspects.
lcbiro Nomura
Assstant Drector-Cenera
lAC lsheres Department
fORfWORD
loreword
Acknowedgements x
Cossary xv
PAR1 l
WORlD RfVlfW Of flSHfRlfS AND AQUACUlTURf
fisbcrics rcsourccs trcnds in production, utiIization and tradc 3
Cvervew 3
Capture lsheres producton S
lshers and lsh larmers 13
1he status ol the lshng leet 17
1he status ol lshery resources 21
Aquacuture 26
lsh utzaton 29
lsh trade 34
lnternatona lsheres pocy and governance 4S
PAR1 2
SflfCTfD lSSUfS fAClNG flSHfRS AND AQUACUlTURf
lmpIcmcnting tbc ccosystcm approacb to capturc fisbcrics managcmcnt SS
1he ssue SS
Possbe soutons SS
Recent actons S6
luture perspectve S8
RcIiabIc statistics as an csscntiaI basis for cffcctivc fisbcrics managcmcnt S9
1he ssue S9
Possbe soutons 62
Coba perspectve 63
Catcb ccrtification and catcb documcntation 6S
1he ssue 6S
Possbe soutons 66
Recent actons 67
luture perspectve 68
Povcrty aIIcviation in smaII-scaIc fisbing communitics 69
1he ssue 69
Possbe soutons 70
Recent actons 72
Cutook 73
Antibiotic rcsiducs in aquacuIturc products 74
1he ssue 74
Possbe soutons 7S
Recent actons 76
Coba perspectve 82
PAR1 3
HlGHllGHTS Of SPfClAl fAO STUDlfS
fisbcrics and Iong-tcrm cIimatc variabiIity 87
ackground 87
lsheres and ong-term cmate luctuatons 87
v
CONTfNTS
Correaton between lsheres and cmate 88
lorecastng possbtes 90
Pocy mpcatons 90
Tbc scarcb for an opcrationaI dcfinition
of subsidics providcd to tbc fisbcrics scctor 91
ackground 91
Cenera consderatons 92
Subsdes 93
Tccbno-cconomic pcrformancc of marinc capturc fisbcrics 9S
lntroducton 9S
Cost structure ol sma-scae lshng vesses 9S
Recent trends n lnanca and economc perlormance 97
AquacuIturc dcvcIopmcnt in Cbina tbc roIc of pubIic scctor poIicics 99
lntroducton 99
Man lndngs 100
Deveopment poces 102
1he way lorward 10S
Concusons 106
PAR1 4
OUTlOOk
lntroduction 111
Trcnds in Iong-tcrm projcctions of fisb production and consumption 111
Capture and aquacuture producton 112
Consumpton 114
\ord trade lows 117
1he ong-term outook 119
food and cmpIoymcnt tbc prospccts 119
Capture lshers 120
Aquacutursts 122
Pocy-makers 123
Concusons 124
PAR1 5
flSHfRlfS ACTlVlTlfS Of COUNTRY GROUPlNGS
Association of Soutbcast Asian Nations 127
Caribbcan Community and Common Markct 129
CommonwcaItb of lndcpcndcnt Statcs 131
fconomic Community of Wcst African Statcs 133
furopcan Community 13S
latin Amcrican fconomic Systcm 139
lcaguc of Arab Statcs 141
Nortb Amcrican frcc Tradc Agrccmcnt 143
Soutb Asian Association for RcgionaI Coopcration 144
Soutbcrn African DcvcIopmcnt Community 146
Soutb Pacific forum 148
v
v
BOXfS
CX l
fAO's roIc in fisbcry statistics 6
CX 2
Cbina 9
CX 3
Trcnds in bigb scas fisbcrics 13
CX 4
Tracking tbc fisbing fIccts tbrougb tbc databasc
of lIoyds Maritimc lnformation Scrviccs 21
CX 5
Dams, fisb and fisbcrics
a cbaIIcngc for fisbcry managcrs and cnginccrs 24
CX 6
Aquatic biodivcrsity from ricc-bascd
farming systcms supports ruraI IivcIiboods 31
CX 7
Tradc in aquacuIturc products 36
CX 8
lIIcgaI, unrcportcd and unrcguIatcd fisbing S0
CX 9
GIobaI cstimatcs of incomc-poor smaII-scaIc fisbcrs
and rcIatcd cmpIoymcnt in marinc and inIand capturc fisbcrics 73
CX l0
fisbcrics co-managcmcnt in Aby lagoon, Ctc d'lvoirc 74
CX ll
Drugs currcntIy banncd for usc in raising animaIs
in tbc Unitcd Statcs USfDA 2002) 78
CX l2
limitations inbcrcnt in Iong-tcrm fisb projcctions 120
v
TABlfS
1ALl l
WorId fisbcrics production and utiIization 4
1ALl 2
fisbcrics production and utiIization for tbc worId cxcIuding Cbina 4
1ALl 3
lnIand capturc fisbcry production by cconomic cIass 13
1ALl 4
WorId fisbcrs and fisb farmcrs by contincnt 16
1ALl 5
Numbcr of fisbcrs incIuding fisb farmcrs) in scIcctcd countrics 17
1ALl 6
Cbangcs to tbc databasc of lIoyds Maritimc
lnformation Scrviccs for fisbing vcsscIs) 22
1ALl 7
fIagging in and out of sbipping rcgistcrs by fisbing vcsscIs) 22
1ALl 8
TotaI and pcr capita food fisb suppIy by contincnt
and cconomic grouping in 1999 30
1ALl 9
fC import bans of tuna and tuna-Iikc spccics 67
1ALl l0
PossibIc purcbasc and uscr pattcrns
and rcsuIting rcsiduaI cffccts of antibiotics in aquacuIturc 76
1ALl ll
|fCfA proposcd MRls rcIcvant to aquacuIturc 79
1ALl l2
Currcnt MRls rcIcvant to aquacuIturc in tbc fC ffA 80
1ALl l3
Currcnt toIcranccs rcIcvant to aquacuIturc in tbc Unitcd Statcs 81
1ALl l4
CurrcntIy approvcd drugs and tbcir MRls in Canada 81
1ALl l5
AdditionaI amcndcd MRls in Canada 81
1ALl l6
fisb consumption, nct cxport and production trcnds 1997-2030 112
x
1ALl l7
Summary of projcctions for 2030 bascd
on tbc Unitcd Statcs modcI tbousand tonncs, Iivc wcigbt) 114
1ALl l8
fstimatcd pcrccntagc cbangcs in furopcan
fisb production and consumption, 1994-1998 to 2030 118
1ALl l9
ASfAN fisbcrics and aquacuIturc production,
food baIancc and tradc 127
1ALl 20
CARlCOM fisbcrics and aquacuIturc production,
1ALl 2l
ClS fisbcrics and aquacuIturc production,
1ALl 22
fCOWAS fisbcrics and aquacuIturc production,
1ALl 23
fC fisbcrics and aquacuIturc production,
food baIancc and tradc 13S
1ALl 24
lAfS fisbcrics and aquacuIturc production,
1ALl 25
lcaguc of Arab Statcs fisbcrics and aquacuIturc production,
1ALl 26
NAfTA fisbcrics and aquacuIturc production,
1ALl 27
SAARC fisbcrics and aquacuIturc production,
1ALl 28
SADC fisbcrics and aquacuIturc production,
1ALl 29
SPf fisbcrics and aquacuIturc production,
x
flGURfS
llCLRl l
WorId capturc fisbcrics and aquacuIturc production S
llCLRl 2
WorId fisb utiIization and suppIy, cxcIuding Cbina S
llCLRl 3
WorId capturc fisbcrics production 8
llCLRl 4
Marinc and inIand capturc fisbcrics top produccr countrics in 2000 8
llCLRl 5
Capturc fisbcrics production by principaI marinc fisbing arcas in 2000 10
llCLRl 6
Capturc fisbcrics production top spccics in 2000 10
llCLRl 7
Capturc fisbcrics production in marinc arcas 11
llCLRl 8
lnIand capturc fisbcrics production top tcn produccr countrics in 2000 14
llCLRl 9
Cbina's fisb utiIization and suppIy 14
llCLRl l0
WorId catcbcs of occanic spccics cpipcIagic and dccp watcr)
occurring principaIIy in bigb scas arcas 1S
llCLRl ll
WorId tradc in occanic spccics 1S
llCLRl l2
WorId fisbcrs and fisb farmcrs 1S
llCLRl l3
Numbcrs of dcckcd fisbing vcsscIs by contincnt 18
llCLRl l4
Numbcrs of powcrcd vcsscIs by contincnt in 1998 18
llCLRl l5
Numbcrs of dcckcd fisbing vcsscIs in major nationaI fIccts by contincnt 19
llCLRl l6
Numbcrs of fisbing vcsscIs ovcr 100 GRT rccordcd in
lIoyds Maritimc lnformation Scrviccs databasc 21
llCLRl l7
Numbcrs of fisbing vcsscIs in tbc major opcn rcgistcrs
and of fIag unknown 21
x
llCLRl l8
AquacuIturc production in marinc and inIand watcrs 27
llCLRl l9
Trcnd of gIobaI aquacuIturc production by major spccics groups 27
llCLRl 20
GIobaI aquacuIturc production proportions of spccics groups
by cnvironmcnt in 2000 28
llCLRl 2l
AquacuIturc production major produccr countrics in 2000 28
llCLRl 22
AquacuIturc production major spccics groups in 2000 29
llCLRl 23
Trcnds in aquacuIturc production quantity and vaIuc 29
llCLRl 24
UtiIization of worId fisbcrics production brcakdown by voIumc) 30
llCLRl 25
fisb as food pcr capita suppIy 32
llCLRl 26
Contribution of fisb to animaI protcin suppIy 32
llCLRl 27
TotaI protcin suppIy by contincnt and major food group
1997-1999 avcragc) 34
llCLRl 28
lmports and cxports of fisbcry products for diffcrcnt rcgions,
indicating tbc nct dcficit or surpIus 3S
llCLRl 29
WorId fisbcry cxports by major commodity groups 39
llCLRl 30
Nct cxports of scIcctcd agricuIturaI commoditics
by dcvcIoping countrics 39
llCLRl 3l
Tradc fIows by contincnt pcrccntagcs of totaI import c.i.f. vaIucs
avcragcs for 1998-2000) 41
llCLRl 32
Sbrimp priccs wboIcsaIc) in tbc Unitcd Statcs and |apan 43
llCLRl 33
Skipjack tuna priccs in tbc Unitcd Statcs, TbaiIand and Africa 43
llCLRl 34
Groundfisb priccs c&f) in tbc Unitcd Statcs 44
x
llCLRl 35
CcpbaIopod priccs wboIcsaIc) in |apan 44
llCLRl 36
fisbmcaI and soybcan mcaI priccs c.i.f.)
in Gcrmany and tbc NctbcrIands 4S
llCLRl 37
fIuctuations in tbc main opcn rcgistcrs 66
llCLRl 38
CycIic tcmpcraturc fIuctuations and |apancsc sardinc
outbursts 1600-2000 88
llCLRl 39
Pcriodicity of dctrcndcd vaIucs of gIobaI tcmpcraturc anomaIy dT),
ncgativc Icngtb of day -lOD) and zonaI atmospbcric
circuIation indcx ACl) 18S0-2000 89
llCLRl 40
Dynamics of mcridionaI C) and zonaI Wf)
forms of tbc atmospbcric circuIation indcx A) and aItcrnation
of mcridionaI and zonaI circuIation cpocbs B) 1880-2040 90
llCLRl 4l
Obscrvcd 19S0-1998) and forccast 2000-2040)
catcb cbangcs for scIcctcd major commcrciaI spccics in
tbc Nortb AtIantic and Nortb Pacific 91
llCLRl 42
Scts of subsidics 93
llCLRl 43
TotaI costs of smaII-scaIc fisbing vcsscIs in furopc 96
llCLRl 44
TotaI costs of smaII-scaIc fisbing vcsscIs in ScncgaI 96
llCLRl 45
TotaI costs of smaII-scaIc fisbing vcsscIs in tbc Caribbcan 97
llCLRl 46
TotaI costs of smaII-scaIc fisbing vcsscIs in Asia 98
llCLRl 47
WorId fisb production and food usc consumption 1976-2030 113
llCLRl 48
fvoIution of furopc-28 totaI fisb production ovcr timc 11S
llCLRl 49
|apancsc dcmand for fisb to 2030 116
1he State ol \ord lsheres and Aquacuture 2002 was prepared by lAC
lsheres Department stall, ed by a team comprsng L. \kstrm, A.
Cumy and R. Cranger. Cenera drecton was provded by the
Department's management stall, ncudng L. Ababouch . Csrke S.
Carca . a l. Nomura . Sata . 1urner and C. Vadmarsson.
1he preparaton ol Part l, \ord revew ol lsheres and aquacuture,
was the overa edtora responsbty ol R. Cranger asssted by D. lvans
consutant), who coordnated the contrbutons made by L. Carbad
producton, capture lsheres) . Csrke marne resources) A. Crspod
lshers and lshng leets) R. Metzner lsheres management) D. Douman
regona lsheres governance) R. Subasnghe aquacuture) D.M. artey
nand lsheres) S. Vannuccn and C. Laurent consumpton) S.
Vannuccn utzaton and trade) and H. osupet commodty trade).
Contrbutors to Part 2, Seected ssues lacng lshers and aquacutursts,
ncuded K. Cochrane mpementng the ecosystem approach to capture
lsheres management) D. lvans and R. Cranger reabe statstcs as an
essenta bass lor lsheres management) A. Smth catch certlcaton and
documentaton) C. Macladyean consutant) poverty aevaton n sma-
sae lshng communtes) and H. Lupn, R. Subasnghe and D. Aderman
ol the Centre lor lnvronment, lsheres and Aquacuture Scence CllAS
LK) antbotc resdues n aquacuture products).
Contrbutors to Part 3, Hghghts ol speca lAC studes, ncuded .
Csrke lsheres and ong-term cmate varabty) the lsheres
Deveopment Pannng Servce the search lor an operatona delnton ol
subsdes provded to the lsheres sector) L. 1etze techno-economc
perlormance ol marne capture lsheres) and N. Hshamunda aquacuture
deveopment n Chna the roe ol pubc sector poces).
Part 4, Cutook, was wrtten by C. de Young, R. Metzner and L.
\kstrm.
Part 5, lsheres actvtes ol country groupngs, was wrtten by A. Cumy.
Severa other stall members as we as non-lAC authors have
contrbuted texts on speclc ssues, and they are cted n the reevant
boxes throughout the pubcaton. lnlormaton ol reevance lor a lve parts
has been provded by lAC stall n the Regona and Subregona Cllces. S.
Montanaro asssted wth preparaton ol the lgures and the tabes.
1he ldtora Croup ol the lAC lnlormaton Dvson was responsbe lor
the edtng, desgn and producton ol 1he State ol \ord lsheres and
Aquacuture 2002.
x
ACkNOWlfDGfMfNTS
Notes Lness otherwse stated, the source ol data lor the lgures s lAC. Data lor Chna do not
ncude 1awan Provnce and Hong Kong and Macao Speca Admnstratve Regons.
ACC
Admnstratve Commttee on
Coordnaton LN)
ACP
Alrcan, Carbbean and Paclc Croup
ol States lC)
ADl
acceptabe day ntake
AffP
Arab lederaton ol lsh Producers
ASfAN
Assocaton ol Southeast Asan Natons
CAC
Codex Amentarus Commsson
CARlCOM
Carbbean Communty and Common
Market
CCAMlR
Commsson lor the Conservaton ol
Antarctc Lvng Resources
CCP
crtca contro pont
CCSBT
Commsson lor the Conservaton ol
Southern ueln 1una
c&f
cost and lreght
c.i.f.
cost, nsurance, lreght
CfRAMP
CARlCCM lsheres Resource Assessment
and Management Program
CfP
Common lsheres Pocy lC)
ClDA
Canadan lnternatona Deveopment
Agency
ClS
Commonweath ol lndependent States
COfl
Commttee on lsheres lAC)
CRfM
Carbbean Regona lsheres Mechansm
CARlCCM)
CWP
Coordnatng \orkng Party on lshery
Statstcs nter-agency)
DANlDA
Dansh lnternatona Deveopment Agency
DWfN
Dstant \ater lshng Natons
fAf
ecosystem approach to lsheres
ffA
luropean lconomc Area
fC
luropean Communty
fCOWAS
lconomc Communty ol \est Alrcan
States
ffC
luropean lconomc Communty
superseded by lC)
ffZ
excusve economc zone
fU
luropean Lnon
ffA
South Paclc lorum lsheres Agency
flfG
lnanca lnstrument lor lsheres
Cudance lC)
flSHSTAT
Computer System lor Coba lshery
Statstca 1me Seres
GlOSSARY
xv
xv
f.o.b.
lree on board
GlOBfflSH
Computerzed System ol lsh Marketng
lnlormaton
GRT
gross regstered ton
HACCP
Hazard Anayss and Crtca Contro Pont
system)
HlPC
heavy-ndebted poor countres
lACSD
lnter-agency Commttee on Sustanabe
Deveopment
lATTC
lnter-Amercan 1ropca 1una Commsson
lBSfC
lnternatona atc Sea lshery
Commsson
lCCAT
lnternatona Commsson lor the
Conservaton ol Atantc 1unas
lCfS
lnternatona Counc lor the lxporaton ol
the Sea
lCfA
lnternatona Coaton ol lsheres
Assocatons
lClARM
lnternatona Centre lor Lvng Aquatc
Resources Management
lMf
lnternatona Monetary lund
lMO
lnternatona Martme Crganzaton
lOC
lntergovernmenta Cceanographc
Commsson
lOTC
lndan Ccean 1una Commsson
lPOA-lUU
lnternatona Pan ol Acton to Prevent,
Deter and lmnate lega, Lnreported
and Lnreguated lshng
lUU
ega, unreported and unreguated
lshng)
|fCfA
ont lAC/\HC lxpert Commttee on
lood Addtves
lAfS
Latn Amercan lconomc System
llfDC
ow-ncome lood-delct country
MCS
montorng, contro and surveance
MRl
maxmum resdue mt
MRlVD
maxmum mt lor resdues ol veternary
drugs CAC)
NACA
Network ol Aquacuture Centres n
Asa-Paclc
NAfTA
North Amercan lree 1rade Agreement
NGO
non-governmenta organzaton
NRC
Natona Research Counc Lnted States)
OfCD
Crgansaton lor lconomc Co-operaton
and Deveopment
Olf
lnternatona Cllce ol lpzootcs
OlDfPfSCA
Latn Amercan Crganzaton lor lsheres
Deveopment
PRSPs
Poverty Reducton Strategy Papers
RfB
regona lshery body
RfMO
regona lsheres management
organzaton
SAARC
South Asan Assocaton lor Regona
Cooperaton
SADC
Southern Alrcan Deveopment
Communty
SfAfDfC
Southeast Asan lsheres Deveopment
Centre
SfAfO
Southeast Atantc lsheres Crganzaton
SflP
Sustanabe lsheres Lvehoods
Programme
SPf
South Paclc lorum
SPS
Santary and Phytosantary Agreement
\1C)
TAC
tota aowabe catch
UNCfD
Lnted Natons Conlerence on
lnvronment and Deveopment
UNClOS
Lnted Natons Conlerence on the Law ol
the Sea
UNfP
Lnted Natons lnvronment Programme
USfDA
Lnted Stated lood and Drug
Admnstraton
VMS
Vesse Montorng System
WfCAfC
\estern Centra Atantc lsheres
Commsson
WHO
\ord Heath Crganzaton
WSSD
\ord Summt lor Sustanabe
Deveopment
WTO
\ord 1rade Crganzaton
xv
xvi
Note: The data on food fi sh suppl y (total and per capi ta) presented for the worl d i n the Overvi ew secti on
of Part 1 (Tabl es 1 and 2) di ffer from those presented i n the Fi sh uti l i zati on secti on of Part 1 (Tabl e 8) owi ng
to di fferent ti me frames. The source of the more detai l ed fi gures reported i n the l atter i s the FAO Fi sheri es
Ci rcul ar No. 821, Rev. 6. [ Laurenti , G. (comp.) 1961-1999. Fi sh and fi shery products: worl d apparent con-
sumpti on stati sti cs based on food bal ance sheets] , whi ch was compi l ed usi ng stati sti cs hel d i n the FAO fi -
shery stati sti cal database i n August 2001. The worl d total data presented i n the Overvi ew (Tabl es 1 and 2)
are based on more recent producti on fi gures of March 2002, whi ch al so i ncorporated hi stori cal revi si ons.
The food fi sh suppl y data i n Tabl es 1 and 2 are i ndi cati ve and may be subj ect to further revi si on when the
food bal ance sheets are updated.
PART 1
WorId rcvicw of fisbcrics and aquacuIturc
flSHfRlfS RfSOURCfS
TRfNDS lN PRODUCTlON,
UTlllZATlON AND TRADf
OVfRVlfW
Coba producton lrom capture lsheres and
aquacuture and the lood lsh suppy s currenty
the hghest on record and remans very sgnlcant
lor goba lood securty, provdng more than l5
percent ol tota anma proten suppes 1abes l
and 2 and lgure l). Chna remans by lar the
argest producer, wth reported lshery producton
ol 4l.6 mon tonnes n 2000 l7 mon tonnes
lrom capture lsheres and 24.6 mon tonnes
lrom aquacuture), provdng an estmated lood
suppy ol 25 kg per capta. However, there are
ncreasng ndcatons that capture lshery and
aquacuture producton statstcs lor Chna may
be too hgh as suggested by severa academc
studes, and that ths probem has become more
pronounced snce the eary l990s. ecause ol ts
mportance and the uncertanty about ts
producton statstcs, Chna s usuay dscussed
separatey lrom the rest ol the word, as n the
prevous edton ol ths document.
Cutsde Chna, the word's popuaton has
been ncreasng more qucky than the tota lood
lsh suppy lrom producton, resutng n a
decreased goba per capta lsh suppy lrom l4.6
kg n l987 to l3.l kg n 2000 lgure 2). 1hs
decrease has been uneveny dstrbuted. ln some
countres and regons lsh consumpton has
decreased, whe n others the suppy has
remaned reatvey statc or has even ncreased
sghty.
ln 2000, reported goba capture lsheres lor the
word excudng Chna returned to the eve ol the
eary l990s, reachng about 77 to 78 mon tonnes.
1hs loowed the oscatons ol the l994-l998
perod, whch were caused by the nluence ol
l No on the catches ol Peruvan anchoveta.
1here have been some recent reatve gans lrom
other regons, partcuary Asan nand waters, the
lndan Ccean and the \est Centra Paclc. ln
some areas, there have been decnes lrom the
l998 lgures, partcuary n the North Paclc.
1hs generay stabe stuaton lor goba
catches masks regona dspartes. ln the
Northwest Paclc, reported tota catches have
doubed lrom about l2 mon tonnes n l970 to
23 mon tonnes n 2000. Chna began the
l970s wth about 20 percent ol ths catch, but by
2000 ts share had rsen to more than 60 percent.
1he rapd rse n Chna's reported producton,
partcuary the 2.5-lod ncrease ol ts catch to
neary l7 mon tonnes snce l990, s n marked
contrast to the amost havng ol other countres'
catch lrom ths regon, whch dropped to ess
than 9 mon tonnes over the same perod.
Lnke capture lsheres, aquacuture
producton has contnued to ncrease markedy.
lxcudng Chna, word aquacuture producton
other than aquatc pants) exhbted a somewhat
ower average annua growth rate 5.3 percent) n
the l990s than t dd n the l980s 7.l percent). lt
s beeved that aquacuture potenta st exsts n
many areas and lor many speces.
lmpoyment n the prmary capture lsheres
and aquacuture producton sectors has remaned
reatvey stabe snce l995, and was estmated to
be about 35 mon peope n 2000. Cl ths tota,
65 percent were n marne capture lsheres, l5
percent n nand capture lsheres and 20 percent
n aquacuture producton.
lnternatona trade n lsh products has agan
ncreased to a new record ol LSS55.2 bon,
contnung the ast decade's underyng 4 percent
annua growth n lsheres trade. Net export trade
lrom deveopng countres ncreased lrom LSSl0
bon n l990 to LSSl8 bon n 2000,
correspondng to a rea corrected lor nlaton)
growth ol 45 percent.
Coba lorecasts ol upper mts to capture
lsheres, whch have been made snce the eary
l970s, are beng ncreasngy substantated by the
evdence ol recent years. 1here are contnung
goba concerns about the reabty ol statstcs
see ox l and Reabe statstcs as an essenta
bass lor ellectve lsheres management, Part 2,
p. 59) and that the pace and drecton ol lsheres
3
WorId rcvicw of fisbcrics and aquacuIturc
4
1ALl l
WorId fisbcrics production and utiIization
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001*
..................................................................... mon tonnes .....................................................................)
PRODUCTlON
lNLAND
Capture 7.4 7.5 8.0 8.5 8.8 8.8
Aquacuture l5.9 l7.5 l8.5 20.l 2l.4 22.4
TotaI inIand 23.3 2S.0 26.S 28.6 30.2 31.2
MARlNl
Capture 86.l 86.4 79.3 84.7 86.0 82.5
Aquacuture l0.8 ll.l l2.0 l3.3 l4.2 l5.l
TotaI marinc 96.9 97.S 91.3 98.0 100.2 97.6
1ota capture 93.5 93.9 87.3 93.2 94.8 9l.3
1ota aquacuture 26.7 28.6 30.5 33.4 35.6 37.5
TotaI worId fisbcrics 120.2 122.S 117.8 126.6 130.4 128.8
UTlllZATlON
Human consumpton 88.0 90.8 92.7 94.4 96.7 99.4
Non-lood uses 32.2 3l.7 25.l 32.2 33.7 29.4
Popuaton bons) 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.l 6.l
Per capta lood lsh suppy kg) l5.3 l5.6 l5.7 l5.8 l6.0 l6.2
fxcIuding aquatic pIants.
* PrcIiminary cstimatc.
1ALl 2
fisbcrics production and utiIization for tbc worId cxcIuding Cbina
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001*
..................................................................... mon tonnes .....................................................................)
PRODUCTlON
lNLAND
Capture 5.7 5.7 5.8 6.2 6.6 6.6
Aquacuture 4.9 5.l 5.2 5.9 6.3 6.5
TotaI inIand 10.6 10.8 11.0 12.1 12.9 13.1
MARlNl
Capture 73.6 72.5 64.3 69.8 7l.3 67.9
Aquacuture 4.l 4.2 4.5 4.7 4.7 5.0
TotaI marinc 77.7 76.7 68.8 74.S 76.0 72.9
1ota capture 79.3 78.2 70.l 76.0 77.9 74.5
1ota aquacuture 9.0 9.3 9.7 l0.6 ll.0 ll.5
TotaI Production 88.3 87.S 79.8 86.6 88.9 86.0
UTlllZATlON
Human consumpton 60.4 6l.5 6l.3 6l.9 63.0 65.l
Non-lood uses 27.9 26.0 l8.5 24.7 25.9 20.9
Popuaton bons) 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.7 4.8 4.9
Per capta lood lsh suppy kg) l3.3 l3.4 l3.l l3.l l3.l l3.3
fxcIuding aquatic pIants.
* PrcIiminary cstimatc.
S
research and supportng nlormaton systems are
lang behnd the need to understand the
reatonshps between lsheres and the
envronment and between lsheres management
and deveopment. Cwng to the understandng
that lshng overcapacty and the goba reach ol
lshng operatons contnue to have deeterous
ellects on lsh stocks, t s becomng more wdey
recognzed that ong-term lsheres management
and nvestment need to take nto account the
envronment and natura ong-term cmatc
luctuatons see lsheres and ong-
term cmate varabty, Part 3, p. 87),
ncudng epsodc events such as l
No. Athough research s under way
on some ol these ssues, ncudng the
nature and extent ol human-nduced
ellects on the cmate, there reman
areas ol concern that requre new
commtments and methodooges. lor
exampe, the lrequent ack ol basc
data on subsstence and sma-scae
lsheres, such as those n many nand
waters, contrbutes to laures n
management and pocy-makng
drected at preventng overexpotaton,
stock decne and exacerbatons to
rura lood nsecurty and poverty.
Marne lsheres governance and the
prospect ol mproved lsheres
management are gatherng pace as
lsheres n a growng number ol
ocean areas come under the purvew
ol regona lsheres management
organzatons RlMCs), and as these
are beng hed to greater
accountabty by the nternatona
communty. However, progress n
some regons and n many natona
ursdctons has been weak. ln nand
waters, mportant lsheres n arge
rvers and akes olten suller lrom
nellectve governance. lnand
regona lshery bodes, when they
exst, tend to be mosty advsory and
have no management powers. ln most
cases, nand lsheres are subect ony
to natona ursdctons even though
the pressures ol popuaton growth
w be most let n tropca nand lsheres,
where they w take the lorm ol growng lshng
ellort. lt seems pausbe that, n the ong term,
lsh suppes w meet demand ony l rea prces
lor lsh are rased sghty. 1hs assumes that
aquacuture w contnue to grow, whch
presupposes that the envronmenta concerns
reatng to t w be addressed.
CAPTURf flSHfRlfS PRODUCTlON
1ota capture lsheres producton n 2000
19S0 19SS 1960 196S 1970 197S 1980 198S 1990 199S 2000
0
1.2
2.S
3.7
S.0
0
20
40
60
80
lood
Non-looduses
Popuuton
Percuptusuppy
Fish utilization (million tonnes)
and food supply (kg/capita) Population (billions)
flCURf2
WorIdfishutiIizationandsuppIy,cxcIudingChina
6
lAC s nvoved n
l. promotng the coecton and use ol statstcs
2. producng statstca manuas and soltware
3. tranng statstca ollcers
4. deveopng/upgradng natona statstcs systems recent
exampes ncude many Alrcan and Medterranean
countres)
5. lactatng goba cooperaton and estabshng norms n
lshery statstcs through the nter-agency Coordnatng
\orkng Party on lshery Statstcs)
6. coectng statstcs lrom countres, regona lshery
bodes, nternatona shppng regsters, lshng ndustry
e.g. marketng and trade data)
7. checkng data receved lor nterna consstency, speces
dentlcaton or anomaous trends
8. consutng the countres concerned about anomaes
9. pubshng statstcs on varous aspects ol lsheres n
yearbooks and on the \eb and recevng extensve
leedback lrom users.
As a resut, the statstcs supped to lAC by natona
authortes are routney corrected when mstakes are
obvous, better data are avaabe lrom other sources such as
regona lshery bodes) or countres agree wth lAC
estmates. lAC nteracts wth countres to expore probems
and try to resove them, but ths process s olten sow. \hen
countres do not respond to lAC enqures, lAC estmates
are automatcay apped. Cccasonay, when countres do
not expan or support suspect statstcs, those statstcs are set
asde and lAC estmates pubshed nstead. 1hs acton s
sometmes seen as provocatve, but olten encourages
correctve acton by the country concerned. Many countres,
ncudng Chna, are workng wth lAC to try to address
ssues concernng the reabty ol ther lshery statstcs.
Natona reports are the man, but not the ony, source ol
data used by lAC to mantan ts lshery statstcs database.
\hen data are mssng or consdered unreabe, lAC
ncudes estmates based on the best nlormaton that s
avaabe lrom any source, such as regona lshery
organzatons, proect documents, ndustry magaznes or
statstca nterpoatons. leet statstcs that are submtted by
countres are cross-checked wth data lrom other sources,
such as nternatona shppng regsters. 1he nternatona
trade statstcs obtaned lrom countres are suppemented
through a comprehensve network ol regona
ntergovernmenta nsttutons created by lAC the
CX l
fAO's roIc in fisbcry statistics
7
Computerzed System ol lsh Marketng lnlormaton
CLClllSH).
ln the l990s, lAC competey revsed ts lshery producton
statstcs tme seres by computerzng them back to l950,
ncudng estmates where data were mssng, dsaggregatng
data by lshng areas, takng potca changes nto account
e.g. the emergence ol new countres), adustng speces
dentlcaton as taxonomy evoves, and mprovng the
dllerentaton between aquacuture and capture lsheres
producton. 1he resutng data sets are used n numerous
anayses, both outsde and wthn lAC, and are wdey
avaabe on the \eb as the Computer System lor Coba
lsh Catches lshStat).
lAC's goba revews ol the state ol stocks do not use catch
statstcs as a prmary source ol nlormaton because more
drect ndcators olten exst. 1he prmary nlormaton used s
obtaned drecty lrom the workng groups ol lAC and non-
lAC RlMCs and other lorma arrangements, scentlc
terature ournas, theses, etc.) and ndustry magaznes, as
we as nlormaton that s ndependent ol lsheres, such as
trade data. \here RlMCs do not exst, such as n the
Northwest Paclc, batera assessment processes e.g. that
among Chna, apan and the Repubc ol Korea) can be used.
\here data do not exst, such as on dscards, estmates are
made on a one-oll bass by expert consutants or through
dedcated expert consutatons. ll lAC has not yet been abe
to work ellectvey n an area e.g. producton lrom ega
lshng), there w be no goba-eve nlormaton lor that
area, athough data w be avaabe lor certan lshng areas
or certan years. lAC's catch statstcs are goba n coverage,
have compete tme seres snce l950 and are reguary
updated. 1hese advantages mean that they can be used,
when other data are ackng, to provde overvew trends n
lsheres by regon, and resource status ndcators.
lnanca support lor the deveopment and mantenance ol
natona lshery statstcs systems has decreased sharpy n
rea terms durng the ast decade. At the same tme there have
been dramatcay ncreased needs lor nlormaton on, lor
exampe, by-catch and dscards, lshng capacty, ega
lshng, vesses authorzed to lsh n the hgh seas, economc
data expendtures, revenues, prces, subsdes), empoyment,
management systems, nventores ol stocks and lsheres, and
aquacuture.
Despte lAC's ellorts, the lshery data avaabe are not
luy reabe n terms ol coverage, tmeness and quaty.
Data are olten submtted to lAC alter deays ol one or two
years. 1he proporton ol catch to be dentled at the
ndvdua speces eve has tended to decrease over tme,
whe undentled lsh account lor an ncreasng share ol
reported statstcs as lsheres dversly and arge stocks are
depeted. Stock assessment workng groups provde a good
means ol screenng catch data, but stock assessment has
become ess lrequent n many deveopng regons as a resut
ol human and lnanca resource restrctons. 1he genera
avaabty ol data has not mproved sgnlcanty over the
ast two decades. Statstcs lrom artsana and subsstence
lsheres are st a concern, and many key statstcs are
mssng at the goba eve, such as economc and soca data,
dscards and lshng capacty. As a resut, athough the
avaabe statstcs probaby do relect genera trends reaby
- lor exampe, goba deveopment trends or cmatc changes
see lsheres and ong-term cmate varabty, Part 3, p. 87)
- the annua lgures and the assessments nvove some
uncertanty, and sma changes lrom one year to another are
probaby not statstcay sgnlcant.
1he lAC lsheres Department beeves that workng wth
countres s the ony way to mprove lshery statstcs,
prmary n order to meet natona needs wth regard to lood
securty and lsheres management, but aso to meet the
needs ol regona lshery bodes and lAC. \thout reabe
statstcs, ellectve lsheres management and pocy-makng
are mpossbe, and there w be serous negatve
mpcatons at the natona and regona eves.
Lnlortunatey, the rehabtaton ol maor natona data
coecton schemes to provde reabe statstcs s necessary
a sow process.
Source R. Cranger, lAC lsheres Department.
8
reached 94.8 mon tonnes 1abe l), the hghest
eve ever. 1he estmated lrst sae vaue ol ths
producton amounted to some LSS8l bon, a
margna ncrease over the vaue n l998.
Premnary catch reports lor 200l lrom maor
lshng countres ndcate that there may be a
marked decrease n goba capture producton, to
about 92 mon tonnes. Chna's catches, whch
accounted lor amost 20 percent ol tota word
capture producton n l998, remaned stabe n
l999 and decreased margnay n 2000
loowng the adopton ol a zero-growth pocy
lgure 3 and ox 2). ln 2000, tota producton
lrom marne and nand capture lsheres lor the
word, excudng Chna 1abe 2), was about 78
mon tonnes, somewhat ess than the peak ol
83 mon tonnes n l989 but representng an
ncrease lrom 70 mon tonnes n l998. Such
recent changes have been heavy nluenced by
catches ol Peruvan anchoveta, whch are
allected by envronmenta lactors .e. l No).
Chna and Peru were the top producng
countres n 2000, loowed by apan,
the Lnted States, Che, lndonesa,
the Russan lederaton and lnda
lgure 4). lnand capture producton
lor the word, excudng Chna,
contnues a graduay ncreasng
trend nand lsheres contrbuted 6.6
mon tonnes n 2000, whch was 8.3
percent ol tota word catches.
\ord marne capture lsheres
producton ncreases n l999 and
2000 came many lrom lsheres n
the Southeast Paclc. Landngs lrom
these lsheres grew by 77 percent n
l999 and l2 percent n 2000,
loowng a marked decrease ol 44
percent between l997 and l998.
1ropca ocean regons have aso
exhbted ncreases snce l998,
partcuary n the lndan Ccean and
the \estern Centra Paclc, athough
sma decnes have been seen n the
lastern Centra Atantc lgures 5 and
7). 1he temperate regons ol the
Southwest, the Northwest and the
Northeast Paclc showed decreasng
catch trends, but catches lrom the
Northwest and Northeast Atantc,
where stock assessments generay
yeded pessmstc resuts, ncreased
sghty between l999 and 2000. Most
ol these ncreases were due to
scaops n the Northwest Atantc and
ow-vaue peagc speces, such as
capen and bue whtng, n the
Northeast Atantc.
Catches ol oceanc speces have
PhiIippincs
lccIand
Norway
ThaiIand
lndia
Russianfcd.
lndoncsia
ChiIc
UnitcdStatcs
|apan
Pcru
China
10 12 8 6 4 2 0 14 16 18
l7.0
l0.7
5.0
4.7
4.3
4.l
4.0
3.6
2.9
2.7
2.0
l.9
Million tonnes
flCURf4
MarincandinIandcapturcfishcrics:topproduccrcountricsin2000
0
20
40
60
80
100
19S0 19SS 1960 196S 1970 197S 1980 198S 1990 199S 2000
Million tonnes
flCURf3
WorIdcapturcfishcricsproduction
China
WorIdcxcIudingChina
been steady ncreasng over recent decades,
ndcatng ncreasng lshng actvty on the hgh
seas see ox 3). ln 2000, the recovery ol
lavourabe cmatc condtons alter the recent l
No ed to anchoveta producng the argest
snge speces catch lgure 6). Catches ol
Cupeods .e. herrngs, sardnes and anchoves)
n other areas have shown decnes recenty,
except n the lastern Centra Paclc and the
Southeast Atantc, where they benelted lrom
the return ol ther upweng regmes. Chean
ack mackere, another maor sma peagc
speces caught n the Southeast Paclc, sghty
recovered n 2000 alter genera catch decnes
snce l995. ln the same area, andngs ol chub
mackere ncreased n l999 and then dropped
agan n 2000, at varance wth the genera
pcture ol ecosystem recovery n that area.
1he negatve trend ol chub mackere
producton n the Northwest Paclc contnues,
and catch has haved snce l996. ln the
Cadlormes group .e. cods, hakes, haddocks,
etc.), word catches ol Aaska poock and cod
are st decnng, and the ony maor speces to
ncrease are capen and bue whtng, a deep
sea speces.
9
CX 2
Cbina
Chna has made remarkabe advances n lsheres producton
n recent years. Crowth n ts productve capacty, as
ndcated by reported estmates ol marne and nand capture
lsheres and aquacuture, lar exceeds growth n lsheres
esewhere n the word. Chna has become the word's argest
producer and consumer ol lood lsh, achevng an apparent
lood lsh consumpton ol 3l.3 mon tonnes n l999
lgure 9). Durng the past three decades, estmated per capta
consumpton based on reported producton whch may we
have been overestmated lor the ast decade) has ncreased
lrom 4.4 kg n l972 to 25.l kg n l999. Notwthstandng ths
ncrease, lsh contnues to contrbute about 20 percent ol
tota consumpton ol anma protens, argey because ol the
contnung ncrease n other meat suppes. Snce l994,
Chna has become the domnant lshng country n the
Northwest Paclc, wth catches n excess ol 20 mon
tonnes.
As stated n the Cvervew p. 3), there are ndcatons that
Chnese capture lshery and aquacuture producton statstcs
have been overestmated, partcuary n the ast decade.
Snce l998, a pocy ol zero growth has been decared lor
Chnese capture lsheres, and reported catches have relected
ths lgure 3). However, reported aquacuture producton has
contnued to grow very rapdy lgure l8), partcuary lor
lreshwater speces. 1hs matter was consdered at a natona
workshop on Chnese lshery statstcs, hed n conuncton
wth lAC n Apr 200l. lstmaton ol the lood lsh suppy s
compcated by uncertantes concernng the producton
statstcs and the quanttes ol lsh utzed lor non-lood uses,
such as drect leed to aquacuture, whch are reckoned to be
very substanta ndeed. A lurther compcatng lactor s that
trends n apparent lsh consumpton as derved lrom lAC's
lood baance sheets are not drecty comparabe wth those
lrom the Chnese Natona Statstca ureau's househod lood
consumpton surveys. 1hs s because the atter do not cover
lsh consumed outsde the home e.g. n restaurants and work
canteens), whch s consdered to be a arge and growng
proporton ol lsh consumpton. 1he Chnese authortes are
workng n coaboraton wth lAC to reduce many ol these
uncertantes.
ln 2000, catches ol the vauabe tuna speces
remaned steady compared wth l998, alter a
peak ol about 6 mon tonnes n l999. Catches
ol the other maor lsh groups n 2000 were aso
lary stabe wth respect to l998.
1here have been genera ncreases n
cephaopod and shrmp catches. Cephaopod
catches le n l998 but then rose n l999,
reachng a new record ol 3.6 mon tonnes n
2000. Catches ol shrmp have been steady
ncreasng by an average 3.5 percent per year
snce l970, and ths growth has shown no sgns
ol sackenng n recent years.
Severa ol the speces n lgure 6 are wdey
used as raw matera n reducton to mea and o,
and are ol ow commerca vaue speces used as
nput lor mea n 2000 were worth an average
LSS50 to Sl50 per tonne). ln vaue terms, the
most mportant speces caught n 2000 ncuded
bgeye tuna word catches were worth an
estmated LSS3 bon), yeowln tuna LSS2
bon), skpack tuna and Atantc cod more
than LSSl bon each).
1ota lsh capture n nand waters n 2000 was
about 0.8 mon tonnes more than n l998
1abe l). Most ol the goba tota
came lrom the catches ol Asa and
Alrca about 64 and 25 percent,
respectvey), whch have contnued
to grow n recent years. 1hose ol
lurope, North Amerca, South
Amerca and Cceana have remaned
reatvey stabe. 1he top ten
producng countres account lor 64
percent ol word nand water
producton, athough Chna's share
decreased lrom 28 percent n l998 to
25 percent n 2000 lgure 8). 1he
buk ol the nand water catches
1abe 3) s lrom deveopng countres
where, n most cases, nand lsheres
provde an mportant source ol anma
protens. ln most deveoped countres,
lshng n lreshwater has become
many a recreatona actvty, and
commerca nand lood lsheres are
very mted, except n some arge
akes.
Many countres experence
sgnlcant dllcutes n coectng
statstcs on nand water lsheres.
Among the man reasons lor ths are
the scattered characterstcs ol these
lsheres, ther unrecorded
contrbuton to subsstence and the
ack ol reated lshery ndustres. 1he
mportance and sze ol these lsheres
may be msrepresented n natona
and nternatona statstcs. ln recent
years, however, some countres have
been revsng ther nand lshery
10
AtIantic,Northwcst
AtIantic,Southwcst
Pacific,Northcast
AtIantic,fastcrnCcntraI
lndianOccan,Wcstcrn
lndianOccan,fastcrn
Pacific,WcstcrnCcntraI
AtIantic,Northcast
Pacific,Southcast
Pacific,Northwcst
10 0 S 1S 20 2S
23.l
l5.8
l0.9
9.9
4.7
2.5
2.3
2.l
Million tonnes
Note:lshngureusstedurethosewthuproductonvoumeolmorethun2montonnesn2000.
flCURfS
CapturcfishcricsproductionbyprincipaImarincfishingarcasin2000
3.5
3.9
Million tonnes
Note:Specesstedurethosewthuproductonvoumeolmorethunlmontonnesn2000.
flCURf6
Capturcfishcricsproduction:topspccicsin2000
BIucwhiting
CapcIin
ChubmackcrcI
largchcadhairtaiI
ChiIcan jackmackcrcI
|apancscanchovy
Skipjacktuna
AtIantichcrring
AIaska poIIock
Anchovcta
ll.3
3.0
2.4
l.9
l.7
l.5
12 10 8 6 4 2 0
l.5
l.5
l.5
l.4
11
flCURf7
Capturcfishcricsproductioninmarincarcas
Note:1hescuesusedvurylromureutoureu.
0
3
6
9
12
1S
1970 1980 1990 2000
Million tonnes
1970 1980 1990 2000
Million tonnes
1970 1980 1990 2000
Million tonnes
1970 1980 1990 2000
Million tonnes
1970 1980 1990 2000
Million tonnes
1970 1980 1990 2000
Million tonnes
1970 1980 1990 2000
Million tonnes
0
1
2
3
4
S
0
1
2
3
4
S
0
1
2
3
4
S
0
1
2
3
4
S
0
1
2
3
4
S
0
1
2
3
4
S
0
1
2
3
4
S
1970 1980 1990 2000
Million tonnes
China
NorthwcstAtIantic NorthcastAtIantic
WcstcrnCcntraIAtIantic fastcrnCcntraIAtIantic
SouthwcstAtIantic SouthcastAtIantic
WcstcrnlndianOccan fastcrnlndianOccan
Contnung)
12
flCURf7(continucd)
Capturcfishcricsproductioninmarincarcas
Note:1hescuesusedvurylromureutoureu.
0
1
2
3
4
S
1970 1980 1990 2000
NorthcastPacific
Million tonnes
0
2
4
6
8
10
1970 1980 1990 2000
WcstcrnCcntraIPacific
Million tonnes
0
1
2
3
4
S
1970 1980 1990 2000
fastcrnCcntraIPacific
Million tonnes
0
S
10
1S
20
2S
1970 1980 1990 2000
SouthcastPacific
Million tonnes
0
1
2
3
4
S
1970 1980 1990 2000
McditcrrancanandBIackSca
Million tonnes
1970 1980 1990 2000
SouthwcstPacific
Million tonnes
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1970 1980 1990 2000
SouthcrnOccans
Million tonnes
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
S
10
1S
20
2S
30
1970 1980 1990 2000
NorthwcstPacific
Million tonnes
Othcrcountrics
China
13
statstcs through new data coecton systems or
through the parae surveys ol proects or
natona nsttutons whose catch estmates dller
greaty lrom those reported by natona statstca
ollces. 1hs uncertanty over the accuracy ol
data s one ol the lactors that make lshery
assessment dllcut, but lAC and other
nternatona agences are actvey workng wth
natona nsttutons to mprove
the stuaton.
flSHfRS AND flSH fARMfRS
ln ne wth the ncrease n lshery producton,
over the ast three decades empoyment n
lsheres and aquacuture has contnued to
ncrease n many countres. ln 2000, an estmated
35 mon peope lgure l2) were drecty
engaged n lshng and lsh larmng as a lu-tme
or - more lrequenty - part-tme occupaton,
compared wth 28 mon a decade belore.
1he hghest numbers ol lshers and aquacuture
workers 1abe 4) are n Asa 85 percent ol the
word tota) loowed by Alrca 7 percent),
lurope, South Amerca, North and Centra
Amerca about 2 percent each) and Cceana 0.2
percent). 1hese shares cosey relect the dllerent
popuaton shares and reatve predomnance ol
abour-ntensve economes n the contnents.
ln 2000, lshers and aquacuture workers
ln l976, states began to decare extended lsheres
ursdctons, such as excusve economc zones llZs), n
antcpaton ol nternatona acceptance ol ths concept. Such
acceptance was obtaned n l982 n the Lnted Natons
Conventon on the Law ol the Sea. Snce the md-l970s, a
arge number ol lshng natons have decared llZs ol 200
nautca mes, and hgh seas lsheres has come to mean
lshng that s undertaken outsde the llZs - generay more
than 200 nautca mes lrom the coast.
lt s dllcut to assess the deveopment ol lshng on the
hgh seas because reports to lAC ol marne catches make no
dstncton between those taken wthn llZs and those taken
on the hgh seas. Anayses ol the lAC catch database ol ll6
oceanc speces tems eppeagc and deep water speces that
occur prncpay on the hgh seas) revea that catches ol
oceanc speces amost trped lrom 3 mon tonnes n l976
to 8.5 mon tonnes n 2000 lgure l0). As some ol these
speces, partcuary the oceanc tunas, are aso caught wthn
llZs, ths ncrease may we be more rapd than that ol hgh
seas catches per se.
1he marked ncrease n catches ol oceanc speces s aso
relected n the word trade n oceanc speces. lmport and
export quanttes n product weght rose lrom 0.5 mon
tonnes to amost 2.5 mon tonnes over the l976-2000
perod lgure ll). laced wth ncreasng evdence ol
overlshng on the hgh seas, ellorts to manage hgh seas
lsheres aso acceerated over that perod, and are contnung
today wth the deveopment ol new RlMCs and the
revtazaton ol exstng organzatons see lnternatona
lsheres pocy and governance, p. 45).
CX 3
Trcnds in bigb scas fisbcrics
1ALl 3
lnIand capturc fisbcry production
by cconomic cIass
fconomic cIass Production Pcrccntagc of
in 2000 worId production
mon tonnes)
Chna 2.23 25.4
Cther deveopng
countres or areas 5.93 67.4
lconomes n transton 0.4l 4.6
lndustra countres 0.23 2.6
TotaI 8.80
14
kcnya
Cambodia
fgypt
Tanzania,UnitcdRcp.of
Russianfcd.
lndoncsia
Uganda
BangIadcsh
lndia
China
0 S00 1000 1S00 2000 2S00
flCURf8
lnIandcapturcfishcricsproduction:toptcnproduccrcountricsin2000
Thousand tonnes
2233
797
670
356
329
292
280
253
246
2l0
0
0.S
1.0
1.S
2.0
0
10
20
30
40
lood
Non-looduses
Popuuton
Percuptusuppy
19S0 19SS 1960 196S 1970 197S 1980 198S 1990 199S 2000
Fish utilization (million tonnes)
and food supply (kg/capita)
Population (billions)
flCURf9
China'sfishutiIizationandsuppIy
1S
Cthereppeugcspeces
1976 1979 1982 198S 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000
0
1
2
3
lmports
Lxports
Million tonnes (product weight)
flCURf11
WorIdtradcinoccanicspccics
represented 2.6 percent ol the l.3 bon peope
economcay actve n agrcuture wordwde,
compared wth 2.3 percent n l990. 1hs word
average s relected n most contnents, except lor
Alrca, where the percentage ol lshng and
aquacuture workers s a ow l.3 percent ol the
tota agrcuture abour lorce, and North and
Centra Amerca, where the share s l percent
hgher than the word average.
\thn the tota ol 35 mon peope, the
number ol lshers has been growng at an average
rate ol 2.2 percent per annum snce l990, whe
aquacuture workers have ncreased by an annua
average ol about 7 percent these apparent
ncreases are n part a resut ol better reportng.
Most ol the growth ol empoyment n lsh larmng
and other cuture practces has occurred n Asa,
partcuary n Chna, where the reported number
ol peope engagng n cutvaton ol aquatc le
has doubed n the past decade. Creater
economc opportuntes derve lrom the
commerca aquacuture producton sector lor
nstance, n l999 the average annua ncome ol
apanese househods engaged n aquacuture was
neary twce as much as that ol househods
engaged n coasta lshng. \he the househods
engaged n aquacuture derved an average 64
percent ol ther ncome lrom aquacuture-reated
actvtes, lshng-reated actvtes accounted lor
an average 38 percent ol the ncome ol lshng
househods.
lmpoyment n lshng s decreasng n capta-
16
1ALl 4
WorId fisbcrs and fisb farmcrs by contincnt
1970 1980 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 199S 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
................................................................................................ thousands ................................................................................................)
TotaI
Alrca l 360 l 553 l 9l7 2 092 l 757 2 032 2 070 2 238 2 359 2 357 2 453 2 49l 2 585
North and
Centra Amerca 408 547 767 755 757 777 777 770 776 782 786 788 75l
South Amerca 492 543 769 738 763 874 8l0 8l4 802 805 798 782 784
Asa 9 30l l3 690 23 656 24 707 25 423 26 342 27 3l7 28 552 28 964 29 l36 29 458 29 l60 29 509
lurope 682 642 654 928 9l4 90l 88l 864 870 837 835 858 82l
Cceana 42 62 74 77 79 80 74 76 77 78 82 82 86
WorId 12 28S 17 036 27 837 29 297 29 691 31 00S 31 928 33 314 33 847 33 99S 34 411 34 163 34 S36
Of wbicb fisb farmcrs
Alrca* . . . . . 5 6 l4 62 55 56 57 75
North and
Centra Amerca . . 53 73 l0l 206 206 l76 l82 l85 l9l l90 l90
South Amerca . . l6 l5 l5 20 30 43 44 42 4l 42 4l
Asa . . 3 698 3 882 4 292 4 927 5 389 6 003 6 05l 6 569 6 758 6 930 7 l32
lurope . . ll l2 l3 23 26 l8 23 25 25 26 27
Cceana . . neg. neg. neg. neg. l l 4 5 5 5 5
WorId . . 3 778 3 983 4 423 S 182 S 6S7 6 2S4 6 366 6 880 7 07S 7 249 7 470
*Data for 1993-199S arc not comparabIc witb tbosc for tbc foIIowing ycars and wcrc rcportcd by onIy a Iimitcd numbcr of countrics.
ncg. = ncgIigibIc.
ntensve economes, notaby n most luropean
countres and n apan. lor nstance, n Norway
empoyment n the lshery sector has been
decnng lor severa years 1abe 5). ln l990
about 27 500 peope were empoyed n lshng
excudng lsh larmng), but ths number had
decned by 27 percent to 20 l00 n 2000. ln
apan over the ast decade, the numbers ol
marne lshery workers peaked n l99l and has
been lang ever snce to reach a ow ol 260 000
peope n 2000. Cl these, about 85 percent were
empoyed n coasta lshery operatons, whe
ollshore and peagc lsheres empoyed the
remanng l5 percent. 1he vast maorty 75
percent) ol lshers were sel-empoyed workers,
conlrmng ths speca leature ol the lshery
prolessons. 1he sel-empoyment rate among
men was 70 percent, whe among women t was
consderaby hgher at 94 percent.
A characterstc ol the lshng worklorce n
deveoped economes s the advancng ol ts age
prole, many resutng lrom the prolesson's
decreasng attractveness to younger generatons.
lor nstance, n 2000 n apan, neary 32 percent
ol mae marne lshers who made up 83 percent
ol the tota) were more than 60 years ol age. 1hs
was an ncrease ol 3 percentage ponts on the
prevous year and l8 percentage ponts on l980
l4 percent). Comparatvey, workers under 25
years ol age represented neary 8 percent ol the
neary 398 000 tota lor mae workers n the ate
l970s and ony 2.7 percent ol the 2l6 l00 mae
workers n 2000.
ln countres where lshng and aquacuture are
ess promnent n the economy, comparatve
empoyment and ncome statstcs at ths eve ol
deta are olten not avaabe. ln many deveopng
countres, the argest number ol lshers, ther
spouses and lames are occuped n coasta
artsana lsheres and assocated actvtes. 1he
soco-economc mportance ol these actvtes s
more dllcut to measure, but s undenabe, n
terms not ony ol contrbuton to producton and
ncome but aso ol lood securty lor the coasta
communtes.
THf STATUS Of THf flSHlNG flffT
1he most recent lAC estmate ndcated that, n
l998, the tota word leet engaged n lshng
comprsed about l.3 mon decked vesses and
17
1ALl 5
Numbcr of fisbcrs incIuding fisb farmcrs) in scIcctcd countrics
Country Scx 1970 1980 1990 2000
WORlD M and l number) 12 284 678 17 036 307 27 83S 441 34 S3S 6S3
ndex) 44 61 100 124
Chna M and l number) 2 300 000 2 950 344 9 092 926 l2 233 l28
ndex) 25 32 l00 l35
lndonesa M and l number) 84l 627 2 23l 5l5 3 6l7 586 5 ll8 57l
ndex) 23 62 l00 l4l
apan M number) 437 900 376 900 303 400 2l6 ll0
l number) lll 500 80 500 67 200 44 090
ndex) l48 l23 l00 70
Peru* M and l number) 49 824 49 503 43 750 55 06l
ndex) ll4 ll3 l00 l25
Norway M number) 43 0l8 34 789 30 0l7 23 026
l number) . . 690 526
ndex) l56 l26 l00 77
lceand M number) 4 895 5 946 6 55l 5 300
l number) . . 400 800
ndex) 70 86 l00 88
lndcx 1990 = 100.
*Data for Pcru cxcIudc inIand fisbcrs and fisb farmcrs.
about 2.8 mon undecked vesses, 65 percent ol
whch were not powered. 1he vast maorty ol
these vesses were concentrated n Asa 84.6
percent ol tota decked vesses, 5l percent ol
powered undecked vesses and 83 percent ol
tota non-powered boats). 1he remanng l5.4
percent ol the word's tota decked lshng vesses
were accounted lor by lurope 8.9 percent),
North and Centra Amerca 4.5 percent), Alrca
l percent), South Amerca 0.6 percent) and
Cceana a neggbe 0.2 percent). Countres n
North and Centra Amerca had 2l percent ol the
open lshng vesses wth engnes, Alrca had
l6 percent, South Amerca 6 percent, and
Cceana 3 percent.
Snce the expanson ol the word leet, whch
contnued unt the ate l980s, the numbers ol
decked lshng vesses have been lary stabe. ln
l990 they numbered l.2 mon, and yeary
luctuatons snce then have been about
l percent part ol ths varaton s probaby owng
to statstca reportng methods. 1he same overa
trend appes at the contnenta eve.
lndcatons ol trends alter l998 are not
avaabe on a goba scae. However, the
luropean Communty lC) lshng leet decreased
lrom l00 085 vesses n l995 to neary 96 000 n
2000. Cl the 77 500 vesses lor whch the ength
overa s known t s not known lor l8 500
vesses, many ltaan and Portuguese) about 80
percent measured ess than l2 m, the maorty ol
these beongng to Creece and Span. ln 2000,
some l4 percent ol lC lshng vesses were
between l2 and 24 m n ength, and lewer than
350 measured more than 45 m a decrease ol 52
unts compared wth lour years belore). ln
December 2000, Norway had a leet ol 8 430
decked lshng vesses and 4 585 open regstered
vesses. Comparatve statstcs lor l990 ndcated
an amost equa number lor the decked leet,
whe the number ol open vesses had neary
doubed. 1he lceandc leet had l 993 vesses on
regster n 200l, 55 percent ol whch were
undecked neary 40 percent ol the decked
vesses are more than 20 years od. ln apan,
lshng vesses operatng n marne and nand
waters numbered 36l 845 n l999, down lrom
37l 4l6 n l995 and 4l6 067 n l990. 1he vast
maorty 90 percent) ol the tota powered vesses
18
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1970 197S 1980 198S 1990 199S 1998
flCURf13
NumbcrsofdcckcdfishingvcsscIsbycontincnt
Thousands
Asu
Lurope
NorthundCentruAmercu
Alrcu
SouthAmercu
Cceunu
Africa
Northand
CcntraIAmcrica
SouthAmcrica
Asia
furopc
Occania
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Decked
Lndecked
Thousands
flCURf14
NumbcrsofpowcrcdvcsscIsbycontincntin1998
19
0
1
2
3
4
S
Lgypt
Morocco
Ageru
SouthAlrcu
Cthercountres
1970 197S 1980 198S 1990 199S 2000
Thousands
Africa
flCURf1S
NumbcrsofdcckcdfishingvcsscIsinmajornationaIfIcctsbycontincnt
0
1
2
3
4
S
6
Peru
Venezueu
Argentnu
Cthercountres
1970 197S 1980 198S 1990 199S 2000
Thousands
SouthAmcrica
0
10
20
30
40
LntedStutes
Cthercountres
Mexco
CostuRcu
Cunudu
1970 197S 1980 198S 1990 199S 2000
Thousands
NorthandCcntraIAmcrica
Contnung)
20
0
0.S
1
1.S
2
2.S
0
0.S
1
1.S
2
2.S
Austruu
Cthercountres
NewZeuund
1970 197S 1980 198S 1990 199S 2000
Thousands
Occania
flCURf1S(continucd)
NumbcrsofdcckcdfishingvcsscIsinmajornationaIfIcctsbycontincnt
0
20
40
60
80
1970 197S 1980 198S 1990 199S 2000
Thousands
Creece
ltuy
Spun
Portugu
Cthercountres
furopc
0
100
200
300
400
S00
1970 197S 1980 198S 1990 199S 2000
Thousands
lupun
Cthercountres
lndonesu
Koreu,Repubcol
Chnu
Asia
lshng n marne waters were ol ess than 5 gross
tons. etween l990 and 2000, the number ol
decked vesses decreased by 45 000 unts a drop
ol l2 percent).
THf STATUS Of flSHfRY RfSOURCfS
Marinc fisbcrics
loowng a decne to 79.2 mon tonnes n
l998, tota producton ol marne capture lsheres
ncreased to 84.7 mon tonnes n l999 and
86.0 mon tonnes n 2000, thus recoverng to
eves cose to the hstorca maxmum recorded
lor l996 and l997. ll Chna s excuded see
21
CX 4
Tracking tbc fisbing fIccts tbrougb
tbc databasc of lIoyds Maritimc
lnformation Scrviccs
Loyds Martme lnlormaton Servces ams to
mantan a lu pcture ol a shps, ncudng
lshng vesses, ol more than l00 gross regstered
tons CR1). Vesses are contnuay added to the
database each year some ol these are new
vesses that were but that year and others are
added as nlormaton becomes avaabe. Vesses
ol more than l00 CR1 are the most key to
operate nternatonay, through access
agreements and on the hgh seas, but these
represent ony a sma proporton ol the goba
lshng leet. Nevertheess, montorng the > l00
CR1 leet gves an ndcaton ol the changng
shape ol arge-scae ndustra lshng lgure l6).
lt provdes ndcatons ol the patterns ol change
n entres to, and exts lrom, a shppng
regsters, partcuary open regsters. y
delnton, these regsters oller lag state status to
amost any shp and are olten seen by vesse
owners as a means ol avodng contros to whch
they mght otherwse be subect. 1he number ol
vesses that are known to exst but lor whch the
lag s unknown s aso a cause lor concern,
athough some ol these vesses mght have been
removed lrom the regster belore beng scrapped.
1he numbers ol vesses n the maor open
regsters wth unknown lags are shown n
lgure l7. 1he number ol newy but lshng
vesses added to the regster has remaned about
300 per year n recent years, but reductons
through scrappng and oss mean that there has
been a net reducton n the leet. 1he maor
changes to leets n the ast two years are shown
n 1abe 6. 1he extent ol relaggng n the lshng
leet can be measured by comparng the
database n sequenta years and by loowng
each vesse through ts unque Loyds or
lnternatona Martme Crganzaton lMC)
number 1abe 7).
Source A. Smth, lAC lsheres Department.
198S 198S 1987 1987 1989 1989 1991 1991 1993 1993 199S 199S 1997 1997 1999 1999 2001 2001
20
22
24
26
28
Thousands
flCURf16
NumbcrsoffishingvcsscIsovcr100CRTrccordcdinlIoyds
MaritimclnformationScrviccsdatabasc
1991 1993 199S 1997 1999 2001 2002
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
Source:LoydsMurtmelnlormutonServces.
Thousands
Hondurus
eze
Punumu
StVncent
Lnknown
Vunuutu
flCURf17
NumbcrsoffishingvcsscIsinthcmajoropcnrcgistcrs
andoffIagunknown
ox 2), word producton n 2000 was 7l.3
mon tonnes - about 5 percent ess than the
hstorca peak ol 75.5 mon tonnes n l995.
Most ol the recent changes n tota goba
andngs lrom wd marne lshery resources can
be expaned by the decne and rapd recovery
n bomass and producton voumes) that
loowed the l997-l998 l No. 1he areas most
serousy allected by ths recent l No were the
Southeast Paclc and, to a esser extent, the
lastern Centra Paclc lgure 7).
1he goba stuaton ol the man marne lsh
stocks lor whch assessment nlormaton s
avaabe loows the genera trend observed n
prevous years. Cvera, as lshng pressure
contnues to ncrease, the number ol
underexpoted and moderatey expoted
22
1ALl 7
fIagging in and out of sbipping rcgistcrs
by fisbing vcsscIs)
fIagging Out ln
cbangcs 2000 2001 2000 2001
Argentna _ _ 4 9
eze 34 29 76 40
Camboda _ _ 7 5
Cyprus _ _ 9 3
Canary lsands 0 38 _ _
lquatora Cunea 5 0 _ _
Honduras 89 9 l0 ll
lreand _ _ 6 l0
apan 59 l2 _ _
Korea, Repubc ol _ _ _ _
Namba _ _ l9 2
Netherands 8 l2 _ _
Norway 6 l3 5 9
Panama 29 l2 l8 l4
Russan lederaton 2l l7 59 56
Span l5 4 0 39
St Vncent 9 ll l7 3
Lkrane ll ll _ _
Lnted Kngdom 2l 7 6 l3
Lnted States l2 4 _ _
Vanuatu l2 2 5 5
Cthers l75 ll7 l55 l39
Lnknown 56 5l l70 0
TotaI S62 349 S62 349
1ALl 6
Cbangcs to tbc databasc of lIoyds Maritimc
lnformation Scrviccs for fisbing vcsscIs)
Country Ncw buiIding Scrapping and Ioss
Rcgistcr 2000 2001 2000 2001
Argentna _ _ 4 9
eze 4 8 8 ll
Canada _ _ l4 8
Denmark 9 3 _ _
lrance 5 l5 9 9
Cermany _ _ 7 l8
lceand 4 l7 _ _
lreand l8 4 _ _
apan 22 l4 237 23
Korea, Repubc ol _ _ l6 ll
Norway 24 l8 _ _
Netherands l0 8 _ _
Russan lederaton _ _ 40 5l
Span 40 48 l04 48
Lnted Kngdom l0 l4 l4 20
Lnted States 98 52 23 58
Cthers 6l 92 l66 l76
Lnknown _ _ 44 22
ank _ _ 43 69
TotaI 30S 293 729 S33
Nct cbangc - 424 - 240
lsheres resources contnues to decne sghty,
the number ol luy expoted stocks remans
reatvey stabe and the number ol overexpoted,
depeted and recoverng stocks s ncreasng
sghty.
An estmated 25 percent ol the maor marne
lsh stocks or speces groups lor whch
nlormaton s avaabe are underexpoted or
moderatey expoted. Stocks or speces groups n
ths category represent the man source lor the
potenta expanson ol tota marne catches.
About 47 percent ol the man stocks or speces
groups are luy expoted and are therelore
producng catches that have reached, or are very
cose to, ther maxmum sustanabe mts. 1hus,
neary hal ol word marne stocks oller no
reasonabe expectatons lor lurther expanson.
Another l8 percent ol stocks or speces groups
are reported as overexpoted. Prospects lor
expanson or ncreased producton lrom these
stocks are neggbe, and there s an ncreasng
kehood that stocks w decne lurther and
catches w decrease, uness remeda
management acton s taken to reduce overlshng
condtons. 1he remanng l0 percent ol stocks
have become sgnlcanty depeted, or are
recoverng lrom depeton and are lar ess
productve than they used to be, or than they
coud be l management can return them to the
hgher abundance eves commensurate wth
ther pre-depeton catch eves. Recovery usuay
mpes drastc and ong-astng reductons n
lshng pressure and/or the adopton ol other
management measures to remove condtons that
contrbuted to the stock's overexpotaton and
depeton.
1ota catches lrom the Northwest and the
Southeast Atantc have eveed oll and remaned
reatvey stabe over the ast lve to ten years, at
about hal the eve ol the maxmums reached
three decades ago. Cl partcuar concern s the
laure ol the stocks ol haddock, redlsh and cod
to respond to the drastc management measures
that have been adopted n the Northwest Atantc.
Most ol the changes n the Southeast Atantc are
caused by luctuatons n abundance, and hence
catches, ol the mportant sma peagcs, n
partcuar Cape horse mackere, Southern Alrcan
anchovy and Southern Alrcan pchard. Alter
beng severey depeted, the stocks ol Southern
Alrcan anchovy and Southern Alrcan pchard
show some sgns ol recovery, athough current
management ellorts have not been n pace
sullcenty ong to brng catches back to
maxmum hstorca eves.
ln the lastern Centra Atantc and the
Northwest Paclc, tota catches are eveng oll
at reatvey hgh eves, havng recovered lrom a
short decne loowng ther maxmum
producton eves some l0 to l5 years ago. Most
ol these changes resut lrom recoveres n
abundance, hence andngs, ol sma peagcs. ln
the Northeast Atantc, the \estern Centra
Atantc, the Northeast Paclc, the Medterranean
and ack Sea, the lastern Centra Paclc and the
Southwest Paclc, annua catches are reatvey
stabe, or show a sght decnng trend alter
reachng ther maxmum potentas one or two
decades ago. ln the Southwest Atantc, tota
annua catches are decnng alter reachng an
a-tme hgh n l997. 1hs area s beng allected
by the depeton, and consequent decne n
catches, ol one ol ts most mportant stocks, the
Argentne hake.
ln the Southeast Paclc, tota annua catches
reached an a-tme hgh n l994, and then
decned sharpy as a consequence ol the severe
l997-l998 l No and the depeton ol the
Peruvan anchoveta and other mportant stocks n
the area. Post-l No recovery has been
surprsngy last, partcuary n the stocks ol
Peruvan anchoveta. 1hs has taken the tota
catches rapdy back to pre-l No eves,
athough some other mportant and decnng
stocks such as Chean ack mackere and the
South Amercan pchard have gven no sgns ol
recovery.
1he ncreasng trend ol tota catch n the
\estern lndan Ccean sowed down, havng
reached a maxmum n l999. 1wo ocean areas n
whch tota catches are thought to be expandng -
and where, at east n theory, there s a hgher
potenta to ncrease tota catches - are the
lastern lndan Ccean and the \estern Centra
Paclc. 1hese areas, together wth the \estern
lndan Ccean, have the owest ncdence ol luy
expoted, overexpoted, depeted or recoverng
lsh stocks and have some underexpoted or
23
24
Dams lor rrgaton, lood contro, hydropower producton
and water dverson contrbute to deveopment and welare.
1he structures and purposes ol dams range lrom hgh dams
lor power generaton and water suppy n steep mountan
vaeys to rrgaton, water dverson or navgaton structures
n ower areas. Dams are aso used lor lood contro, but ths
has olten not been very successlu. Many dams are
mutlunctona and lul severa purposes wth a snge
lacty.
Dam and wer constructon has a ong tradton n many
parts ol the word. Cver the ast hal-century, thousands ol
arge dams have been constructed wordwde. 1he number ol
smaer dams, wers and other n-stream obstaces across
rvers s not known on a goba scae, but may be n the order
ol severa hundred thousands.
arrers across rvers olten have negatve mpacts on the
natura lsh popuatons and may contrbute, aong wth other
lactors, to the dmnshed abundance, dsappearance or even
extncton ol speces. An exampe ol ths s the extncton ol
the samon Samo saar) n the Rver Rhne, a stock that had
supported a thrvng samon lshery n the lrst hal ol the
twenteth century. Dams are threatenng many aquatc
speces n lurope and North Amerca, as we as n other
contnents where lar ess s known about the boogy,
behavour, lshery and popuaton dynamcs ol the lsh
speces concerned. ln severa countres, ncudng lnda,
Nepa and South Alrca, research on lsh behavour s beng
carred out so that lsh passes can be adapted to the needs ol
ndgenous speces. Dependng on the swmmng capactes
ol the lsh concerned, even ow obstaces .e. those ol
between 20 cm and a lew metres n heght), such as ow
wers or cross-rver ss structures to stabze the rver
bottom), can have devastatng ellects. lxampes ol allected
lsh lrom luropean rvers ncude the buhead Cottus gobo),
the nase Chondrostoma nasus) and the barbe arbus
barbus). As we as lsh, other aquatc anmas - or ther
aquatc le stages e.g. among the macrozoobenthos) - can
be allected by changes to lree ongtudna movements n the
rver.
Cross-rver structures mpar anmas' movement n two
man ways they consttute barrers to the upstream and
downstream mgraton ol speces that depend on ongtudna
movements n the rver at some stage ol ther le cyce and
they cause physca modlcatons. 1he atter ncude changes
n sope, rver bed prole, bottom surlace structure and
bottom substrate submerson ol grave zones or rlle
sectons destructon ol rparan vegetaton and changes n
the therma or trophc regme. 1he downstream low regme s
olten drastcay changed. Dams may nterrupt ongtudna
passage competey, or at east deay mgraton. Downstream
passage through hydrauc turbnes or over hgh spways can
ncrease mortaty, and there may be ncreased predaton on
mgratng young lsh as they pass through a dam's reservor.
1he cumuatve ellect ol severa obstaces on the same rver
may have mportant negatve mpcatons lor lsheres,
especay n tropca regons where rver lsheres olten
contrbute substantay to rura vehoods.
ln arge rvers, yed modes reatng rver basn area and
man channe ength to catches suggest that yeds ncrease
exponentay as the rver ength ncreases. 1hs s owng to
the connectvty and cumuatve nluences ol upstream
processes wthn the system the rver contnuum concept),
as we as to atera processes assocated wth the rparan,
watershed and loodpan dmensons ol the stream ecosystem
the lood puse concept). lor exampe, such a yed mode
may estmate that a 25-km secton ol rver woud yed
catches ol 9 ll3 kg/year at a dstance ol 50 km lrom the
rver's source. At 250 km lrom the source, a 25-km secton ol
the same rver woud yed 37 l97 kg/year. ll a dam were
constructed 400 km lrom the rver's source, and resuted n a
oss ol 25 km ol the rver at that pont, the reservor woud
need to compensate lor 57 925 kg/year ol catch.
Dams break up a rver's ongtudna and atera contnuty
and can sgnlcanty bock nutrent low throughout the
ecosystem, thereby allectng lsheres producton n
downstream reservors and rver channes, as we as n
estuary and marne envronments. 1he arger the rver and the
more downstream the ocaton ol the dam, the ess key t s
that a reservor lshery w be abe to compensate lor lsh
yed osses sustaned by the rver lshery. ecause ol the
producton dynamcs, compensaton potentas appear hgher
n shaower reservors and n tropca regons than they are n
deeper reservors and n more northern attudes.
lstmates show yed potentas ol up to l43 kg/ha/year lor
natura Alrcan rver and loodpan lsheres, athough t can
be dllcut to compensate lor oss n yed lrom rver lsheres.
Productve reservor lsheres have been deveoped wth
yeds ol up to 329 kg/ha/year n sma reservors n Alrca, up
CX 5
Dams, fisb and fisbcrics a cbaIIcngc for fisbcry managcrs and cnginccrs
2S
to l25 kg/ha/year n Latn Amerca and the Carbbean and up
to 650 kg/ha/year n Asa. 1hrvng reservor lsheres can
deveop n areas where rver lsheres contrbute tte to
overa natona lshery yeds, or n drer regons where dams
are constructed lor rrgaton and lsheres are secondary
consderatons. 1he benelts lrom smaer, shaower
reservors seem to be more pronounced. Stockng ol exotc
speces, n both reservors and the tawaters ol dams, can
enhance yeds, as ong as the exotc lshes are
envronmentay sound and cuturay acceptabe to the
surroundng human popuaton some areas have no tradton
ol lshng and lsh consumpton.
Cbstructed passage can be mtgated to some extent by lsh
passes sometmes caed launa passes) lor upstream
mgraton and bypasses lor downstream passage, but ost
habtat cannot easy be compensated lor. lor anadromous
and potamodromous speces, upstream passage past
obstaces can use severa types ol passage, ncudng poo-
type lsh passes, Den lsh passes, bypass channes that
mtate nature and lsh lts or ocks. Such speces can aso be
coected and transported, l the lactes lor dong so are
avaabe. Cver the ast two decades, especay n Austraa,
lrance, apan and New Zeaand, sgnlcant progress has
been made to deveop regon-speclc technooges to
mprove lsh passage lactes, lrst lor upstream and now aso
lor downstream passage. ln 2000, a vertca sot lsh pass was
constructed at the lllezhem dam on the Rver Rhne to aow,
nter aa, samon to mgrate upstream. Some countres such
as lrance have amended the reevant aws to make the
restoraton ol lree passage at obstaces obgatory, at east on
rvers that are cassled as mportant lor lsh mgraton. More
and more lrequenty the owner ol the dams and wers has to
pay to restore lree passage.
lllectve and ellcent lsh passage lactes requre
knowedge ol the boogy and behavour ol the speces
concerned. 1hus, l basc boogca nlormaton s mssng, t
s dllcut to transpose lsh passage technoogy to dam
proects n other contnents or rver systems, or lrom
temperate to tropca condtons. However, mted
knowedge ol the reevant boogy does not ustly laure to
address the probem. 1he precautonary approach shoud
aways be apped, as recenty dscussed at a lsh Passage
\orkshop n South Alrca.
1he desgn ol lsh passes requres a mutdscpnary
approach nvovng engneers, boogsts and managers.
Desgns shoud be systematcay evauated, l possbe
through an obgatory and comprehensve ong-term
montorng programme. lllectve envronmenta assessment
and management, couped wth mprovements n the desgn
ol cv engneerng structures, have made some recent dam
proects somewhat more lsh-lrendy and envronmentay
acceptabe.
Source C. Marmua, lAC lnand \ater Resources and Aquacuture
Servce. ased on lAC lsheres 1echnca Paper No. 4l9.
moderatey expoted stocks. However, they aso
have the hghest ncdence ol stocks whose state
ol expotaton s unknown or uncertan and lor
whch overa producton estmates are,
consequenty, ess reabe.
lxcept lor skpack tuna n some areas, most
tuna stocks are luy expoted n a oceans, and
some are overlshed or even depeted.
Cvercapacty ol the tuna leets has been ponted
out as a maor probem n severa areas. Cl
partcuar concern are the stocks ol Northern and
Southern bueln tunas n the Atantc, lndan and
Paclc oceans. 1hese are reported to be
overlshed and, n most cases, severey depeted.
Another source ol concern s the rapd ncrease
n lshng pressure on some ol the deep water
resources see ox 3) that are beng expoted n
seamounts and other deep water areas at hgh
attudes n the lndan Ccean, the South Atantc
and the South Paclc, partcuary orange roughy,
alonsnos and dores. Most ol these stocks are
sow-growng, ong-vng anmas, and thus are
hghy vunerabe to depeton when the
dstrbuton, abundance and dynamcs ol ther
stocks are argey unknown. 1here s severe rsk
that, n the absence ol ellectve lshery
management regmes, these stocks coud easy
be depeted ong belore much s known about
ther popuatons. Concern has aso been
expressed regardng the severe decne ol
Patagonan toothlsh stocks n the southern
oceans, whch are mosty expoted by ega,
unreported and unreguated lLL) lshng.
lnIand rcsourccs
ln 1he State ol \ord lsheres and Aquacuture
2000, t was reported that nand lshery
resources are undervaued and under threat lrom
habtat ateraton see ox 2 ol SCllA 2000),
degradaton and unsustanabe lshng actvtes.
Recent led studes n Southeast Asa
l
have
reveaed that there are sgnlcant probems
concernng the accuracy ol nand lshery
statstcs n the regon. 1hese probems stem lrom
a ack ol adequate resources to coect lshery
statstcs, the dllcuty n obtanng nlormaton
lrom the sector, msreportng and a ack ol
capacty to use nlormaton to mprove the
management ol nand lshery resources.
lxperences ndcate that the stuaton s probaby
smar n other parts ol the word.
Accurate nlormaton s cruca to
understandng the mportance ol nand lshery
resources and to managng those resources lor
the benelt ol rura popuatons. lncompete or
ncorrect nlormaton s a abty n ellorts to
provde lood securty to deveopng regons. As
ellorts to mprove nlormaton on nand lshery
resources contnue, t s napproprate at ths tme
to present addtona data n 1he State ol \ord
lsheres and Aquacuture 2002.
AQUACUlTURf
Production
Accordng to lAC statstcs, aquacuture's
contrbuton to goba suppes ol lsh,
crustaceans and mouscs contnues to grow,
ncreasng lrom 3.9 percent ol tota producton by
weght n l970 to 27.3 percent n 2000.
Aquacuture s growng more rapdy than a
other anma lood producng sectors. \ordwde,
the sector has ncreased at an average
compounded rate ol 9.2 percent per year snce
l970, compared wth ony l.4 percent lor
capture lsheres and 2.8 percent lor terrestra
larmed meat producton systems. 1he growth ol
nand water aquacuture producton has been
partcuary strong n Chna, where t averaged
ll.5 percent per year between l970 and 2000
compared wth 7.0 percent per year n the rest ol
the word over the same perod. Marcuture
producton n Chna ncreased at an average
annua rate ol l4 percent, compared wth 5.4
percent n the rest ol the word. However, there s
a possbty that Chna's aquacuture producton,
partcuary ts growth snce the eary l990s, has
been overestmated n the statstcs see ox 2).
lgure l8 shows trends n nand and marne
aquacuture producton lor Chna and the rest ol
the word.
ln 2000, reported tota aquacuture producton
ncudng aquatc pants) was 45.7 mon
26
l
lAC. 2002. lnand capture lshery statstcs ol Southeast Asa
current status and nlormaton needs, by D. Coates. RAP Pub-
caton 2002/ll. angkok, lAC Regona Cllce lor Asa and the
Paclc. l2l pp.
tonnes by weght and LSS56.5 bon
by vaue. Chna was reported to have
produced 7l percent ol the tota
voume and 49.8 percent ol the tota
vaue ol aquacuture producton.
More than hal ol the tota word
aquacuture producton n 2000 was
lnlsh, and the growth ol the maor
speces groups contnues to be rapd
wth no apparent sowdown n
producton to date lgure l9). \ord
aquatc pant producton was l0.l
mon tonnes LSS5.6 bon), ol
whch 7.9 mon tonnes LSS4.0
bon) orgnated n Chna.
ln contrast to terrestra larmng
systems, where the buk ol goba
producton s based on a mted
number ol anma and pant speces, more than
2l0 dllerent larmed aquatc anma and pant
speces were reported n 2000. 1hs great
dversty relects the arge number ol aquatc
speces that are ready adaptabe to the wde
range ol producton systems and condtons
present n the dllerent countres and regons ol
the word. lt shoud aso be noted that the
number ol speces larmed s probaby
consderaby hgher than reported, as more than
9.7 mon tonnes 2l.2 percent) ol goba
aquacuture producton was not reported at the
speces eve n 2000. 1hs unspecled group s
key to ncude speces that have not yet been
recorded ndvduay as beng cutured.
ln 2000, more than hal ol goba aquacuture
producton orgnated lrom marne or bracksh
coasta waters. 1he mean annua growth rate lor
the perod l970-2000) was, however, hghest lor
lreshwater aquacuture producton. Athough
bracksh water producton represented ony 4.6
percent ol tota goba aquacuture producton by
weght n 2000, t comprsed l5.7 percent ol tota
producton by vaue. 1he man speces groups
reared n lreshwater were lnlsh. Hgh-vaue
crustaceans and lnlsh predomnate n bracksh
27
0
4
8
12
16
0
4
8
12
16
1970 1980 1990 2000 1970 1980 1990 2000
flCURf18
AquacuIturcproductioninmarincandinIandwatcrs
Million tonnes Million tonnes
Note:Dutuexcudeuquutcpunts.
lnIandwatcrs Marincwatcrs
Chnu
Chnu
\ordexcudngChnu
\ordexcudngChnu
flCURf19
TrcndofworIdaquacuIturcproductionbymajorspccicsgroups
1970 197S 1980 198S 1990 199S 2000
0
10
S
1S
20
2S
Million tonnes
Mouscs
Aquutcpunts
Crustuceuns
Ctheruquutcunmus
lnlsh
water, and mouscs and aquatc
pants n marne waters lgure 20).
Producton n terms ol quantty and
vaue lor maor producng countres
and maor speces groups s shown n
lgures 2l and 22.
lt s partcuary sgnlcant that
aquacuture producton n deveopng
countres and ow-ncome lood-delct
countres LllDCs) has been growng
steady at an average rate ol about
l0 percent per year snce l970.
However, producton growth by both
quantty and vaue) among LllDCs,
excudng Chna, has been sower
than among non-LllDCs lgure 23).
y contrast, aquacuture producton
wthn deveoped countres has been
growng at an average rate ol ony 3.7
percent per year snce l970, and even
showed a decrease ol 2.4 percent
lrom l999 to 2000. \th the
excepton ol marne shrmp, n 2000,
the buk ol aquacuture producton n
deveopng countres comprsed
omnvorous/herbvorous lsh or lter-
leedng speces. ln contrast, 73.7
percent ol lnlsh cuture producton n
deveoped countres was ol
carnvorous speces.
ln terms ol lood lsh suppy .e.
aquatc lnlsh and shelsh products
lor human consumpton, on a whoe,
ve weght bass - excudng aquatc
pants), the word aquacuture sector
outsde Chna produced about
ll mon tonnes ol larmed aquatc
products n 2000, compared wth
about 52 mon tonnes lrom capture
lsheres. Chna's reported lgures were
about 20 mon tonnes lrom
aquacuture and 7 mon tonnes lrom
capture lsheres, a stark ndcaton ol
the domnance ol aquacuture n
Chna. Cutsde Chna, per capta lood
lsh suppy lrom aquacuture has
ncreased lourlod, lrom 0.6 kg n
l970 to 2.3 kg n 2000.
28
lnlsh
Crustuceuns
Mouscs
Ctheruquutcunmus
Aquutcpunts
flCURf20
WorIdaquacuIturcproduction:proportionsofspccicsgroupsbycnviromcntin2000
frcshwatcr frcshwatcr
Marinc Marinc
Brackish Brackish
6.l%
0.7%
42.7%
50.5%
8.7%
0.l%
l.0%
46.2%
44.0%
l.7%
0.6%
97.7%
VictNam
BangIadcsh
korca,Rcp.
ThaiIand
lndoncsia
PhiIippincs
|apan
lndia
China
20000 20000 10000 10000 00 30000 30000 40000 40000
Note:Dutuncudeuquutcpunts.Countresstedurethosewthuproductonvoume
olmorethun500000tonnes.
flCURf21
AquacuIturcproduction:majorproduccrcountricsin2000
2095
2l66
l292
4450
l044
730
994
2268
707
243l
698
698
657
ll59
526
l096
32444
28ll7
Quuntty(thousundtonnes)
Vuue (LSSmon)
Sustainability
Duri ng the past three decades, aquacul ture has
expanded, di versi fi ed, i ntensi fi ed and made
technol ogi cal advances. The potenti al of thi s
devel opment to enhance l ocal food securi ty,
al l evi ate poverty and i mprove rural l i vel i hoods
has been wel l recogni zed. The Bangkok
Decl arati on and Strategy (Network of
Aquacul ture Centres i n Asi a-Paci fi c [ NACA] and
FAO, 2000) emphasi zes the need for the
aquacul ture sector to conti nue devel opment
towards i ts ful l potenti al , maki ng a net
contri buti on to gl obal food avai l abi l i ty, domesti c
food securi ty, economi c growth, trade and
i mproved l i vi ng standards.
FI SH U TI LI ZATI O N
Of the esti mated 89 mi l l i on tonnes of
fi sh produced i n 2000 i n the worl d,
excl udi ng Chi na, nearl y 71 percent
(63 mi l l i on tonnes) was used for di rect
human consumpti on. The remai nder
(about 29 percent) was uti l i zed for
vari ous non-food products, mostl y for
reducti on to meal and oi l .
Correspondi ng fi gures for Chi na,
whi ch were based on reported capture
fi shery, aquacul ture and fi shmeal
producti on and FAO esti mates of other
non-food uses (see Box 2), were nearl y
42 mi l l i ons tonnes total producti on
and nearl y 34 mi l l i on tonnes (81
percent) for di rect human
consumpti on. The remai nder was used
for the manufacture of fi shmeal and
other non-food uses, i ncl udi ng di rect
feed to aquacul ture.
As a hi ghl y peri shabl e commodi ty, fi sh has a
si gni fi cant requi rement for processi ng. In 2000,
more than 60 percent of total worl d fi sheri es
producti on underwent some form of processi ng.
The most i mportant of the fi sh products desti ned
for di rect human consumpti on was fresh fi sh (a
share of 53.7 percent), fol l owed by frozen fi sh
(25.7 percent), canned fi sh (11.0 percent) and
cured fi sh (9.6 percent).
Duri ng the 1990s, there was a si gni fi cant
i ncrease i n the proporti on of fi sheri es producti on
used as fresh/chi l l ed fi sh rather than as other
products (Fi gure 24). The demand for fresh fi sh
i ncreased, but was parti al l y offset by a sl i ght
decl i ne i n other uses. Fresh fi sh i ncreased i n
vol ume (l i ve wei ght equi val ent) from an
esti mated 28 mi l l i on tonnes i n 1990 to 52 mi l l i on
tonnes i n 2000. Processed fi sh (frozen, cured and
canned) i ncreased i n vol ume (l i ve wei ght
equi val ent) from 43 mi l l i on tonnes i n 1990 to
about 45 mi l l i on tonnes i n 2000. Freezi ng
represents the mai n method of processi ng fi sh for
human consumpti on, and had a 55 percent share
i n 2000. In devel oped countri es, the proporti on
of fi sh that i s frozen has been constantl y
29
Other
aquatic animals
Marine fishes
Crustaceans
Diadromous fishes
Aquatic plants
Molluscs
Freshwater fishes
00 5 000 5 000 10 000 10 000 15 000 15 000 20 000 20 000 25 000 25 000
19 801
20 794
10 732
9 497
10 130
5 608
2 257
6 699
1 648
9 372
1 010
4 072
137
426
FIGURE 22
Aquaculture production: major species groups in 2000
Quantity (thousand tonnes)
Value (US$ million)
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
0
10
20
30
40
Note: Data include aquatic plants.
FIGURE 23
Trends in aquaculture production quantity and value
Million tonnes/US$ billions
Non-LIFDCs
China
LIFDCs, excluding China
Value
Non-LIFDCs
China
LIFDCs, excluding China
Quantity
30 30
ncreasng, and lrozen lsh has
become the most common lorm ol
product, wth a share ol 40 percent ol
lsh producton. ln deveopng
countres, however, the share ol
lrozen products s very constant at
about l2 percent.
Amost a the lshery products used
lor non-lood purposes n 2000
33.7 mon tonnes) came lrom
natura stocks ol sma peagcs, whch
represented neary one-thrd ol the
tota capture lsheres. Most ol these
lshery products were used as raw
matera lor the producton ol anma
leed and other products. As catches ol
sma peagcs lor reducton reganed
the eves prevang belore l No,
the quantty destned lor non-lood uses was about
9 mon tonnes more than n l998.
fisb consumption
1he tota lood lsh suppy lor the word,
excudng Chna, has been growng at a rate ol
about 2.4 percent per annum snce l96l, whe
the popuaton has been expandng at
l.8 percent per annum. Snce the ate l980s,
however, popuaton growth outsde Chna has
occasonay outpaced the growth ol tota lood
lsh suppy, resutng n a decrease n per capta
lsh suppy lrom l4.6 kg n l987 to l3.l kg n
2000 lgure 2). lor Chna, the correspondng
annua ncreases are 6.4 percent lor lood lsh
suppy snce l96l and l.7 percent lor the
popuaton lgure 9). Annua growth was steady
unt the md-l980s at 3.8 percent lrom l96l to
l985) and then suddeny trebed over the
loowng l5 years l0.8 percent lrom l985 to
2000).
1he share ol the anma proten ntake ol the
whoe human popuaton derved lrom lsh,
crustaceans and mouscs ncreased lrom l3.7
percent n l96l to l6.l percent n l996 and then
showed a sght decne to l5.8 percent n l999.
ln ndustrazed countres 1abe 8), where
dets generay contan a more dversled range
ol anma protens, the suppy ncreased lrom
l3.2 mon tonnes n l96l to 25.4 mon
tonnes n l999, mpyng a rse n per capta
flCURf24
UtiIizationofworIdfishcricsproduction(brcakdownbyvoIumc)
1961 1961 1964 1964 1967 1967 1970 1970 1973 1973 1976 1976 1979 1979 1982 1982 198S 198S 1988 1988 1991 1991 1994 1994 1997 1997 2000 2000
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Non-loodpurposes
Murketnguslreshproduce
lreezng
Curng
Cunnng
Million tonnes (live weight)
1ALl 8
TotaI and pcr capita food fisb suppIy by
contincnt and cconomic grouping in 1999
TotaI Pcr capita
food suppIy food suppIy
mon tonnes kg per year)
ve weght)
WorId 9S.S 16.0
WorId cxcIuding Cbina 64.3 13.6
Alrca 6.2 8.0
North and Centra Amerca 8.l l6.8
South Amerca 2.9 8.5
Chna 3l.2 25.l
Asa excudng Chna) 32.5 l3.7
lurope l3.9 l9.l
Cceana 0.7 22.5
lndustrazed countres 25.4 28.3
lconomes n transton 3.7 l2.7
LllDCs excudng Chna) 20.8 8.3
Deveopng countres
excudng LllDCs l3.7 l4.8
31
provson lrom l9.9 to 28.3 kg. 1he growth rate
was steady unt the ate l980s and has stabzed
agan snce then. ln ths group ol countres, lsh
contrbuted an ncreasng share ol the tota
proten ntake unt l989 accountng lor between
6.5 and 8.5 percent), but ts mportance has
graduay decned snce then and ts contrbuton
n l999 7.7 percent) was back to the eve
prevang n the md-l980s.
ln the eary l960s, the average per capta lsh
suppy n LllDCs was one-llth ol that n the
rchest countres. 1he gap has graduay essened,
however, and n l999 average LllDC lsh
consumpton was cose to hal that ol the more
alluent economes. ll Chna s excuded, per
capta suppy n LllDCs ncreased lrom 5.0 to 8.3
kg over the perod - an annua growth rate ol l.3
percent. ln LllDCs, despte the reatvey ow
consumpton by weght, the contrbuton ol lsh
to tota anma proten ntake s consderabe
neary 20 percent), and may be hgher than
ollca statstcs ndcate because ol the
contrbuton ol unrecorded subsstence lsheres
to lood ntake. Cver the ast lour decades,
Ricc ficIds - mucb morc tban ricc
ln the Lpper and Lower Mekong Rver loodpans n Yunnan
Provnce, Chna and Kampong 1hom Provnce, Camboda, an
attempt has been made to document the avaabty ol vng
aquatc resources and the pattern ol ther use by rce larmers.
larmers used ther own toos and technques to coect
aquatc speces lrom the leds. Partcpatory approaches
lactated earnng about the tradtona knowedge ol the
oca peope, ncudng many ethnc mnortes.
l
Remarkabe nsghts were ganed. 1hese rce ecosystems
support a rch aquatc bodversty that s mportant, not ony
as a source ol day lood and ncome lor rura househods,
but aso as a habtat lor rare and endemc speces. lshes are
the most mportant group n terms ol speces dversty and
mportance lor the oca peope. A tota ol 60 and 70 dllerent
lsh speces occur n rce larms n Chna and Camboda,
respectvey. Most ol these are consumed lresh or lermented
nto lsh paste. Cther speces are lermented ether as lets or
n smaer peces), dred, sated, smoked or used lor preparng
lsh sauce.
lresh or processed lsh s the prmary source ol proten lor
oca peope n these areas, and s usuay eaten at every
mea. ln Kampong 1hom, an average lamy ol lve peope
probaby consumes about l kg ol lresh lsh every day durng
the lshng season, .e. when the rce leds are looded. 1he
same lamy needs about 20 kg ol lermented lsh paste lor the
dry season. lverythng ese that s caught s sod n the
market. Dependng on the lshng too empoyed, a larmer
can catch l5 to 20 kg ol lsh on a good day, athough the
average lsh catch durng the lshng season s ess than l0 kg
per day. ln Chna, a varety ol lsh, crustaceans, mouscs,
amphbans, nsects, reptes and aquatc pants lrom rce-
based systems are an essenta part ol the day det, n
partcuar lor the rce larmng Da mnorty n Xshuangbanna.
1he consumpton eve ol aquatc organsms has remaned
lary constant nowadays about one-llth to one-thrd ol
consumpton s derved lrom capture n rce-based larmng,
but a decade ago ths same capture supped hal ol the lsh
needed n the det. 1he use ol aquatc organsms as anma
leeds and bat, or lor medcna purposes, s an mportant
addton to ther human consumpton vaue.
1he avaabty ol these aquatc resources s decnng. An
ncreasng human popuaton s resutng n overexpotaton
ol seasonay resdent lsh popuatons. Pestcde use, the
destructon ol lsh breedng grounds and ega lshng
methods aso contrbute to the decne. lt seems key that n
other rce growng regons ol the word where aquatc
organsms are harvested lrom rce leds and contrbute to
nutrtona needs, they too are key to be subect to smar
threats.
2
CX 6
Aquatic biodivcrsity from ricc-bascd farming systcms supports ruraI IivcIiboods
l
lAC. 2002. 1radtona use and avaabty ol aquatc bodversty n
managed ecosystems, edted by M. Hawart and D. artey. Rome.
2
lAC. 2002. Recent lAC ntatves on the avaabty and use ol
aquatc organsms n rce-based larmng, by M. Hawart. Rome.
Source M. Hawart, lAC lsheres Department.
flCURf2S
fishasfood:pcrcapitasuppIy
Averugepercuptulshsuppy
(nveweghtequvuent)
0-2kg/yeur
2-5kg/yeur
5-l0kg/yeur
l0-20kg/yeur
20-30kg/yeur
30-60kg/yeur
>60kg/yeur
32
33
however, the share ol lsh protens n anma
protens has exhbted a sght negatve trend
owng to laster growth n the consumpton ol
other anma products.
As we as ncome-reated varatons, the roe ol
lsh n nutrton shows marked contnenta,
regona and natona dllerences lgures 25 and
26). lor exampe, ol the wordwde 95.5 mon
tonnes avaabe lor consumpton n l999, ony
6.2 mon tonnes were consumed n Alrca wth
a per capta suppy ol 8.0 kg) two-thrds ol the
tota were consumed n Asa - 32.5 mon
tonnes outsde Chna l3.7 kg per capta) and a
smar amount n Chna aone gvng an
apparent suppy ol 25.l kg per capta).
Currenty, two-thrds ol the tota lood lsh
suppy s obtaned lrom lshng n marne and
nand waters the remanng one-thrd s derved
lrom aquacuture. 1he contrbuton ol nand and
marne capture lsheres to per capta lood suppy
stabzed at l0 to ll kg per capta n the perod
l970-2000. Recent ncreases n per capta
avaabty have, therelore, been obtaned lrom
aquacuture producton lrom both tradtona
rura aquacuture and ntensve commerca
aquacuture ol hgh-vaue speces. Cn average,
lor a countres n the word except Chna,
aquacuture's contrbuton to per capta lood
avaabty grew lrom 0.5 kg n l970 to l.8 kg n
2000 - representng an average annua rate ol 4.5
percent. ln Chna, where lsh larmng practces
have ong tradtona roots, the per capta suppy
lrom aquacuture s reported to have ncreased
lrom neary l kg to neary l9 kg n the same
perod, mpyng an annua average growth ol
ll percent.
1he tota amount ol lsh consumed and the
speces composton ol the lood suppy vary
accordng to regon and country, relectng the
dllerent eves ol natura avaabty ol aquatc
resources n adacent waters, as we as dverse
lood tradtons, tastes, demand and ncome
eves. Demersa lsh are much prelerred n
northern lurope and North Amerca, and
cephaopods are consumed extensvey n severa
Medterranean and Asan countres, but to a
much esser extent n other regons. Despte the
last-growng contrbuton ol aquacuture to
producton, crustaceans are st hgh-prced
commodtes and ther consumpton s mosty
concentrated n alluent economes. Cl the
l6.0 kg ol lsh per capta avaabe lor
consumpton n l999, the vast maorty
75 percent) was lnlsh. Shelsh supped
25 percent - or about 4 kg per capta, subdvded
nto l.4 kg ol crustaceans, 2.l kg ol mouscs and
0.4 kg ol cephaopods.
lreshwater and dadromous speces contrbuted
27 mon tonnes ol tota suppy. Marne lnlsh
speces provded 44 mon tonnes, subdvded
nto l7 mon tonnes ol demersa speces,
l9 mon tonnes ol peagcs and 8 mon
tonnes ol undentled marne lsh. 1he remanng
20 percent ol the lood suppy was shelsh,
comprsng 8.6 mon tonnes ol crustaceans,
2.7 mon tonnes ol cephaopods and
l2.5 mon tonnes ol other mouscs.
Hstorcay, there have not been dramatc
changes n most ol the broad groups' shares n
average word consumpton demersa lsh
speces have stabzed at about 2.9 kg per capta
and peagc lsh at 3.2 kg. 1wo groups are
exceptons n that they showed consderabe
ncreases between l96l and l999 the
avaabty ol crustaceans per capta more than
trebed lrom 0.4 to l.4 kg, argey because ol the
producton ol shrmps and prawns lrom
aquacuture practces and mouscs smary
ncreased lrom 0.6 to 2.l kg per capta.
lsh contrbutes up to l80 caores per capta
per day, but reaches such hgh eves ony n a
lew countres where there s a ack ol aternatve
proten loods grown ocay and where a
prelerence lor lsh has been deveoped and
mantaned exampes are apan, lceand and
some sma sand states) more generay, lsh
provdes about 20 to 30 caores per day. lsh
protens are essenta and crtca n the dets ol
some densey popuated countres, where the
tota proten ntake eve may be ow, and t s
very mportant n the dets ol many other
countres e.g. lsh contrbutes more than, or
cose to, 50 percent ol tota anma protens n the
Camba, Chana, lquatora Cunea, lndonesa,
Serra Leone, 1ogo, Cunea, angadesh, the
Repubc ol the Congo, Camboda).
\ordwde, more than l bon peope rey on
lsh as an mportant source ol anma protens
34
WorId Africa Africa North
andCcntraI
Amcrica
North
andCcntraI
Amcrica
South
Amcrica
South
Amcrica
Asia Asia furopc furopc Occania Occania
20
40
60
80
100
120
7
5
.
l
4
7
.
5
6
2
7
.
6
l
3
.
6
7
.
2
4
.
4
2
.
4
6
0
.
5
7
4
7
.
7
l
2
.
8
6
.
4 3
.
4
2
.
4
0
.
6
9
8
.
2
4
2
.
4
5
5
.
8
3
l
.
2
l
6
.
9
4
.
l
3
.
6
7
4
.
7
3
6
.
8
3
7
.
9
2
3
.
3
l
0
.
4
2
.
4
l
.
8
7
0
.
5
5
0
.
l
2
0
.
4
9
.
l
4
.
l
4
.
8
2
.
4
9
7
.
2
4
3
.
5
5
3
.
7
2
6
.
l
l
8
.
3
5
.
6
3
.
7
9
3
.
l
3
7
.
0
5
6
.
l
3
3
.
3
l
5
.
6
5
.
5 l
.
7
flCURf27
TotaIprotcinsuppIybycontincntandmajorfoodgroup(19971999avcragc)
1otu protens
Vegetubeprotens
Anmuprotens Anmu protens
Meut und ollus
h lsh
Lggs
g/capita per day
.e. lsh provdes at east 30 percent ol ther
anma proten ntakes) lgure 27). Dependence
on lsh s usuay hgher n coasta than n nand
areas. About 56 percent ol the word's popuaton
derves at east 20 percent ol ts anma proten
ntake lrom lsh, and some sma sand states
depend on lsh amost excusvey.
flSH TRADf
ln addton to ther roe as a source ol lood and
vehoods, lsheres n many countres are aso
an mportant source ol loregn exchange. ln a lew
cases, lshery exports are essenta to the
economy. lor exampe, n 2000 they accounted
lor more than two-thrds ol the tota vaue ol
traded commodtes n Creenand, the Seychees,
the laeroe lsands and lceand. ln many countres
there s a substanta two-way trade n lshery
products. 1he trade surpus s sgnlcant n South
Amerca, Alrca, Chna and Cceana lgure 28).
Products derved lrom aquacuture producton
contrbute an ncreasng share ol tota
nternatona trade n lshery commodtes see
ox 7).
ln 2000, tota word trade ol lsh and lshery
products ncreased to an export vaue ol LSS55.2
bon, havng grown by 8 percent snce l998.
1hs ncrease was argey due to a rse n the
voume ol commodtes traded lgure 29)
compared wth l998, the prces ol maor lood
products decreased margnay and those ol leeds
decned sharpy. 1haand contnued to be the
man exportng country, wth LSS4.4 bon.
Chna experenced a sharp ncrease n ts export
perlormance to reach LSS3.7 bon n 2000 - a
maor growth ol 36 percent lrom l998 - and s
now the second argest exporter. ln addton to
exports lrom domestc producton, Chna aso
reprocesses mported raw matera lor export,
creatng a strong vaue-addton n the process.
Norway, whch used to be ranked second,
reported ower export vaues. 1hese were party
caused by ower samon prces, but aso by the
ow vaue ol the euro - the currency ol the man
tradng area lor Norwegan lsh.
lsh mports reached a new record ol LSS60
bon n 2000. Deveoped countres accounted
lor more than 80 percent ol the vaue ol tota
lshery product mports. apan was agan the
argest mporter ol lshery products, accountng
lor some 26 percent ol the goba tota ts lshery
mports accounted lor 4 percent ol ts tota
merchandse trade. Alter the economc recesson,
whch caused a decne n l998, the vaue ol
apanese mports ol lsh and lshery products n
2000 returned to the eve ol l997. 1he lC
3S
Occania
0
1.0
1.S
2.0
1976 1980 1988 1984 1992 1996 2000
US$ billions
flCURf28
lmportsandcxportsoffishcryproductsfordiffcrcntrcgions,indicatingthcnctdcficitorsurpIus
Africa
0
1
2
3
1976 1980 1988 1984 1992 1996 2000
US$ billions
CanadaandUnitcdStatcs
0
4
8
12
1976 1980 1988 1984 1992 1996 2000
US$ billions
furopc
0
10
20
30
1976 1980 1988 1984 1992 1996 2000
US$ billions
AsiacxcIudingChina
0
10
20
30
1976 1980 1988 1984 1992 1996 2000
US$ billions
latinAmcricaandthcCaribbcan
0
2
4
6
8
1976 1980 1988 1984 1992 1996 2000
US$ billions
China
1
2
3
0
4
1976 1980 1988 1984 1992 1996 2000
US$ billions
Lxportvuue(l.o.b.)
lmportvuue(c..l.)
Surpus
Surpus
Surpus
Surpus
Delct Delct
Delct
Delct
36
1he man traded products
l
lrom aquacuture are shrmp and
prawns, samon, and mouscs. Cther speces showng strong
growth n trade are tapa, seabass and seabream.
Crustaccans
ln nternatona trade, the most promnent product lrom
aquacuture s marne shrmp, and aquacuture has been the
maor lorce behnd ncreased shrmp tradng durng the past
decade. Shrmp s aready the most traded sealood product
nternatonay, and about 26 percent ol tota producton now
comes lrom aquacuture l.l mon tonnes n 2000). Snce
the ate l980s, larmed shrmp has tended to act as a
stabzng lactor lor the shrmp ndustry. 1he maor crop
laures n Asa and Latn Amerca durng past years have
therelore had an mpact on overa suppy, demand, prces
and consumpton trends. Consdered a uxury product n most
markets, shrmp demand s very dependent on a country's
economc cmate, and consumpton and trade n an
ndvdua country may show arge varatons lrom year to
year. At present, apanese demand remans weak, as does the
Lnted States market alter September 200l.
1he maor markets are apan, the Lnted States and the lC,
and the argest exporters ol larmed shrmp are 1haand,
lcuador, lndonesa, lnda, Mexco, angadesh and Vet
Nam. Demand lor shrmp and prawns s expected to ncrease
n the medum to ong term. Asan markets such as Chna, the
Repubc ol Korea, 1haand and Maaysa w expand as
oca economes grow and consumers demand more sealood.
1hs trend s aready reducng the avaabty ol shrmp to
tradtona mporters, and w eventuay put upward pressure
on prces l suppes do not expand. lncreases n prces w
encourage new entres nto shrmp larmng and, l sustanabe
methods ol producton are used, greater stabty ol prces.
1rade n crab speces has ncreased wth growng
aquacutura producton l40 300 tonnes n 2000). 1ota
exports lor lresh, lrozen and preserved crab wd and larmed)
reached 240 000 tonnes and LSSl.5 bon n 2000.
finfisb
lnlsh producton ranks lrst n terms ol tota aquacuture
output, wth 23 mon tonnes produced n 2000, or about
65 percent ol tota producton lrom aquacuture. 1he maor
share ol ths tota were carps 68 percent ol tota lnlsh
producton n 2000), whch are consumed ocay n the
producng countres many Chna and lnda).
lnternatona trade n larmed samon has ncreased lrom
vrtuay zero to about l mon tonnes 200l) n ess than
two decades. 1he traded speces are many Atantc samon
and, to a lar esser extent, coho samon, whch accounted lor
88 and l0 percent ol producton n 200l, respectvey.
Crowth n trade has loowed the growth n samon
producton, as the buk ol producton s concentrated n a lew
countres wth mted domestc markets - Norway, Che and
the Lnted Kngdom. Norway s the man exporter ol Atantc
samon, and Che the man exporter ol coho samon and the
second argest exporter ol Atantc samon. 1he man market
lor Norway s the lC, whch accounts lor some 70 percent ol
Norwegan exports Che's man markets are apan and the
Lnted States, accountng lor some 55 and 30 percent ol
Chean exports, respectvey.
Norway has dentled Asa as the luture growth market n
addton to lurther penetraton ol the luropean markets), and
the Norwegan samon larmng ndustry has spent amost
LSSl50 mon on nternatona promoton and advertsng
over the ast lew years. Chean producers loresee strong
growth n the Lnted States, Latn Amercan, luropean and
Asan markets, excudng apan. ln contrast to Norway, Che
produces a arge quantty ol lets, whch are sent lresh by ar
to the Lnted States market.
1he goba larmed samon ndustry s restructurng rapdy,
wth a lew companes accountng lor a arge share ol
producton and lrequenty havng strong tes to the leed
ndustry. As producton voumes have ncreased, costs and
prces have been drven down and, at current eves LSS2.60
CX 7
Tradc in aquacuIturc products
l
1he extent ol regona and nternatona trade n aquacuture products
s dllcut to anayse because trade n many aquacuture products s not
yet we documented n the man producng countres. lnternatona tra-
de statstcs olten do not dstngush between wd and larmed orgn,
and the exact breakdown n nternatona trade s therelore open to n-
terpretaton. 1hs stuaton w change graduay, as producers' asso-
catons emerge n producng countres and begn to keep records, and
n response to new envronmenta and abeng requrements that d-
stngush between larmed and wd products. An mportant deveop-
ment s the new lL egsaton on abeng, whch snce l anuary 2002
requres most lshery products to carry abes statng whether they or-
gnate lrom capture lsheres or aquacuture.
Source A. Lem, lAC lsh Ltzaton and Marketng Servce.
37
to S3.40/kg cost, nsurance, lreght c..l.), samon has
become a reatvey md-prced product n nternatona
sealood markets.
lnternatona trade n trout s much smaer than n samon,
wth exports n 2000 reachng some l40 600 tonnes out ol a
tota larmed trout producton ol 5ll 000 tonnes.
Consumpton s concentrated n trout producng countres,
but Norway and Che have been abe to larm speclc
quates ol arge-szed, heavy-pgmented trout lor the
apanese market apan mported 84 000 tonnes ol trout
n 200l).
Another speces to show tremendous growth n output s
tapa aquacuture producton ol tapa and other cycds
amounted to some l 265 800 tonnes n 2000). lnternatona
trade s mted but growng, especay between Centra
Amercan producers Costa Rca, lcuador and Coomba) and
the Lnted States, and between Asan producers 1awan
Provnce ol Chna, lndonesa and 1haand) and the Lnted
States and apan. 1here s aso modest trade between amaca
and the Lnted Kngdom. 1he argest exporter, 1awan
Provnce ol Chna, suppes apan wth hgh-quaty tapa
lets lor the sashm market, and shps lrozen tapa to the
Lnted States market 40 000 tonnes n 200l). 1awan
Provnce ol Chna exports about 70 percent ol ts domestc
tapa producton. 1haand and lndonesa export ess than 5
percent ol ther producton. Vet Nam has aso recenty
entered the word tapa market, and Chna exported l2 500
tonnes to the Lnted States n 200l. Zmbabwe now aso
produces lresh and lrozen lets lor the lC market.
ln the Lnted States, tapa s now the thrd most mported
aquacuture product by weght 56 300 tonnes n 200l), alter
shrmp and samon. Lnted States mports have been growng
strongy and are lorecast to grow lurther n the luture. Long-
term tapa prces are expected to decrease, and ths shoud
ead to ncreased exports to the Lnted States, as we as to
lurope, whch s st an undeveoped market lor tapa.
ln lurope, the seabream and seabass ndustry has grown
strongy n the ast decade. Producton reached l20 000
tonnes n 200l, most ol whch was exported, many to ltay
and Span. 1he man exporter was Creece, whch exported
about 70 percent ol domestc producton. ltay was orgnay
amost the ony export market lor Creek producton but, as a
resut ol market deveopment ellorts, Creek exports have now
expanded nto new markets, such as the Lnted Kngdom,
Cermany and lrance, as we as Span lor certan szes. At the
opposte end, trade n lngerngs comes lrom ltay, Span and
lrance and goes to larms n Creece, Mata and Croata.
As seabass/seabream output has grown, costs have been
drven down, and market prces decned by more than two-
thrds between l990 and 2002 - lrom LSSl6/kg to about
LSS4 to S5/kg. 1he rapd saturaton ol the market and the
parae rapd prce decne 60 to 70 percent n ten years,
compared wth 50 percent lor Atantc samon) are attrbuted
to the much smaer tradtona market lor these speces
many southern lurope) compared wth the Atantc samon
market, ack ol dversled products, and mted market
deveopment and promoton. 1he substanta drop n prces ol
these speces s, however, openng new markets and
expandng exstng ones, athough acceptabe prolt margns
at the producton end can ony be sustaned through lurther
mprovements n productvty and product dverslcaton. As
wth larmed samon, the seabass/seabream ndustry s
becomng consodated, and severa companes are aso
quoted on the stock exchange n Creece and Norway.
Amercan catlsh s now the llth most consumed lsh n the
Lnted States 0.5 kg per capta edbe weght n 2000), and
domestc producton reached 280 000 tonnes n 2000.
lxports are mted because producton s amed at the
domestc market, whereas mports lrom Vet Nam have
rapdy ganed market share n the Lnted States 7 700
tonnes) and luropean markets. 1he reason lor the success ol
catlsh s smar to that ol tapa's success strong consumer
demand lor whte, easy-to-prepare lets.
Scawccd
larmed seaweed producton has been growng n the ast
decade l0 mon tonnes n 2000), and s now 88 percent ol
tota seaweed suppes. Most output s utzed domestcay
lor lood, but there s growng nternatona trade. Chna, the
man producer, has started to export seaweed as lood to the
Repubc ol Korea and apan. 1he Repubc ol Korea, n turn,
exports some quanttes ol Porphyra red seaweed) and
Lndara brown seaweed) to apan 23 500 tonnes n 2000).
Sgnlcant quanttes ol lucheuma red seaweed) are
exported by the Phppnes, the Lnted Repubc ol 1anzana
and lndonesa to the Lnted States, Denmark and apan. 1ota
lC mports ol seaweed n 2000 amounted to 6l 000 tonnes.
Che s an mportant extractor, processor and exporter ol
agar and carrageenen.
MoIIuscs
lnternatona trade n mouscs s reatvey mted compared
wth tota output ess than l0 percent ol tota output s
traded. Maor mportng markets are apan, the Lnted States
38
and lrance, whe maor exporters are Chna and 1haand.
1he contrbuton ol larmed products to trade s uncertan. lor
a categores, nternatona trade s ncreasng.
1ota lresh and lrozen scaop mports have grown lrom
28 000 tonnes n l985 to 78 l00 tonnes n 2000, reachng a
vaue ol LSS563 mon. Cam mports have grown lrom
33 000 tonnes to l7l 000 tonnes n the same perod, vaued
at LSS30l mon. Musse mports showed a downward
trend alter a peak ol l75 000 tonnes n l992, to reach
l37 000 tonnes n l993 and l5l 000 tonnes n l994.
However, musse mports showed an upward trend agan n
subsequent years 200 000 tonnes vaued at LSS3l0 mon
n 2000. Cyster mports have been growng steady lrom ess
than l0 000 tonnes n l985 to 47 000 tonnes n 2000,
reachng a vaue ol LSS200 mon.
livc organisms
Asa s rapdy ncreasng ts consumpton ol ve sealood as a
resut ol cutura prelerences and growng alluence. 1he ve
sealood market s argey restrcted to the restaurant trade and
to consumers wth a reatvey hgh dsposabe ncome. Maor
market expanson s antcpated as a resut ol demand n
Chna, but expanson s aso expected n Maaysa, Sngapore
and 1awan Provnce ol Chna, as we as n parts ol North
Amerca and lurope wth arge Chnese or Asan
communtes. Aquacuture's potenta to suppy the market s
promsng. 1he sector s aready suppyng arge quanttes ol
shelsh and mted quanttes ol grouper, crabs and other
speces. 1echnoogca deveopments n the cuture ol
prelerred ve lood speces w ncrease aquacuture's
contrbuton to suppes.
Annua nternatona exports ol ornamenta lsh are about
LSS200 mon n vaue, or ess than l percent ol tota word
lsh trade. However, the tota vaue ol the whoesae
ornamenta trade s estmated at cose to LSSl bon, and
reta trade at about LSS3 bon n the Lnted States aone.
1he mportance ol the ornamenta lsh trade s not ust n
terms ol ts share n nternatona trade. 1he sector s an
mportant source ol ncome lor rura, coasta and nsuar
communtes n deveopng countres and, lrequenty, a
wecome provder ol empoyment opportuntes and export
revenues.
Asa accounts lor more than 50 percent ol the word suppy
ol ornamenta lsh. New payers such as the Czech Repubc
and Maaysa are now competng wth the tradtonay
domnant suppers. 1he man mporters are the Lnted States
24 percent), apan l4 percent) and lurope, partcuary
Cermany 9 percent), lrance 8 percent) and the Lnted
Kngdom 8 percent). ln nternatona trade, lreshwater
speces represent about 90 percent n vaue terms, aganst
l0 percent lor marne speces. lreshwater speces are mosty
larmed, whereas marne lsh come lrom the wd. However,
marne aquacuture s growng strongy as probems reated to
the envronment and the ack ol sustanabe coecton
practces make ths a more vabe ong-term aternatve.
1here appears to be sgnlcant regona and nternatona
trade n seed ol cutured aquatc organsms, many lrom
aquacuture sources. ln most nstances, however, ths s
poory documented. As we as the regona trade n
Medterranean seabass and seabream lngerngs, there s aso
trade n gass ees e.g. Chna's recent arge purchases ol
luropean ee evers), post-arvae stages ol varous cutured
shrmps, lndan and Chnese carps, and others. 1here s aso
mted trade n terms ol quantty) n broodstock.
Documentaton ol the trade n seed w mprove graduay n
response to concerns about the spread ol dseases and the
movement ol genetc matera.
Source A. Lem, lAC lsheres Department.
lurther ncreased ts dependency on
mports lor ts lsh suppy. lxcudng
Span, whch s now the thrd argest
mporter ol lshery products, a other
maor countres ol the euro currency
area reported decreased vaues ol
mports n 2000. 1he Lnted States, as
we as beng the word's lourth argest
exportng country, was the second
argest mporter. lmports were
growng n 2000, many owng to
expandng shrmp mports.
1he net recepts ol loregn exchange
by deveopng countres .e.
deductng ther mports lrom the tota
vaue ol ther exports) ncreased lrom
LSS3.7 bon n l980 to LSSl8.0
bon n 2000 - a 2.5-lod ncrease n
rea corrected lor nlaton) terms. ln
2000, they ncreased by neary
l0 percent at current vaues compared
wth l999, alter severa years ol
stabty at about LSSl6 bon. 1hs
was greater than the net exports ol
other agrcutura commodtes such
as rce, collee and tea lgure 30). lor
many deveopng natons, lsh trade
represents a sgnlcant source ol
loregn currency earnngs.
lsh producton and trade have
grown sgnlcanty n the ast
decades, asssted by mprovements n
technoogy, transportaton and
communcatons and by sustaned
demand. A arge share ol lsh
producton enters nternatona
marketng channes, wth about 37
percent exported n 2000 ve weght
equvaent) n varous lood and leed
product lorms. LllDCs pay an actve
part n ths trade, and at present
account lor amost 20 percent ol the
vaue ol lshery exports. ln 2000,
deveopng countres as a whoe
supped sghty more than 50 percent
ol tota exports n vaue terms.
Athough there s an mportant trade
ol lsh and lshery products among the
more deveoped economes, trade
39
1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
0
S
10
1S
20
2S
forhumanconsumption
lresh,chedorlrozenlsh
lreshorchedcrustuceunsundmouscs
Cunnedlsh
Dred,sutedorsmokedlsh
Cunned,crustuceunsundmouscs
1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
1
0
2
3
4
S
6
Othcrpurposcs
lshmeus
lsho
flCURf29
WorIdfishcrycxportsbymajorcommoditygroups
fish fish Coffcc Coffcc Bananas Bananas Rubbcr Rubbcr Tca Tca Ricc Ricc Mcat Mcat
-S
0
S
10
1S
20
l980
l990
2000
US$ billions
flCURf30
NctcxportsofscIcctcdagricuIturaIcommoditicsbydcvcIopingcountrics
40
tends to low lrom the ess deveoped to the more
deveoped countres. About 76 percent ol the
mport vaue s concentrated n three man areas
apan, the lC and the Lnted States. Athough
trade among deveopng countres s ncreasng, t
s st not very substanta and accounted lor
about 20 percent ol those countres' tota exports
n l998-2000.
Cwng to the hgh pershabty ol lsh, more
than 90 percent ol lsh and lshery products trade
conssts ol products that have been processed n
one lorm or another. Lve, lresh or ched lsh
represent ony a sma, though growng, share ol
word lsh trade the growth relects mproved
ogstcs and ncreased demand. Shrmp s the
man lsh trade commodty n vaue terms,
loowed by demersa speces e.g. hake, cod,
haddock and Aaska poock), tuna, samon, sma
peagcs, cephaopods and lshmea.
lsh products traded among ndustrazed
countres are mosty lrom demersa speces, whch
are traded n lresh, lrozen whoe and let lorm
ower-vaue peagc speces such as herrng and
mackere, whch are traded n lresh and lrozen
lorm and lresh and lrozen samon. Deveopng
countres' exports concern many tuna, sma
peagcs, shrmps, prawns, rock obsters and
cephaopods octopus, squds and cuttelshes). ln
the past, deveopng countres were nvoved
prmary n exports ol raw matera lor the
processng ndustres ol deveoped countres, but
n recent years they have been ncreasngy
nvoved n addng vaue to ther products pror to
export. ln addton, a arge part ol the word's
trade n lshmea orgnates lrom deveopng
countres n Latn Amerca. Deveopng countres'
mports concern many lrozen sma peagcs and
cured, dred and smoked lsh. 1here are aso
some mports ol raw matera e.g. lrozen tuna)
lor lurther processng e.g. canned tuna) and re-
export. lmergng markets Hong Kong Speca
Admnstratve Regon, 1awan Provnce ol
Chna, the Repubc ol Korea, Maaysa and
Sngapore) are ncreasngy mportng hgh-vaue
commodtes rock obster, squd, etc.) lor
domestc consumpton.
lt shoud be noted that the overa pcture
presented by the maps n lgure 3l s not
exhaustve. Athough the countres that reported
ther mports some l37 countres lor the perod
l998-2000) account lor 98 percent ol the
estmated word tota, some contnenta groups
have ncompete coverage e.g. ony 40 percent
ol Alrcan countres reported ther mports). ln
such cases, the data ndcated shoud not be
taken as the tota trade low ol the contnenta
groups to whch they reler.
Durng recent years, nternatona trade n
lshery products has laced the loowng maor
ssues the change n quaty contro measures n
the man mportng countres towards a
preventve Hazard Anayss and Crtca Contro
Pont HACCP)-based strategy the concept ol rsk
assessment genera pubc concern regardng
overexpotaton ol the resource envronmenta
concerns regardng aquacuture and the
dscusson ol traceabty and abeng. 1he lC
and the Lnted States made HACCP pans
mandatory lor a pants producng lsh products
lor ther markets. \he the Lnted States
enlorces these measures through mporters n the
Lnted States, the lC contros the competent
authortes n the exportng countres. Rsk
assessment .e. anayss ol the rsk ol consumers
lang sck alter consumng lsh) s st beng
deveoped n many countres. 1he sustanabe
trade ol lsh - lrom ether the wd or aquacuture
- s ol concern to consumers, especay n the
deveoped word. lnlormaton about dangerous
antbotcs n cutured lsh speces, or about
overlshed resources, scares consumers away
lrom lsh products. Mangrove depeton through
shrmp aquacuture has aso receved negatve
press coverage recenty. Cn l anuary 2002, the
lC enlorced a aw on the traceabty ol lsh,
whch obges producers to ndcate the loowng
on product abes the commerca name ol the
speces and the Latn name whether the lsh
comes lrom the wd or lrom aquacuture the
country ol orgn lor lreshwater wd and cutured
lsh and the ocean ol orgn lor wd marne
speces. A range ol types ol abeng, such as
ecoabeng or organc product abeng, are
beng deveoped and used lor lshery products,
and ths s creatng conluson among consumers.
Sbrimp
1he economc crss n apan ed to ower
41
Contnung)
42
43
demand lor shrmp. 1he man
suppyng countres had to reduce
prces and ook lor other outets n
order to se ther producton. 1he
Lnted States market was strong n
2000, but decned sharpy n 200l.
1he dramatc events ol ll September
ncreased the sowdown ol the
market. Demand lor shrmp n lurope
was mprovng n parae wth the
overa economc stuaton however,
the ow eve ol the euro undercut any
substanta growth there. Cn 29
anuary 2002, the lC stopped mports
ol shrmp lrom Chna because ol the
strong presence ol antbotcs n
cutured shrmp lrom that country. ln
other Asan countres, the lC carred
out cose checks wth regard to the
presence ol antbotcs. 1hese
countres preler to se to other
markets, rather than rsk havng
shpments destroyed at the lC border.
1hs stuaton upset the nternatona
market lor shrmp n the openng
months ol 2002, and prces were
extremey ow lgure 32).
1he dsease probems that allected
lcuador and Centra Amerca n l999
ed to ower producton ol cutured
shrmp n 2000 and aso n 200l.
1haand contnues to be the man
shrmp aquacuture producer, wth
250 000 tonnes, and cutured shrmp
producton s growng alter the dsease
probems experenced there n l996
and l997.
Tuna
1una catches were strong n l999,
and skpack prces decned to an unprecedented
ow, makng lshng uneconomc. ln md-2000,
the man tuna vesse owners created an
organzaton wth the am ol normazng the
market. 1hs organzaton ntroduced strngent
catch reducton programmes, whch had an
mmedate ellect on prces. Durng the course ol
200l, members ol the organzaton met reguary
to ensure that catch reducton contnued. Skpack
prces, whch ht a ow ol LSS350 per tonne n
md-2000, recovered to reach LSS700 to S750
per tonne n May 2002 lgure 33).
1haand contnues to be the man exporter ol
canned tuna to the Lnted States market, but
ower exports were experenced n 200l. 1he
Phppnes remaned n second poston. 1he use
ol tuna ons by ltaan canners contnues to
expand. Lons as raw matera now account lor
44
about 70 percent ol tota ltaan
canned tuna producton. lcuador and
Coomba are beneltng lrom ther
speca duty-lree status as Andean
communty countres and are
ncreasng ther shpments to the lC.
Groundfisb
Croundlsh suppy was very mted n
the lrst hal ol 200l. Aaska poock
suppy was reduced n a man
markets, and cod and hake aso
reported ower catches and ess
avaabty. Prces dd not rse as
much as expected lgure 34), as other
speces samon and tapa) are
repacng groundlsh n many markets.
CcpbaIods
Squd lsheres were ow n 200l
especay lex catches lrom the
Southwest Atantc. Cctopus catches
n the lastern Centra Atantc were
good at the begnnng ol 200l,
eadng to hgher exports to apan. ln a
move to protect ts octopus ndustry,
the Moroccan Covernment lxed a
mnmum prce. apanese traders
consdered ths prce too hgh,
however, and saes n ths market
dropped by 40 percent n 200l
compared wth 2000 lgure 35).
fisbmcaI
1he buk ol lshmea producton -
about 60 percent - s exported each
year. ln 200l, lshmea producton
was an estmated 5.4 mon tonnes,
a l2 percent decrease lrom 2000.
Varous lshng bans and probems
wth ack mackere resources n
Chean waters were the man cause
ol the reduced catch. Peruvan
producton was aso reatvey ow.
ln 200l, the bovne sponglorm
encephaopathy Sl) scare
overshadowed the lshmea market n
lurope because, eary that year, the
lC prohbted the use ol lshmea n
rumnants' dets. ln most pants n the
4S
lC, leed lor non-rumnants s prepared
on the same producton nes as leed
lor rumnants, and the egsaton
resuted n ower use ol lshmea n
pg and poutry leeds as we. Peru
and Che odged a compant wth the
\ord 1rade Crganzaton \1C)
Santary and Phytosantary SPS)
Commttee Cctober 200l) to
persuade the lC to lt the current
restrctons on lshmea usage.
lshmea prces lgure 36) are
expected to ncrease as a resut ol
good demand, especay lrom Chna
and other Asan countres.
fisb oiI
1he overa cmate ol the lsh o
market was good n 200l, wth strong
prce mprovements. lsh o
producton n 200l was sghty ower than n
2000, and there was tte avaabty ol lsh o
on the market at the begnnng ol 2002.
Competng vegetabe os seem to be n shorter
suppy than was ntay lorecast, and ther
prces are expected to move up. As a resut, a
lurther ncrease n lsh o prces s key.
lNTfRNATlONAl flSHfRlfS POllCY AND
GOVfRNANCf
Cbanging forccs in fisbcrics managcmcnt
lsheres poces and management strateges the
word over are n a state ol lux. lsheres pocy-
makers and admnstrators are ncreasngy
recognzng that lsheres resources must be
deveoped and used n ways that are sustanabe.
However, contnued attempts to use lsheres as
the key to sovng a compex web ol soca and
economc ssues threaten to overwhem the
basc lact that, l these resources are overlshed,
they w not sustan ether soca or economc
deveopment.
lspecay where there s no ntegrated area
management, lsheres management ellorts are
ncreasngy compcated by the mpacts ol a
dversty ol other actvtes - such as
urbanzaton, shppng, toursm, delorestaton
and ndustra wastes - on the heavy
nterdependent eements ol the aquatc
envronment. 1here s growng recognton that
prncpes, poces and mechansms lor
dentlyng and prortzng the uses ol aquatc
areas must be put n pace so that the mpacts ol
other sectors' actvtes on lsheres can be
addressed. 1he need to mpement ecosystem-
based lsheres management s aso beng
emphaszed see lmpementng the ecosystem
approach to capture lsheres management, Part
2, p. 55).
ln both nand and marne lsheres, the
pressures ol ntensled use, combned wth other
sectors' ntensled use ol the areas n whch
lsheres occur, are sowy but surey relocusng
lsheres management on ways ol aocatng
mted lsheres resources among growng
numbers ol stakehoders. 1here s growng
recognton that overlshed resources cannot
serve as soca securty nets or lood sources
wthout creatng cv strle over who can gan
access to, and consume, the remanng lsh and
that overlshed resources cannot be used as a
patlorm lrom whch to promote the ongong
support ol proltabe ndustra leets. Conlcts
and conlct management are becomng key
eements ol lsheres management actvtes as
the obectves ol lsheres egsaton and
management rapdy expand to accommodate
soca, economc and envronmenta
46
consderatons.
ln short, the demands ol lsheres management
have grown beyond the need to address purey
boogca ssues, and must now address and
attempt to resove an array ol soca concerns
and mutpe-use ssues. As a resut, there s an
urgent need to reconsder the use ol many ol the
management approaches that have been used to
date.
Currcnt managcmcnt
1here s a steady growng coectve w n the
nternatona communty ol potcans and cv
socety to recognze and support the key roe
that lsheres pay n economc deveopment,
lood securty, poverty aevaton and human
heath.
Deveopng countres are contnung ther
ellorts to carly the nkage between
deveopment actvtes and sustanabe resource
use. oth popuaton and economc growth are
puttng enormous addtona pressures on nand
and marne lshery resources as contrbutors to
lood securty and provders ol a soca salety net.
At the same tme, the use ol domestc lsheres to
generate loregn exchange s exacerbatng
aocaton ssues between artsana and ndustra
leets. 1he chaenges lacng deveopng
countres, together wth the need lor capacty
budng, are makng management partcuary
aocaton) a dllcut task, but there are growng
sgns that these ellorts w have an endurng
postve ellect on cv and economc
deveopment.
ln deveoped countres, egsated prncpes ol
sustanabty are drvng lsheres management
ellorts to reverse the ellects ol prevous
overlshng, and ellorts to address overcapacty
are recevng consderabe attenton, athough
progress s sow. However, as deveoped
countres locus on reducng overcapacty,
ncreasngy ntrcate technca and soca ssues
are compcatng the ellorts ol lsheres
managers. 1he mpacts ol dspacement and
redepoyment - ol both peope and vesses - are
becomng the most mportant, dllcut and
contentous eements ol lsheres management.
1echnca measures e.g. gear, tme and area
restrctons) contnue to domnate lsheres
management ellorts as methods lor achevng the
conservaton ol lsh stocks. Such measures are
gobay recognzed as havng the potenta to be
ellectve, partcuary n lsheres where
overcaptazaton s not a probem. However,
there s aso an ncreasng awareness that there
are ssues ol overcaptazaton n many lsheres
and that, n such cases, these types ol lsheres
management measures have ether laed to
resut n the conservaton or sustanabe use ol
lsh stocks, or have ony succeeded at
consderabe cost to socety.
lurthermore, as resources become scarcer and
are shared by ncreasng numbers ol users, there
s a growng awareness that the escaatng
economc and soca costs arsng lrom the use
ol technca measures need to be compensated
lor. 1hus, as cv socety s demandng both
stock sustanabty and an accountng ol the
economc and soca costs ol managng lsheres
resources, there s nevtabe pressure on
managers to consder new or, at the very east,
dllerent approaches.
1he use ol ncentves that allect lshers'
behavour and create opportuntes lor both
conservaton and economc ellcency s
graduay drawng more attenton. Despte the
nherent benelts ol such ncentve-based
management strateges as communty-based
quotas, terrtora use rghts and translerabe
quota systems, ther uptake and appcaton n
the lsheres arena are not rapd. Cne possbe
aternatve to the use ol wn-wn approaches s
the consstent and persstent growth ol market-
based busness strateges, such as ecoabeng
schemes, whch am to harness market lorces
and create lnanca rewards lor peope workng
n lsheres and satslyng sustanabty and
varous soca crtera.
ln many nstances, dscussons regardng the
adopton ol ncentve-based systems tend to be
domnated by concerns reatng to nta
aocaton lormuas, consodaton and the ext
and entry ol partcpants - a ol whch can be
accommodated n the desgn process. 1hese
concerns are understandabe because such
management strateges create very strong market
ncentves and tend to be mpemented as a ast
resort when lsheres stocks are under pressure,
47
overcaptazaton s present and partcpants are
unkey to be n a poston to ater ther
nvestment strateges. Lnlortunatey, however,
dscussons aso tend to gnore the many essons
to be earned lrom the numerous and vared
soutons that have emerged wordwde lor
copng wth ust such desgn concerns.
2
At present, n part because the ncentves
generated by many reguatory contros are not
beng consdered, lsheres management ellorts
regardng overcapacty are prmary
concentratng on measurng, copng wth and
reducng t. Athough such ellorts are much
needed, more emphass shoud be paced on
management strateges that prevent the nta
deveopment ol overcapacty, thus avodng the
dllcut and socay dsruptve consequences ol
tryng to reduce t.
fmcrging nccds
Severa dllerent management approaches are
emergng as ways ol copng wth management
pressures. lncreasngy, managers are seekng to
optmze the use ol pubc lsheres resources by
devovng management to oca eves, where
there s a stronger sense ol ownershp, and
through cearer delnton ol the communty to
whch a resource may beong.
lllorts to broaden the nvovement ol
stakehoder groups and make lsheres
management decson-makng more ncusve and
representatve are beng made at a eves, lrom
the nternatona to the very oca. Lnlortunatey,
however, n the absence ol a concomtant
devouton ol egsatve, managera, lnanca
and admnstratve capacty, as we as ol much-
needed potca w, many ol these ellorts do not
lul ther potenta lor budng on oca
knowedge and sks. As a resut, they tend
smpy to shlt the responsbtes lor
management wthout necessary passng the
toos and opportuntes that are needed lor
management success see, lor exampe, Regona
lsheres governance, p. 48).
ln other stuatons especay where there have
been conlcts over the sharng and de lacto, l
not expct, aocaton ol mted or speca
lsheres resources), stakehoders have begun to
turn to aternatve lora such as prvate contractua
agreements to resove managera and
admnstratve lsheres ssues. Such agreements
have aready been made between partcuar
lshng companes and oca communtes,
between lshers and processors and among
members ol lsheres organzatons. Perhaps the
most extreme exampes ol ellorts to brng about
more durabe, ellectve and ellcent outcomes
are non-governmenta ntatves lrom the
conservaton sector, the prvate sector and ont
ndustra-conservaton partnershps. y
chaengng or suppantng exstng admnstratve
processes through the ntensled use ol ega
and/or potca patlorms to acheve ther resuts,
such agreements crcumvent the exstng due
processes ol lsheres management authortes to
brng about laster soutons.
1he standard sks base lor admnsterng
lsheres management needs to undergo rapd
changes. lxpanded demands on admnstrators,
as we as budgetary constrants, are testng the
capacty and capabtes ol lsheres
admnstratons the word over. As the prncpes
ol sustanabe deveopment are adopted,
admnstrators become ncreasngy accountabe
lor soca, economc, lnanca, ega and
governance ssues, n addton to conventona
conservaton matters that draw on nlormaton
lrom the natura scences.
1he growng demands ol both consumers and
harvesters, and the reatvey mted capacty ol
lsheres resources are eadng to conlcts over
resource sharng. As a resut, admnstrators and
stakehoders, ake, need to earn and use a range
ol conlct management, aternatve dspute
resouton and medaton technques.
1he growng gaps n deveoped countres
among nternatona norms and regona and
natona egsatve requrements, as we as the
nevtabe mts on budgets and scentlc
nlormaton, are creatng an urgent need lor
capacty budng. 1he expanson ol aternatve
2
See, lor exampe, the dscussons on nta aocatons ol trans-
lerabe lshng ellort) or lsh catch) quotas lor more than 23
lsheres n lAC. 200l. Case studes on the aocaton ol trans-
lerabe quota rghts n lsheres. lAC lsheres 1echnca Paper
No. 4ll. Rome.
48
approaches, ncudng precautonary approaches
and those based on rsk assessment, s begnnng
to mtgate the absence ol detaed stock
nlormaton wth cost-ellectve and practca
measures. At the same tme, the practca aspects
ol expandng lsheres management to ncude
entre ecosystems see lmpementng the
ecosystem approach to capture lsheres
management, Part 2, p. 55) are stretchng the
admnstratve and budgetary mts ol lsheres
management agences.
oth deveoped and deveopng countres are
grappng wth the mpacts ol gobazed trade on
a aspects ol the lshng ndustry. 1he last-movng
and lar-reachng ssues ol catch certlcaton,
trade documentaton and lood quaty assurances
are creatng ncentves that ater harvestng,
producton and marketng strateges lar more
qucky than many lsheres admnstratons and
reguatory processes can keep up wth see Catch
certlcaton and catch documentaton, Part 2, p.
65). Athough these changes are nevtabe and
not necessary undesrabe, many current
management strateges are not equpped to cope
wth them. lssues ol ncreasngy gobazed trade,
especay n deveopng countres, are aterng
ncentves reatng to ndustrazed lsheres and
ther abty to rase loregn exchange and drve
economc deveopment, but the strategc pocy
or pannng groups ol lsheres management
agences olten do not ncude trade and
deveopment specasts.
RcgionaI fisbcrics govcrnancc
1he nternatona communty paces great
mportance on subregona and regona lsheres
cooperaton n the conservaton and management
ol lsheres. 1hs s because many lsh stocks are
transboundary n character and cannot be
managed by a snge state.
Snce l945, some 30 subregona and regona
RlMCs and arrangements have been estabshed.
Chapter l7 ol Agenda 2l, the Lnted Natons
Programme ol Acton lrom LNClD, the l995
Lnted Natons lsh Stocks Agreement and the
l995 lAC Code ol Conduct lor Responsbe
lsheres hghght the roe ol RlMCs n
mpementng management measures desgned to
secure ong-term sustanabe and responsbe
outcomes.
1he prncpe task ol most RlMCs s to manage
lsheres. Some ol them do ths we, others do
not. \hy are some ol them underperlormng:
How can regona lsheres governance be
strengthened:
lnternatona lora, such as the lAC Commttee
on lsheres CCll) and academc ournas,
dscuss the roe and actvtes ol RlMCs.
Dscusson usuay locuses on organzatona
ellcency and the nature and extent ol ther
work, but t s dllcut to assess perlormance n
the absence ol agreed benchmarks. At an lAC
meetng n 200l, RlMC representatves
supported, n prncpe, the need to deveop
perlormance ndcators lor RlMCs and reated
gudenes, whe recognzng that some
organzatons aready used sustanabe
deveopment ndcators to assess ther
perlormances.
lnacton s the man manlestaton ol
underperlormance. lnacton s an ssue lor most
RlMCs because they work through consensus,
whch s olten very dllcut to acheve. Reducng
the possbe sources ol conlct woud seem to be
a good way ol enhancng trust among members.
1o that end, t has been suggested that each
RlMC shoud estabsh agreed scentlc
standards lor stock assessment, procedures lor
revsng aocaton, nlormaton sharng
concernng loregn leets, and standards n
respect ol port state responsbtes.
Despte the shortcomngs n regona lsheres
governance, some RlMCs have locused on
nnovatve regona cooperaton as a means ol
enhancng management. lnnovatons have been
adopted to address lLL lshng. oth contractng
and non-contractng partes to RlMCs, as we as
lag vesses lrom open regstres, have been
nvoved n lLL lshng, whch undermnes
ellorts to manage lsheres n a responsbe
manner. Port and trade measures to deter the
aunderng ol lLL-caught lsh are beng
promoted and mpemented by a growng
number ol RlMCs. Such measures are qute
revoutonary, and unt recenty they woud not
have been consdered approprate lor combatng
lsheres management probems. 1hs new
stuaton ndcates a change n mood on the part
49
ol the nternatona communty n ts desre to
curb lLL lshng and reated practces.
A burnng ssue lor RlMCs s ther capacty and
wngness to accommodate new entrants n a
lar and consstent manner. laure to address
membershp, capacty, aocaton and equty
ssues coud endanger the luture work ol RlMCs
and ead to ncreased lLL lshng. 1he ack ol
agreed crtera caused a spt n the lnternatona
Commsson lor the Conservaton ol Atantc
1unas lCCA1) n recent years, hamperng the
organzaton's abty to dea productvey wth
other probems. ln ate 200l, however, lCCA1
reached an nnovatve souton lor deang wth
aocatons, ncudng those lor new entrants.
RlMCs are needed to lactate and renlorce
regona cooperaton. Cver the next decade,
RlMCs w lace the chaenge ol mpementng
parts ol Agenda 2l, the l995 LN lsh Stocks
Agreement and the l995 lAC Code ol Conduct
lor Responsbe lsheres. However, uness RlMC
members cooperate more cosey and are
prepared to take dllcut decsons, whch coud
have adverse short-term soca and economc
costs on ther way to achevng onger-term
sustanabty gans, even arge amounts ol
scentlc research, lundng and enlorcement w
not mprove the ellectveness ol these
organzatons.
ln order to strengthen the work ol RlMCs n a
rea and ellectve manner, some basc ssues
concernng perlormance must be addressed.
States must commt themseves to ntatves that
provde the necessary mtgaton measures, even
though those ntatves mght aso dsadvantage
lshers n the short term. Dllcut choces must be
made to support sustanabe soutons. 1he
greater nvovement ol stakehoders, ncudng
ndustry, n the work ol RlMCs coud enhance
ther perlormance and ellectveness, especay l
they are convnced ol the need to mpement
tough and dllcut decsons.
lmpIcmcntation of tbc 199S Unitcd Nations
fisb Stocks Agrccmcnt
1he Agreement lor the lmpementaton ol the
Provsons ol the Lnted Natons Conventon on
the Law ol the Sea ol l0 December l982 reatng
to the Conservaton and Management ol
Straddng lsh Stocks and Hghy Mgratory lsh
Stocks l995 LN lsh Stocks Agreement) was
adopted on 4 August l995. lt entered nto lorce
on ll December 200l, one month alter the
thrteth nstrument ol ratlcaton or accesson
had been deposted wth the Secretary-Cenera ol
the Lnted Natons.
1he purpose ol the l995 LN lsh Stocks
Agreement s to lactate the mpementaton ol
certan provsons ol the l982 Lnted Natons
Conventon on the Law ol the Sea l982
Conventon) concernng the conservaton and
management ol straddng lsh stocks and hghy
mgratory lsh stocks. 1he agreement
compements the l993 lAC Agreement to
Promote Compance wth lnternatona
Conservaton and Management Measures by
lshng Vesses on the Hgh Seas l993 lAC
Compance Agreement) and the l995 lAC Code
ol Conduct lor Responsbe lsheres.
lmpementaton ol the l995 LN lsh Stocks
Agreement presents maor chaenges lor both
states and subregona or regona RlMCs.
Lnderpnnng ts mpementaton s the
requrement lor concerted nternatona
cooperaton. States that adhere to one or both ol
these agreements, ether drecty or through
RlMCs, are obgated to cooperate to ensure the
ellectve conservaton and management ol
straddng lsh stocks and hghy mgratory lsh
stocks.
lven belore the agreement entered nto lorce,
states - ndvduay and n cooperaton wth each
other - had been engaged n a range ol ntatves
desgned to promote ts mpementaton. Snce
l995, some states have adopted new aws and/or
reguatons to ensure that they are n a poston to
exercse greater lag state contro over the
actvtes ol ther lag vesses when those vesses
are operatng on the hgh seas. Moves to
strengthen these contros have gathered
momentum as the concerns regardng lLL lshng
have ncreased n nternatona lora, ncudng
sessons ol the Lnted Natons, lAC and RlMCs
see ox 8). States' potca w to address these
and reated conservaton and management
probems, whch undermne the work and
ellectveness ol RlMCs, has been hghghted as
beng essenta to meetng the chaenges ol these
S0
concerns.
1he l995 LN lsh Stocks Agreement paces
RlMCs n a pvota and centra poston n terms
ol ts mpementaton they provde the prmary
mechansm through whch partcpatng states
shoud cooperate to acheve enhanced resources
conservaton and management. Some RlMCs
whose mandates extend to the conservaton and
management ol straddng and hghy mgratory
lsh stocks have revewed, or are n the process ol
revewng, certan provsons ol ther respectve
conventons to ensure that they are consstent
wth the agreement. ln some cases, substanta
changes to conventons have been proposed or
ntroduced. Despte these deveopments,
however, RlMCs are grappng wth practca
aspects ol the agreement's mpementaton, such
as how to appy the precautonary approach n
lsheres management, how to mpement
ecosystem management and how to address
transparency.
1he l995 LN lsh Stocks Agreement has
spawned two new RlMCs one deang wth the
management ol straddng lsh stocks and the
other wth hghy mgratory lsh stocks.
1he ntatves to estabsh the Southeast
Atantc lsheres Crganzaton SlAlC) and the
\estern and Centra Paclc 1una Commsson
were taken essentay lor the same reasons, and
had the goas ol
- puttng the l995 LN lsh Stocks Agreement
nto ellect n the Southeast Atantc and the
\estern and Centra Paclc and
- estabshng RlMCs where none prevousy
exsted.
Soutbcast AtIantic fisbcrics Organization
1he Conventon on the Conservaton and
Management ol lsheres Resources n the South
last Atantc Ccean, whch paves the way lor the
estabshment ol SlAlC, opened lor sgnature on
20 Apr 200l. lts purpose s to ensure the ong-
term conservaton and sustanabe use ol the
CX 8
lIIcgaI, unrcportcd and unrcguIatcd fisbing
lLL lshng and ts mpact on resource sustanabty s a
matter ol hgh nternatona concern. lt s recognzed that l
lLL lshng and ts reated actvtes are not addressed
ellectvey and hostcay, ellorts by natona admnstratons
and RlMCs to manage lsheres responsby w be
undermned.
\th ths stuaton n mnd, on 2 March 200l the 1wenty-
lourth Sesson ol CCll adopted by consensus the
lnternatona Pan ol Acton to Prevent, Deter and lmnate
lega, Lnreported and Lnreguated lshng lPCA-lLL).
Subsequenty, on 23 une 200l the lAC Counc, at ts
Hundred-and-twenteth Sesson, endorsed the lPCA-lLL.
1he lPCA-lLL s a vountary nstrument concuded wthn
the lramework ol the l995 lAC Code ol Conduct lor
Responsbe lsheres. lt encourages acton by states and
RlMCs to address lLL lshng. 1he lPCA-lLL s nnovatve
n a number ol respects, especay regardng the use ol
nternatonay agreed market-reated measures to combat
lLL lshng. Sgnlcanty, the lPCA-lLL cas on states to
deveop and mpement natona pans ol acton - amed at
achevng the goas ol the lPCA - not ater than three years
alter ts adopton .e. 23 une 2004).
1o support the mpementaton ol the lPCA-lLL, lAC has
ssued 1echnca Cudenes lor Responsbe lsheres No. 9,
lmpementaton ol the lnternatona Pan ol Acton to Prevent,
Deter and lmnate lega, Lnreported and Lnreguated
lshng 2002, Rome). 1hs document provdes practca
gudance on mpementaton ol the lPCA-lLL lor states,
RlMCs and other nterested partes. 1o dssemnate
nlormaton about the lPCA-lLL, lAC has aso ssued a non-
technca document entted Stoppng ega, unreported and
unreguated lshng. lt s ntended to provde nlormaton to
lshers, lshng communtes and the pubc.
Source D. Douman, lAC lsheres Department.
S1
lshery resources n the conventon area through
ellectve mpementaton ol the conventon.
Negotatons lor the estabshment ol SlAlC took
pace over a lve-year perod. \hen t opened lor
sgnature, the conventon was sgned by seven
states and the lC.
1he conventon area s based on lAC's
Statstca Area 47. lt covers hgh sea areas ony,
and abuts the llZs ol lour coasta states Angoa,
Namba, South Alrca and the Lnted Kngdom
the overseas terrtory ol Sant Heena and ts
dependences ol 1rstan da Cunha and Ascenson
lsand).
SlAlC w manage stocks that stradde the
llZs ol coasta states and the adacent hgh seas.
Speces subect to management may ncude
alonsno, orange roughy, armourhead, wrecklsh
and deepwater hake. SlAlC w aso manage
dscrete hgh seas stocks, such as that ol red crab,
even though dscrete stocks are not subect to the
provsons ol the l995 LN lsh Stocks
Agreement. 1he management ol these atter
stocks s a ogca and practca consequence ol
the characterstcs ol the regon's geography,
stocks and stock dstrbuton, and lsheres
management needs. 1he conventon does not
address the management ol hghy mgratory
stocks, as these are aready subect to
management by lCCA1.
Key aspects ol the SlAlC Conventon are the
estabshment ol a commsson, a secretarat and
compance and scentlc commttees the
appcaton ol the precautonary approach,
contractng party obgatons,
3
lag state dutes,
port state dutes and measures taken by a port
state observaton, nspecton, compance and
enlorcement decson-makng cooperaton wth
other organzatons ensurng the compatbty ol
conservaton and management measures and
lshng opportuntes recognton ol the speca
requrements ol deveopng states n the regon
and ol non-partes to the conventon and
mpementaton.
1he Covernment ol Namba has estabshed an
nterm secretarat to lactate mpementaton ol
the conventon. lt w lul ths roe pendng the
conventon's entry nto lorce and the lu
mpementaton ol admnstratve arrangements.
1he nterm secretarat w mpement nterm
arrangements reatng to the authorzaton and
notlcaton ol lshng vesses, vesse requrements
and scentlc observaton, and the coecton ol
nlormaton to support stock assessment.
Commission for tbc Conscrvation and
Managcmcnt of HigbIy Migratory fisb stocks
in tbc Wcstcrn and CcntraI Pacific Occan
1he Conventon on the Conservaton and
Management ol Hghy Mgratory lsh Stocks n
the \estern and Centra Paclc Ccean opened
lor sgnature on 5 September 2000 alter lour
years ol compex and ntense negotatons. Cver
the l2-month perod that the conventon was
open lor sgnature, l9 states sgned t. ln addton,
a representatve ol 1awan Provnce ol Chna
sgned an Arrangement lor the Partcpaton ol
lshng lnttes on 5 September 2000.
1he conventon provdes a baance between
coasta state and Dstant \ater lshng Naton
D\lN) nterests n a number ol mportant areas
e.g. entry nto lorce ol the conventon and
decson-makng). lt w enter nto lorce 30 days
alter the depost ol nstruments ol ratlcaton,
acceptance, approva or accesson by three states
stuated north ol the 20 N parae .e. D\lN)
and seven states stuated south ol the 20 N
parae .e. coasta states ol the regon). ll wthn
three years ol ts adopton .e. by September
2003) the conventon has not been ratled by
three states stuated north ol the 20 N parae, t
w nevertheess enter nto lorce sx months alter
the depost ol the thrteenth nstrument ol
ratlcaton, acceptance, approva or accesson.
1he purpose ol the conventon s to ensure the
ong-term conservaton and sustanabe use ol
hghy mgratory lsh stocks n the \estern and
Centra Paclc Ccean through ellectve
management, n accordance wth the provsons
ol the l982 Conventon and the l995 LN lsh
Stocks Agreement. 1he conventon appes to the
management ol a hghy mgratory lsh stocks n
the regon, but prncpay to the hghy vauabe
and extensve tuna speces n the conventon
3
Contractng party obgatons n Artce 6a) requre that a party
ensure that ts natonas lshng n the conventon area and ts
ndustres compy wth the provsons ol the conventon.
S2
area - especay skpack, yeowln, bgeye and
Southern abacore tunas.
1he conventon area s extensve, coverng a
tract ol the Paclc Ccean that s delned by
geographc coordnates n the south and east. ln
the west and north, because ol a number ol
dllcut and senstve potca ssues, boundares
are delned by relerence to the mgratory range ol
the stocks. ln ths way the commsson, based on
ts cooperatve arrangements wth other reevant
RlMCs, w delne the area ol appcabty ol
conservaton and management measures lor
partcuar speces.
1he conventon seeks to bud on estabshed
regona arrangements that have been tred and
tested e.g. the regona observer scheme) and to
mnmze costs and avod dupcaton through the
use ol exstng regona organzatons e.g. the
scentlc expertse ol the secretarat ol the
Paclc Communty's Cceanc lsheres
Programme).
1he conventon provdes lor, nter aa, the
estabshment ol a commsson, a secretarat and
scentlc and technca and compance
commttees decson-makng, transparency and
cooperaton wth other organzatons obgatons
ol members ol the commsson dutes ol the lag
state compance and enlorcement, a regona
observer programme and reguaton ol
transhpment requrements ol deveopng states
peacelu settement ol dsputes and requrements
regardng non-partes to the conventon.
ln preparaton lor the conventon's entry nto
lorce, the lna sesson ol the \estern and Centra
Paclc Ccean 1una Conlerence estabshed a
preparatory conlerence, whch started work n
Apr 2002. lts purpose s to estabsh the
organzatona and lnanca lramework lor the
new commsson and ts subsdary bodes, n
order to ensure that, when estabshed lormay,
the commsson w commence operatons
ellectvey and wth mnmum deay. 1he
conlerence w aso begn the process ol
coectng and anaysng data on the status ol the
lsh stocks and, l necessary, recommend
conservaton and management measures. lt s
envsaged that the preparatory conlerence w
compete ts work by September 2003. X
PART 2
Sel ect ed i ssues f aci ng f i sher s and aquacul t ur i st s
I MPLEMEN TI N G TH E
ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO CAPTU RE
FI SH ERI ES MAN AGEMEN T
TH E I SSU E
I n r ec en t y ear s t h er e h as b een a gr o w i n g
aw ar en ess t h at t h e t r ad i t i o n al ap p r o ac h t o
m an agi n g f i sh er i es, w h i c h c o n si d er s t h e t ar get
sp ec i es as i n d ep en d en t , sel f - su st ai n i n g
p o p u l at i o n s, i s i n su f f i c i en t . I t i s b ei n g r ec o gn i z ed
t h at su st ai n ab l e u se o f t h e w o r l d s l i vi ng aquati c
r eso u r c es c an o n l y b e ac h i ev ed i f b o t h t h e
i m p ac t s o f t h e ec o sy st em o n t h e l i v i n g r eso u r c es
an d t h e i m p ac t s o f t h e f i sh er y o n t h e ec o sy st em
ar e ex p l i c i t l y i d en t i f i ed an d , as f ar as p o ssi b l e,
u n d er st o o d . I t i s al so b ei n g f o r m al l y
ac k n o w l ed ged t h at f i sh er s ar e an i n t egr al p ar t o f
t h e ec o sy st em an d t h at b o t h ec o sy st em an d
h u m an w el l - b ei n g m u st b e ac h i ev ed .
A w ar en ess o f t h e essen t i al i n t er ac t i o n s b et w een
p o p u l at i o n s an d t h ei r b i o l o gi c al , p h y si c al an d
c h em i c al en v i r o n m en t i s n o t n ew. A s ear l y as
1 3 7 6 , a gr o u p o f f i sh er s f r o m t h e Th am es est u ar y
i n t h e U n i t ed Ki n gd o m ex p r essed t h ei r c o n c er n t o
Ki n g Ed w ar d I I I o f En gl an d ab o u t t h e ec o sy st em
i m p ac t s o f t h e w o n d r y c h o u n , a f o r m o f b eam
t r aw l , w h i c h t h ey b el i ev ed w o u l d c au se "gr eat
d am age o f t h e c o m m o n s real m and the
d est r u c t i o n o f t h e f i sh er i es". H o w ev er, su c h
t r ad i t i o n al k n o w l ed ge w as f r eq u en t l y o v er l o o k ed
as f i sh er i es gr ew r ap i d l y i n si z e an d ef f i c i en c y
d u r i n g t h e n i n et een t h an d t w en t i et h c en t u r i es an d
as sc i en c e- b ased , q u an t i t at i v e m et h o d s w er e
d ev el o p ed as a m ean s o f est i m at i n g h o w t o ad j u st
f i sh i n g p o w er t o r eso u r c e p r o d u c t i v i t y. U si n g t h e
m o st r ead i l y av ai l ab l e d at a f r o m f i sh er i es, si m p l e
si n gl e- sp ec i es m o d el s b ec am e t h e p r ef er r ed
assessm en t t o o l . Th ese m o d el s f o c u sed al l
at t en t i o n o n t h e t ar get r eso u r c es an d o n t h e
i m p ac t t h at f i sh i n g r em o v al s h ad o n t h ei r
d y n am i c s.
Th e si n gl e- sp ec i es ap p r o ac h i s n o t t h e o n l y
c au se o f t h e w i d esp r ead i n ad eq u ac y o f
c o n v en t i o n al f i sh er i es m an agem en t r egi m es.
H o w ev er, t h e d an ger s an d l i m i t at i o n s o f t r eat i n g
f i sh p o p u l at i o n s as en t i r el y sel f - r egu l at i n g i s w el l
i l l u st r at ed b y ex am p l es t h at i n c l u d e t h e h i gh l y
v ar i ab l e sm al l p el agi c r eso u r c es o f u p w el l i n g
sy st em s, t h e su sp ec t ed sp ec i es r ep l ac em en t s i n
ar eas su c h as t h e G eo r ges Ban k , an d t h e i m p ac t s
o f r i v er i n e an d c o ast al d ev el o p m en t s o n , f o r
ex am p l e, sal m o n , st u r geo n an d sh r i m p st o c k s i n
m an y ar eas.
POSSI BLE SOLU TI ON S
Fi sh er i es m an ager s an d sc i en t i st s h av e b een sl o w
t o r esp o n d t o t h e gr o w i n g ev i d en c e t h at t h e
ec o sy st em sh o u l d b e c o n si d er ed as a w h o l e.
Pr o gr ess h as b een i m p ai r ed b y t h e l ac k o f go o d -
q u al i t y, r el ev an t d at a; t h e p o o r u n d er st an d i n g o f
p o p u l at i o n , ec o sy st em an d f i sh er y d y n am i c s an d
i n t er ac t i o n s; an d t h e ab sen c e o f a c r ed i b l e
al t er n at i v e o p er at i o n al m an agem en t p ar ad i gm .
Th e U N Co n v en t i o n o n t h e Law o f t h e Sea o f
D ec em b er 1 9 8 2 d o es n o t ex p l i c i t l y p r o v i d e f o r
an ec o sy st em ap p r o ac h t o f i sh er i es, ev en t h o u gh
i t s m ai n f o c u s i n r el at i o n t o f i sh er i es i s w i t h t h e
"l i v i n g r eso u r c es" o f t h e sea an d t h e en v i r o n m en t .
N ev er t h el ess, i t d o es i n c l u d e so m e p r o v i si o n s
t h at r ec o gn i z e t h e i n t er d ep en d en c e o f t ar get
sp ec i es w i t h o t h er m ar i n e o r gan i sm s an d t h ei r
d ep en d en c e o n t h ei r en v i r o n m en t .
By t h e t i m e t h at t h e FA O Co d e o f Co n d u c t fo r
Resp o n si b l e Fi sh er i es (t h e Co d e) w as ad o p t ed b y
FA O m em b er s i n N o v em b er 1 9 9 5 , t h e p r i n c i p l es
o f an ec o sy st em ap p r o ac h t o f i sh er i es h ad st ar t ed
t o em er ge, i n c l u d i n g i n n o n - f i sh er i es i n st r u m en t s
(su c h as t h e Co n v en t i o n o n Bi o l o gi c al D i v er si t y ).
Th e Co d e r ef l ec t s t h i s, an d i n c l u d es m an y
i m p o r t an t ec o sy st em c o n si d er at i o n s t h at ar e o f
r el ev an c e t o f i sh er i es. I n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e
Co d e, i t i s st at ed t h at : "Th e Co d e set s o u t
p r i n c i p l es an d i n t er n at i o n al st an d ar d s o f
b eh av i o u r f o r r esp o n si b l e p r ac t i c es w i t h a v i ew t o
en su r i n g t h e ef f ec t i v e c o n ser v at i o n , m an agem en t
an d d ev el o p m en t o f l i v i n g aq u at i c r eso u r c es, w i t h
d u e r esp ec t f o r t h e ec o sy st em an d b i o d i v er si t y. "
Th r o u gh o u t t h e Co d e t h er e ar e r ef er en c es t o
d i f f er en t ec o sy st em c o n si d er at i o n s, an d A r t i c l e 6
r eq u i r es st at es t o c o n ser v e aq u at i c ec o sy st em s
55
Sel ect ed i ssues f aci ng f i sher s and aquacul t ur i st s
56
(Par agr ap h 6 . 1 ). Par agr ap h 6 . 6 ad v o c at es t h at :
"Sel ec t i v e an d en v i r o n m en t al l y saf e f i sh i n g gear
an d p r ac t i c es sh o u l d b e f u r t h er d ev el o p ed an d
ap p l i ed . . . i n o r d er t o m ai n t ai n b i o d i v er si t y an d t o
c o n ser v e t h e p o p u l at i o n st r u c t u r e an d aq u at i c
ec o sy st em s" w h i l e Par agr ap h 7 . 2 . 2 sp ec i f i es t h at
m an agem en t m easu r es sh o u l d p r o v i d e f o r, am o n g
m an y o t h er f ac t o r s, c o n ser v at i o n o f b i o d i v er si t y,
c o n si d er at i o n o f en v i r o n m en t al i m p ac t s an d
m i n i m i z at i o n o f d el et er i o u s i m p ac t s, su c h as
p o l l u t i o n , d i sc ar d s, c at c h o f n o n - t ar get sp ec i es
an d i m p ac t s o n asso c i at ed an d d ep en d en t
sp ec i es. Ef f ec t i v e ad h er en c e t o t h ese an d o t h er
p r o v i si o n s o f t h e Co d e w o u l d go a l o n g w ay
t o w ar d s v er y ef f ec t i v e i m p l em en t at i o n o f an
ec o sy st em ap p r o ac h t o f i sh er i es (EA F).
Th e h o l i st i c f o u n d at i o n s o f t h e Co d e w er e
f u r t h er b o o st ed b y t h e Ky o t o D ec l ar at i o n m ad e
b y t h e 9 5 c o u n t r y d el egat i o n s t h at m et i n Ky o t o ,
Jap an , f r o m 4 t o 9 D ec em b er 1 9 9 5 f o r t h e
I n t er n at i o n al Co n f er en c e o n t h e Su st ai n ab l e
Co n t r i b u t i o n o f Fi sh er i es t o Fo o d Sec u r i t y. Th ese
c o u n t r i es d ec l ar ed t h at t h ey w o u l d "b ase p o l i c i es,
st r at egi es an d r eso u r c e m an agem en t an d
u t i l i z at i o n f o r su st ai n ab l e d ev el o p m en t o f t h e
f i sh er i es sec t o r o n t h e f o l l o w i n g: i ) m ai n t en an c e
o f ec o l o gi c al sy st em s; i i ) u se o f t h e b est sc i en t i f i c
ev i d en c e av ai l ab l e; i i i ) i m p r o v em en t i n ec o n o m i c
an d so c i al w el l - b ei n g; an d i v ) i n t er- and
i n t r agen er at i o n al eq u i t y ", t h er eb y ex p l i c i t l y
l i n k i n g m ai n t en an c e o f ec o l o gi c al sy st em s w i t h
f i sh er i es an d f i sh er i es m an agem en t .
Th e ec o sy st em ap p r o ac h t o m an agem en t o f t h e
o c ean s an d t h ei r r eso u r c es w as c o n so l i d at ed i n
A gen d a 2 1 . Rev i ew an d c o o r d i n at i o n o f t h e
i m p l em en t at i o n o f t h ese asp ec t s am o n g U n i t ed
N at i o n s agen c i es w as f ac i l i t at ed b y t h e n o w
d i sso l v ed Su b - Co m m i t t ee o n O c ean an d Co ast al
A r eas (SO CA ) o f t h e I n t er-agen c y Co m m i ttee o n
Su st ai n ab l e D ev el o p m en t (I A CSD ), o p er at i n g
u n d er t h e u m b r el l a o f t h e U N A d m i n i st r at i v e
Co m m i t t ee o n Co o r d i n at i o n (A CC).
A t i t s N i n t h Sessi o n i n Ju l y 2 0 0 0 , SO CA
c o n si d er ed t h e n eed t o i m p r o v e c o o r d i n at i o n an d
sy n er gi es b et w een r egi o n al o r gan i z at i o n s f o r
f i sh er i es an d t h o se f o r t h e m ar i n e an d c o ast al
en v i r o n m en t . I t c o n c l u d ed t h at b o t h t y p es o f
b o d i es c o u l d r egar d t h e c h al l en ge p o sed b y t h e
d ev el o p m en t o f ec o sy st em ap p r o ac h es t o
f i sh er i es m an agem en t an d i n t egr at ed c o ast al
m an agem en t as a p o t en t i al p l at f o r m f o r p r ac t i c al
c o o p er at i o n .
A s a f i r st st ep i n t h i s d i r ec t i o n , i t w as agr eed
t h at a p ap er c en t r ed o n ec o sy st em - b ased
m an agem en t i n f i sh er i es w o u l d b e d ev el o p ed
j o i n t l y b y FA O an d t h e U n i t ed N at i o n s
En v i r o n m en t Pr o gr am m e (U N EP) an d w o u l d
ser v e as t h e b asi s f o r p o t en t i al c o o p er at i o n
am o n g c o m p et en t r egi o n al o r gan i z at i o n s. Th e
p ap er su m m ar i z es t h e w o r k t h at r egi o n al
o r gan i z at i o n s h av e u n d er t ak en i n r el at i o n t o
ec o sy st em - b ased m an agem en t , o u t l i n es p o ssi b l e
m ec h an i sm s f o r c o o p er at i o n , an d i d en t i f i es i ssu es
f o r f u r t h er c o n si d er at i o n . I t w as su b seq u en t l y
d i sc u ssed at m eet i n gs, b o t h o f r egi o n al seas
c o n v en t i o n s an d o f FAO and non-FA O regi onal
f i sh er y b o d i es (RFBs).
RECEN T ACTI ON S
Th e l at est st ep i n t h e sl o w p r o c ess t o w ar d s
f o r m al , gl o b al ac c ep t an c e o f t h e n eed t o m an age
f i sh er i es as i n t egr al c o m p o n en t s o f d y n am i c
ec o sy st em s c am e w i t h t h e Co n f er en c e o n
Resp o n si b l e Fi sh er i es i n t h e M ar i n e Ec o sy st em ,
w h i c h w as o r gan i z ed b y FAO and the
G o v er n m en t o f I c el an d , w i t h su p p o r t f r o m t h e
G o v er n m en t o f N o r w ay, i n Rey k j av i k i n O c t o b er
2 0 0 1 . A t t h e en d o f t h i s c o n f er en c e, t h e Rey k j av i k
D ec l ar at i o n w as ad o p t ed , i n c l u d i n g t h e p l ed ge
t h at t h e si gn at o r y n at i o n s w o u l d "i n an ef f o r t t o
r ei n f o r c e r esp o n si b l e an d su st ai n ab l e f i sh er i es i n
t h e m ar i n e ec o sy st em , . . . w o r k o n i n c o r p o r at i n g
ec o sy st em c o n si d er at i o n s i n t o t h at m an agem en t
t o t h at ai m . "
Th e i n t en t i s t h er ef o r e n o w f i r m l y i n p l ac e,
b u t t h er e i s st i l l c o n si d er ab l e u n c er t ai n t y as
t o ex ac t l y w h at i s en t ai l ed b y EA F, an d h o w t o
i m p l em en t i t . To t h i s en d , t h e Rey k j av i k
Co n f er en c e r eq u est ed FA O t o d ev el o p d r af t
gu i d el i n es t o b e p r esen t ed at t h e Tw enty-fi fth
Sessi o n o f t h e Co m m i t t ee o n Fi sh er i es (CO FI )
i n 2 0 0 3 . Th i s w o r k i s i n p r o gr ess, an d t h e
gu i d el i n es h av e n o t y et b een f i n al i z ed .
N ev er t h el ess, so m e EA F p r i n c i p l es ar e w i d el y
ac c ep t ed an d w i l l al m o st c er t ai n l y f eat u r e
p r o m i n en t l y i n t h e gu i d el i n es. Th ese p r i n c i p l es
ar e al r ead y r ef l ec t ed i n t h e Co d e an d ar e
su m m ar i z ed i n t h e f o l l o w i n g:
57
Th e f i r st st ep i n i m p l em en t i n g EA F i s t o
i d en t i f y an d d esc r i b e t h e d i f f er en t ex p l o i t ed
ec o sy st em s an d t h ei r b o u n d ar i es as d i sc r et e
en t i t i es f o r t h e p u r p o ses o f m an agem en t . Su c h
c l assi f i c at i o n w i l l b e gu i d ed b y t h e av ai l ab l e
k n o w l ed ge o f ex i st i n g f i sh er i es an d t ar get
st o c k s, as w el l as b y o t h er i n f o r m at i o n . A
d egr ee o f p r agm at i sm w i l l b e r eq u i r ed f o r t h i s,
as al l ec o sy st em s h av e o p en b o u n d ar i es
ac r o ss w h i c h ex c h an ges o c c u r. H o w ev er, t h e
d ef i n i t i o n s sh o u l d ai m t o i d en t i f y u n i t s t h at
ar e l ar gel y i n d ep en d en t o f su r r o u n d i n g ar eas,
an d c an t h er ef o r e b e ef f ec t i v el y m an aged as
i n d i v i d u al en t i t i es. Th i s p r o b l em , al b ei t o n a
f ar sm al l er sc al e, w i l l b e f am i l i ar t o f i sh er i es
m an ager s w h o h av e al r ead y ex p er i en c ed a
si m i l ar l ac k o f c l ar i t y w h en t r y i n g t o i d en t i f y
r ep r o d u c t i v el y i so l at ed st o c k s f o r
m an agem en t p u r p o ses. Th e d ef i n i t i o n s o f
ec o sy st em s sh o u l d i n c l u d e l i st s o f sp ec i es o f
i m p o r t an c e, i d en t i f y i n g p ar t i c u l ar l y
v u l n er ab l e o r en d an ger ed o n es, an d
d esc r i p t i o n s o f t h e h ab i t at s t h at ar e c r i t i c al f o r
t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e ec o sy st em .
O n c e t h e ec o sy st em u n i t s h av e b een
i d en t i f i ed , m an agem en t o b j ec t i v es m u st b e
d ev el o p ed f o r t h e f i sh er i es o f t h e ec o sy st em as
a w h o l e i n o r d er t o f ac i l i t at e o b t ai n i n g t h e
o p t i m al b en ef i t s i n a su st ai n ab l e m an n er. In
ac c o r d an c e w i t h t h e U N Law o f t h e Sea an d
t h e Co d e, t h i s sh o u l d i n v o l v e as f ar as
p o ssi b l e t h e m ai n t en an c e o r r eb u i l d i n g o f
t h e ec o sy st em , i t s h ab i t at s an d i t s b i o d i v er si t y
t o a st at u s t h at i s c ap ab l e o f su p p o r t i n g al l
sp ec i es at l ev el s o f m ax i m u m p r o d u c t i o n .
Cl ear l y, w i t h i n t h e go al o f o p t i m i z i n g b en ef i t s
f r o m t h e sy st em as a w h o l e, t h er e w i l l al so b e
t h e f am i l i ar o b j ec t i v es o f c o n v en t i o n al
f i sh er i es m an agem en t , w h i c h c o v er
ec o n o m i c , so c i al an d b i o l o gi c al d esi r es at a
r an ge o f sp ec i es an d f i sh er i es sc al es.
H o w ev er, i n EA F, i t i s al so n ec essar y t o
r ec o gn i z e t h e ec o sy st em i n t er ac t i o n s an d
c o n st r ai n t s, an d t o t ak e st ep s t o r ec o n c i l e t h e
w i d er o b j ec t i v es so t h at t h ey ar e al l
si m u l t an eo u sl y ac h i ev ab l e, r at h er t h an i n
c o n f l i c t . I n st r i v i n g f o r t h i s r ec o n c i l i at i o n , t h e
eq u i t ab l e al l o c at i o n o f r eso u r c es r em ai n s a
c en t r al c h al l en ge.
Th e o b j ec t i v es o f EA F m u st , o f c o u r se, go
b ey o n d t h o se o f t h e i n d i v i d u al f i sh er y o r ev en
f i sh er i es sec t o r. Br o ad er o b j ec t i v es m u st al so
b e c o n si d er ed , i n c l u d i n g: p r o t ec t i o n an d
r est o r at i o n o f c r i t i c al h ab i t at s an d n u r ser y an d
sp aw n i n g ar eas; m ai n t en an c e o f t h e q u al i t y,
d i v er si t y an d av ai l ab i l i t y o f r eso u r c es;
r est o r at i o n o r r eh ab i l i t at i o n o f p o p u l at i o n s
an d st o c k s, as f ar as i s r easo n ab l y p o ssi b l e;
an d c o n ser v at i o n o f b i o d i v er si t y an d
p o p u l at i o n st r u c t u r e. Ec o n o m i c an d so c i al
o b j ec t i v es sh o u l d al so b e c o n si d er ed at t h i s
w i d er ec o sy st em sc al e b y, f o r ex am p l e, t ak i n g
ac c o u n t o f r u r al l i v el i h o o d s an d o t h er so c i o -
ec o n o m i c ac t i v i t i es t h at h av e an i m p ac t o r ar e
d ep en d en t o n t h e ec o sy st em .
A s al r ead y st at ed , t h e p o t en t i al c o n f l i c t s an d
i n c o n si st en c i es i n t h ese o b j ec t i v es n eed t o b e
r ec o n c i l ed i n o r d er t o ar r i v e at a set o f
si m u l t an eo u sl y at t ai n ab l e o b j ec t i v es
en c o m p assi n g b i o l o gi c al , ec o l o gi c al ,
ec o n o m i c , so c i al an d i n st i t u t i o n al c o n c er n s.
Th i s i s l i k el y t o b e t h e m o st c o n t en t i o u s p ar t
o f EA F i m p l em en t at i o n an d w i l l r eq u i r e f u l l
c o n su l t at i o n w i t h al l t h e l egi t i m at e i n t er est ed
p ar t i es i n o r d er t o en su r e t h ei r su p p o r t an d
c o l l ab o r at i o n .
O n c e t h e o b j ec t i v es h av e b een i d en t i f i ed an d
agr eed , su i t ab l e r ef er en c e p o i n t s o r
su st ai n ab i l i t y i n d i c at o r s w i l l n eed t o b e
est ab l i sh ed t h r o u gh w h i c h t o i n f o r m m an ager s
an d i n t er est ed p ar t i es o n h o w su c c essf u l t h ey
ar e b ei n g i n ac h i ev i n g o b j ec t i v es o r r em ai n i n g
w i t h i n c o n st r ai n t s. Th e r ef er en c e p o i n t s m u st
r ef l ec t t h e r an ge o f o b j ec t i v es agr eed an d b e
b ased o n t h e b est sc i en t i f i c ev i d en c e
av ai l ab l e. Th e Sc i en t i f i c Co m m i t t ee f o r
O c ean i c Resear c h o f t h e I n t er go v er n m en t al
O c ean o gr ap h i c Co m m i ssi o n (I O C), w i t h i n p u t
f r o m FA O , i s c u r r en t l y c o n si d er i n g su i t ab l e
r ef er en c e p o i n t s f o r EA F t h r o u gh i t s W orki ng
G r o u p o n Q u an t i t at i v e Ec o sy st em I n d i c at o r s
f o r Fi sh er i es M an agem en t (see:
w w w. ec o sy st em i n d i c at o r s. o r g/ ).
Cl ear l y, an ef f ec t i v e m o n i t o r i n g sy st em w i l l b e
r eq u i r ed t o en su r e t h at t h e st at e o f t h e
ec o sy st em c an b e f o l l o w ed t h r o u gh t i m e an d
c an b e c o m p ar ed w i t h t h e r ef er en c e p o i n t s,
al l o w i n g f o r c o r r ec t i v e ac t i o n w h en n ec essar y.
58
I n f i sh er i es m an agem en t , m an agem en t
m easu r es ar e t h e t o o l s t h at ar e u sed t o
ac h i ev e o b j ec t i v es. M an y o f t h e m easu r es t h at
ar e av ai l ab l e f o r EA F w i l l b e t h e sam e as t h o se
u sed i n c o n v en t i o n al si n gl e- sp ec i es
m an agem en t : i n p u t c o n t r o l s, o u t p u t c o n t r o l s,
t ec h n i c al m easu r es c o v er i n g gear an d v essel
c o n t r o l s, an d ar ea an d t i m e r est r i c t i o n s. Th e
f u n d am en t al n eed s t o av o i d ex c ess f i sh i n g
c ap ac i t y an d t o en su r e ec o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s
t h at p r o m o t e r esp o n si b l e f i sh er i es ar e as
i m p o r t an t f o r EA F as t h ey ar e f o r si n gl e-
sp ec i es ap p r o ac h es. H o w ev er, f i sh er i es
c o n t r o l m easu r es w i l l h av e t o b e d ev el o p ed
an d ex t en d ed t o ap p l y t o t h e b r o ad er sc o p e o f
EA F, an d c o n t r o l s o n n o n - f i sh er y u ser s n eed t o
b ec o m e a p ar t o f an ec o sy st em ap p r o ac h t o
f i sh er i es m an agem en t . Co n si d er i n g
ec o sy st em s i n st ead o f si n gl e p o p u l at i o n s w i l l
h i gh l i gh t t h e h i gh l ev el s o f u n c er t ai n t y
c o n c er n i n g t h e st at u s an d d y n am i c s o f
ec o sy st em s an d t h ei r el em en t s, an d i n t el l i gen t
ap p l i c at i o n o f t h e p r ec au t i o n ar y ap p r o ac h i s
c en t r al t o EA F.
Th e p r o b l em s asso c i at ed w i t h o p en ac c ess
sy st em s an d sy st em s i n w h i c h ac c ess r i gh t s
ex c eed t h e p r o d u c t i o n c ap ac i t y o f t h e
r eso u r c es ar e n o w a w el l - k n o w n c au se o f
m an agem en t f ai l u r e i n f i sh er i es. Th i s p r o b l em
i s go i n g t o b e at l east as ser i o u s i n
i m p l em en t i n g EA F, an d t h e al l o c at i o n o f
v ar i o u s f o r m s o f ex p l i c i t , l egal l y en f o r c eab l e
f i sh i n g an d o t h er u se r i gh t s i s i n t egr al t o EA F.
I n al l o c at i n g t h ese r i gh t s, i t i s n ec essar y t o
c o n si d er al l asp ec t s o f t h e ec o sy st em an d t h e
i m p ac t s o f al l i t s u ser s, w h et h er t h ey u se t h e
ec o sy st em d i r ec t l y o r i n d i r ec t l y. Th u s, n o t
o n l y w i l l f i sh i n g r i gh t s n eed t o b e c o n si d er ed ,
b u t al so d ev el o p m en t r i gh t s, p o l l u t i o n r i gh t s,
t o u r i sm r i gh t s an d o t h er s.
I m p l em en t i n g EA F en t ai l s ex p l i c i t r ec o gn i t i o n
o f t h e f u l l r an ge o f u ser s t h at h av e an i m p ac t
o n t h e ec o sy st em , an d i t i s n ec essar y t o
est ab l i sh ef f ec t i v e c o n su l t at i o n an d d ec i si o n -
m ak i n g p r o c esses f o r r egu l ar c o n su l t at i o n
w i t h al l l egi t i m at e st ak eh o l d er s. EA F s
i n v o l v em en t o f a b r o ad er r an ge o f i n t er est
gr o u p s i s l i k el y t o r eq u i r e gr eat er t i m e an d
c o st s f o r c o n su l t at i o n an d d ec i si o n - m ak i n g,
b u t i s essen t i al f o r en su r i n g c o m p l i an c e an d
c o o p er at i o n .
FU TU RE PERSPECTI VE
Th r o u gh t h ei r su p p o r t o f t h e Co d e o f Co n d u c t
(r ei n f o r c ed b y t h e Ky o t o an d Rey k j av i k
D ec l ar at i o n s) an d o f t h e v ar i o u s FAO
I n t er n at i o n al Pl an s o f A c t i o n , m o st f i sh i n g n at i o n s
o f t h e w o r l d h av e c o m m i t t ed t h em sel v es t o
st r i v i n g t o ac h i ev e EA F i n o r d er t o "c o n t r i b u t e t o
l o n g- t er m f o o d sec u r i t y an d t o h u m an
d ev el o p m en t an d t o assu r e t h e ef f ec t i v e
c o n ser v at i o n an d su st ai n ab l e u se o f t h e
ec o sy st em an d i t s r eso u r c es" (Rey k j av i k
D ec l ar at i o n ). Th i s c o u l d b e f ac i l i t at ed b y
i m p r o v ed r el at i o n sh i p s b et w een r egi o n al f i sh er i es
an d r egi o n al en v i r o n m en t al o r gan i z at i o n s. Th e
i n st r u m en t s est ab l i sh i n g b o t h t y p es o f i n st i t u t i o n
d o n o t gen er al l y p r o v i d e an ex p l i c i t m an d at e f o r
ec o sy st em - b ased f i sh er i es m an agem en t , b u t t h er e
ar e so m e ex c ep t i o n s. Th e I n t er n at i o n al Co u n c i l
f o r t h e Ex p l o r at i o n o f t h e Sea (I CES), t h e
Co m m i ssi o n f o r t h e Co n ser v at i o n o f A n t ar c t i c
Li v i n g Reso u r c es (CCA M LR), t h e I n t er n at i o n al
Bal t i c Sea Fi sh er y Co m m i ssi o n (I BSFC) an d o t h er
f i sh er i es i n st i t u t i o n s h av e u n d er t ak en w o r k t h at i s
r el ev an t , r esp o n si v e, so u n d an d c r ed i b l e w i t h
r esp ec t t o m ar i n e ec o sy st em s an d t h ei r r el at i o n t o
h u m an i t y. I n ad d i t i o n , t h e w o r k o f en v i r o n m en t al
c o m m i ssi o n s p r o v i d es go o d b ac k gr o u n d
i n f o r m at i o n t h at m ay b e t ak en i n t o ac c o u n t i n t h e
ec o sy st em - b ased m an agem en t o f f i sh er i es.
Ex t en d i n g t h e n u m b er o f r egi o n al f i sh er i es
o r gan i z at i o n s w i t h a m an d at e f o r ad o p t i n g an
ec o sy st em ap p r o ac h an d f o r gi n g c l o ser l i n k s
b et w een en v i r o n m en t al an d f i sh er i es
o r gan i z at i o n s w i l l f ac i l i t at e t h e ef f ec t i v e
i m p l em en t at i o n o f EA F i n f i sh er i es ar o u n d
t h e gl o b e.
I m p l em en t at i o n o f EA F i s l i k el y t o b e a sl o w
an d d i f f i c u l t p r o c ess, r eq u i r i n g c o n si d er ab l e
so c i al an d ec o n o m i c ad j u st m en t s w i t h i n a gl o b al
en v i r o n m en t t h at i s al r ead y f ac i n g m aj o r so c i al
an d ec o n o m i c p r o b l em s. M o st c o u n t r i es ar e
al r ead y st r u ggl i n g t o m ak e go o d p r o gr ess i n
i m p l em en t at i o n o f t h e Co d e, an d w i l l en c o u n t er
t h e sam e d i f f i c u l t i es, an d so m e ad d i t i o n al o n es,
as t h ey st r i v e t o ac h i ev e an ef f ec t i v e ec o sy st em
ap p r o ac h i n t h ei r f i sh er i es m an agem en t .
I n su f f i c i en t f i n an c i al r eso u r c es, c ap ac i t y an d
ex p er t i se, as w el l as c o m p et i t i o n w i t h o t h er
p r essi n g ec o n o m i c , en v i r o n m en t al an d so c i al
n eed s, ar e al l h i n d er i n g p r o gr ess i n
i m p l em en t at i o n o f t h e Co d e. Th ese p r o b l em s
w er e an t i c i p at ed f o r d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es u n d er
A r t i c l e 5 o f t h e Co d e, w h i c h h i gh l i gh t s t h e
sp ec i al n eed s o f d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es, b u t t h ey
h av e n o t y et b een f u l l y ad d r essed .
A n ec o sy st em ap p r o ac h w i l l r eq u i r e t h e
m o n i t o r i n g an d assessm en t o f al l asp ec t s o f t h e
ec o sy st em , a w i d er r an ge o f m an agem en t
m easu r es, p o ssi b l y m o r e c o n t r o l an d
su r v ei l l an c e, an d m o r e t i m e d ed i c at ed t o
i n t er ac t i n g w i t h a w i d er r an ge o f st ak eh o l d er s.
N at i o n al m an agem en t agen c i es ar e t y p i c al l y
al r ead y f u l l y an d f r eq u en t l y o v er st r et c h ed , an d
EA F w i l l r eq u i r e y et m o r e f i n an c i al an d
i n st i t u t i o n al r eso u r c es an d p er so n n el , u n l ess al l
p ar t i es c an f i n d m ean s o f d i st r i b u t i n g t h ei r sk i l l s
an d l ab o u r m o r e ef f ec t i v el y an d ef f i c i en t l y. Ei t h er
w ay, t h e t r an si t i o n w i l l n o t b e easy an d m ay al so
p r o v e c o st l y. W h i l e an ec o sy st em ap p r o ac h t o
f i sh er i es m an agem en t sh o u l d d el i v er i n c r eased
b en ef i t s i n t h e l o n ger t er m , as ec o sy st em s r ec o v er
t h ei r p r o d u c t i v i t y an d st r u c t u r e, t h er e w i l l b e
t r an sac t i o n c o st s. Co u n t r i es w i l l n eed t o m ak e
al l o w an c e f o r t h ese c o st s, an d an y gl o b al - l ev el
i m p l em en t at i o n w i l l r eq u i r e si gn i f i c an t assi st an c e
t o d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es so t h at t h ey c an m eet t h e
t r an sac t i o n c o st s an d r ai se t h ei r c ap ac i t y t o t h e
r eq u i r ed m i n i m u m l ev el . I n al l c ases, t h er e w i l l
al so b e a n eed t o l o o k f o r al t er n at i v e so u r c es o f
i n c o m e t o h el p c o v er t h e c o st s o f f i sh er i es
m an agem en t ; t h o se w h o b en ef i t m o st f r o m
f i sh er i es ar e o n e o b v i o u s p o t en t i al so u r c e o f su c h
ad d i t i o n al f u n d s.
A t p r esen t t h er e ar e w i d esp r ead p u b l i c an d
p o l i t i c al c o n c er n s ab o u t t h e i m p ac t s o f f i sh er i es
o n ec o sy st em s. Th er e c an b e n o d o u b t t h at t h ese
c o n c er n s ar e j u st i f i ed , ev en i f t h ey ar e so m et i m es
ex agger at ed . I n m an y c o u n t r i es, f i sh er i es h av e
l i m i t ed p o l i t i c al an d ec o n o m i c w ei gh t , an d i n t h i s
er a o f gl o b al i z at i o n t h er e i s a r i sk t h at f i sh er i es
ac t i v i t i es w i l l b e seen as ex p en d ab l e an d w i l l b e
c u r t ai l ed i n c ases o f d o u b t , u n l ess t h er e i s an
ad eq u at e r esp o n se f r o m t h e f i sh er i es sec t o r t o t h e
l egi t i m at e en v i r o n m en t al c o n c er n s. Th i s r i sk ad d s
t o t h e u r gen c y o f d ev el o p i n g m an agem en t
ap p r o ac h es t h at p r o v i d e ac c ep t ab l e r esu l t s an d
ar e ad ap t ed t o t h e v ar i o u s c h ar ac t er i st i c s o f
c o u n t r i es an d r eso u r c es. I n t h e r ec en t p o l i t i c al
i n i t i at i v es, f r o m t h e Co d e t o t h e Rey k j av i k
D ec l ar at i o n , t h e gl o b al f i sh er i es c o m m u n i t y
ap p ear s t o b e r esp o n d i n g t o t h e en v i r o n m en t al
c o n c er n s an d t o h av e r eal i z ed t h at p r o gr ess i n
ac h i ev i n g EA F i s essen t i al f o r t h e o n go i n g
p r o d u c t i v i t y o f aq u at i c ec o sy st em s an d t h e w el l -
b ei n g o f so c i et y. Th e i n c en t i v es f o r su c c ess,
t h er ef o r e, sh o u l d b e h i gh .
RELI ABLE STATI STI CS AS AN ESSENTI AL
BASI S FOR EFFECTI VE FI SH ERI ES
MAN AGEMEN T
TH E I SSU E
Fi sher i es management and st at i st i cs
A s i n al l f o r m s o f m an agem en t , t h e m an agem en t
o f c ap t u r e f i sh er i es i n v o l v es sy n t h esi z i n g
i n f o r m at i o n , an al y si s an d d ec i si o n - m ak i n g.
1
W i t h o u t r el i ab l e i n f o r m at i o n , n o su p p o r t ab l e
d ec i si o n s c an b e r eac h ed , n o d i agn o ses o n t h e
st at e o f f i sh er i es c an b e p er f o r m ed , an d n o
p r o gn o ses o n t h e ef f ec t s o f m an agem en t c o n t r o l
c an b e m ad e. Fi sh er i es m an agem en t i s su b j ec t t o
n at u r al en v i r o n m en t al v ar i ab i l i t y an d al so t o
l o n g- t er m c h an ges t h at m ay b e h u m an - i n d u c ed ,
p ar t i c u l ar l y p o l l u t i o n an d c l i m at e c h an ge.
Th er e i s t h u s f ar m o r e u n c er t ai n t y an d r i sk i n
f i sh er i es m an agem en t t h an t h er e i s i n t h e
m an agem en t o f al m o st an y o t h er f o o d sec t o r o r
i n d u st r y. Par t o f t h e ap p r o ac h t o r ed u c i n g r i sk l i es
i n i m p r o v i n g u n d er st an d i n g t h r o u gh b et t er
i n f o r m at i o n , m o r e c ar ef u l an al y si s an d
ex p er i m en t at i o n , an d i m p r o v ed d ec i si o n - m ak i n g
f o r l o n g- t er m r esu l t s.
The i mpor t ance of f i sher y st at i st i cs and t he
ef f ect s of unr el i abi l i t y
M o st m et h o d s an d ap p r o ac h es t o f i sh er i es
m an agem en t r eq u i r e an assessm en t o f f i sh st o c k s
i n t er m s o f t h ei r b i o m ass, si z e o r age c o m p o si t i o n
59
1
D . Evans and R. Grai nger. 2002. Gatheri ng data for resource
m o n i t o r i n g an d f i sh er i es m an agem en t . I n P. J. B. H ar t an d J. D .
Reynol ds, eds. H andbook of fi sh bi ol ogy and fi sheri es. O xford,
U K, Bl ac k w el l .
an d su r v i v al , as w el l as t h ei r r esp o n ses t o n at u r al
an d f i sh i n g m o r t al i t y. Po p u l at i o n m o d el s, an d
t h ei r d y n am i c s u n d er en v i r o n m en t al an d h u m an -
i n d u c ed p er t u r b at i o n s, ar e t h e p r i n c i p al t o o l s.
Th ese r eq u i r e d at a o n h o w m u c h f i sh h as b een
c au gh t , t h e si z e, age o r gen d er o f t h at f i sh , an d
t h e gr o w t h an d su r v i v al r at es t h at i t ex h i b i t s, as
w el l as ad d i t i o n al i n f o r m at i o n o n m an y o t h er
f ac t o r s. I n o r d er t o m ak e st o c k assessm en t s
r el ev an t t o si t e- sp ec i f i c f i sh er i es m an agem en t ,
su c h ad d i t i o n al i n f o r m at i o n m i gh t i n c l u d e d at a
o n t h e p l ac e an d t i m e o f c ap t u r e, t h e
r ep r o d u c t i v e st at u s an d t h e b eh av i o u r o f t h e f i sh .
I t i s essen t i al t o k n o w w h at i s ac t u al l y b ei n g
f i sh ed f r o m t h e w i l d p o p u l at i o n , as t h i s af f ec t s t h e
st o c k s ab i l i t y t o su r v i v e an d , m o st i m p o r t an t , t o
r ep r o d u c e an d r ep o p u l at e. Th i s i s w h y c at c h an d
ef f o r t st at i st i c s, al o n g w i t h o t h er d at a r egar d i n g
t h e f i sh c au gh t , ar e t h e k ey an d essen t i al b asi s f o r
ef f ec t i v e f i sh er i es m an agem en t .
St at i st i c s ar e o f t en al so u sed f o r d i r ec t
ad m i n i st r at i v e m an agem en t c o n t r o l t o en su r e t h at
f i sh er s ar e c o n st r ai n ed w i t h i n t h e set l i m i t s.
Fi sh er i es m an agem en t m easu r es o f t en sp ec i f y
h o w m u c h f i sh m ay b e t ak en , b y w h o m , b y w h at
m ean s, w h en an d w h er e. Th u s, t o t al al l o w ab l e
c at c h an d l i c en c e o r q u o t a al l o c at i o n , f i sh i n g
gear an d o p er at i o n al c o n t r o l s, as w el l as seaso n al
an d ar ea c l o su r es, al l r eq u i r e m o n i t o r i n g, m u c h
o f w h i c h c an o n l y b e ac h i ev ed b y t h e r egu l ar an d
sy st em at i c c o l l ec t i o n o f r el i ab l e st at i st i c s o n t h e
c at c h an d t h e am o u n t o f f i sh i n g ef f o r t .
Fi sh er i es m an agem en t sh o u l d p r o t ec t t h e f o o d
sec u r i t y an d l i v el i h o o d s o f d ep en d en t
c o m m u n i t i es an d t r y t o en su r e t h at b en ef i t s f r o m
t h e su r p l u s p r o d u c t i o n o f w i l d st o c k s ar e b r o u gh t
i n t o ec o n o m i es i n w ay s t h at ar e ap p r o p r i at e t o
t h e p o l i t i c al , so c i al an d d ev el o p m en t
en v i r o n m en t s i n w h i c h t h ey o c c u r. G o v er n m en t s
an d i n d u st r i es n eed r el i ab l e st at i st i c s i n o r d er t o
u n d er st an d t h e ec o n o m i c r el at i o n sh i p s w i t h i n t h e
f i sh er i es sec t o r an d i t s l i n k ages t o o t h er sec t o r s,
e. g. f i n an c e, en er gy su p p l y o r v essel c o n st r u c t i o n .
Th ey m u st p l an f o r t r ai n i n g an d i n v est m en t i f
p o t en t i al y i el d s ar e gr eat er t h an c u r r en t y i el d s, o r
f o r r et r ai n i n g an d st ab l e i n d u st r y r ed u c t i o n i f t h e
ex i st i n g c ap ac i t y i s gr eat er t h an ap p r o p r i at e.
Co m m u n i t i es n eed c at c h an d ef f o r t st at i st i c s i f
t h ey ar e t o ac h i ev e an d en su r e a f ai r an d
ap p r o p r i at e d i st r i b u t i o n o f b en ef i t s. Po l i c y - m ak er s
n eed su c h st at i st i c s so t h at f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es
c an b e p r o p er l y r ep r esen t ed w h en sec t o r al
p o l i c i es ar e b ei n g d ev el o p ed . Fo r ex am p l e, a
r ec en t st u d y
2
o f i n l an d f i sh er i es i n So u t h east
A si an c o u n t r i es i n d i c at es t h at c at c h es ar e sev er al
t i m es gr eat er t h an t h e o f f i c i al st at i st i c s an d t h at
c o m m u n i t i es d ep en d en c e o n f i sh as a so u r c e o f
p r o t ei n , as w el l as t h ei r d ep en d en c e o n t h e
f i sh i n g l i v el i h o o d s o f su b si st en c e an d sm al l - sc al e
f i sh er s, i s f ar gr eat er t h an o f f i c i al l y r ec o gn i z ed ,
r esu l t i n g i n i n ad eq u at e r ec o gn i t i o n o f f i sh er i es i n
so c i al , ec o n o m i c , n u t r i t i o n al an d en v i r o n m en t al
p o l i c y - m ak i n g.
I n su m m ar y, u n r el i ab l e st at i st i c s c o n f o u n d
f i sh er i es m an agem en t o n t h r ee f r o n t s. Th ey :
b r i n g gr eat er u n c er t ai n t y i n t o t h e st o c k
assessm en t p r o c ess, r ed u c i n g c o n f i d en c e i n
t h e ac c u r ac y o f f i sh er i es m an agem en t ad v i c e
an d o f t en r esu l t i n g i n c o n f l i c t am o n g
o v er c au t i o u s f i sh er i es m an ager s, o v er eager
f i sh er s an d o v er an x i o u s en v i r o n m en t al
ad v o c at es;
r ed u c e t h e p u b l i c s c o n f i d en c e i n t h e ab i l i t y
o f f i sh er i es m an ager s t o m o n i t o r an d m an age
t h ese n at i o n al o r i n t er n at i o n al n at u r al
r eso u r c es o n i t s b eh al f , l ead i n g t o t h e b el i ef
t h at , i n t h e ab sen c e o f c o n t r o l , f i sh er s ar e
o v er ex p l o i t i n g st o c k s o r f i sh i n g i n
i n ap p r o p r i at e w ay s;
l i m i t ec o n o m i c an d so c i al u n d er st an d i n g o f
t h e p o si t i o n an d v i ab i l i t y o f f i sh er i es sec t o r s,
c au si n g u n c er t ai n t y ab o u t h u m an r eso u r c es,
so c i al st r u c t u r e, c ap i t al an d i n f r ast r u c t u r e
r eq u i r em en t s, b o t h i n d ev el o p m en t an d f o r
r est r u c t u r i n g.
The r el i abi l i t y of f i sher y st at i st i cs
Ev er si n c e t h e m o d er n f i sh er i es er a b egan , t h e
i ssu e o f i n f o r m at i o n r el i ab i l i t y h as p er v ad ed
f i sh er i es m an agem en t , p ar t i c u l ar l y c o n c er n i n g
i n f o r m at i o n ab o u t t h e q u an t i t y an d l o c at i o n o f
60
2
FAO . 2002. Inl and capture fi shery stati sti cs of Southeast A si a:
current status and i nformati on needs, by D . Coates. RAP Publ i -
cati on N o. 2002/11. Bangkok, FAO Regi onal O ffi ce for Asi a and
the Paci fi c. 121 pp.
c at c h es. A s ear l y as t h e si x t een t h c en t u r y,
Po r t u gu ese f i sh er s j eal o u sl y gu ar d ed t h ei r
d i sc o v er y o f t h e gr eat c o d f i sh i n g gr o u n d s o f t h e
G r an d Ban k s i n t h e N o r t h w est A t l an t i c . A s
c ap t u r e f i sh er i es ap p r o ac h m ax i m u m y i el d s,
sc i en t i st s r eq u i r e m o r e, an d m o r e ac c u r at e, d at a
o n w h i c h t o b ase t h ei r an al y ses. M o st f i sh er y
assessm en t s c o n c er n i n g st o c k s, f l eet s an d
p ar t i c i p an t s w i l l al w ay s d ep en d o n r el i ab l e c at c h
an d ef f o r t st at i st i c s, as w i l l ec o n o m i c an d
f i sh er i es m an agem en t ad v i c e. G i v en t h e
i n c r easi n g d em an d f o r f o o d f i sh an d t h e
ac c el er at i o n o f so c i al c h an ge, t r ad i t i o n al
k n o w l ed ge, w h i c h i s o f t en r o o t ed i n st ab l e
c o m m u n i t i es w h er e i t en j o y s h i gh l ev el s o f
c r ed en c e, i s i n su f f i c i en t . So c i et i es, t ec h n o l o gy
an d n eed s c h an ge al o n gsi d e f i sh er i es, an d
f i sh er i es m an agem en t m u st c o n t i n u al l y ad ap t t o
m eet n ew c h al l en ges an d c i r c u m st an c es. Rel i ab l e
st at i st i c s ar e t h e m o st essen t i al i n f o r m at i o n t h at i s
n eed ed .
Th e r an ge o f t y p es o f d at a r eq u i r ed t o su p p o r t
f i sh er i es m an agem en t an d p o l i c y - m ak i n g i s
p o t en t i al l y en o r m o u s. H o w ev er, f i n an c i al o r
h u m an r eso u r c e c o n st r ai n t s w i l l f o r c e
m an agem en t au t h o r i t i es t o l i m i t c o l l ec t i o n t o t h e
m o st i m p o r t an t d at a t y p es. I n 1 9 9 8 , FAO
p u b l i sh ed G u i d el i n es f o r t h e r o u t i n e c o l l ec t i o n o f
c ap t u r e f i sh er y d at a,
3
w h i c h set s d at a
r eq u i r em en t s w i t h i n a f r am ew o r k o f
p o l i c y / o b j ec t i v es/ i n d i c at o r s/ st r at egy. I t al so o f f er s
ad v i c e o n m et h o d s o f d at a c o l l ec t i o n , d at a
m an agem en t an d t h e p l an n i n g an d
i m p l em en t at i o n o f d at a c o l l ec t i o n sy st em s. I t i s
n o t p r esc r i p t i v e i n t h at i t d o es n o t o f f er a l i st o f
d at a t y p es t h at ar e al w ay s r eq u i r ed . Rat h er, i t
d esc r i b es a d ec i si o n - m ak i n g f r am ew o r k t h r o u gh
w h i c h t h e m o st ap p r o p r i at e d at a ar e c o l l ec t ed f o r
t h e t ask s c o n c er n ed ; m u c h o f t h e f i sh er i es
i n f o r m at i o n t h at i s c o l l ec t ed ar o u n d t h e w o r l d
m ay b e r el i ab l e b u t i s o f l i t t l e v al u e. I n t er m s o f
f i sh er i es m an agem en t , r el i ab i l i t y i n c l u d es
r el ev an c e.
Th er e ar e sev er al o t h er so u r c es o f u n r el i ab i l i t y.
D el i b er at e m i sr ep o r t i n g o r n o n - r ep o r t i n g b y l egal
an d i l l egal f i sh er s an d o t h er p ar t i c i p an t s
(p r o c esso r s, t r ad er s) i s c i t ed b y m o st m an ager s as
a k ey p r o b l em , p ar t i c u l ar l y i n d ev el o p ed
c o u n t r i es an d i n t er n at i o n al f i sh er i es. H o w ev er, i n
so m e f i sh er i es, p ar t i c u l ar l y sm al l - sc al e an d
d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r y f i sh er i es, ei t h er t h er e i s n o
l aw i n p l ac e t h at r eq u i r es f i sh er y d at a, o r t h er e i s
l i t t l e i n f r ast r u c t u r e f o r t h e c o l l ec t i o n o f su c h d at a.
Ev en w h en d at a ar e c o l l ec t ed , t h ey m ay b e b ased
o n i n ad eq u at e sam p l i n g o r i n ap p r o p r i at e
sam p l i n g d esi gn , t h e o r i gi n s o f w h i c h m ay b e
l ac k o f f i n an c e o r t r ai n ed p er so n n el .
Bi as c an al so b e i n t r o d u c ed b y t h e st at i st i c al
au t h o r i t i es, ei t h er i n ad v er t en t l y t h r o u gh t h e
ap p l i c at i o n o f i n ap p r o p r i at e m et h o d o l o gi es, o r
t h r o u gh sy st em at i c d i st o r t i o n s t h at ar e i n t r o d u c ed
d el i b er at el y, f o r ex am p l e, t o d em o n st r at e t h at a
p ar t i c u l ar o u t c o m e i s i n l i n e w i t h i n t er n at i o n al
o b l i gat i o n s (set t o t al al l o w ab l e c at c h es) o r
n at i o n al p o l i c y.
A n o t h er p r o b l em c an b e l ac k o f t i m el i n ess. Fo r
st at i st i c s t o b e u sef u l i n d i c at o r s i n f i sh er i es
m an agem en t t h ey n eed t o b e p r ep ar ed r egu l ar l y
an d w i t h i n t i m e f r am es t h at p r o v i d e f i sh er i es
m an ager s w i t h sh o r t - t er m gu i d an c e. D el ay s i n t h e
p r ep ar at i o n o f st at i st i c s c an ser i o u sl y r ed u c e t h ei r
u t i l i t y t o f i sh er i es m an ager s. St at i st i c s t h at ar e f i v e
y ear s o l d b u t h av e o n l y j u st b ec o m e av ai l ab l e
m ay b e r el i ab l e, b u t t h ey m ay h av e l i t t l e
r el ev an c e f o r t o d ay.
Th e ap p r o p r i at e c o n f i d en t i al i t y o f f i sh er y d at a i s
al so a f ac t o r i n u n d er st an d i n g t h e r el i ab i l i t y, an d
h en c e u sef u l n ess, o f f i sh er y st at i st i c s. A r ec en t
r ep o r t b y t h e U n i t ed St at es N at i o n al Resear c h
Co u n c i l (N RC)
4
c o n c l u d ed t h at : "Co n f i d en t i al i t y
o f f i sh er i es d at a i s r est r i c t i v e t o t h e p o i n t o f
h i n d er i n g b o t h r esear c h an d m an agem en t . " Th e
r ep o r t gen er al l y ac c ep t ed t h at so m e f i sh er y d at a
h av e p r o p r i et ar y v al u e an d t h at "so m e l ev el o f
c o n f i d en t i al i t y i s n ec essar y t o al l o w f i sh er m en t o
61
3
FAO . 1998. Gui del i nes for the routi ne col l ecti on of capture fi -
sh er y d at a. FAO Fi sheri es Techni cal Paper N o. 382. Rom e. 98
p p . Pr ep ar ed at an Ex p er t Co n su l t at i o n , h el d i n Ban gk o k f r o m
18 to 30 M ay 1998, organi zed and funded by the FAO /D ani sh
Internati onal D evel opment Agency (D AN ID A) proj ect Trai ni ng
i n Fi sh St o c k A ssessm en t an d Fi sh er y Resear c h Pl an n i n g
G CP/IN T/575/D EN .
4
N RC. 2000. Improvi ng the col l ecti on, management and use of
m ar i n e f i sh er i es d at a. W ash i n gt o n , D C, N at i o n al A c ad em y o f
Sci ences. 160 pp.
m ai n t ai n t h ei r b u si n esses an d t o p r o m o t e
r ep o r t i n g o f h i gh q u al i t y i n f o r m at i o n
i n f o r m at i o n t h at m i gh t n o t b e as ac c u r at e i f i t
w er e n o t c o n f i d en t i al ". Th e Co d e o f Co n d u c t f o r
Resp o n si b l e Fi sh er i es m ak es sev er al r ef er en c es t o
ap p l i c ab l e c o n f i d en t i al i t y w i t h o u t d ef i n i n g w h at
i t m ean s,
5
p ar t l y b ec au se i t s m ean i n g d ep en d s o n
i n d i v i d u al f i sh er y c i r c u m st an c es an d p ar t l y
b ec au se t h e l egal p o si t i o n r egar d i n g b u si n ess
i n f o r m at i o n v ar i es f r o m c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y.
N ev er t h el ess, t h e N RC r ep o r t r ec o m m en d s t h at
ex i st i n g U n i t ed St at es st at e an d f ed er al p o l i c i es
o n d at a c o n f i d en t i al i t y sh o u l d b e r e- ev al u at ed ,
i n c l u d i n g c r eat i n g a m ec h an i sm t o est ab l i sh
u n i q u e p r o p r i et ar y p er i o d s f o r d at a c o n f i d en t i al i t y
b y f i sh er y an d "t h e ef f ec t s o f t h e l o ss o f
c o n f i d en t i al i t y o n p r ec i si o n an d b i as (h en c e
r el i ab i l i t y ) i n set t i n g t h e p r o p r i et ar y p er i o d f o r
eac h t y p e o f d at a".
Th i s m ean s t h at l o w er i n g c o n f i d en t i al i t y l ev el s
m ay w el l r esu l t i n l ess r el i ab l e i n f o r m at i o n ,
p ar t i c u l ar l y i n f i sh er i es, w h er e k n o w l ed ge (ev en
t r an si en t ) o f t h e "b est " f i sh i n g gr o u n d s i s t h e
m aj o r c o m p et i t i v e ad v an t age t h at f i sh er s h av e.
Co n f i d en t i al i t y i s t h er ef o r e n o t a si n gl e
d i m en si o n . I t d ep en d s o n t i m i n g an d t h e n eed s
an d au t h o r i z at i o n s o f d at a u ser s. I t al so d ep en d s
o n t h e t r u st t h at f i sh er s c an ex p ec t f r o m d at a
u ser s, i n c l u d i n g c o n f i d en c e i n d at a sec u r i t y an d
an u n d er st an d i n g o f t h e u ses t o w h i c h d at a w i l l
b e p u t .
I mpr ovi ng t he r el i abi l i t y of f i sher y st at i st i cs
Co n si d er ab l e r esear c h an d an al y t i c al ef f o r t ar e
r egu l ar l y p u t i n t o assessi n g t h e p r ec i si o n an d
ac c u r ac y o f f i sh er y d at a an d est i m at i n g t h e ex t en t
o f t h e f i sh c at c h an d f i sh i n g ef f o r t t h at i s en t i r el y
u n r ep o r t ed . St at i st i c al t ec h n i q u es o f ev er-greater
c o m p l ex i t y at t em p t t o r ed u c e t h e u n c er t ai n t y o f
t h ese m i ssi n g d at a. Th e O r gan i sat i o n f o r
Ec o n o m i c Co - o p er at i o n an d D ev el o p m en t
(O ECD ) r ep o r t o f t h e W orkshop on the
Si gn i f i c an c e o f Rel i ab l e St at i st i c s t o Co n d u c t
Ef f ec t i v e M an agem en t
6
n o t es t h at : "Ev en u si n g
t h ese t ec h n i q u es i t h as t o b e ac k n o w l ed ged t h at
t h e c o n f i d en c e l i m i t s at t ac h ed t o t h e est i m at es
ar e w i d e an d c o n t r i b u t e si gn i f i c an t l y t o a l ac k o f
c o n f i d en c e i n t h e r esu l t i n g ad v i c e. "
N o t w i t h st an d i n g t h i s gen er al c r i t i c i sm , i t i s
l i k el y t h at n o n - r ep o r t ed d at a w i l l al w ay s h av e t o
b e est i m at ed i n sev er al w ay s i n o r d er t o i m p r o v e
t h e r el i ab i l i t y o f f i sh er y st at i st i c s. I n d eed , w el l -
d esi gn ed sam p l i n g su r v ey s
7
c an o f f er go o d
i n si gh t s i n t o a p ar t i c u l ar d at a p o p u l at i o n
(i n c l u d i n g d at a t h at h av e n o t b een sam p l ed ).
G o o d st at i st i c al d esi gn , i n c l u d i n g v al i d at i o n
m ec h an i sm s, i s t h u s a p r i m ar y m ean s o f
i m p r o v i n g r el i ab i l i t y. V al i d ati o n m ec h an i sm s
i n c l u d e t h e p er i o d i c c o n d u c t i n g o f f r am e su r v ey s,
t h e u se o f o b ser v er s an d i n sp ec t o r s (as p ar al l el
sam p l er s t o t h e c o m p l et e en u m er at i o n ap p r o ac h
gen er al l y u sed i n l o gb o o k s), l an d i n gs an d
p r o c essi n g t h r o u gh p u t d at a, an d v essel
m o n i t o r i n g sy st em s.
I t i s al so o f t en c l ai m ed t h at r i gh t s- b ased
f i sh er i es o r c o m m u n i t y c o - m an aged f i sh er i es, i n
w h i c h t h e c o n t r o l o f p ar t i c i p an t s i s p ar t l y t h e
r esp o n si b i l i t y o f f i sh er s t h em sel v es, m ay al so
gen er at e m o r e r el i ab l e d at a, as i t i s i n f i sh er s ow n
b est i n t er est s t o m ai n t ai n go o d r ec o r d s an d
p ar t i c i p at e i n t h e assessm en t an d m an agem en t
d ec i si o n - m ak i n g p r o c esses. Cer t ai n l y, i n c en t i v es
t o p r o v i d e ac c u r at e d at a c an b e c r u c i al t o t h e
r el i ab i l i t y o f t h e st at i st i c s t o w h i c h t h ey
c o n t r i b u t e.
W h er eas i t i s o f t en essen t i al t o en su r e t h e
c o n f i d en t i al i t y o f d at a i n o r d er t o en su r e t h ei r
r el i ab i l i t y, t h e m et h o d o l o gi es an d p r o c esses u sed
t o c o l l ec t an d c o l l at e t h em sh o u l d b e f u l l y
t r an sp ar en t i n o r d er t o en su r e o b j ec t i v i t y.
U n c er t ai n t y asso c i at ed w i t h st at i st i c s sh o u l d
al w ay s b e ex p r essed , w h et h er as c o n f i d en c e
l i m i t s, q u al i t y i n d i c at o r s o r ev en an n o t at ed
c o m m en t s.
62
5
FAO . 1995. Code of Conduct for Responsi bl e Fi sheri es, Arti -
cl e 7 Fi sheri es M anagement (7.4.4 and 7.4.7) and Arti cl e 12 Fi -
sheri es Research (12.3).
6
Eurostat. 1995. A revi ew of the qual i ty and rel i abi l i ty of fi shery
stati sti cs. In O ECD . Report of the W orkshop on the Si gni fi can-
c e o f Rel i ab l e St at i st i c s t o Co n d u c t Ef f ec t i v e M an agem en t .
pp. 185187. Pari s.
7
FAO . 2002. Sam p l e-b ased fi sh ery su rveys: a tech n i cal h an d -
book, b y C. Stam ato p o u l o s. FAO Fi sheri es Tec h n i c al Pap er N o .
425. Rome. 132 pp.
I n ad d i t i o n , i m p r o v i n g r el i ab l e st at i st i c s
r eq u i r es c o o p er at i o n i n t h e d ev el o p m en t an d
ad o p t i o n o f st an d ar d s. St an d ar d i z at i o n o f
n o m en c l at u r e an d c o d i n g, ad o p t i o n o f agr eed
st at i st i c al m et h o d o l o gi es an d i m p l em en t at i o n o f
t r an sp ar en t i n f o r m at i o n ex c h an ge m et h o d s
r eq u i r e h i gh l ev el s o f t r an sb o u n d ar y agr eem en t
so t h at t h e n at u r e an d o r i gi n o f f i sh er y st at i st i c s i s
u n d er st o o d ac r o ss r egi o n s, o c ean s an d t h e w o r l d .
I n su m m ar y, i m p r o v i n g t h e r el i ab i l i t y o f f i sh er y
st at i st i c s i n v o l v es m an y f ac t o r s, i n c l u d i n g:
l egal an d o t h er i n st r u m en t s t h at o b l i gat e
f i sh er s t o su p p l y r el i ab l e d at a an d t h at
est ab l i sh san c t i o n s, p en al t i es an d , w h er e
p o ssi b l e, i n c en t i v es t o su p p o r t t h ese
m easu r es;
r eal i st i c an d u sef u l ap p r o ac h es t o d at a
c o n f i d en t i al i t y, ap p r o p r i at e ac c ess t o
d at a an d , w h er e p o ssi b l e, i n c en t i v es t o
d at a p r o v i d er s t o su p p l y r el i ab l e
i n f o r m at i o n ;
go o d st at i st i c al d esi gn t h at i s c o st - ef f ec t i v e,
su st ai n ab l e an d ad ap t ab l e t o c h an gi n g
c i r c u m st an c es an d t h at i n c l u d es v al i d at i o n
sy st em s;
h i gh - q u al i t y an d t i m el y i n f o r m at i o n
ad m i n i st r at i o n an d p r o c essi n g t h at i s o b j ec t i v e
an d t r an sp ar en t an d t h at i n d i c at es d at a
u n c er t ai n t y an d q u al i t y ;
t ec h n o l o gi c al i n n o v at i o n s, i n c l u d i n g v essel
m o n i t o r i n g sy st em s (o n b o ar d an d sat el l i t e
c o m m u n i c at i o n s), el ec t r o n i c l o gb o o k s an d
p o i n t - o f - w ei gh i n g d at a c ap t u r e;
su r v ei l l an c e sy st em s, i n c l u d i n g i n sp ec t o r s an d
o b ser v er s, t o m o n i t o r c at c h an d ef f o r t ,
d i sc ar d s an d d u m p i n g, t r an sh i p m en t an d
i l l egal f i sh i n g.
Su c h so l u t i o n s t o t h e p r o b l em o f u n r el i ab l e
st at i st i c s w h i c h h am p er o r, i n so m e c ases,
c o n f o u n d f i sh er i es m an agem en t r eq u i r e t w o
c o n d i t i o n s i n o r d er t o b e i m p l em en t ed : p o l i t i c al
w i l l an d su f f i c i en t c ap ac i t y.
Th ese p o ssi b l e so l u t i o n s an d r eq u i r em en t s w er e
i d en t i f i ed b y FA O m em b er s i n 2 0 0 2 at a
Tec h n i c al Co n su l t at i o n o n I m p r o v i n g I n f o r m at i o n
o n t h e St at u s an d Tr en d s o f Fi sh er i es, w h i c h h ad
t h e sp ec i f i c t ask o f d ev el o p i n g a p r o p o sal f o r
i m p r o v i n g f i sh er y i n f o r m at i o n i n a w i d e v ar i et y o f
w ay s an d at al l l ev el s. Th e Tec h n i c al Co n su l t at i o n
p r o p o sed a d r af t St r at egy f o r I m p r o v i n g
I n f o r m at i o n o n St at u s an d Tr en d s o f Cap t u r e
Fi sh er i es, w h i c h w i l l b e su b m i t t ed t o CO FI i n
2 0 0 3 .
A s w el l as o b j ec t i v es an d gu i d i n g p r i n c i p l es,
t h e d r af t st r at egy c o n t ai n s d i r ec t i d en t i f i c at i o n o f
t h e ac t i o n s r eq u i r ed an d t h e r o l es o f st at es, RFBs
an d FA O t o i m p r o v e f ac t u al u n d er st an d i n g o f
f i sh er i es an d t h e ex c h an ge o f i n f o r m at i o n . I t
r ec o gn i z es, i n t er al i a, t h e n eed f o r : c ap ac i t y
b u i l d i n g i n d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es; d at a c o l l ec t i o n
sy st em s i n sm al l - sc al e f i sh er i es an d m u l t i sp ec i es
f i sh er i es; d ev el o p m en t o f c r i t er i a an d m et h o d s f o r
en su r i n g i n f o r m at i o n q u al i t y an d sec u r i t y ; an d
d ev el o p m en t o f ar r an gem en t s f o r t h e p r o v i si o n
an d ex c h an ge o f i n f o r m at i o n . Th e d r af t st r at egy i s
i n t en d ed t o p r o v i d e a f r am ew o r k t h at m o t i v at es
d ev el o p m en t p ar t n er agen c i es t o f u n d c ap ac i t y
b u i l d i n g i n o r d er t o i m p r o v e i n f o r m at i o n an d
st at i st i c s o n f i sh er i es.
GLOBAL PERSPECTI VE
I nt er nat i onal r esponses t o t he need f or
r el i abl e f i sher y st at i st i cs
I t i s gen er al l y r ec o gn i z ed t h at t h e o v er al l q u al i t y
o f f i sh er i es p r o d u c t i o n st at i st i c s h as d et er i o r at ed ,
i n r el at i v e t er m s, d u r i n g t h e r ap i d ex p an si o n i n
f i sh er i es p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e p ast 5 0 y ear s. Th i s h as
b een p ar t i c u l ar l y t h e c ase si n c e 1 9 8 2 , w h en t h e
U n i t ed N at i o n s Co n f er en c e o n t h e Law o f t h e Sea
(U N CLO S) b r o u gh t ab o u t m aj o r c h an ges t o t h e
r egi m e o f t h e o c ean s, an d d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es
st ar t ed t o ex p er i en c e ad d i t i o n al so c i al an d
ec o n o m i c d i f f i c u l t i es. Th ese d i f f i c u l t i es ar o se
d esp i t e t h e c al l s i n U N CLO S f o r "b est sc i en t i f i c
ev i d en c e"; t h e p r ev i o u s ex p er i en c e o f "c r ash ed "
f i sh er i es i n d ev el o p ed c o u n t r i es, w h i c h
d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es c o u l d h av e l ear n ed f r o m as
t h ei r f i sh er i es r ap i d l y gr ew ; an d t h e w el l - f o u n d ed
an d c o n t i n u i n g d em an d f o r r el i ab l e st at i st i c s as
t h e p r i n c i p al b asi s f o r f i sh st o c k assessm en t an d
f i sh er i es m an agem en t .
Par t o f t h e p r o b l em i s u n d o u b t ed l y a sh o r t age
o f m o n ey an d c ap ac i t y. H o w ev er, i t i s al so r el at ed
t o t h e gen er al l y l o w p r o f i l e o f a n at u r al r eso u r c e
t h at i s h i d d en f r o m t h e ey es o f p o l i t i c i an s b y i t s
v er y m ed i u m , an d t o assu m p t i o n s t h at f i sh er i es
63
c an b e r egar d ed as c o m m o n p r o p er t y, o p en -
ac c ess sy st em s an d t h at m ar k et f o r c es m ay b e
su f f i c i en t t o r egu l at e t h em . I n f i sh er i es
m an agem en t n o n e o f t h ese assu m p t i o n s i s t r u e;
f i sh er i es h av e a h i gh p r o f i l e i n t er m s o f gl o b al
p r o t ei n su p p l y, p ar t i c u l ar l y i n d ev el o p i n g
c o u n t r i es, an d sm al l - sc al e f i sh er i es i n i n l an d an d
m ar i n e w at er s ar e p r o b ab l y m o r e i m p o r t an t t h an
i s c u r r en t l y p o r t r ay ed ; o p en ac c ess h as
i n ex o r ab l y l ed t o o v er ex p l o i t at i o n i n al m o st al l
t h e f i sh er i es w h er e i t i s p r ac t i sed ; an d gl o b al
t r ad e h as t h e p o t en t i al t o sk ew f i sh er i es aw ay
f r o m d o m est i c c o n su m p t i o n an d sel f -
p r o v i si o n i n g, so m et i m es r esu l t i n g i n t h e
o v er ex p l o i t at i o n o f f o o d f i sh f o r ex p o r t .
Fo r t u n at el y, c h an ges i n at t i t u d e an d p o l i t i c al w i l l
ar e en t er i n g t h e m ai n st r eam o f f i sh er i es
m an agem en t , p ar t i c u l ar l y si n c e 1 9 9 2 w h en t h e
c l ear l i n k ages b et w een en v i r o n m en t al
su st ai n ab i l i t y an d d ev el o p m en t w er e gl o b al l y
ac c ep t ed at t h e U n i t ed N at i o n s Co n f er en c e o n
En v i r o n m en t an d D ev el o p m en t (U N CED ).
Fo r m an y y ear s p r i o r t o 1 9 9 2 , f i sh er y sc i en t i st s
an d m an ager s h ad b een c al l i n g f o r b et t er
r el i ab i l i t y i n f i sh er y st at i st i c s. Th ey al so ac c ep t ed
an d ex p l ai n ed t h e n eed f o r c au t i o n i n t h e w ay i n
w h i c h t h ey ap p l i ed t h ei r st at i st i c al c o n f i d en c e
l i m i t s t o an al y ses an d ad v i c e, l o n g b ef o r e t h e
p r ec au t i o n ar y ap p r o ac h b ec am e t h e ac c ep t ed
d o c t r i n e o f en v i r o n m en t al c o n c er n . I n a d i r ec t
sen se, b et t er an d m o r e r el i ab l e st at i st i c s en ab l e a
st at i st i c al n ar r o w i n g o f c o n f i d en c e l i m i t s, h en c e
l o w er i n g t h e d egr ee o f c au t i o n t h at n eed s t o b e
ap p l i ed .
Th e n eed f o r r el i ab l e f i sh er y st at i st i c s i s st i l l
b ei n g v o i c ed i n al l f i sh er i es f o r a, f r o m CO FI t o
r egi o n al an d n at i o n al m eet i n gs. Th e p ac e o f
i n st i t u t i o n al r esp o n ses, at l east at t h e
i n t er n at i o n al an d r egi o n al l ev el s, i s gr o w i n g.
Th e o l d est o f t h e i n t er n at i o n al i n st i t u t i o n s i s t h e
i n t er - agen c y Co o r d i n at i n g W o r k i n g Par t y o n
Fi sh er y St at i st i c s (CW P), w h i c h w as o r i gi n al l y
est ab l i sh ed i n 1 9 5 9 f o r A t l an t i c f i sh er i es b u t h as
m o r e r ec en t l y c h an ged i t s st at u t es t o
ac c o m m o d at e r egi o n al b o d i es f r o m ar o u n d t h e
w o r l d . CW P h as b een i n st r u m en t al i n
est ab l i sh i n g m an y st an d ar d s f o r f i sh er y st at i st i c s,
an d i s c u r r en t l y r ev i ew i n g i t s r o l e an d ap p r o ac h ,
p ar t i c u l ar l y i n t h e l i gh t o f c o n c er n s ab o u t t h e
q u al i t y o f f i sh er y st at i st i c s an d t h e n eed f o r
c ap ac i t y b u i l d i n g an d m i n i m u m h ar m o n i z ed
q u al i t y st an d ar d s.
Th e Co d e o f Co n d u c t f o r Resp o n si b l e Fi sh er i es
c al l s f o r r el i ab l e f i sh er y st at i st i c s i n A r t i c l e 7
Fi sh er i es M an agem en t , as f o l l o w s:
7.4.4 States shoul d ensure that ti m el y, compl ete and
rel i abl e stati sti cs
8
on catch and fi shi ng effort are
col l ected and m ai ntai ned i n accordance w i th
ap p l i c ab l e i n ter n ati o n al stan d ar d s an d p r ac ti c es an d
i n su ffi c i en t d etai l to al l o w so u n d stati sti c al
an al ysi s. Su ch d ata sh o u l d b e u p d ated regu l arl y an d
v eri fi ed th ro u gh an ap p ro p ri ate sy stem . States
sh o u l d c o m p i l e an d d i ssem i n ate su c h d ata i n a
m an n er c o n si st en t w i t h an y ap p l i c ab l e
confi denti al i ty requi rem ents.
I n ap p l y i n g t h e Co d e t o sp ec i f i c o b j ec t i v es,
i n t er n at i o n al o r gan i z at i o n s, i n p ar t i c u l ar t h e U N ,
FA O an d RFBs, h av e u n d er t ak en a n u m b er o f
i n i t i at i v es t h at d i r ec t l y an d i n d i r ec t l y c al l f o r,
i n i t i at e o r p r o v i d e f o r i m p r o v em en t s i n t h e
p r o v i si o n an d d i ssem i n at i o n o f r el i ab l e st at i st i c s.
Th e U N Fi sh St o c k s A gr eem en t ,
9
w h i c h c am e i n t o
f o r c e i n 2 0 0 1 , c o n t ai n s d et ai l ed st at i st i c al n eed s
i n A n n ex I St an d ar d r eq u i r em en t s f o r t h e
c o l l ec t i o n an d sh ar i n g o f d at a, w h i c h m u st b e
ad h er ed t o b y al l si gn at o r i es. Th e FAO
Co m p l i an c e A gr eem en t ,
1 0
w h i c h i s y et t o c o m e
i n t o f o r c e, al so m ak es r ef er en c e i n A r t i c l e 7 ,
Ex c h an ge o f i n f o r m at i o n , t o d at a n eed s o n f i sh i n g
v essel s an d t h ei r o p er at i o n al au t h o r i z at i o n s o n
t h e h i gh seas, t h u s p r o v i d i n g f o r f l eet d at a
t h r o u gh t h e ad m i n i st r at i v e i d en t i f i c at i o n o f
au t h o r i z ed f i sh i n g ef f o r t .
I n ad d i t i o n , f o u r i n t er n at i o n al p l an s o f ac t i o n
11
o n sp ec i f i c i ssu es h av e b een d ev el o p ed si n c e
64
8
Rel i ab l e stati sti c s p ro v i d e th e b asi s fo r "b est sc i en ti fi c ev i d en-
ce", w hi ch i s promi nentl y referred to throughout the Code, from
General Pri nci pl es (Arti cl e 6), Fi sheri es M anagement (Arti cl e 7),
Po st - h ar v est Pr ac t i c es an d Tr ad e (A r t i c l e 11) and Fi sheri es Re-
search (A rti cl e 12).
9
A gr eem en t f o r t h e I m p l em en t at i o n o f t h e Pr o v i si o n s o f t h e
U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n v e n t i o n o n t h e L a w o f t h e Se a o f 1 0
D ecem ber 1982 rel ati ng to the Conservati on and M anagem ent
of Straddl i ng Fi sh Stocks and H i ghl y M i gratory Fi sh Stocks.
1 0
A gr eem en t t o Pr o m o t e Co m p l i an c e w i t h I n t er n at i o n al Co n-
servati on and M anagem ent M easures by Fi shi ng Vessel s on the
H i gh Seas.
1 9 9 8 , eac h o f w h i c h c o n t ai n s d et er m i n at i o n s o n
t h e c o l l ec t i o n , p r o c essi n g an d d i ssem i n at i o n o f
i m p r o v ed d at a t h at ar e d i r ec t l y r el at ed t o t h e
i ssu e. N ew ap p r o ac h es t o ec o sy st em - b ased
f i sh er i es m an agem en t , w i t h h i gh - l ev el
r eq u i r em en t s f o r d at a f r o m a w i d e r an ge o f
so u r c es, ar e al so gr ad u al l y b ei n g b r o u gh t i n t o t h e
m ai n st r eam o f f i sh er i es m an agem en t (see
I m p l em en t i n g t h e ec o sy st em ap p r o ac h t o c ap t u r e
f i sh er i es m an agem en t , p . 5 5 ).
RFBs ar e p l ay i n g an i n c r easi n gl y i m p o r t an t r o l e
i n f i sh er i es m an agem en t ar o u n d t h e w o r l d . Th e
ear l i er o r gan i z at i o n s f o c u sed l ar gel y o n sc i en c e
an d t h e d ev el o p m en t o f sc i en t i f i c ad v i c e b u t t h e
m o r e r ec en t o r gan i z at i o n s i n c l u d i n g t h o se st i l l
b ei n g n ego t i at ed
12
ar e assu m i n g a r o l e i n
f i sh er i es ad m i n i st r at i o n an d m an agem en t . M o st
RFBs h av e sc i en t i f i c c o m m i t t ees, t h e t ask s o f
w h i c h i n c l u d e i ssu es r el at ed t o f i sh er y st at i st i c s
t h r o u gh sp ec i f i c st an d i n g c o m m i t t ees o r w o r k i n g
gr o u p s.
O u t si d e t h e f r am ew o r k o f sp ec i al i z ed f i sh er i es
agen c i es, t h e w o r l d r ec o gn i z es t h at go o d
go v er n an c e an d d ev el o p m en t , i n c l u d i n g o f
n at u r al r eso u r c es, r eq u i r e i m p r o v ed i n f o r m at i o n .
I n r esp o n se t o a U N Ec o n o m i c an d So c i al
Co u n c i l r eso l u t i o n o n r at i o n al i z i n g an d
i m p r o v i n g st at i st i c s an d i n d i c at o r s, t h e
Par t n er sh i p i n St at i st i c s f o r D ev el o p m en t i n t h e
Tw enty-fi rst Century (PA RIS 21) w as establ i shed
i n 1 9 9 9 , b ased at O ECD i n Par i s. Th r o u gh
ad v o c ac y, i n f o r m at i o n ex c h an ge an d
p ar t n er sh i p s, PA RIS 2 1 seek s to c o n tr i b u te to
m o r e ef f ec t i v e p o v er t y r ed u c t i o n an d i m p r o v ed
t r an sp ar en c y, ac c o u n t ab i l i t y an d ef f ec t i v en ess o f
go v er n an c e i n d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es an d
c o u n t r i es i n t r an si t i o n . I m p r o v i n g t h e r el i ab i l i t y o f
c ap t u r e f i sh er y st at i st i c s (as ad v o c at ed i n t h e FAO
d r af t St r at egy o n St at u s an d Tr en d s i n Fi sh er i es) i n
o r d er t o en ab l e b et t er f i sh er i es m an agem en t ,
su st ai n ab l e f i sh er i es an d m o r e ef f ec t i v e f i sh er i es
go v er n an c e w o u l d u n d o u b t ed l y c o n t r i b u t e t o
f o o d sec u r i t y an d i t s r o l e i n p o v er t y r ed u c t i o n .
Th er e ar e so m e t en t at i v e si gn s t h at t h e d ec l i n e
o f n at i o n al au t h o r i t i es an d d ev el o p m en t p ar t n er
agen c i es i n t er est i n st at i st i c al d ev el o p m en t ,
ev i d en c ed b y t h e d ec l i n e o f r egi o n al an d n at i o n al
f i el d p r o j ec t s d eal i n g w i t h f i sh er y st at i st i c al
d ev el o p m en t , i s b egi n n i n g t o ab at e. Th er e ar e
i n d i c at i o n s t h at r ec o gn i t i o n o f t h e i m p o r t an c e o f
st at i st i c al d ev el o p m en t w i t h i n t h e m ai n st r eam o f
n at i o n al an d r egi o n al d ev el o p m en t p l an n i n g i s
r eaw ak en i n g.
CATCH CERTI FI CATI ON AND
CATCH DOCUMENTATI ON
TH E I SSU E
I n c r easi n g p r essu r e o n h i gh seas r eso u r c es h as
c au sed an i n t en si f i ed sear c h f o r m et h o d s t o
c o n t r o l t h e f i sh i n g ef f o r t , p ar t i c u l ar l y m et h o d s t o
o b t ai n i n f o r m at i o n o n u n r ep o r t ed c at c h es an d t o
h el p c o n t r o l t h e f i sh i n g ef f o r t o n h eav i l y f i sh ed
sp ec i es. Th i s h as l ed t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c at c h
c er t i f i c at i o n an d c at c h d o c u m en t at i o n sc h em es.
Th e A t l an t i c b l u ef i n t u n a i s o n e su c h h eav i l y
f i sh ed sp ec i es. Th i s f i sh er y i s c ar r i ed o u t m ai n l y
o n t h e h i gh sea. W h i l e t h e r egi o n al f i sh er i es
m an agem en t o r gan i z at i o n (RFM O ) c o n c er n ed h as
t h e au t h o r i t y t o r egu l at e t h e f i sh i n g o f A t l an t i c
b l u ef i n t u n as b y i t s o w n m em b er s, i t h ad n o
ef f ec t i v e m ean s o f d eal i n g w i t h v essel s f l y i n g t h e
f l ags o f n o n - m em b er s, as i n h i gh sea f i sh er i es t h e
f l ag st at e h as t h e r i gh t t o c o n t r o l t h e f i sh i n g
ac t i v i t i es o f o n l y i t s o w n v essel s. Th i s i s seen as a
p r o b l em b y c o u n t r i es t h at ar e m em b er s o f t h e
RFBs t h at m an age su c h f i sh er i es as t h at f o r t h e
A t l an t i c b l u ef i n t u n a.
Th e m aj o r i t y o f t h e v essel s o f n o n - m em b er s ar e
r egi st er ed i n c o u n t r i es w i t h o p en r egi st er s. M an y
o f t h ese c o u n t r i es ar e sm al l an d h av e l i t t l e o r n o
su b st an t i al i n t er est i n f i sh er i es. A s a r esu l t , t h ey
d o n o t ex er t c o n t r o l o v er t h e v essel s t h at ar e
r egi st er ed o n t h ei r o p en r egi st er s. I n ad d i t i o n ,
f r eq u en t l y t h ey d o n o t r ep o r t l an d i n gs, o r t h ey
r ep o r t o n l y v er y l o w l an d i n gs, gen er al l y b ec au se
t h e v essel s c o n c er n ed d o n o t l an d t h ei r c at c h es i n
65
11
The Internati onal Pl an of Acti on for Reduci ng Inci dental Cat-
c h o f Seab i r d s i n Lo n gl i n e Fi sh er i es; t h e I n t er n at i o n al Pl an o f
Acti on for the Conservati on and M anagem ent of Sharks; the In-
t er n at i o n al Pl an o f A c t i o n f o r t h e M an agem en t o f Fi sh i n g Ca-
p ac i t y ; an d t h e I n t er n at i o n al Pl an o f A c t i o n t o Pr ev en t , D et er
and El i m i nate Il l egal , U nreported and U nregul ated Fi shi ng.
1 2
Southeast Atl anti c Fi sheri es O rgani zati on (SEAFO ); Conven-
ti on on the Conservati on and M anagement of H i ghl y M i gratory
Fi sh St o c k s i n t h e W est er n an d Cen t r al Pac i f i c O c ean ; So u t h -
w est Indi an O cean Fi sheri es Com m i ssi on.
t h ei r h o m e c o u n t r i es o r p o r t s an d ar e n o t
r eq u i r ed t o r ep o r t c at c h es t o t h e f l ag st at e. Th i s
ex ac er b at es t h e p r o b l em an d l ead s t o u n c er t ai n t y
ab o u t t h e q u an t i t y b ei n g c au gh t i n an y o n e
p er i o d , t h er eb y c o m p l i c at i n g m an agem en t f o r t h e
RFB c o n c er n ed . I n ad d i t i o n , as t h ese v essel s ar e
under no or l i ttl e control , w hen fi shi ng the
h i gh seas t h ey c an f l o u t t h e f i sh er i es m an agem en t
r u l es ap p r o v ed b y an RFM O , o f t en d er i v i n g
ec o n o m i c ad v an t age f r o m d o i n g so . Fo r t h i s
r easo n t h e v essel s r egi st er ed i n o p en r egi st er s ar e
o f t en r ef er r ed t o as "f l ags o f c o n v en i en c e v essel s".
Th i s i s t h e c o n t ex t i n w h i c h i t w as d ec i d ed t o
t r y t o b r i n g p r essu r e o n f l ags o f c o n v en i en c e
v essel s b y l i m i t i n g t h ei r p o ssi b i l i t i es t o m ar k et
t h ei r c at c h es.
PO SSI BLE SO LU TI O N S
Th e I n t er n at i o n al Co m m i ssi o n f o r t h e
Co n ser v at i o n o f A t l an t i c Tu n as (I CCAT) w as t h e
f i r st RFM O t o i m p l em en t a c at c h d o c u m en t at i o n
sc h em e r egar d i n g t h e b l u ef i n t u n a c au gh t w i t h i n
i t s ar ea o f j u r i sd i c t i o n . A n y b l u ef i n t u n a t h at i s
i m p o r t ed i n t o an y o f t h e I CCAT m em b er c o u n t r i es
h as t o b e ac c o m p an i ed b y a d o c u m en t t h at
i d en t i f i es t h e c o u n t r y o f o r i gi n . Th i s m easu r e w as
ai m ed at r ec o r d i n g t h e c at c h es o f v essel s t h at ar e
f l agged u n d er c o u n t r i es o t h er t h an I CCAT
m em b er s so t h at t h e t o t al c at c h es o f b l u ef i n t u n a
c an b e r ec o r d ed f o r m an agem en t p u r p o ses. Th e
d o c u m en t h as t h e r at h er m i sl ead i n g n am e o f
"st at i st i c al d o c u m en t ". W i t h i n a f ew y ear s, t h e
r esu l t s o f t h i s c at c h d o c u m en t at i o n sc h em e h ad
i d en t i f i ed sev er al c o u n t r i es w h o se f l ags o f
c o n v en i en c e v essel s w er e c at c h i n g u p t o 3 0
p erc en t o f t h e t o t al b l u ef i n t u n a c at c h . Th e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e sc h em e w as f ac i l i t at ed b y t h e
f ac t t h at Jap an an d Eu r o p e ar e v i r t u al l y t h e so l e
i m p o r t er s o f b l u ef i n t u n a.
Th e I CCAT m em b er s agr eed am o n g t h em sel v es
t h at m u l t i l at er al t r ad e san c t i o n s sh o u l d b e
c o n si d er ed agai n st t h e o p en r egi st er c o u n t r i es
w h o se v essel s w er e m ak i n g b l u ef i n t u n a c at c h es
t h at d i d n o t c o m p l y w i t h t h e I CCAT m an agem en t
m easu r es. Th e t h r eat o f a p o ssi b l e b an o n t h ei r
ex p o r t o f b l u ef i n t u n a w as en o u gh t o en c o u r age
t h ese o p en r egi st er c o u n t r i es t o j o i n I CCAT an d / o r
t o t ak e m easu r es t o en su r e t h at t h ey w er e
ex erc i si n g p r o p er c o n t r o l o v er t h e v essel s f l y i n g
t h ei r r esp ec t i v e f l ags. A n y v essel o w n er s w h o d i d
n o t w i sh t o c o m p l y w i t h t h ese m easu r es c o u l d r e-
r egi st er t h ei r v essel s i n o t h er o p en r egi st er s. Th i s
c au sed si gn i f i c an t c h an ges i n t h e r egi st er s o f
Pan am a, H o n d u r as an d Bel i z e, w h i c h h ad m an y
l o n gl i n e v essel s o f A si an o r i gi n .
I n N o v em b er 2 0 0 1 , t h e Eu r o p ean Co m m u n i t y
(EC) b an n ed t h e i m p o r t o f so m e t u n a an d t u n a-
l i k e sp ec i es f r o m sp ec i f i c ex p o r t i n g c o u n t r i es,
r ef l ec t i n g t h e I CCAT m an agem en t
m easu r es, as sh o w n i n Tab l e 9 .
I CCATs su c c ess w as a u sef u l l esso n t o
o t h er RFM O s t h at w er e gr ap p l i n g w i t h
t h e sam e p r o b l em o f i l l egal ,
u n r ep o r t ed an d u n r egu l at ed (I U U )
f i sh i n g an d n o n - c o n t r ac t i n g p ar t i es.
Th e p r o b l em s o f CCA M LR w er e v er y
d i f f er en t f r o m t h o se o f I CCAT i n t h at
CCA M LR w as c o n c er n ed ab o u t t h e
o v er f i sh i n g o f t o o t h f i sh i n t h e so u t h er n
l at i t u d es. I n t h e ear l y 1 9 9 0 s, t h e c at c h
o f t o o t h f i sh b y l o n gl i n e i n t h e v er y
d eep w at er s o f so u t h er n l at i t u d es h ad
ex p an d ed r ap i d l y as a r esu l t o f i t s h i gh
p r o f i t ab i l i t y, an d h ad at t r ac t ed t h e
at t en t i o n o f m an y en t r ep r en eu r s. Th e
CCA M LR ar ea i s v er y d i f f i c u l t t o
m o n i t o r b ec au se o f i t s i m m en se si z e,
t h e r el at i v e l ac k o f c o v er age b y
66
1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2002
0
150
300
450
600
Panama
Honduras
Belize
Note: The decreases shown here were most likely caused by the ICCAT measures.
FIGURE 37
Fluctuations in the main open registers
Number of vessels
m o n i t o r i n g, c o n t r o l an d su r v ei l l an c e (M CS)
ac t i v i t y, an d t h e l i m i t ed p r esen c e o f ex c l u si v e
ec o n o m i c z o n es (EEZ s) ar o u n d t h e c i r c u m p o l ar
r egi o n . Th e Fr en c h an d A u st r al i an n av i es w er e
ar r est i n g v essel s t h at h ad b een c au gh t f i sh i n g
w i t h o u t au t h o r i z at i o n i n t h e 2 0 0 - n au t i c al m i l e
EEZ s ar o u n d t h ei r r esp ec t i v e t er r i t o r i es (t h e
Ker gu el en an d Cr o z et I sl an d s f o r Fr an c e, an d t h e
H ear d an d M c D o n al d I sl an d s f o r A u st r al i a), b u t
si gn i f i c an t c at c h es w er e b ei n g m ad e i n h i gh seas
ar eas o v er w h i c h n o c o u n t r y h ad j u r i sd i c t i o n ;
ac c o r d i n g t o so m e est i m at es t h ese u n r ep o r t ed
c at c h es w er e l ar ger t h an t h o se r ep o r t ed i n t h e
o f f i c i al st at i st i c s. I n r esp o n se, CCA M LR
i n t r o d u c ed a c at c h d o c u m en t at i o n sc h em e. Th e
sc h em e r eq u i r es t h at al l t h e t o o t h f i sh l an d ed i n
t h e p o r t s o f i t s p ar t i c i p at i n g p ar t i es b e
ac c o m p an i ed b y a c at c h d o c u m en t , w h i c h i s
au t h o r i z ed b y t h e v essel s fl ag state and
su b seq u en t l y v er i f i ed at t h e p o r t o f l an d i n g b y an
au t h o r i z ed f l ag o r p o r t st at e o f f i c i al . A d d i t i o n al
go v er n m en t au t h o r i z at i o n i s r eq u i r ed b ef o r e t h e
t o o t h f i sh c an en t er i n t er n at i o n al t r ad e, an d t h e
c at c h d o c u m en t m u st ac c o m p an y t h e t o o t h f i sh
t h r o u gh al l st ages o f t h e ex p o r t c y c l e. Si n c e
c o m i n g i n t o ef f ec t , t h e sc h em e h as r esu l t ed i n 1 8
r ep o r t s o f v essel s at t em p t i n g t o l an d u n au t h o r i z ed
c at c h es o f t o o t h f i sh .
Par t i es t o t h e 1 9 9 8 A gr eem en t o n t h e
I n t er n at i o n al D o l p h i n Co n ser v at i o n Pr o gr am
(A I D CP) ad o p t ed a sc h em e i n Ju n e 2 0 0 1 u n d er
w h i c h t h ey c o u l d i ssu e c er t i f i c at es i n d i c at i n g t h at
c an n ed t u n a i s "d o l p h i n - saf e" (i . e. w as h ar v est ed
w i t h o u t d o l p h i n m o r t al i t y o r ser i o u s i n j u r y ). Th e
d o l p h i n - saf e t u n a c er t i f i c at e sc h em e i s d i f f er en t
f r o m t h e o t h er s i n t h at i t i s n o t d i r ec t ed at t r ad e o r
m an agem en t m easu r es b u t at m ar k et o b j ec t i v es.
O b ser v er s ar e p r esen t o n al l l ar ge p u r se sei n e
v essel s. A t t h e t i m e o f c at c h , d o l p h i n - saf e t u n a i s
st o r ed sep ar at el y f r o m t u n a t h at i s n o t d o l p h i n -
saf e. Th e t u n a t r ac k i n g n u m b er at t ac h ed t o eac h
f i sh f o l l o w s i t t h r o u gh t h e sy st em , an d c o p i es o f
t h e d o l p h i n - saf e c er t i f i c at e an d t h e o r i gi n al t u n a
t r ac k i n g f o r m ar e k ep t b y t h e Sec r et ar i at o f t h e
I n t er-Ameri can Tr o p i c al Tuna Commi ssi on
(I A TTC). Bec au se i t i s c o n c ern ed w i th
en v i r o n m en t al i ssu es r at h er t h an w i t h f i sh er i es
m an agem en t o r t r ad e, t h i s i n f o r m at i o n i s n o t
c o n si d er ed t o b e a t r ad e d o c u m en t (as t h e t u n a
an d t o o t h f i sh c at c h d o c u m en t s ar e), ev en t h o u gh
t h e m et h o d o l o gi es o f c o n t r o l ar e si m i l ar.
Th e su c c ess o f t h e t r ad e d o c u m en t i n p r o v i d i n g
b et t er c at c h d at a an d i n c u r b i n g I U U f i sh i n g
ac t i v i t i es h as l ed I CCAT and other RFM O s to
i m p l em en t si m i l ar m easu r es f o r o t h er sp ec i es.
I CCA T h as ex t en d ed t h e c at c h d o c u m en t at i o n
sc h em e t o i n c l u d e sw o r d f i sh an d b i gey e t u n a.
Th e I n d i an O c ean Tu n a Co m m i ssi o n (I O TC)
c o v er s b i gey e t u n a an d sw o r d f i sh w i t h i t s
sc h em e. Th i s sc h em e r eq u i r es c er t i f i c at i o n b y
o f f i c i al s r ep r esen t i n g t h e f l ag st at e, an d c ar e w i l l
h av e t o b e t ak en t o en su r e t h at t h e v er i f i c at i o n
p r o c ess i s c ar r i ed o u t i n a sat i sf ac t o r y m an n er.
Th e Co m m i ssi o n f o r t h e Co n ser v at i o n o f So u t h er n
Bl u ef i n Tu n a (CCSBT) i s p l an n i n g t o i n t r o d u c e a
c at c h d o c u m en t at i o n sc h em e f o r So u t h er n
b l u ef i n t u n a.
RECEN T ACTI ON S
Th e p r o l i f er at i o n o f c at c h d o c u m en t at i o n
sc h em es h as l ed t h e I n t er n at i o n al Co al i t i o n o f
Fi sh er i es A sso c i at i o n s (I CFA ) t o r eq u est t h at al l
su c h d o c u m en t at i o n sc h em es sh o u l d b e
st an d ar d i z ed . Th e Ch ai r o f t h e M eet i n g o f
Regi o n al Fi sh er i es Bo d i es,
1 3
w i t h FAO assi stance,
h el d a m eet i n g i n La Jo l l a, t h e U n i t ed St at es, at
w h i c h t o c o n si d er t h e m at t er. Th i s m eet i n g
p r o d u c ed r ec o m m en d at i o n s o n t h e c o n t en t s o f a
st an d ar d c at c h c er t i f i c at e an d c at c h d o c u m en t
an d o n t h e p r o c ed u r es f o r p r o c essi n g su c h a
d o c u m en t . FA O i s c u r r en t l y d esi gn i n g t h e
67
TABLE 9
EC i mpor t bans of t una and t una-l i ke speci es
Expor t i ng count r y Bl uef i n t una Sw or df i sh Bi geye t una
Bel i z e Ban Ban Ban
Cam b o d i a Ban
Eq u at o r i al G u i n ea Ban Ban
H o n d u r as Ban Ban
St Vi ncent Ban
1 3
D r R. A l l en, D i rector, Inter-Ameri can Tropi cal Tuna Com m i s-
si o n (IATTC), 8604 La Jol l a, CA 92037, U SA.
st an d ar d d o c u m en t s w i t h i n p u t f r o m c u st o m s
o f f i c i al s w h o h av e h ad ex p er i en c e i n h an d l i n g
su c h d o c u m en t at i o n . Th e r esu l t s w i l l b e
p r esen t ed at t h e Th i r d M eet i n g o f Regi o n al
Fi sh er i es Bo d i es, w h i c h i s sc h ed u l ed t o t ak e
p l ac e i n M ar c h 2 0 0 3 at FA O , strai gh t after th e
CO FI m eet i n g.
Th e si gn i f i c an c e o f t h e t er m s "c at c h " an d
"l an d i n gs" o f f i sh i s o f t en u n c l ear t o u ser s an d
r ead er s. Th i s l ead s t o c o n f u si o n . CW P h as
ad o p t ed a st an d ar d t er m i n o l o gy i n o r d er t o
el i m i n at e su c h c o n f u si o n an d h as r ec o m m en d ed
t h at FA O an d RFM O s u si n g c at c h d o c u m en t at i o n
sc h em es sh o u l d ad o p t t h i s st an d ar d t er m i n o l o gy.
Th er e h av e al so b een p r o b l em s w i t h
i m p l em en t at i o n , su c h as c h o i c e o f t h e m o st
ap p r o p r i at e c o n v er si o n f ac t o r s f o r est i m at i n g l i v e
w ei gh t eq u i v al en t f r o m p r o d u c t w ei gh t . A n o t h er
p r o b l em ar i ses f r o m d o u b l e c o u n t i n g w h en
d i f f er en t p ar t s o f t h e sam e f i sh ar e ex p o r t ed t o
d i f f er en t c o u n t r i es, eac h p ar t b ei n g ac c o m p an i ed
b y i t s o w n sep ar at e set o f d o c u m en t s.
Th e gr o w i n g p r ac t i c e o f f at t en i n g b l u ef i n t u n a
i n n et c ages at t u n a f ar m s i s m ak i n g i t d i f f i c u l t f o r
t h e m an ager s o f b l u ef i n f i sh er i es t o en f o r c e q u o t a
al l o c at i o n s. Su c h f ar m i n g ac t i v i t y i s sp r ead i n g,
p ar t i c u l ar l y i n t h e M ed i t er r an ean Basi n , w h er e
b l u ef i n s ar e c au gh t at sea b y p u r se sei n es o r i n
t r ap s an d su b seq u en t l y t r an sf er r ed i n t o f l o at i n g
n et c ages t o b e f ed f o r a p er i o d r an gi n g f r o m a
f ew m o n t h s t o t w o y ear s.
Rec o r d i n g t h e v o l u m es o f f i sh c au gh t at sea i s a
d i f f i c u l t o p er at i o n , as t h e f i sh ar e gen er al l y
t r an sf er r ed d i r ec t l y f r o m t h e p u r se sei n es t o t h e
n et c ages w i t h o u t b ei n g t ak en o u t o f t h e w at er. A t
p r esen t , su c h c at c h es ar e st at i st i c al l y r ec o r d ed
o n l y af t er t h e f i sh h av e b een l an d ed o r h ar v est ed .
Th e i n f o r m at i o n av ai l ab l e, t h er ef o r e, d o es n o t
i n f o r m m an ager s ab o u t w h i c h v essel s (an d w h i c h
f i sh i n g n at i o n ) c au gh t t h e f i sh , w h er e i t w as
c au gh t an d at w h at si z e i t w as c au gh t . Th i s
m ean s t h at t h e sy st em o f al l o c at i n g b l u ef i n c at c h
q u o t as t o f i sh i n g n at i o n s b ec o m es i n c r easi n gl y
d i f f i c u l t t o m o n i t o r an d en f o r c e.
Th e Co n v en t i o n est ab l i sh i n g t h e Co m m i ssi o n
f o r t h e Co n ser v at i o n an d M an agem en t o f H i gh l y
M i gr at o r y Sp ec i es i n t h e Cen t r al an d W estern
Pac i f i c O c ean h as n o t y et en t er ed i n t o f o r c e. Th e
Co m m i ssi o n d o es n o t y et ex i st as a f u n c t i o n i n g
b o d y, an d i s n o t ex p ec t ed t o d o so f o r sev er al
y ear s. H o w ev er, t h e St an d i n g Co m m i t t ee o n Tuna
an d Bi l l f i sh (an ad h o c m eet i n g o f sc i en t i st s w h o
p r o v i d e an al y si s o f t h e f i sh er i es i n t h e r egi o n ) i s
c o n si d er i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c at c h c er t i f i c at i o n
an d t r ad e d o c u m en t at i o n b ec au se t h er e i s
c o n si d er ab l e p o t en t i al f o r u n r ep o r t ed c at c h es i n
t h e Cen t r al an d W est er n Pac i f i c ar ea. Th i s i s
ex p ec t ed t o b e v er y d i f f i c u l t t o en f o r c e o w i n g t o
t h e w i d e r an ge o f f i sh i n g f l eet s i n v o l v ed an d t h e
d i v er si t y o f t h e p o r t s at w h i c h t h e v essel s c o u l d
l an d .
I A TTC i s c u r r en t l y c o n si d er i n g a r eso l u t i o n t o
est ab l i sh a c at c h d o c u m en t at i o n sc h em e f o r
b i gey e t u n a t ak en b y l o n gl i n e v essel s.
FU TU RE PERSPECTI VE
Cat c h d o c u m en t at i o n sc h em es h ad sp ec t ac u l ar
su c c ess i n t h ei r ear l y i m p l em en t at i o n , w h en t h ey
w er e c o n c er n ed w i t h o n e sp ec i es o f l ar ge f i sh
f r o m o n e r egi o n t h at w as a t ar get f o r I U U f i sh i n g
v essel s. Ex t en d i n g t h e sy st em t o sm al l er f i sh , i n
so m e c ases f r o m sev er al v essel s o r r egi o n s, i s
go i n g t o b e m o r e p r o b l em at i c an d m ay l ead t o
c o n f u si o n am o n g sp ec i es, esp ec i al l y w h en
c u st o m s o f f i c i al s h av e n o p r ev i o u s ex p er i en c e o f
si m i l ar i n i t i at i v es. Th e p r o b l em o f c u st o m s c o d es
i s d i f f i c u l t ; h o w ev er i t i s t h o u gh t t h at t h e u se o f
c at c h d o c u m en t at i o n sc h em es w i l l , i n gen er al ,
assi st i n p r o v i d i n g b et t er st at i st i c s o n c at c h es an d
i n t er n at i o n al t r ad e i n f i sh , as w el l as i d en t i f y i n g
I U U f i sh i n g v essel s an d b r i n gi n g ac t i o n agai n st
t h em .
W h i l e, i n p r i n c i p l e, t h e c at c h c er t i f i c at e an d
t r ad e d o c u m en t sc h em es d esc r i b ed c o u l d b e
h el p f u l f o r an y f i sh er y m an aged b y an RFM O , i t i s
r ec o m m en d ed t h at p r i o r i t y f o r t h e d ev el o p m en t
o f n ew sc h em es sh o u l d b e gi v en t o f i sh er i es t h at
ar e, o r m ay b e, su b j ec t t o si gn i f i c an t l ev el s o f
I U U f i sh i n g. Pr i o r i t y at t en t i o n sh o u l d al so b e
gi v en t o f i sh er i es h ar v est i n g sp ec i es t h at ar e
c o v er ed b y c at c h c er t i f i c at e o r t r ad e d o c u m en t
sc h em es i n o t h er f i sh er i es, so as t o su p p o r t t h e
ex i st i n g sc h em es o f o t h er RFM O s. Co n si d er at i o n
sh o u l d al so b e gi v en t o assi st i n g d ev el o p i n g
c o u n t r i es i n m eet i n g t h e r eq u i r em en t s o f c at c h
c er t i f i c at i o n o r t r ad e d o c u m en t at i o n sc h em es, as
m an y o f t h ese c o u n t r i es r el y o n f i sh er i es p r o d u c t s
f o r su b st an t i al am o u n t s o f f o r ei gn ex c h an ge.
68
POVERTY ALLEVI ATI ON I N SMALL-SCALE
FI SH I N G COMMU N I TI ES
TH E I SSU E
W h i l e ec o n o m i c gr o w t h h as h el p ed t o r ed u c e t h e
p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e w o r l d s p o p u l ati o n th at i s p o o r,
t h e n u m b er o f p eo p l e w h o r em ai n p o o r i s
u n ac c ep t ab l y h i gh . Th e p o si t i v e i m p ac t s o f
gr o w t h o n p o v er t y h av e b een l ess t h an ex p ec t ed ,
i n p ar t b ec au se o f i n eq u i t ab l e d i st r i b u t i o n o f t h e
b en ef i t s, p o p u l at i o n i n c r eases an d t h e ef f ec t s o f
t h e H I V / A I D S ep i d em i c . A s a r esu l t , m an y
go v er n m en t s an d d o n o r agen c i es h av e r ef o c u sed
t h ei r at t en t i o n o n p o v er t y. Th e W orl d Banks
W o r l d D ev el o p m en t Rep o r t s f o r 1 9 9 0 an d 2 0 0 0 ,
t h e U N W o r l d Fo o d Su m m i t f o r So c i al
D ev el o p m en t i n 1 9 9 5 , an d t h e U N M i l l en n i u m
D ec l ar at i o n ad o p t ed i n 2 0 0 0
1 4
al l c o n si d er ed
p o v er t y al l ev i at i o n as a p r i n c i p al p r i o r i t y.
I n t h e p ast , w h i l e m an y d ev el o p m en t
i n t er v en t i o n s w er e i m p l i c i t l y ai m ed at r ed u c i n g
p o v er t y, m o st d i d n o t ex p l i c i t l y f o c u s o n
i m p r o v i n g t h e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f p o o r p eo p l e
b u t ai m ed at ac c el er at i n g ec o n o m i c gr o w t h
t h r o u gh t ec h n o l o gy an d i n f r ast r u c t u r e
d ev el o p m en t an d t h r o u gh m ar k et - l ed ec o n o m i c
p o l i c i es. Th e l ac k o f an ex p l i c i t f o c u s o n p o v er t y
m ay, i n p ar t , ex p l ai n w h y t h e i m p ac t s o n p o v er t y
o f m an y i n t er v en t i o n s h av e b een n eu t r al , an d
so m e m ay ac t u al l y h av e b een d et r i m en t al .
Cer t ai n l y, t h e c o n t i n u ed l ev el s o f p o v er t y i n
sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es,
1 5
an d i n t h e
w o r l d as a w h o l e, r eq u i r e t h at al l t h o se
c o n c er n ed t ak e a f r esh l o o k at t h e p r o b l em .
I t i s i n c r easi n gl y ac k n o w l ed ged t h at p o v er t y i s
a v er y c o m p l ex , m u l t i d i m en si o n al c o n c ep t t h at
h as m an y d et er m i n an t s an d i s c o n c er n ed w i t h f ar
m o r e t h an l o w ear n i n gs, i . e. i n c o m e p o v er t y.
16
An
ex p l i c i t em p h asi s o n p o v er t y i s n ec essar y f o r a
b et t er d ef i n i t i o n an d u n d er st an d i n g o f w h at i t i s,
so as t o b e ab l e b o t h t o m easu r e p r o gr ess t o w ar d s
p o v er t y al l ev i at i o n t ar get s an d t o gai n i m p r o v ed
aw ar en ess o f w h o m p o v er t y af f ec t s an d w h at ar e
t h e m o st ef f ec t i v e st r at egi es f o r t ac k l i n g i t .
Po v er t y i n sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es, as
i n o t h er sec t o r s, i s d i f f i c u l t t o m easu r e. W h i l e
t h er e ar e m an y st u d i es o f p o v er t y i n f ar m i n g
c o m m u n i t i es an d am o n g t h e u r b an p o o r, f ew
em p i r i c al st u d i es
1 7
h av e f o c u sed o n f i sh er i es.
Th o se t h at h av e o f t en c o n c en t r at e ex c l u si v el y o n
i n c o m e an d o n t h e f i sh er s t h em sel v es, r at h er t h an
o n a b r o ad er c o n c ep t o f p o v er t y i n f i sh i n g
h o u seh o l d s an d c o m m u n i t i es.
Th er e i s n o w an ac c ep t an c e t h at p o o r f i sh er s
an d t h ei r d ep en d en t s ar e n o t a h o m o gen eo u s,
u n c h an gi n g gr o u p o f p eo p l e. Th e l ev el s o f
ab so l u t e an d r el at i v e p o v er t y, w i t h i n an d am o n g
sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es, v ar y
c o n si d er ab l y b y ar ea, c o u n t r y an d r egi o n .
A l t h o u gh t h er e ar e p o v er t y t r ap s i n f i sh i n g
c o m m u n i t i es, o v er t i m e c o m m u n i t y m em b er s c an
so m et i m es b ec o m e l ess, r at h er t h an m o r e, p o o r.
Fi sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es ar e o f t en r el at i v el y c ash - r i c h
c o m p ar ed w i t h f ar m i n g c o m m u n i t i es, m ai n l y
b ec au se f i sh er s sel l a l ar ger p r o p o r t i o n o f t h ei r
p r o d u c t i o n , m o r e f r eq u en t l y an d c o n si st en t l y
t h an d o m o st f ar m er s. Th ey r em ai n v u l n er ab l e t o
su d d en v ar i at i o n s i n ear n i n gs, h o w ev er, m ak i n g
f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es o f t en m o r e v u l n er ab l e t h an
ar e c o m m u n i t i es t h at r el y ex c l u si v el y o n f ar m i n g.
I n f ac t , t h e i ssu e o f v u l n er ab i l i t y m ay b e as
i m p o r t an t as p o v er t y i s. I t sh o u l d b e r ec o gn i z ed ,
h o w ev er, t h at so m e f ac t o r s m ay b e i m p o r t an t
d et er m i n an t s o f p o v er t y b u t n o t o f v u l n er ab i l i t y,
an d v i c e v er sa.
Sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es ar e v u l n er ab l e
t o m an y ev en t s, t h e o u t c o m e o f w h i c h m ay b e
p o v er t y. Ex am p l es i n c l u d e: c l i m at i c / n at u r al
69
14
The M i l l enni um D ecl arati on contai ns the commi tment to hal -
ve, by the year 2015, the proporti on of the w orl d s popul ati on
w hose i ncome i s l ess than U S$1 a day.
1 5
There are m any sm al l -scal e fi sheri es i n devel oped countri es,
b u t t h i s ar t i c l e ex am i n es o n l y sm al l - sc al e, ar t i san al an d su b -
si st en c e f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es i n d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es t h at ar e
engaged i n m ari ne and i nl and capture fi sheri es.
1 6
Surveys compl eted 20 years apart by N . Jodha i n tw o vi l l ages
i n Guj arat, Indi a, found that househol ds w i th real per capi ta i nc-
omes that had decl i ned by more than 5 percent w ere, on aver-
age, better off accordi ng to 37 of thei r ow n 38 cri teri a of w el l -
bei ng (R. Cham bers. 1989. Edi tori al i ntroducti on: vul nerabi l i ty,
c o p i n g an d p o l i c y. I D S Bu l l et i n, 20[ 2] ).
1 7
FAO . 2002. Li terature revi ew of studi es on poverty i n fi shi ng
c o m m u n i t i es an d o f l esso n s l ear n ed i n u si n g t h e su st ai n ab l e
l i v el i h o o d s ap p r o ac h es i n p o v er t y al l ev i at i o n st r at egi es an d
p r o j ec t s, b y G . M ac f ad y en an d E. Co r c o r an . FA O Fi sh er i es
Ci rcul ar N o. 979. Rome.
ev en t s su c h as y ear l y an d seaso n al f l u c t u at i o n s i n
st o c k ab u n d an c e, p o o r c at c h es, b ad w eat h er an d
su c h n at u r al d i sast er s as c y c l o n es an d h u r r i c an es;
ec o n o m i c f ac t o r s su c h as m ar k et p r i c e
f l u c t u at i o n s an d v ar i ab l e ac c ess t o m ar k et s; an d
t h e d an ger s o f w o r k i n g at sea. Peo p l e i n sm al l -
sc al e f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es m ay al so b e v u l n er ab l e
t o p o o r h eal t h an d o t h er w i d er d et er m i n an t s o f
p o v er t y. Th er e i s an i m p o r t an t n eed t o i m p r o v e
t h e u n d er st an d i n g o f w h at m ak es f i sh er s
v u l n er ab l e t o ev en t s an d f ac t o r s t h at r esu l t i n
p o v er t y, w h at m ak es i t d i f f i c u l t t o i m p r o v e
l i v el i h o o d s, an d w h at p o t en t i al so l u t i o n s ex i st .
U n f o r t u n at el y, st u d i es su ggest t h at v u l n er ab i l i t y
ap p ear s t o b e i n c r easi n g am o n g t h e p o o r i n
sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es.
I n d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es, m an y m i l l i o n s o f
p eo p l e l i v e i n sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es.
W h i l e i t i s n o w ac k n o w l ed ged t h at n o t al l sm al l -
sc al e f i sh er s c an b e assu m ed t o b e p o o r, a l ar ge
p r o p o r t i o n o f t h em ar e, an d r em ai n so , d esp i t e
t h e ef f o r t s o f d o n o r agen c i es, n at i o n al an d l o c al
go v er n m en t s, n o n - go v er n m en t al o r gan i z at i o n s
(N G O s) an d t h e c o m m u n i t i es t h em sel v es.
Reaso n s f o r c o n t i n u i n g p o v er t y i n c l u d e f ac t o r s
f r o m w i t h i n an d o u t si d e t h e f i sh er i es sec t o r :
v u l n er ab i l i t y, as al r ead y d i sc u ssed ; i n sec u r e
ac c ess t o r eso u r c es; t en d en c y t o r eso u r c e
d ep l et i o n ; t h e r em o t en ess o f m an y f i sh i n g
c o m m u n i t i es; t h e agr o - ec o l o gi c al c h ar ac t er i st i c s
o f n ear b y l an d ; l o w so c i o - ec o n o m i c , c u l t u r al an d
p o l i t i c al st at u s; a l ac k o f p o l i t i c al an d f i n an c i al
su p p o r t (o f t en as a r esu l t o f an em p h asi s o n sem i -
i n d u st r i al an d i n d u st r i al f i sh i n g); an d c o m p et i t i o n
an d c o n f l i c t w i t h i n d u st r i al v essel s an d o t h er
ec o n o m i c sec t o r s i n c o ast al ar eas.
D esp i t e t h e d i f f i c u l t i es o f m easu r i n g p o v er t y i n
sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es an d o f d ef i n i n g
w h o i s a f i sh er (as f i sh er s f ar m , an d f ar m er s f i sh )
an d w h at i s a f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t y, so m e c r u d e
est i m at es o f t h e n u m b er s o f i n c o m e- p o o r f i sh er s
c an b e p r o p o sed as sh o w n i n Bo x 9 , w h i c h
su ggest s t h at 5 . 8 m i l l i o n , o r 2 0 p er c en t o f t h e
w o r l d s 2 9 m i l l i o n f i sh er s, m ay b e sm al l - sc al e
f i sh er s ear n i n g l ess t h an U S$ 1 a d ay.
18
Th e
i n c o m e- p o o r i n r el at ed u p st r eam an d
d o w n st r eam ac t i v i t i es, su c h as b o at b u i l d i n g,
m ar k et i n g an d p r o c essi n g, m ay b e as m an y as
1 7 . 3 m i l l i o n p eo p l e. Th ese f i gu r es su ggest an
o v er al l est i m at e o f 2 3 m i l l i o n i n c o m e- p o o r
p eo p l e, p l u s t h ei r h o u seh o l d d ep en d en t s, r el y i n g
o n sm al l - sc al e f i sh er i es.
Po v er t y er ad i c at i o n st r at egi es m u st b e w el l
f o c u sed , b u t n eed t o ac k n o w l ed ge t h at ec o n o m i c
f ac t o r s ar e n o t t h e o n l y d et er m i n an t s o f p o v er t y,
w h i c h al so i n c l u d e so c i al , c u l t u r al an d p o l i t i c al
v ar i ab l es. U n d er st an d i n g t h ese d et er m i n an t s i s
c r u c i al t o t h e d esi gn an d i m p l em en t at i o n o f
ef f ec t i v e so l u t i o n s.
I t c an o f t en b e d i f f i c u l t t o h el p p o o r p eo p l e t o
c o m e o u t o f p o v er t y b ec au se o f t h ei r p o o r h eal t h ,
i l l i t er ac y, l ac k o f t i m e an d av er si o n t o r i sk . Po o r
p eo p l e s l ac k o f i n f l u en c e an d p o w er i s an
esp ec i al l y i m p o r t an t p r o b l em , an d n ec essi t at es
t r y i n g t o i d en t i f y w i n - w i n so l u t i o n s t h at ar e i n t h e
i n t er est s, n o t o n l y o f t h e p o o r, b u t al so o f t h e r i c h ,
t h e l i t e an d t h e p o w er f u l .
Th e W o r l d Ban k su ggest s t h at "w i t h o u t
ec o n o m i c gr o w t h t h er e c an b e n o l o n g- t er m
p o v er t y r ed u c t i o n ", c i t i n g t h e ex p er i en c e o f t h e
l ast d ec ad e. Bet w een 1 9 9 0 an d 1 9 9 9 t h o se
r egi o n s o f t h e w o r l d w i t h t h e f ast est ec o n o m i c
gr o w t h m ad e t h e m o st gai n s i n t er m s o f r ed u c i n g
t h e n u m b er s o f p eo p l e l i v i n g o n l ess t h an U S$ 1 a
d ay. I n r egi o n s t h at ex p er i en c ed ec o n o m i c
c o n t r ac t i o n , t h e n u m b er s o f i n c o m e- p o o r
i n c r eased . H o w ev er, w i t h o u t c o n c er t ed ef f o r t s t o
r ed i st r i b u t e t h e w eal t h f r o m ec o n o m i c gr o w t h ,
t h e gap b et w een r i c h an d p o o r i s l i k el y t o w i d en .
Sol ut i ons out si de t he f i sher i es sect or c an b e as
i m p o r t an t , i f n o t m o r e so , t h an st r at egi es
em p l o y ed w i t h i n t h e sec t o r, so ac t i o n an d
c o o r d i n at i o n ac r o ss sec t o r s m ay b e r eq u i r ed .
St r o n g ec o n o m i c p er f o r m an c e i n a c o u n t r y,
esp ec i al l y o f l ab o u r - i n t en si v e sec t o r s, i s i m p o r t an t
f o r sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es b ec au se i t
c an c reate al tern ati v e em p l o y m en t o p p o rtu n i ti es
w h i c h ar e v i t al gi v en t h e c u r r en t l ev el s o f
r eso u r c e ex p l o i t at i o n an d t h e l ar ge n u m b er s o f
p eo p l e i n v o l v ed i n f i sh i n g. D i v er si t y an d m o b i l i t y
ar e k ey l i v el i h o o d st r at egi es f o r t h e p o o r.
70
1 8
N ote that no i nformati on i s provi ded on w hat can be bought
i n d i fferen t regi o n s o f th e w o rl d fo r U S$ 1 .
I n c r eases i n gen er al ec o n o m i c p er f o r m an c e an d
d i v er si f i c at i o n n o t o n l y o f f er t h e p o t en t i al f o r
so m e f i sh er s t o l eav e f i sh i n g, t h u s b en ef i t i n g
t h o se w h o r em ai n , b u t al so c r eat e a w i d er r an ge
o f o p p o r t u n i t i es an d p o ssi b l e st r at egi es f o r
c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e h o u seh o l d l i v el i h o o d s o f t h o se
w h o r em ai n . Th i s ap p ear s t o h av e o c c u r r ed i n
M al ay si a, f o r ex am p l e, w h i c h i s o n e o f t h e f ew
d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es i n w h i c h t h e n u m b er o f
f i sh er s sh o w ed a d ec r easi n g t r en d i n t h e 1 9 9 0 s.
I n c r eases i n gen er al ec o n o m i c p er f o r m an c e al so
p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t i es t o i m p r o v e h eal t h ser v i c es,
ed u c at i o n , p u b l i c ser v i c e d el i v er y (su c h as t h e
p r o v i si o n o f r o ad s an d , t h u s, ac c ess t o m ar k et s),
go v er n an c e, p o l i t i c al st ab i l i t y an d saf et y n et s, al l
o f w h i c h ar e l i k el y t o h el p w i t h p o v er t y
al l ev i at i o n i n sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es.
Ev en w h er e t h er e i s l i t t l e ec o n o m i c gr o w t h , t h er e
i s st i l l sc o p e f o r p r o gr ess t o w ar d s p o v er t y
al l ev i at i o n i f p o l i c y - m ak er s ad d r ess t h ese i ssu es.
A n o t ab l e an d o f t en c i t ed ex am p l e i s t h e I n d i an
St at e o f Ker al a, w h i c h h as ac h i ev ed v er y h i gh
l ev el s o f so c i al at t ai n m en t (ed u c at i o n , h eal t h ,
l o n gev i t y ) an d a l o w i n c i d en c e o f p o v er t y, ev en
t h o u gh ec o n o m i c gr o w t h h as b een l i m i t ed an d
p er c ap i t a i n c o m e r em ai n s l o w.
Sol ut i ons w i t hi n t he f i sher i es sect or : A s t h er e i s
l i t t l e sc o p e f o r t h e f u r t h er ex p an si o n o f c ap t u r e
f i sh er i es, gi v en t h e c u r r en t l ev el s o f ex p l o i t at i o n ,
i t i s c r u c i al t o m an age f i sh r eso u r c es so as t o
av o i d f u r t h er r eso u r c e d ep l et i o n . Ef f ec t i v e an d
f l ex i b l e m an agem en t c an i m p r o v e i n c o m es b y
l i m i t i n g en t r y t o t h e c o ast al f i sh er i es, av o i d i n g
w ast ef u l i n v est m en t s an d o v er c ap i t al i z at i o n , an d
su p p o r t i n g su st ai n ab l e ex p l o i t at i o n p r ac t i c es. I t
c an al so i m p r o v e i n c o m es f o r t h e p o o r b y
ef f ec t i v el y p r o t ec t i n g sm al l - sc al e f i sh er s f r o m t h e
ac t i v i t i es o f l ar ge- sc al e i n d u st r i al v essel s, t h er eb y
en l ar gi n g t h e r eso u r c e b ase t h at t h e p o o r c an
ex p l o i t .
Th er e ar e m an y d i f f er en t t y p es o f f i sh er i es
m an agem en t r egi m e, i n c l u d i n g u n r egu l at ed
c o m m o n p r o p er t y (i . e. d e f ac t o o p en ac c ess),
r egu l at ed c o m m o n p r o p er t y (i n w h i c h r egu l at i o n
r an ges f r o m w eak t o st r o n g) an d r egi m es t h at
seek t o u se p r i v at e p r o p er t y r i gh t s as a
m an agem en t t o o l . A p ar t i c u l ar m an agem en t
r egi m e an d i t s r el at ed r egu l at i o n s c an h av e a
si gn i f i c an t i n f l u en c e o n p o v er t y, as c an t h e
go v er n an c e f r am ew o r k an d i n st i t u t i o n al
ar r an gem en t s t h at d et er m i n e t h e d i st r i b u t i o n o f
w eal t h . M an agem en t r egi m es m u st t h er ef o r e b e
ap p r o p r i at e f o r eac h sp ec i f i c c o n t ex t an d m u st
b e en f o r c ed ef f ec t i v el y so as t o c o n t r i b u t e t o
p o v er t y al l ev i at i o n i n sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g
c o m m u n i t i es.
Co m m u n i t y m an agem en t an d , p er h ap s ev en
m o r e so , c o - m an agem en t (t h e sh ar i n g o f p o w er
an d r esp o n si b i l i t y b et w een go v er n m en t an d t h e
r eso u r c e u ser, e. g. sm al l - sc al e f i sh er s) o f f er
p r o m i si n g so l u t i o n s t o p o v er t y al l ev i at i o n ,
al t h o u gh c o l l ec t i v e ac t i o n an d c o - m an agem en t
c an r eq u i r e m an y y ear s o f c ap ac i t y b u i l d i n g
b ef o r e t h ey ar e ef f ec t i v e. Bo x 1 0 p r o v i d es an
ex am p l e o f su c c essf u l c o - m an agem en t i n
C t e d I v o i r e.
Th e i m p o r t an c e o f al t er n at i v e em p l o y m en t
o p p o r t u n i t i es h as al r ead y b een st r essed .
A q u ac u l t u r e i s o f t en su ggest ed as an o b v i o u s
al t er n at i v e t o c ap t u r e f i sh er i es b u t , al t h o u gh i t
d o es h av e p o t en t i al , t h er e m ay b e c o n st r ai n t s t h at
p r ev en t p o o r c ap t u r e f i sh er s f r o m m o v i n g i n t o
aq u ac u l t u r e. Su c h c o n st r ai n t s m ay i n c l u d e h i gh
c ap i t al c o st s, a l ac k o f su i t ab l e si t es an d a l ac k o f
ac c ess t o l an d an d w at er f o r t h e p o o r. M ar i n e-
b ased (ec o - )t o u r i sm p r o v i d es an o t h er p o ssi b l e
al t er n at i v e t h at i s gen er at i n g i n t er est i n m an y
c o u n t r i es.
D ev el o p m en t assi st an c e h as o f t en b een f o u n d
t o b e p ar t i c u l ar l y ef f ec t i v e w h en i t su p p o r t s
w o m en i n p o st - h ar v est an d v al u e- ad d ed
ac t i v i t i es, b ec au se t h ey o f t en sh o w gr eat er d esi r e
an d ab i l i t y t o sav e an d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e
en h an c em en t o f h o u seh o l d asset s t h an m en d o .
G i v en t h at m an ager i al ab i l i t y an d sk i l l ar e k ey
d et er m i n an t s o f t h e su c c ess o f i n d i v i d u al f i sh i n g
o p er at i o n s, i n t er v en t i o n s t h at u p gr ad e
m an agem en t an d sk i l l s an d ad d r ess d y n am i c
en t r ep r en eu r sh i p m ay b e esp ec i al l y l i k el y t o h av e
an i m p ac t o n p o v er t y i n f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es.
Th e f o l l o w i n g so l u t i o n s t o p o v er t y al l ev i at i o n
w i t h i n t h e f i sh er i es sec t o r ar e al so w o r t h
m en t i o n i n g:
Red u c i n g/ r em o v i n g su b si d i es o n p r o d u c t i o n
i n p u t s m ay l ead t o t h e u se o f sm al l er b o at s
an d en gi n es, r ed u c ed ex p en d i t u r e o n f u el an d
71
i n c r eased ex p en d i t u r e o n l ab o u r. I n t h e l o n g
t er m , t h i s sh o u l d i n c r ease p r o f i t s, c r eat e m o r e
em p l o y m en t an d i n c o m e f o r p o o r f i sh er s an d
r ed u c e d eb t . Th e r em o v al o f su b si d i es t o
l ar ge- sc al e f i sh i n g o p er at i o n s an d r el at ed
i n f r ast r u c t u r e w o u l d al so r em o v e m ar k et
d i st o r t i o n s t h at o f t en d i sad v an t age sm al l - sc al e
f i sh er s. H o w ev er, sh o r t - t er m so c i al
c o n si d er at i o n s ar e o f t en m o r e i m p o r t an t t h an
l o n g- t er m o n es, so su b si d i es r em ai n .
Su p p o r t m u st b e p r o v i d ed f o r b o t h ex - an t e
r i sk m an agem en t an d t h e ex - p o st c o p i n g
m ec h an i sm s t h at ar e u sed t o d eal w i t h sh o c k s
an d st r esses, w h i l e n o t i n g t h at st r at egi es t o
r ed u c e v u l n er ab i l i t y m ay n eed t o b e d i f f er en t
f r o m t h o se ai m ed at r ed u c i n g p o v er t y.
Su p p o r t f o r ef f ec t i v e o r gan i z at i o n s i n f i sh i n g
c o m m u n i t i es (e. g. c o o p er at i v es, p o l i t i c al
l o b b y i n g gr o u p s an d so c i al su p p o r t gr o u p s)
c an b e o f b en ef i t t o t h e p o o r i n t er m s o f
i n c r easi n g ac c ess t o c r ed i t , ef f ec t i n g p o l i c y
c h an ge i n f av o u r o f t h e p o o r an d r ed u c i n g
v u l n er ab i l i t y. Su c h o r gan i z at i o n s ar e m o st
b en ef i c i al w h en : go v er n m en t s ar e su p p o r t i v e
an d en ab l i n g, r at h er t h an c o n st r ai n i n g o r
r est r i c t i v e; f i sh er s i d en t i f y st r o n gl y w i t h t h e
ai m s an d m o t i v at i o n s o f t h e o r gan i z at i o n s
c o n c er n ed ; an d t h er e i s ab l e l ead er sh i p w i t h i n
f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es.
RECEN T ACTI ON S
Co n si d er ab l e w o r k i s n o w b ei n g u n d er t ak en t o
i m p r o v e t h e u n d er st an d i n g o f w h o m an d w h er e
t h e p o o r ar e, w h y t h ey ar e p o o r an d w h at
m ec h an i sm s ar e m o st ef f ec t i v e f o r p o v er t y
r ed u c t i o n . Th i s ex p l ai n s t h e i n c r easi n g
i m p o r t an c e o f p o v er t y m ap p i n g, t h e d ev el o p m en t
o f p o v er t y assessm en t m et h o d o l o gi es an d t h e
em p h asi s o n w el l - b ei n g an d c ap ab i l i t i es (r at h er
t h an o n i n c o m e al o n e), w h i c h f o c u s o n
su st ai n ab l e l i v el i h o o d s. H o w ev er, f ew su c h
an al y ses h av e b een c ar r i ed o u t i n f i sh i n g
c o m m u n i t i es.
Recent act i vi t i es out si de t he f i sher i es sect or.
Sev er al o f t h e p o o r est d ev el o p i n g n at i o n s h av e
d ev el o p ed , o r ar e i n t h e p r o c ess o f d ev el o p i n g,
Po v er t y Red u c t i o n St r at egy Pap er s (PRSPs) j o i n t l y
w i t h t h e W o r l d Ban k an d t h e I n t er n at i o n al
M o n et ar y Fu n d (I M F). A l t h o u gh f ew o f t h ese
c u r r en t l y f o c u s sp ec i f i c al l y o n f i sh er i es, t h ey ar e
l i k el y t o b e o f h el p w h er e f i sh er i es ar e i d en t i f i ed
as a k ey ec o n o m i c sec t o r o r, m o r e gen er al l y,
w h er e st r at egi es t o r ed u c e p o v er t y ar e i n p l ac e
an d sm al l - sc al e f i sh er s ar e p o o r.
Rec en t d eb t r el i ef t o h eav i l y - i n d eb t ed p o o r
c o u n t r i es (H I PC), ac c o m p an i ed b y ef f o r t s t o
i m p r o v e h eal t h , ed u c at i o n an d o t h er so c i al
ser v i c es, sh o u l d al so b e o f b en ef i t t o sm al l - sc al e
f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es.
Bi l at er al assi st an c e i s f o c u si n g i n c r easi n gl y o n
p o v er t y r ed u c t i o n an d f o o d sec u r i t y. M o st d o n o r s
h av e n o w p u t i n p l ac e st r at egi es an d c r i t er i a t h at
seek t o en su r e t h at t h ei r assi st an c e i s r eac h i n g t h e
p o o r.
Recent act i vi t i es wi t hi n t he f i sher i es sect or
i n c l u d e t h o se c ar r i ed o u t b y c i v i l so c i et y, d o n o r
agen c i es an d n at i o n al go v er n m en t s.
N G O s an d c i v i l so c i et y c o n t i n u e t o w o r k w i t h
l o c al f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es t o r ed u c e p o v er t y
t h r o u gh c r ed i t , r et r ai n i n g an d al t er n at i v e
em p l o y m en t c r eat i o n p r o gr am m es an d t h r o u gh
su p p o r t f o r f i sh i n g- r el at ed an d so c i al
o r gan i z at i o n s.
Th e p l i gh t o f f i sh er s an d t h ei r v u l n er ab i l i t y t o
A I D S w er e r ev i ew ed at a r ec en t m eet i n g
o r gan i z ed b y t h e A si an Fi sh er i es So c i et y an d t h e
I n t er n at i o n al Cen t r e f o r Li v i n g A q u at i c Reso u r c es
M an agem en t (I CLA RM ).
1 9
N at i o n al go v er n m en t s ar e b ec o m i n g
i n c r easi n gl y i n v o l v ed i n b o t h c o - m an agi n g t h e
c o n t r o l o f i n d u st r i al v essel s acti vi ti es i n w aters
w h er e sm al l - sc al e f i sh er s o p er at e an d en su r i n g
f ai r er i n t er n at i o n al ac c ess agr eem en t s. Th er e i s
al so a gr o w i n g r eal i z at i o n t h at m an y sm al l - sc al e
f i sh er i es n eed t o b e r est r u c t u r ed . Th e Ph i l i p p i n es
o f f er s an ex am p l e o f so m e d egr ee o f su c c ess i n
t h e go v er n m en t s i m p l em en t at i o n o f a
go v er n an c e m o d el t h at i s b ased o n c o m m u n i t y
m an agem en t sy st em s. A m u c h b r o ad er ap p r o ac h
t o p o v er t y al l ev i at i o n i n f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es i s
72
19
M . H uang. In press. H IV/AID S among fi shermen: vul nerabi -
l i ty of thei r partners. In Pro ceed i n gs o f th e Gl o b al Sym p o si u m
o n W o m e n i n Fi sh e r i e s, ( Si x t h A si a n Fi sh e r i e s Fo r u m ) ,
Kaohsi ung, Tai w an Provi nce of Chi na, N ovember 2001, Asi an
Fi sheri es Soci ety and ICLARM , W orl d Fi sh Centre.
b ei n g t r i ed o u t i n 2 5 W est A f r i c an c o u n t r i es b y
t h e Su st ai n ab l e Fi sh er i es Li v el i h o o d s Pr o gr am m e
(SFLP), w h i c h i s f u n d ed b y t h e U n i t ed Ki n gd o m
an d i m p l em en t ed b y FA O . SFLP al so su p p o rts
p o l i c y - o r i en t ed n o r m at i v e ac t i v i t i es su c h as t h e
d ev el o p m en t o f gu i d an c e m at er i al s f o r p o v er t y
r ed u c t i o n p o l i c i es i n f i sh er i es.
O U TLO O K
Th e i n t er n at i o n al c o m m u n i t y n o w sh ar es a v i si o n
t h at m ak es p o v er t y r ed u c t i o n a p r i o r i t y o b j ec t i v e.
I t i s b ec o m i n g c l ear, h o w ev er, t h at t h i s o b j ec t i v e
i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o ac h i ev e t h an w as p r ev i o u sl y
t h o u gh t an d t h at i t r eq u i r es sp ec i al st r at egi es an d
t ar get i n g.
73
BO X 9
Gl obal est i mat es of i ncome-poor smal l -scal e f i sher s
and r el at ed empl oyment i n mar i ne and i nl and capt ur e f i sher i es
A ssu m p t i o n s:
1 . O v er al l f i gu r es f o r t h e n u m b er s o f f i sh er s ar e b ased o n
1 9 9 0 FAO data.
2 . M ar i n e d eep sea f i sh er s an d t h o se en gaged i n aq u ac u l t u r e
ar e ex c l u d ed , al o n g w i t h al l t h o se i n N o r t h A m er i c a an d
Eu r o p e.
3 . Th e p erc en tage o f to tal fi sh ers an d th o se en gaged i n
r el at ed em p l o y m en t w h o ar e est i m at ed t o b e i n c o m e-
p o o r i s b ased o n t h e W orl d D evel opm ent Report 2000/1
f i gu r es f o r t h e sh ar e o f t h e p o p u l at i o n i n eac h r egi o n i n
1 9 9 8 t h at w as l i v i n g o n l ess t h an U S$ 1 a d ay, i .e. i t i s
assu m ed t h at t h e l ev el o f p o v er t y i n f i sh er i es i s t h e sam e
as i t i s i n o t h er sec t o r s.
4 . Th er e ar e assu m ed t o b e t h r ee p eo p l e i n r el at ed j o b s f o r
ev er y o n e f i sh er.
5 . O n e h u n d r ed p er c en t o f al l i n l an d f i sh er s ar e assu m ed t o
b e sm al l - sc al e, w h i l e 9 0 p er c en t o f al l m ar i n e c o ast al ,
u n i d en t i f i ed m ar i n e an d u n sp ec i f i ed f i sh er s ar e assu m ed
t o b e sm al l - sc al e.
So u r c es: FA O 1 9 9 0 d ata o n to tal n u m b er o f w o r l d fi sh er s an d W o r l d
Bank. 2000. W orl d D evel opment Report 2000/1. W ashi ngton, D C.
Pover t y i n smal l -scal e f i sher i es communi t i es
Af r i ca Sout h Amer i ca Asi a Oceani a For mer U SSR Tot al
% o f p o p u l at i o n
o n < U S$ 1 a d ay 4 6 . 3 % 1 5 . 6 % 2 5 . 6 % 11.3% 5 . 1 %
I n l an d 2 7 9 5 9 8 2 5 8 3 5 1 4 0 2 3 0 0 7 9 6 2 0 3
M ari n e c o astal 112 119 1 0 1 4 8 9 5 8 3 7 458 1 3 3 1 2 1 9 8 9 2
M ar i n e o t h er 112 875 4 3 8 6 7 5 5 1 1 3 3 13 515 0 7 2 1 3 9 0
U n sp ec i f i ed 3 2 0 7 3 3 4 0 7 1 6 3 6 6 0 4 2 8 0 0 4 0 2 1 8 7 6
Tot al 825 325 97 313 4 821 421 13 972 1 331 5 759 362
N u m b er o f r el at ed
i n c o m e- p o o r j o b s 2 4 7 5 9 7 4 2 9 1 9 4 0 1 4 4 6 4 2 6 2 41 916 3 9 9 3 1 7 2 7 8 0 8 7
Tot al i ncome-poor 3 301 299 389 254 19 285 683 55 889 5 324 23 037 449
W orl d popul ati on on < U S$1 a day 1 1 9 8 9 0 0 0 0 0
f i sh er s as % o f w o r l d p o p u l at i o n o n < U S$ 1 a d ay 1 . 9 %
G i v en t h e i m p o r t an c e o f o v er al l ec o n o m i c
p er f o r m an c e, t h e ex p ec t ed ex p an si o n o f t h e
w o r l d ec o n o m y c an b e v i ew ed p o si t i v el y, as c an
an i m p r o v i n g b al an c e o f ex t er n al d eb t i n H I PC.
H o w ev er, q u est i o n s r em ai n ab o u t w h et h er t h i s
o v er al l gr o w t h w i l l b e su st ai n ed , w h et h er i t w i l l
b e r ef l ec t ed i n d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es, w h et h er
sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g c o m m u n i t i es w i l l b en ef i t , an d
w h et h er t h e gap b et w een t h e r i c h an d t h e p o o r
c an b e n ar r o w ed .
I t i s p r o m i si n g t h at t h e w eak n esses o f m an y
c o n v en t i o n al c en t r al i z ed f i sh er i es m an agem en t
r egi m es ar e b ei n g i n c r easi n gl y r ec o gn i z ed an d
t ac k l ed , w h en p u b l i c r eso u r c es p er m i t . Th er e i s a
gr o w i n g aw ar en ess o f t h e n eed f o r a p r o c ess
ap p r o ac h t o f i sh er i es m an agem en t (ac c o m p an i ed
b y c ap ac i t y b u i l d i n g an d r ef o r m ) t h at i s
p ar t i c i p at o r y an d f l ex i b l e en o u gh t o ad ap t t o
c h an gi n g c o n d i t i o n s. Co - m an agem en t an d
c o m m u n i t y m an agem en t ar r an gem en t s o f f er
so m e p o t en t i al i n t h i s r egar d .
G r eat er aw ar en ess t h at go o d go v er n an c e (b y
ad m i n i st r at o r s, p o l i t i c i an s, l o c al l i t e gr o u p s,
f i sh er s an d sc i en t i st s) l i es at t h e h ear t o f m an y o f
t h e so l u t i o n s t o p o v er t y i n sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g
c o m m u n i t i es i s v i t al . H o w ev er, d esp i t e t h i s
r eal i z at i o n , i m p r o v i n g go v er n an c e an d t h e
i n st i t u t i o n al c ap ac i t y t o ef f ec t m ean i n gf u l c h an ge
i n t h e p o v er t y st at u s o f sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g
c o m m u n i t i es i s st i l l a f o r m i d ab l e c h al l en ge, ev en
t h o u gh at l east i t i s a c h al l en ge t h at i s n o w b ei n g
em b r ac ed .
W i t h o u t o u t si d e assi st an c e, p o v er t y st at u s i n t h e
sm al l - sc al e f i sh er i es sec t o r c an i m p r o v e o n l y
sl o w l y. I m p r o v ed go v er n an c e p ar ad i gm s an d
c ap ab l e m an agem en t i n st i t u t i o n s ar e n eed ed , an d
t h ey w i l l n o t b ec o m e ef f ec t i v e u n l ess p u b l i c
r eso u r c es ar e p r o v i d ed at l east i n an i n i t i al
st age. A l t h o u gh t h er e i s a gr o w i n g r eal i z at i o n o f
t h i s n eed i n c o n c er n ed m i l i eu s, i t i s st i l l n o t c l ear
w h at ac t i o n su c h r eal i z at i o n w i l l l ead t o .
AN TI BI OTI C RESI D U ES I N AQU ACU LTU RE
PROD U CTS
TH E I SSU E
Backgr ound. A s i n o t h er an i m al p r o d u c t i o n
sec t o r s, an t i b i o t i c s ar e u sed i n aq u ac u l t u r e d u r i n g
b o t h p r o d u c t i o n an d p r o c essi n g, m ai n l y t o
p r ev en t (p r o p h y l ac t i c u se) an d t r eat (t h er ap eu t i c
u se) b ac t er i al d i seases.
2 0
A n t i b i o t i c s h av e al so
b een r ec o m m en d ed an d u sed as d i si n f ec t an t s i n
74
BO X 1 0
Fi sher i es co-management i n Aby Lagoon,
Ct e d I voi r e
Fi sh er i es c o - m an agem en t i n A b y Lago o n ar o se o u t o f a c r i si s
c au sed b y st o c k d ep l et i o n , m i sgu i d ed ex t er n al su p p o r t , t h e
i n ab i l i t y o f t h e f i sh er i es ad m i n i st r at i o n t o i m p l em en t
sat i sf ac t o r y m an agem en t m easu r es an d t h e d esi r e o f b o t h
go v er n m en t an d r eso u r c e u ser s t o r ed u c e c o n f l i c t s b et w een
t h e st at e an d r eso u r c es u ser s. Co - m an agem en t h as
c o n t r i b u t ed t o i m p r o v i n g l i v el i h o o d s an d p o v er t y al l ev i at i o n
t h r o u gh i n c r eased p r o d u c t i o n an d gr eat er v al u e o f p r o d u c t s
an d t h r o u gh i n v est m en t s i n n o n - f i sh er i es ac t i v i t i es. Th er e i s a
n ew sen se o f em p o w er m en t an d sel f - r esp ec t i n t h e
c o m m u n i t y, an d gr eat er sec u r i t y f r o m b et t er ac c ess t o
r eso u r c es an d su p p o r t i v e so c i al n et w o r k s.
Source: B. Sati a, O . N j i fonj u and K. Angaman. 2001. Fi sheri es co-ma-
n agem en t an d p o v er t y al l ev i at i o n i n t h e c o n t ex t o f t h e su st ai n ab l e l i -
vel i hood approach: a case study i n the fi shi ng com m uni ti es of Aby La-
go o n i n C t e d I v o i r e. Pap er p r esen t ed at t h e CEM A RE- o r gan i z ed i n -
ternati onal w orkshop, D FID /FAO Sustai nabl e Li vel i hoods Programme,
at Cotonou i n N ovember 2001.
f i sh h an d l i n g, b u t t h i s p r ac t i c e h as p r o v ed t o b e
i n ef f ec t i v e an d i s gen er al l y n o t ap p r o v ed b y t h e
f i sh i n sp ec t i o n ser v i c es. A n t i b i o t i c s h av e n o t
al w ay s b een u sed i n a r esp o n si b l e m an n er i n
aq u ac u l t u r e an d , i n a n u m b er o f r ep o r t ed
si t u at i o n s, c o n t r o l o f t h e u se o f an t i b i o t i c s h as n o t
p r o v i d ed a p r o p er assu r an c e o f t h e p r ev en t i o n o f
r i sk s t o h u m an s. FAO , the W orl d H eal th
O r gan i z at i o n (W H O ), t h e I n t er n at i o n al O f f i c e o f
Ep i z o o t i c s (O I E) an d a n u m b er o f n at i o n al
go v er n m en t s h av e al r ead y r ai sed t h e i ssu e o f
i r r esp o n si b l e u se o f an t i b i o t i c s i n al l p r o d u c t i o n
sec t o r s, w i t h p ar t i c u l ar c o n c er n f o r t h e p o t en t i al
r i sk s t o p u b l i c h eal t h . M an y go v er n m en t s ar o u n d
t h e w o r l d h av e i n t r o d u c ed , c h an ged o r t i gh t en ed
n at i o n al r egu l at i o n s o n t h e u se o f an t i b i o t i c s, i n
gen er al an d w i t h i n t h e aq u ac u l t u r e sec t o r.
Publ i c heal t h concer ns. W h en c o n su m ed d i r ec t l y
b y h u m an s as m ed i c i n e, an t i b i o t i c s m ay c au se
ad v er se si d e- ef f ec t s, b u t t h ese c an gen er al l y b e
av o i d ed t h r o u gh ad h er i n g t o t h e r ec o m m en d ed
d o se an d d u r at i o n o f t h er ap y. H o w ev er, w h en
an t i b i o t i c s ar e u n i n t en t i o n al l y i n gest ed as
r esi d u es i n f o o d , t h e am o u n t i n gest ed c an n o t b e
q u an t i f i ed o r m o n i t o r ed an d m ay c au se d i r ec t
h eal t h c o n c er n s, su c h as ap l ast i c an aem i a, w h i c h
i s sai d t o b e asso c i at ed w i t h c h l o r am p h en i c o l .
Th ese d i r ec t ef f ec t s p o se si gn i f i c an t r i sk s t o
h u m an h eal t h . I n ad d i t i o n , t h e u n i n t en t i o n al
c o n su m p t i o n o f an t i b i o t i c s i s l ead i n g t o t h e
d ev el o p m en t o f an t i b i o t i c r esi st an c e i n b ac t er i a
t h at ar e p at h o gen i c t o h u m an s, an d t h i s i s
an o t h er i m p o r t an t p r o b l em t h at h as n o t y et
r ec ei v ed ad eq u at e at t en t i o n . Th e d ev el o p m en t o f
an t i b i o t i c r esi st an c e b y p at h o gen i c b ac t er i a i s
c o n si d er ed t o b e o n e o f t h e m o st ser i o u s r i sk s t o
h u m an h eal t h at t h e gl o b al l ev el .
2 1
Th e p r o b l em
ar i ses w h en b ac t er i a ac q u i r e r esi st an c e t o o n e o r
m o r e o f t h e an t i b i o t i c s t o w h i c h t h ey w er e
f o r m er l y su sc ep t i b l e, an d w h en t h at r esi st an c e
ev en t u al l y m ak es t h e an t i b i o t i c s i n ef f ec t i v e i n
t r eat i n g sp ec i f i c m i c r o b i al d i seases i n h u m an s.
22
Rec o gn i t i o n o f t h e r i sk s asso c i at ed w i t h t h e d i r ec t
an d i n d i r ec t ef f ec t s o n h u m an h eal t h o f b o t h
ac t i v e an d p assi v e c o n su m p t i o n o f an t i b i o t i c s h as
l ed t o b an s o n t h e u se o f c er t ai n an t i b i o t i c s i n
an i m al f o o d p r o d u c t i o n (p ar t i c u l ar l y t h o se
an t i b i o t i c s f o r w h i c h n o saf e r esi d u e l ev el s c an b e
d et er m i n ed ) an d t o t h e est ab l i sh m en t o f
m ax i m u m r esi d u e l i m i t s (M RLs) f o r t h o se w i t h
k n o w n r i sk s.
Ef f ect s on t he i ndust r y. D u r i n g t h e l ast y ear, t h e
d et ec t i o n o f c h l o r am p h en i c o l i n i n t er n at i o n al l y
t r ad ed sh r i m p p r o d u c t s h as c au sed m u c h
c o n c er n . Th e su b st an c e h as b een f o u n d i n
c u l t u r ed p r o d u c t s, r esu l t i n g i n a sl o w d o w n i n
i m p o r t s, c au si n g ec o n o m i c l o ss am o n g t h e
c o n c er n ed p r o d u c er s an d r ef l ec t i n g n egat i v el y o n
al l sh r i m p s an d o n aq u ac u l t u r e o v er al l .
Th er e ar e t w o st r at egi es f o r ac h i ev i n g ac c ep t ab l e
l ev el s o f an t i b i o t i c r esi d u es i n aq u at i c p r o d u c t s:
l i m i t i n g t h e u se o f an t i b i o t i c s i n aq u ac u l t u r e
en t er p r i ses; an d est ab l i sh i n g an d en f o r c i n g M RLs
i n aq u ac u l t u r e p r o d u c t s. Bo t h st r at egi es m u st b e
u sed .
Li mi t i ng t he use of ant i bi ot i cs. A n t i b i o t i c s ar e
n ec essar y f o r sp ec i f i c an d i d en t i f i ed u ses i n
aq u ac u l t u r e. Regu l at i o n o f t h ei r c o m m er c i al
av ai l ab i l i t y i s o n e o f t h e w ay s t o en su r e t h at t h ey
ar e u sed r esp o n si b l y i n aq u ac u l t u r e.
Th er e ar e sev er al p o ssi b l e st r at egi es f o r l i m i t i n g
75
2 0
See, for i nstance: FAO /SEAFD EC/CID A. 2000. U se o f ch em i -
c al s i n aq u ac u l t u r e i n A si a, ed i t ed b y J. R. A r t h u r, C. R. Lav i l l a-
Pi to go an d R.P. Subasi nghe. Proceedi ngs of the M eeti ng on the
U se of Chemi cal s i n Aquacul ture i n Asi a, Il oi l o, the Phi l i ppi nes,
2022 M ay 1996. 235 pp.; and FAO . 1997. Tow ards safe and
effecti ve use of chem i cal s i n coastal aquacul ture. Rep o r t s an d
Studi es, GESAM P N o. 65. Rome. 40 pp.
2 1
U pdated i nform ati on on the devel opm ent of m i crobi al resi -
st an c e c an b e f o u n d at : w w w . f d a. go v / o c / o p ac o m / h o t t o p i c s/
an ti _resi st.h tm l . See al so : K.M . Cah i l l , J.A . D av i es an d R. Jo h n-
son. 1966. Report on an epi dem i c due to Shi gel l a dysenteri ae,
t y p e 1 , i n t h e So m al i i n t er i o r. A m er i c an Jo u r n al o f Tr o p i c al
M edi ci ne and H ygi ene, 15: 5256.
2 2
P. Shears. 2001. Anti bi oti c resi stance i n the tropi cs. Transac -
t i o n s o f t h e Ro y al So c i et y o f Tr o p i c al M ed i c i n e an d H y gi en e,
9 5 : 1 2 7 1 3 0 . F. A n gu l o an d P. M . G r i f f i n . 2 0 0 0 . Ch an ges i n
an t i m i c r o b i al r esi st an c e i n Sal m o n el l a en t er i c a ser o v ar t y p h i -
muri um. Emergi ng Infecti ous D i seases, 6(4); and U SFD A. 1997.
Ex t r al ab el an i m al d r u g u se; f l u o r o q u i n o l o n es an d gl y c o p ep t i -
d es; o r d er o f p r o h i b i t i o n . Fed er al Regi st er, 6 2 (9 9 ): 2 7 9 4 4 2 7
9 4 7 .
t h e c o m m er c i al av ai l ab i l i t y o f an t i b i o t i c s. Th e
t w o m o st b asi c ar e: i d en t i f y i n g t h e p er m i t t ed
an t i b i o t i c s (an d t h ei r M RLs) an d p r o h i b i t i n g al l
o t h er s, o r i d en t i f y i n g t h e p r o h i b i t ed an t i b i o t i c s
an d p er m i t t i n g al l o t h er s. Th e f i r st st r at egy i s
c l ear l y m o r e i n l i n e w i t h t h e p r ec au t i o n ar y
ap p r o ac h .
A p o ssi b l e sc h em e f o r l i m i t i n g t h e u se o f
an t i b i o t i c s b y u si n g t h e f i r st b asi c st r at egy i s
o u t l i n ed i n Tab l e 1 0 .
Est abl i shi ng and enf or ci ng MRLs. I n t h e t w el f t h
ed i t i o n o f t h e Pr o c ed u r al M an u al o f t h e Co d ex
A l i m en t ar i u s Co m m i ssi o n (CA C),
2 3
t h e m ax i m u m
l i m i t f o r r esi d u es o f v et er i n ar y d r u gs (M RLVD ) i s
d ef i n ed as "t h e m ax i m u m c o n c en t r at i o n o f
r esi d u e r esu l t i n g f r o m t h e u se o f a v et er i n ar y d r u g
(ex p r essed i n m g/ k g o n a f r esh w ei gh t b asi s) t h at
i s r ec o m m en d ed b y t h e Co d ex A l i m en t ar i u s
Co m m i ssi o n t o b e l egal l y p er m i t t ed o r
r ec o gn i z ed as ac c ep t ab l e i n o r o n a f o o d . "
Th e M RLV D i s b ased o n t h e t y p e an d am o u n t
o f r esi d u e c o n si d er ed t o b e f r ee f r o m an y
t o x i c o l o gi c al h az ar d f o r h u m an h eal t h , as
ex p r essed b y t h e ac c ep t ab l e d ai l y i n t ak e (A D I ) o r
b y a t em p o r ar y A D I t h at u t i l i z es an ad d i t i o n al
saf et y f ac t o r. Th e M RLV D al so tak es i n to ac c o u n t
o t h er r el ev an t p u b l i c h eal t h r i sk s, as w el l as f o o d
t ec h n o l o gi c al asp ec t s. W h en est ab l i sh i n g an
M RL, c o n si d er at i o n i s al so gi v en t o r esi d u es o f
t h e sam e d r u g t h at o c c u r i n f o o d o f p l an t o r i gi n
an d / o r i n t h e en v i r o n m en t . Fu r t h er m o r e, t h e M RL
m ay b e r ed u c ed so as t o b e c o n si st en t w i t h go o d
p r ac t i c e i n t h e u se o f v et er i n ar y d r u gs, an d t o t h e
ex t en t t h at p r ac t i c al an al y t i c al m et h o d s ar e
av ai l ab l e.
2 4
RECEN T ACTI ON S
Li mi t i ng t he use of ant i bi ot i cs i n aquacul t ur e.
So m e c o u n t r i es o r r egi o n s, su c h as t h e EC,
Can ad a an d N o r w ay, ap p r o v e a l i m i t ed n u m b er
o f an t i b i o t i c s sp ec i f i c al l y f o r u se i n aq u ac u l t u r e.
I n Can ad a, t h e an t i b i o t i c s ap p r o v ed f o r
aq u ac u l t u r e u se ar e: o x y t et r ac y c l i n e, su l f ad i az i n e
(t r i m et h o p r i m ), su l f ad i m et h o x i n e (o r m et o p r i m )
an d f l o r f en i c o l .
2 5
N o t o n l y d o t h e r egu l at i o n s
ap p r o v e t h e t y p es o f an t i b i o t i c t h at c an b e u sed ,
t h ey al so u su al l y sp ec i f y t h e sp ec i es, d i agn o si s,
d o se, d u r at i o n an d w i t h d r aw al p er i o d t o b e
76
TABLE 10
Possi bl e pur chase and user pat t er ns and r esul t i ng r esi dual ef f ect s of ant i bi ot i cs i n aquacul t ur e
Type of ant i bi ot i c Pur chase and use Resi dues i n f i sh
A n t i b i o t i c s sp ec i f i c al l y ap p r o v ed "O v er t h e c o u n t er " W i th i n th e l ev el s estab l i sh ed
f o r aq u ac u l t u r e u se ("l ab el u se") O n p r esc r i p t i o n b y r egu l at o r y au t h o r i t i es
A n t i b i o t i c s t o b e u sed u n d er O f ap p r o v ed an t i b i o t i c s f o r W i th i n th e l ev el s estab l i sh ed
"Ex t r a- l ab el u se"
1
aq u ac u l t u r e (o n p r o f essi o n al b y r egu l at o r y au t h o r i t i es
p resc ri p ti o n )
A n t i b i o t i c s t o b e u sed i n Tem p o r ar y u se an d o n l y f o l l o w i n g N o resi d u es i n co m m erci al i zed
em ergen c i es an d fo r researc h sp ec i f i c ap p r o v al b y q u al i f i ed p r o d u c t s, o r w i t h i n t h e l ev el s
professi onal s est ab l i sh ed b y r egu l at o r y au t h o r i t i es
A l l o t h er an t i b i o t i c s Pr o h i b i t ed A b sen t
1
Ext r a-l abel use i s def i ned as use of a dr ug i n an ani mal i n a manner t hat i s not i n accor dance w i t h t he pur pose appr oved on t he l abel .
2 4
CA C Pr o c ed u r al M an u al t w el f t h ed i t i o n c an b e f o u n d at :
ftp://ftp.fao.org/codex/manual /manual 12ce.pdf
2 5
D et ai l s o f an t i b i o t i c s ap p r o v ed f o r aq u ac u l t u r e u se i n
Can ad a c an b e f o u n d at : h t t p : / / sal m o n h eal t h . c a/ t h er ap eu t an t -
sapproved.htm l
2 3
CAC i s a j oi nt commi ssi on formed by FAO and W H O . Si nce
the fi rst steps w ere taken i n 1961 to establ i sh a Codex Al i men -
tari us (food code), CA C, as the body charged w i th devel opi ng
that code, has draw n w orl d attenti on to the fi el d of food qual i ty
an d saf et y . CA C i s c h ar ged w i t h d ev el o p i n g f o o d saf et y st an -
dards for w orl dw i de appl i cati on, and Codex standards have be-
c o m e t h e b en c h m ar k s agai n st w h i c h n at i o n al f o o d m easu r es
and regul ati ons are eval uated w i thi n the l egal parameters of the
W orl d Trade O rgani zati on s Sani tary and Phytosani tary Agree-
ment (W TO /SPS).
o b ser v ed w h en an an t i b i o t i c i s u sed as a
t h er ap eu t i c agen t . Co m p l i an c e w i t h t h ese
c o n d i t i o n s an d r egu l at i o n s assu r es t h at t h e
r esi d u es i n p r o d u c t s ar e k ep t b el o w t h e M RLs an d
t h at t h e r i sk o f p at h o gen i c b ac t er i a d ev el o p i n g
r esi st an c e i s n egl i gi b l e o r, at l east , ac c ep t ab l e.
Ch l o r am p h en i c o l i s st i l l an au t h o r i z ed
an t i b i o t i c i n h u m an m ed i c i n e. Pat i en t s w h o u se i t
as a m ed i c i n e ar e t ak i n g a r i sk , b u t i t i s a r i sk t h at
t h ey c an (an d sh o u l d ) assess an d u n d er st an d f u l l y.
I n ad d i t i o n , a c o u r se o f t r eat m en t w i t h
c h l o r am p h en i c o l sh o u l d o n l y b e f o l l o w ed u n d er
t h e d i r ec t su p er v i si o n o f a q u al i f i ed p h y si c i an .
Ch l o r am p h en i c o l i n gest i o n t h r o u gh t h e
c o n su m p t i o n o f f i sh p r o d u c t s c o n t ai n i n g r esi d u es,
h o w ev er, c o u l d p o se h eal t h h az ar d s t o h u m an s,
w h i c h c o u l d h av e ser i o u s i m p l i c at i o n s. Th i s i s
w h y c h l o r am p h en i c o l i s au t h o r i z ed f o r u se i n
h u m an m ed i c i n e, b u t n o t f o r v et er i n ar y
ap p l i c at i o n s.
U nti l 1994, the EC s M RL for chl orampheni col
w as 10 ppb as a provi si onal (Annex III) al l ocati on.
A f t er 1 9 9 4 , w h en i t b ec am e c l ear t h at d at a t o
d em o n st r at e a saf e l ev el o f c h l o r am p h en i c o l
c o u l d n o t b e est ab l i sh ed , t h e M RL w as c h an ged
t o z er o (A n n ex I V ). Th e d et ec t i o n l i m i t s f o r
c h l o r am p h en i c o l b y t h e ac c ep t ed t est i n g
m et h o d o l o gy u si n g h i gh - p er f o r m an c e l i q u i d
c h r o m at o gr ap h y (H PLC) w as t h en 5 t o 1 0 p p b .
Th u s, ef f ec t i v el y, t h e M RL f o r c h l o r am p h en i c o l
b ec am e 5 p p b . O v er t h e p ast t w o y ear s, sev er al
tests for chl oram pheni col based on enzym e l i nked
i m m u n o so r b en t assay (ELI SA ) t ec h n o l o gy h av e
c o m e o n t o t h e m ar k et . Th e st at ed m an u f ac t u r er s
d et ec t i o n t h r esh o l d f o r c h l o r am p h en i c o l u si n g
t h ese ELI SA - b ased t est s i s 0 . 0 5 p p b . Si n c e t h e EC
d o es n o t r ec o gn i z e an M RL f o r c h l o r am p h en i c o l
(z er o t o l er an c e), b y u si n g m o r e sen si t i v e t est s,
an al y t i c c h em i st s h av e d i sq u al i f i ed m an y o f t h e
f o o d i t em s t h at p r ev i o u sl y h ad b een ac c ep t ed as
saf e f o r h u m an c o n su m p t i o n .
Th er e ar e n i n e su b st an c es i n c l u d ed i n A n n ex I V
o f Regu l at i o n 2 3 7 7 / 9 0 / EEC t h at m ay n o t b e u sed
i n f o o d p r o d u c i n g sp ec i es b ec au se n o saf e l ev el
o f r esi d u e c an b e d et er m i n ed : c h l o r am p h en i c o l ,
26
c h l o r o f o r m , c h l o r p r o m az i n e, c o l c h i c i n e,
D ap so n e, D i m et r i d az o l e, M et r o n i d az o l e,
n i t r o f u r an s (i n c l u d i n g Fu r az o l i d o n e) an d
Ro n i d az o l e. Th e p r esen c e o f an A n n ex I V
su b st an c e r esi d u e (i n c l u d i n g m et ab o l i t es) i s p r i m a
f ac i e ev i d en c e o f t h e u se o f a p r o h i b i t ed
su b st an c e i n a f o o d an i m al sp ec i es.
I n t h e U n i t ed St at es, sev er al d r u gs ar e
p r o h i b i t ed f o r ex t r a- l ab el an i m al an d h u m an d r u g
u ses i n f o o d p r o d u c i n g an i m al s. Th o se r el ev an t t o
aq u ac u l t u r e i n t er est s i n c l u d e: c h l o r am p h en i c o l ,
D i m et r i d az o l e, Fu r az o l i d o n e (ex c ep t f o r
ap p r o v ed t o p i c al u se), N i t r o f u r az o n e (ex c ep t f o r
ap p r o v ed t o p i c al u se) an d f l u o r o q u i n o l o n es.
A p p r o v ed an t i b i o t i c s c an b e b o u gh t an d
u t i l i z ed u n d er t w o c o n d i t i o n s: o v er t h e c o u n t er,
o r o n p r esc r i p t i o n b y a q u al i f i ed p r o f essi o n al . I n
Can ad a, t h e o v er - t h e- c o u n t er p u r c h ase o f
o x y t et r ac y c l i n e i s su p p o r t ed b y t h e ex i st en c e o f a
M ed i c at i n g I n gr ed i en t Br o c h u r e, w h i c h
r ec o m m en d s t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r i t s u se. I t i s
i m p o r t an t t h at i n f o r m at i o n o n t h e r esp o n si b l e an d
c o r r ec t u se o f an t i b i o t i c s b e p r o v i d ed t o
aq u ac u l t u r i st s. I n d ev el o p ed c o u n t r i es (e. g. t h e
U n i t ed St at es, EC c o u n t r i es, Can ad a), m o st
ap p r o v ed an t i b i o t i c s c an o n l y b e p u r c h ased an d
u t i l i z ed o n p r esc r i p t i o n , an d u n d er t h e gu i d an c e
o f a q u al i f i ed p r o f essi o n al .
2 7
Fo r ex t r a- l ab el u se, a q u al i f i ed p r o f essi o n al
m ay w r i t e a p r esc r i p t i o n f o r t h e u se o f an
ap p r o v ed an t i b i o t i c u n d er c o n d i t i o n s t h at v ar y
f r o m t h o se ap p r o v ed . I n t h i s c ase, t h e ap p r o v i n g
o f f i c er w i l l p r o v i d e sp ec i f i c i n st r u c t i o n s f o r t h e
an t i b i o t i c s u se an d i s r esp o n si b l e f o r i t s
ap p l i c at i o n . U n d er t h e Can ad i an r egu l at i o n s, t h e
q u al i f i ed p r o f essi o n al assu m es f u l l r esp o n si b i l i t y
f o r an y d r u g r esi d u e v i o l at i o n . U n d er t h e U n i t ed
St at es r egu l at i o n s, t h er e i s p r o v i si o n f o r
au t h o r i z i n g l i c en sed v et er i n ar i an s t o p r esc r i b e
ex t r a- l ab el u ses o f an t i b i o t i c s i n an i m al
p r o d u c t i o n f o r d r u gs t h at h av e b een ap p r o v ed f o r
77
2 6
See: w w w.em ea.eu.i nt/pdfs/vet/m rl s/chl oram pheni col .pdf
2 7
Law s defi ne w hi ch qual i fi ed professi onal s are authori zed to
w ri te d ru g p rescri p ti o n s fo r th e treatm en t o f fi sh i n aq u acu l tu re
and are responsi bl e for control l i ng them. Such professi onal s may
h ave d i fferen t p ro fessi o n al b ackgro u n d s i n d i fferen t co u n tri es;
for i nstance, i n the EC and the U ni ted States, they are veteri na-
ri ans (w i th proper aquacul ture trai ni ng), but i n som e countri es
t h ey c o u l d b e b i o l o gi st s (aq u ac u l t u r e) w i t h p r o p er t r ai n i n g i n
fi sh m ed i ci n e an d h u m an p u b l i c h eal th .
h u m an u se o n l y. H o w ev er, t h e sam e r egu l at i o n
p r o v i d es t h at t h e U n i t ed St at ed Fo o d an d D r u g
A d m i n i st r at i o n (U SFD A ) "m ay p r o h i b i t an ex t r a-
l ab el d r u g u se i n an i m al s i f , af t er af f o r d i n g an
o p p o r t u n i t y f o r p u b l i c c o m m en t , t h e agen c y f i n d s
t h at su c h u se p r esen t s a r i sk t o t h e p u b l i c h eal t h ".
Th i s r egu l at i o n est ab l i sh es, d e f ac t o , a l ar ge
d i f f er en c e f r o m t h o se c o u n t r i es t h at al l o w o n l y
t h e u se o f ap p r o v ed an t i b i o t i c s f o r aq u ac u l t u r e.
Th i s c o u l d c r eat e si t u at i o n s o f l ac k o f c o n t r o l .
A s ex p r essed b y U SFD A , "t h e d at a an d
i n f o r m at i o n n ec essar y t o d et er m i n e, i n p ar t i c u l ar
si t u at i o n s, w h et h er t h e r esi st an c e l ev el at t i m e o f
sl au gh t er w o u l d b e i n c r eased ab o v e n o r m al as a
r esu l t o f ex t r a- l ab el u se i s n o t gen er al l y av ai l ab l e
t o p r ac t i si n g v et er i n ar i an s, w h o m u st m ak e t h e
ex t r a- l ab el u se d ec i si o n s". I n ad d i t i o n t o
an t i b i o t i c r esi d u es, t h er ef o r e, t h e i n c r eased
r esi st an c e t o t h e sp ec i f i c an t i b i o t i c sh o u l d , i n
p r i n c i p l e, al so b e m o n i t o r ed . I n c o u n t r i es t h at d o
n o t h av e an ef f ec t i v e v et er i n ar y ser v i c e
c o m p et en t i n aq u ac u l t u r e o r t h at l ac k
m i c r o b i o l o gi c al m o n i t o r i n g, t h e ex t r a- l ab el u se o f
an t i b i o t i c s i m p l i es i r r esp o n si b i l i t y an d a ser i o u s
sh o r t c o m i n g i n t h e m an agem en t o f r i sk s t o
h u m an h eal t h .
Th er e ar e al so p r o v i si o n s r egar d i n g t h e u se o f
an t i b i o t i c s t o d eal w i t h em er gen c i es (e. g.
ep i d em i c s) an d r esear c h . I n gen er al , b an n ed
an t i b i o t i c s an d b an n ed v et er i n ar y d r u gs p o se
si gn i f i c an t d em o n st r ab l e r i sk s t o h u m an h eal t h .
Bo x 1 1 p r o v i d es a l i st o f t h e an t i b i o t i c s an d
v et er i n ar y d r u gs t h at ar e c u r r en t l y b an n ed i n t h e
U n i t ed St at es. Ban n ed an t i b i o t i c s an d v et er i n ar y
d r u gs m ay v ar y f r o m c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y.
Est abl i shi ng and enf or ci ng MRLs. Th e p r o c ed u r es
b y w h i c h CA C set s M RLV D s are c o m p l ex an d ,
o w i n g t o t h e i n ev i t ab l e i n t er n at i o n al
i n v o l v em en t , sl o w. D at a ar e an al y sed b y t h e Jo i n t
FA O / W H O Ex p er t Co m m i t t ee o n Fo o d A d d i t i v es
(JECFA ), w h i c h m eet s o n l y o n c e a y ear. W h en a
r ec o m m en d at i o n i s r eac h ed (af t er m u c h JECFA
c o n si d er at i o n ), t h e c o n c l u si o n s ar e p assed t o
CA C s o w n ex p er t c o m m i t t ee, t h e Co d ex
Co m m i t t ee o n Resi d u es o f Veteri nary D rugs i n
Fo o d (CCRV D F), f o r f u r t h er ev al u at i o n .
2 8
Est ab l i sh i n g M RLs f o r f i sh p r esen t s sev er al
p r o b l em s, i n c l u d i n g t h e i d en t i f i c at i o n o f w h at ar e
ed i b l e t i ssu es an d t h e c o m p l ex p h ar m ac o k i n et i c
p r o p er t i es an d m et ab o l i sm o f v et er i n ar y d r u gs i n
f i sh . Th e o n l y f u l l CA C M RLs f o r aq u ac u l t u r e
sp ec i es l i st ed i n t h e d at ab ase ar e f o r t h e
ad m i n i st r at i o n o f o x y t et r ac y c l i n e at 1 0 0 g/ k g t o
"f i sh " an d "gi an t p r aw n ", b u t sev er al ad d i t i o n al
M RL p r o p o sal s f r o m JECFA are now w i thi n the
CA C sy st em . Fr o m t h i s i t i s c l ear t h at i t w i l l b e
m an y y ear s b ef o r e CA C set s a u sab l e l i st o f M RLs
78
2 8
A d at ab ase o f CA C M RLs so f ar d ev el o p ed i s av ai l ab l e at :
apps.fao.org/codexsystem /vetdrugs/vetd_ref/q-e.htm .
BO X 11
D r ugs cur r ent l y banned f or use i n r ai si ng ani mal s
i n t he U ni t ed St at es (U SFD A 2002)
Ch l o r am p h en i c o l
Cl en b u t er o l
D i et h y l st i l b est r o l (D ES)
D i m et r i d az o l e
I p r o n i d az o l e
O t h er n i t r o i m i d az o l es
Fu r az o l i d o n e, N i t r o f u r az o n e, o t h er n i t r o f u r an s
Su l p h o n am i d e d r u gs i n l ac t at i n g d ai r y c at t l e (ex c ep t
ap p r o v ed u se o f su l f ad i m et h o x i n e, su l f ab r o m o m et h az i n e,
an d su l f aet h o x y p y r i d az i n e)
Fl u o r o q u i n o l o n es
G l y c o p ep t i d es
Source: w w w.fda.gov/cvm /i ndex/updates/ni troup.htm
r el ev an t t o aq u ac u l t u r e; n at i o n al o r m ar k et - ar ea
M RLs w i l l t h er ef o r e p r ed o m i n at e i n t h e
p r o t ec t i o n o f c o n su m er s w i t h i n t h ei r ar eas. Th e
p r o d u c t s t h at ar e b ei n g assessed b y JECFA ar e
gi v en i n Tabl e 11.
A s w el l as t h e M RLs set b y JECFA, several
c o u n t r i es o r c o u n t r y gr o u p s h av e set t h ei r o w n .
Th e M RLs r el ev an t t o aq u ac u l t u r e i n t h e EC
Eu r o p ean Ec o n o m i c A r ea (EC EEA ) an d t h e
U n i t ed St at es ar e gi v en i n Tabl es 12 and 13. The
i n f o r m at i o n o n M RLs f o r v et er i n ar y d r u g r esi d u es
i n Can ad a c an b e f o u n d o n t h e H eal t h Can ad a
W eb si te: w w w. h c - sc . gc . c a/ en gl i sh / i n d ex . h t m l .
Sp ec i f i c M RL i n f o r m at i o n i s gi v en at :
w w w. i n sp ec t i o n . gc . c a/ en gl i sh / an i m a/ f i sp o i /
m an m an / sam n em / b u l l 8 e. sh t m l .
Th e Bu r eau o f V eteri n ary D ru gs, H eal th Can ad a
h as ap p r o v ed si x d r u g p r o d u c t s (ei gh t d r u g
su b st an c es) f o r u se i n aq u ac u l t u r e (Tabl e 14).
A d d i t i o n al i n f o r m at i o n o n am en d ed M RLs i s al so
av ai l ab l e at : w w w. h c - sc . gc . c a/ en gl i sh / m ed i a/
r el eases/ 2 0 0 2 / 2 0 0 2 _0 8 b k 1 . h t m (see Tab l e 1 5 ).
Th e Br i t i sh Co l u m b i a M i n i st r y o f A gr i c u l t u r e
al so h as a v al u ab l e W eb si t e w i t h i n f o r m at i o n o n
aq u ac u l t u r e an d , i n p ar t i c u l ar, t h e u se o f
an t i b i o t i c s i n aq u ac u l t u r e: w w w. agf . go v. b c . c a/
f i sh er i es/ h eal t h / an t i b i o t i c s. h t m .
Jap an ese M RL i n f o r m at i o n c an b e f o u n d at :
w w w. f f c r. o r. j p / z ai d an / f f c r h o m e. n sf / p ages/ e- i n f o -
f o o d c h em . O n l y t w o aq u ac u l t u r e M RLs ar e
p o st ed f o r f i sh an d sh el l f i sh i n Jap an : 0 . 2 p p m f o r
o x y t et r ac y c l i n e an d 0 . 2 p p m f o r Sp i r am y c i n .
Li st i n gs p u b l i sh ed el sew h er e su ggest t h at a w i d e
r an ge o f v et er i n ar y m ed i c i n es h as b een ap p r o v ed
f o r u se i n f i sh i n Jap an .
M RLs o f ap p r o v ed an t i b i o t i c s ar e u su al l y
c o n ser v at i v e. Pr o c essi n g, c o o k i n g an d f r o z en
st o r age c an r ed u c e t h e r esi d u al l ev el s o f
an t i b i o t i c s.
2 9
H o w ev er, d at a r egar d i n g t h e ef f ec t
o f p r o c essi n g, c o o k i n g an d f r eez i n g aq u at i c
an i m al p r o d u c t s o n t h e d egr ad at i o n o f an t i b i o t i c
r esi d u es i n aq u at i c an i m al p r o d u c t s ar e sc ar c e; i t
i s t h er ef o r e essen t i al t o c o n d u c t p r o p er ex p o su r e
assessm en t s, i n t h e f o r m o f r i sk assessm en t s, n o t
o n l y i n o r d er t o u n d er st an d t h e r i sk s b u t al so t o
r eassu r e c o n su m er s.
I n t h e EC, c o n su m er saf et y i s ad d r essed v i a
M RLs est ab l i sh ed b y Co u n c i l Regu l at i o n
EEC/ 2 3 7 7 / 9 0 . Th e EC d ef i n i t i o n o f M RL i s
v i r t u al l y t h e sam e as t h at ad o p t ed b y CA CRV D
f o r f o o d s. Th e A n n ex es t o Regu l at i o n 2 3 7 7 / 9 0 ar e
as f o l l o w s:
A n n ex I : f u l l M RL c an b e set ;
A n n ex I I : saf e, n o M RL n eed ed t o p r o t ec t t h e
c o n su m er ;
A n n ex I I I : su f f i c i en t d at a t o set a p r o v i si o n al
79
TABLE 11
JECFA pr oposed MRLs r el evant t o aquacul t ur e
JECFA Year Dr ug Ti ssue Speci es MRL St at us
Meet i ng (g/ kg)
number
4 7 1 9 9 6 O x y t et r ac y c l i n e M u sc l e G i ant praw n 100
(Pen aeu s m o n o d o n )
4 8 1 9 9 7 Fl u m eq u i n e M u sc l e an d sk i n Trout 500 Temporary
i n n o rm al p ro p o rti o n
5 2 1 9 9 9 Th i am p h en i c o l M u sc l e Fi sh 5 0 Re- ev al u at e
i n 2 0 0 2
5 2 1 9 9 9 D el t am et h r i n M u sc l e Sal m o n 3 0
5 4 2 0 0 2 Fl u m eq u i n e M u sc l e an d sk i n Trout 500
i n n o rm al p ro p o rti o n
5 8 2 0 0 2 O x y t et r ac y c l i n e M u sc l e Fi sh 200
2 9
Chun-Chi eh Lan, Bau-Sung H w ang and M ei -Feng Tu. 2001.
Effect of mi crow ave and roast treatment on the degradati on of
sul famethazi ne resi due i n ti l api a meat. Journal of Food and D rug
A n al y si s, 9 (2 ): 1 0 2 1 0 6 .
80
TABLE 12
Cur r ent MRLs r el evant t o aquacul t ur e i n t he EC EEA
D r ug Annex MRL (g/ kg) Speci es Counci l Regul at i on
A l l su l p h o n am i d es I 1 0 0 A l l f o o d p r o d u c i n g
Tri m eth o p ri m I 5 0 Fi n f i sh
A m o x i c y l l i n I 5 0 A l l f o o d p r o d u c i n g
A m p i c i l l i n I 5 0 A l l f o o d p r o d u c i n g
Ben z y l p en i c i l l i n I 5 0 A l l f o o d p r o d u c i n g
Cl o x ac i l l i n I 3 0 0 A l l f o o d p r o d u c i n g
D i c l o x ac i l i n I 3 0 0 A l l f o o d p r o d u c i n g
O x ac i l l i n I 3 0 0 A l l f o o d p r o d u c i n g 5 0 8 / 1 9 9 9 / EC
Pen et h am at e I 5 0 A l l f o o d p r o d u c i n g
Sar af l o x ac i n I 3 0 Sal m o n i d ae
Ch l o r t et r ac y c l i n e I 1 0 0 A l l f o o d p r o d u c i n g
O x y t et r ac y c l i n e I 1 0 0 A l l f o o d p r o d u c i n g
Tetracycl i ne I 1 0 0 A l l f o o d p r o d u c i n g
Br o n o p o l I I Sal m o n i d ae, eggs o n l y
So m at o sal m I I Sal m o n
A z am et h i p h o s I I 1 9 3 1 /1 9 9 9 /EC
Em am ec t i n b en z o at e I 1 0 0 Sal m o n i d ae 1 9 3 1 /1 9 9 9 /EC
Tefl ubenzuron I 5 0 0 Sal m o n i d ae 1 9 3 1 /1 9 9 9 /EC
Tri c ai n e m esy l ate I I Fi n f i sh 1 9 4 2 /1 9 9 9 /EC
Toschl orami de N a I I Fi n f i sh 2 3 9 3 /1 9 9 9 /EC
D i f l u b en z u r o n I 1000 Sal m o n i d ae 2 5 9 3 /1 9 9 9 /EC
Th i o p en t al i v I I n / a A l l f o o d p r o d u c i n g 7 4 9 / 2 0 0 1 / EC
Fl u m eq i n e I 6 0 0 Sal m o n i d ae 2 7 2 8 /1 9 9 9 /EC
O x o l i n i c ac i d I I I ex p i r es 1 / 1 / 0 3 3 0 0 Fi n f i sh 8 0 7 / 2 0 0 1 / EC
Fl o r f en i c o l I 1000 Fi n f i sh 1 3 2 2 /2 0 0 1 /EC
N ot e: Annex I subst ances have maj or speci es or ani mal gr oup MRLs al l ocat ed. Annex I I subst ances ar e r egar ded as consumer -saf e and do not r equi r e MRLs
t o be set . Onl y t hose Annex I I subst ances t hat ar e of r el evance t o aquacul t ur e ar e i ncl uded her e. Annex I I I subst ances have pr ovi si onal t i me-l i mi t ed MRLs
t o al l ow f i nal saf et y dat a t o be gener at ed.
81
TABLE 13
Cur r ent t ol er ances r el evant t o aquacul t ur e i n t he U ni t ed St at es
Dr ug Speci es Tol er ance (MRL) St at us
Tr i f l u r al i n Sh ri m p s o r p raw n s 0 . 0 0 1 m g/ k g Tem p o r ar y
O x y t et r ac y c l i n e Sal m o n i d s 0 . 2 m g/ k g Tem p o r ar y
O x o l i n i c ac i d Sal m o n , Pac i f i c 0 .0 1 m g/k g At LO D
1
1
LOD = l i mi t of det er mi nat i on.
TABLE 14
Cur r ent l y appr oved dr ugs and t hei r MRLs i n Canada
Dr ug Speci es Ti ssue AMRL
1
O x y t et r ac y c l i n e Sal m oni ds
Ed i b l e t i ssu e 0 . 1 g/ g
Lo b st er
Su l f ad i - m et h o x i n e Ed i b l e t i ssu e 0 . 1 g/ g
Sal m oni ds
O r m et o p r i m Ed i b l e t i ssu e 0 . 5 g/ g
M u sc l e/ sk i n 1 . 0 g/ g
Su l f ad i az i n e Sal m oni ds Ed i b l e t i ssu e 0 . 1 g/ g
Tr i m et h o p r i m Ed i b l e t i ssu e 0 . 1 g/ g
M u sc l e/ sk i n 1 . 0 g/ g
Tr i c ai n e m et h an esu l f o n at e Sal m oni ds Ed i b l e t i ssu e 0 . 0 2 g/ g
Fo r m al d eh y d e Sal m oni ds n / a
2
Fl o rfen i c o l Sal m oni ds Ed i b l e t i ssu e 0 . 1 g/ g
3
N ot es:
1
AMRL = admi ni st r at i ve MRL.
2
Regul at ed bi ol ogi cal subst ance, ubi qui t ous i n nat ur e.
3
MRL i s speci f i ed f or t he met abol i t e, f l or f eni col ami ne.
TABLE 15
Addi t i onal amended MRLs i n Canada
Dr ug Mar ker r esi due MRL Speci es
(g/ g)
Fl o rfen i c o l Fl o r f en i c o l am i n e 0 . 8 M u sc l e o f sal m o n i d s (sal m o n , t r o u t , c h ar, w h i tefi sh an d gray l i n g)
Su l f ad i az i n e Su l f ad i az i n e 0 . 1 M u sc l e o f sal m o n i d s (sal m o n , t r o u t , c h ar, w h i t ef i sh an d gr ay l i n g)
Tr i m et h o p r i m Tr i m et h o p r i m 0 . 1 M u sc l e o f sal m o n i d s (sal m o n , t r o u t , c h ar, w h i tefi sh an d gray l i n g)
M RL, b u t ad d i t i o n al d at a n eed ed t o al l o c at e
f u l l M RL;
A n n ex I V : o n saf et y gr o u n d s, n o M RL c an b e
set . Su b st an c es p l ac ed i n t h i s A n n ex ar e
p r o h i b i t ed f r o m u se i n f o o d an i m al sp ec i es,
al t h o u gh t h ey m ay st i l l b e u sed i n p et sp ec i es.
It shoul d be noted that, al though no formal M RL
regul ati on has been establ i shed i n the U ni ted
States, the equi val ent there i s the tol erance, w hi ch
i s establ i shed by the regul atory authori ti es.
GLOBAL PERSPECTI VE
HACCP as a r i sk-based management t ool f or
ant i bi ot i c use i n aquacul t ur e. I n aq u ac u l t u r e,
an t i b i o t i c s ar e gen er al l y ad m i n i st er ed i n f eed s,
h av i n g b een ei t h er ad d ed d u r i n g f eed
m an u f ac t u r e o r su r f ac e- c o at ed o n t o p el l et s b y
t h e m an u f ac t u r er o r t h e f ar m er. D u r i n g o u t b r eak s
o f d i sease, f ar m er s m ay ap p l y an t i b i o t i c s u si n g
o t h er r o u t es. Cl ear i n st r u c t i o n s ar e t h er ef o r e
r eq u i r ed f o r t h e f eed m an u f ac t u r er s, an t i b i o t i c
d eal er s, v et er i n ar y au t h o r i t i es an d f ar m er s w h o
ar e r esp o n si b l e f o r t h e u se o f an t i b i o t i c s. W h o
p r o v i d es su c h i n f o r m at i o n , an d w h o i s
r esp o n si b l e f o r r egu l at i n g an d c o n t r o l l i n g
an t i b i o t i c s n at i o n al l y ?
Th e H az ar d A n al y si s Cr i t i c al Co n t r o l Po i n t
(H A CCP) sy st em i s r ec o m m en d ed as a w ay o f
r ed u c i n g h az ar d s st em m i n g f r o m t h e p r o c essi n g
o f f i sh an d f i sh er y p r o d u c t s. I m p l em en t at i o n o f
t h e H A CCP sy st em i n f i sh p r o c essi n g i s
m an d at o r y, an d al l ex p o r t i n g c o u n t r i es h av e t o
c o m p l y w i t h t h i s r eq u i r em en t f o r i n t er n at i o n al
t r ad e. Si n c e t h e m i d d l e o f 1 9 9 0 , so m e d ev el o p ed
c o u n t r i es h av e i n t r o d u c ed t h e sy st em t o c o n t r o l
h az ar d s f r o m t h e u se o f an t i b i o t i c s at t h e p o n d
l ev el .
3 0
Th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f H A CCP t o c o n t r o l
f o o d h az ar d s i n aq u ac u l t u r e, i n c l u d i n g t h o se
st em m i n g f r o m t h e i r r esp o n si b l e u se o f an t i b i o t i c s
h as b een w i d el y r ec o m m en d ed
3 1
an d h as b een
d i sc u ssed b y an FA O / N et w o r k o f A q u ac u l t u r e
Cen t r es i n A si a- Pac i f i c (N A CA )/ W H O St u d y
G r o u p o n Fo o d Saf et y.
3 2
H A CCP i s c u r r en t l y n o t m an d at ed b y m o st
p r i m ar y an i m al p r o d u c t i o n r egu l at i o n s t h at
i n c l u d e aq u ac u l t u r e. I n m an y c o u n t r i es, ev en
w h en t h e l i ab i l i t y m ay b e sh ar ed o r (d ep en d i n g
o n r egu l at i o n s) w h en i t r em ai n s o n t h e
p r o d u c t i o n si d e, t h e ac t u al o b l i gat i o n t o c o n t r o l
t h e u se o f an t i b i o t i c s an d t h ei r r esi d u es r est s w i t h
t h e p r o c essi n g i n d u st r y, as H A CCP i s m an d at ed
w i t h i n t h e p r o c essi n g sec t o r. Th i s c r eat es
d i f f i c u l t i es i n i m p l em en t i n g c o n t r o l m easu r es o n
an t i b i o t i c u se i n aq u ac u l t u r e.
A l l t h e el em en t s f o r i d en t i f y i n g t h e c r i t i c al
c o n t r o l p o i n t s (CCPs) an d c r i t i c al l i m i t s o f
r egu l at o r y r eq u i r em en t s ex i st f o r ap p r o v ed
an t i b i o t i c s an d v et er i n ar y d r u gs, sp ec i f i c f i sh o r
sh el l f i sh sp ec i es, d i agn o si s (p u r p o se o f u se), d o se,
d u r at i o n o f t r eat m en t an d w i t h d r aw al p er i o d . I t
h as b een su ggest ed t h at t h e CCP w o u l d b e at t h e
f eed i n g st age, si n c e t h i s i s w h en an t i b i o t i c s ar e
u su al l y i n t r o d u c ed i n t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c ess.
Th e an al y si s o f r esi d u es o f t h e an t i b i o t i c s u sed ,
an d t h e c h ec k i n g o f c o m p l i an c e w i t h r egu l at i o n s,
w o u l d f o r m p ar t o f t h e v er i f i c at i o n p r o c ed u r es. I n
ad d i t i o n , as U SFD A h as su ggest ed , t h e
m o n i t o r i n g o f r esi d u es i n f l esh m ay b e n o t
en o u gh , an d t h e d ev el o p m en t o f r esi st an c e i n
p o n d m i c r o - o r gan i sm s (an d / o r t h e t ar get m i c r o -
o r gan i sm ) sh o u l d al so b e m o n i t o r ed an
ad d i t i o n al CCP.
Regar d i n g t h e f i sh p r o c essi n g i n d u st r y, f u r t h er
p r o c ed u r es, ac t i v i t i es an d m o n i t o r i n g sh o u l d b e
p er f o r m ed i n ad d i t i o n t o t h e H A CCP p l an . I n
p ar t i c u l ar, p r er eq u i si t es (e. g. p l an t l o c at i o n , w at er
su p p l y an d ef f l u en t c o n t r o l ) an d go o d h y gi en e
p r ac t i c es at t h e p o n d sh o u l d b e i m p l em en t ed .
Th e st o r age an d h an d l i n g o f an t i b i o t i c s sh o u l d b e
p u t u n d er a sc h em e o f m o n i t o r i n g, as i n d i c at ed i n
t h e U n i t ed St at es H A CCP- b ased r egu l at i o n f o r
st o r age o f c h em i c al s i n t h e p l an t , f o r ex am p l e.
33
82
31
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J. W. Sl av i n . Fi sh i n sp ec t i o n , q u al i t y c o n t r o l , an d H A CCP, p p .
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32
W H O . 1999. Food safety i ssues associ ated w i th products from
aquacul ture. Report of a Joi nt FAO /N ACA/W H O Study Group.
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3 0
G. Val set. 1997. N orw egi an hazard control s for aquacul ture.
I n R. E. M ar t i n , R. L. Co l l et t e an d J. W. Sl av i n . Fi sh i n sp ec t i o n ,
q u al i ty c o n tro l , an d H A CCP, pp. 392402. Lancaster, PA, U SA,
Technom i c Publ i shi ng.
A s w i t h m o st f o o d h az ar d - r el at ed ar eas, m an y
p eo p l e ar e i n v o l v ed i n aq u ac u l t u r e h az ar d
m o n i t o r i n g, i n c l u d i n g r egu l at o r s, c o n su m er s,
p r o d u c er s, p r o c esso r s, j o u r n al i st s an d
so m et i m es r esear c h er s, w h o m ay l ac k a
c o m p l et e p i c t u r e o f a gi v en r i sk an d i t s
p o ssi b i l i t i es o f m an agem en t . Th e i m p o r t an c e o f
c o m m u n i c at i n g p r o b l em s w i d el y h as b een
r ec o gn i z ed .
34
Ri sk c o m m u n i c at i o n i s a n ec essar y
c o m p o n en t o f an t i b i o t i c u se f o r aq u ac u l t u r e
p u r p o ses. I n so m e c o u n t r i es, t h er e i s a
c o n si d er ab l e l ac k o f i n f o r m at i o n an d
t r an sp ar en c y, w h i c h c o n sp i r es agai n st t h e p r o p er
so l u t i o n o f p o ssi b l e p r o b l em s, an d ev en t u al l y
c r eat es ad d i t i o n al o n es. Co m m u n i c at i o n w i t h t h e
c o n su m er i s p ar t i c u l ar l y i m p o r t an t . A c r i si s, su c h
as t h e o n e i n v o l v i n g c h l o r am p h en i c o l , al t er s t h e
n at i o n al an d i n t er n at i o n al f i sh m ar k et s b ec au se i t
f o st er s c o n su m er s f ear s ab o u t f i sh as f o o d .
Th e p r o p er u se o f ap p r o v ed an t i b i o t i c s w i l l
c o n t i n u e t o b e n ec essar y i n an i m al p r o d u c t i o n ,
i n c l u d i n g aq u ac u l t u r e, an d c o n su m er s sh o u l d b e
r eassu r ed t h at t h e u se o f ap p r o v ed an t i b i o t i c s, i n
p ar t i c u l ar u n d er "l ab el u se" c o n d i t i o n s, d o es n o t
i m p l y a h az ar d . I n ad d i t i o n t o t h e p u b l i c h eal t h
p r o b l em s t h at r esu l t f r o m p eo p l e b ei n g r en d er ed
d ef en c el ess t o i l l n esses c au sed b y an t i b i o t i c -
r esi st an t b ac t er i a an d t h e r esi d u es o f b an n ed
an t i b i o t i c s, t h er e ar e al so ec o n o m i c c o n st r ai n t s t o
b e t ak en i n t o ac c o u n t .
Th e f u t u r e o f aq u ac u l t u r e d ep en d s, i n t er al i a,
o n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f saf e an d w h o l eso m e
p r o d u c t s, an d t h i s go al c an b e ac h i ev ed .
H o w ev er, t h e r ec en t c r i si s w i t h c h l o r am p h en i c o l
i n d i c at es t h at t h e c u r r en t si t u at i o n w i t h r egar d t o
t h e u se o f an t i b i o t i c s i s f ar f r o m sat i sf ac t o r y. Th e
r esp o n si b l e u se o f an t i b i o t i c s c an b e ac h i ev ed
t h r o u gh i m p l em en t i n g ad eq u at e r i sk m an agem en t
m easu r es, i n c l u d i n g d ev el o p i n g an d en f o r c i n g
ap p r o p r i at e r egu l at o r y p r o c ed u r es. Th e
i n f o r m at i o n an d k n o w l ed ge b ase c o n c er n i n g t h e
h az ar d s an d r i sk s i n v o l v ed i n t h e u se o f
an t i b i o t i c s sh o u l d b e i m p r o v ed , an d t h e r i sk s
p o sed b y ex i st i n g h az ar d s, i n p ar t i c u l ar o f d r u g
su p p l i es an d u se, sh o u l d b e c o m m u n i c at ed .
A d d i t i o n al ef f o r t s ar e r eq u i r ed i n t h e ar eas o f
r esear c h , t r ai n i n g, c ap ac i t y b u i l d i n g, l egal
f r am ew o r k s an d c o m m u n i c at i o n . A q u ac u l t u r i st s
i n d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es sh o u l d b e en c o u r aged
al w ay s t o seek p r o f essi o n al gu i d an c e i n t h e u se o f
an t i b i o t i c s, p ar t i c u l ar l y f r o m t h e r egu l at o r y
agen c i es, ex t en si o n ser v i c es an d q u al i f i ed
p r o f essi o n al s. W h er e t h er e i s n o ad eq u at e
p r o f essi o n al gu i d an c e, c o u n t r i es sh o u l d em b ar k
o n d ev el o p i n g t h e n ec essar y c ap ab i l i t y, an d ai d
agen c i es an d d ev el o p m en t p ar t n er s sh o u l d
p r o v i d e al l n ec essar y assi st an c e t o t h i s p r o c ess.
A p p l i c at i o n o f H A CCP- b ased m an agem en t
p r ac t i c es w i t h i n p r o d u c t i o n sy st em s i s c en t r al f o r
r ed u c i n g p o ssi b l e r i sk s. A p p r o p r i at e gu i d el i n es
an d t ec h n i c al st an d ar d s sh o u l d b e d ev el o p ed i n
c o n su l t at i o n w i t h al l st ak eh o l d er s. Th er e i s al so a
n eed t o r eassu r e c o n su m er s ab o u t t h e saf e u se o f
ap p r o v ed an t i b i o t i c s an d m easu r es t o c o n st r ai n
t h e u se o f b an n ed su b st an c es. Rel ev an t
i n f o r m at i o n sh o u l d b e m ad e r ead i l y av ai l ab l e t o
t h e gen er al p u b l i c t h r o u gh v ar i o u s i n f o r m at i o n
d i ssem i n at i o n m ec h an i sm s.
3 5
Ef f o r t s sh o u l d b e
m ad e t o r est r i c t t h e u se o f an t i b i o t i c s t o
t h er ap eu t i c p u r p o ses o n l y.
3 6
Co u n t r i es sh o u l d b e
en c o u r aged t o d ev el o p an d i m p l em en t m o r e
i n t er n at i o n al l y h ar m o n i z ed an d t r an sp ar en t
p r o c ed u r es f o r m an agi n g an d c o n t r o l l i n g t h e u se
o f an t i b i o t i c s i n aq u ac u l t u r e.
N at i onal or mar ket -ar ea MRLs. N at i o n al o r
m ar k et - ar ea M RLs w i l l c o n t i n u e t o ex i st u n t i l
CA C h as b een ab l e t o set M RLs w i t h w i d e
i n t er n at i o n al ac c ep t an c e. H o w ev er, t h e CA C
p r o c ess i s sl o w, so a f u l l r an ge o f M RLs w i l l n o t
b e av ai l ab l e f o r m an y y ear s. I f t h er e ar e sc i en c e-
b ased n at i o n al o r r egi o n al M RLs, an d t h e c o n t r o l
p r o c ed u r es ar e b ased o n r easo n s o f c o n su m er
saf et y, c l ai m s t h at t r ad e b ar r i er s ex i st w i l l b e
u n su p p o r t ab l e, p r o v i d ed t h at t h e r esi d u e c o n t r o l
p r o gr am m es ar e o p er at ed f ai r l y an d eq u i v al en t l y
b et w een n at i o n al an d i m p o r t ed p r o d u c t s.
83
35
w w w.anmv.afssa.fr/oi ecc/documents/recommendati onsconf.pdf;
and w w w.anmv.afssa.fr/oi ecc/documents/recommendati ons_ha-
noi .pdf
36
http://europa.eu.i nt/rapi d/start/cgi /guesten.ksh?p_acti on.gettxt
= gt& doc= IP/02/466| 0| RAPID & l g= EN & di spl ay=
3 3
U SFD A. 21 CFR Parts 123 and 124.
34
E. Spencer Garrett, C. Li ma dos Santos and M .L. Jahnke. 1997.
Publ i c, ani m al and envi ronm ental heal th i m pl i cati ons of aqua-
c u l tu re. Emergi ng Infecti ous D i seases, 3 (4 ).
PART 3
H ighlights of special FAO studies
FI SH ERI ES AN D LO N G-TERM
CLI M ATE VARI ABI LI TY
BACKGRO U N D
N at u r al l o n g- t er m v ar i at i o n s i n t h e ab u n d an c e o f
w i l d m ar i n e c ap t u r e f i sh er y r eso u r c es h av e b een
a m at t er o f d eb at e an d c o n c er n f o r m o r e t h an a
c en t u r y . A t f i r st , i t w as t h e f i sh er y sc i en t i f i c
c o m m u n i t y w h o p ai d m o st at t en t i o n t o t h ese
t y p es o f l o n g- t er m f l u c t u at i o n s. H o w ev er , as
w o r l d f i sh er i es d ev el o p , an d as m o r e an d l o n ger
f i sh er y r ec o r d s b ec o m e av ai l ab l e, l o n g- t er m
c h an ges af f ec t i n g f i sh er i es h av e st ar t ed t o at t r ac t
t h e at t en t i o n o f f i sh er s, f i sh er i es m an ager s,
p o l i c y - an d d ec i si o n - m ak er s an d t h e gen er al
p u b l i c .
Th e f i r st sc i en t i f i c r ep o r t o f l o n g- t er m
f l u c t u at i o n s i n h er r i n g ab u n d an c e w as p u b l i sh ed
i n 1 8 7 9 ,
1
b ased o n o b ser v at i o n s m ad e si n c e t h e
si x t een t h c en t u r y . Th i s r ep o r t d esc r i b ed t h e so -
c al l ed "h er r i n g p er i o d s" i n t h e Bo h u sl n
ar c h i p el ago , Sw ed en , w h i c h l ast ed f o r an y t h i n g
f r o m 3 0 t o 6 0 y ear s. Si n c e t h en , m an y m o r e
r ep o r t s d eal i n g w i t h l o n g- t er m f l u c t u at i o n s i n
m ar i n e c ap t u r e f i sh er i es h av e ap p ear ed . A s w o r l d
f i sh er i es ex p an d an d m o r e ev i d en c e o f l o n g- t er m
f l u c t u at i o n s i n f i sh ab u n d an c e em er ges, i n c r eased
at t em p t s h av e b een m ad e t o r el at e f i sh er i es
c y c l es t o av ai l ab l e l o n g- t er m c l i m at i c v ar i ab i l i t y
si gn al s as a w ay t o i d en t i f y t h e p o ssi b l e c au sal
m ec h an i sm s o f f i sh f l u c t u at i o n s.
O v er t h e l ast t w o d ec ad es, r el ev an t r esear c h
ef f o r t s h av e b een d ev o t ed t o d esc r i b i n g an d
an al y si n g l o n g- t er m f l u c t u at i o n s i n t h e
ab u n d an c e o f c o m m er c i al sp ec i es an d t h e
p o ssi b l e r el at i o n sh i p s b et w een o c ean c l i m at e an d
f i sh st o c k si z e. FA O h as su p p o r t ed t h i s t y p e o f
st u d y , i n w h i c h p ar t i c u l ar at t en t i o n i s p ai d t o
i m p r o v i n g t h e k n o w l ed ge ab o u t p o ssi b l e
r el at i o n sh i p s, c au ses an d m ec h an i sm s, as w el l as
t o t h e p o ssi b l e u ses an d ap p l i c at i o n s o f i m p r o v ed
k n o w l ed ge f o r w o r l d f i sh er i es c o n ser v at i o n an d
d ev el o p m en t p l an n i n g.
FI SH ERI ES AN D LO N G-TERM CLI M ATE
FLU CTU ATI O N S
Th e ab u n d an c e o f a n u m b er o f sp ec i es t h at sh o w
l o n g- t er m f l u c t u at i o n s, su c h as t h e Jap an ese
sar d i n e an d t h e Cal i f o r n i an sar d i n e, h as b een
sh o w n t o h av e so m e c o r r el at i o n w i t h c l i m at i c
i n d i c es. Lo n g- t er m o b ser v at i o n s o f Jap an ese
sar d i n e o u t b u r st s an d at m o sp h er i c t em p er at u r e
i n d i c es (Fi gu r e 3 8 ) h av e l ed t o p r o p o sal s t h at t h e
l o n g- t er m r egu l ar c h an ges i n Jap an ese sar d i n e
c at c h es c o u l d b e ex p l ai n ed b y c y c l i c c l i m at e
c h an ges.
2
M o r e r ec en t l y , av ai l ab l e FA O an d
o t h er d at a set s o f w o r l d f i sh er i es l an d i n gs w er e
an al y sed
3
i n an at t em p t t o ex p l o r e t h e p o ssi b l e
r el at i o n sh i p s b et w een v ar i o u s c l i m at e i n d i c es
an d t h e c at c h es o f sel ec t ed gr o u p s o f f i sh st o c k s.
A t i m e ser i es m o d el , b ased o n w el l - k n o w n
c l i m at e c y c l es, w as al so d ev el o p ed i n o r d er t o
f o r ec ast p o ssi b l e t r en d s i n m ai n c o m m er c i al f i sh
c at c h es f o r 5 t o 1 5 y ear s i n t o t h e f u t u r e. W h i l e
su c h f o r ec ast s m u st b e m ad e w i t h gr eat c au t i o n ,
t h ei r r esu l t s ar e b o t h p r o v o k i n g an d i n t er est i n g
en o u gh t o m er i t f u r t h er at t en t i o n an d an al y si s.
Th i s ar t i c l e i s, t o a gr eat ex t en t , d ev o t ed t o
i l l u st r at i n g Kl y ash t o r i n s t h eo r i es an d f i n d i n gs,
w h i c h r ef er t o f i sh ab u n d an c e i n d i c es as r ef l ec t ed
b y t h e p o ssi b l e r el at i o n sh i p b et w een an n u al
c at c h es an d c l i m at e c h an ges. I n t h i s c o n t ex t , t h e
t er m "c l i m at e c h an ges" r ef er s t o l ar ge- sc al e, l o n g-
t er m ef f ec t s o r sh i f t s f r o m o n e c l i m at i c st at e t o
an o t h er t h at seem t o r esp o n d t o d et er m i n i st i c
c y c l es, r at h er t h an i n d i v i d u al c l i m at i c ev en t s,
su c h as El N i o , o r l o n g- t er m t r en d s, su c h as
gl o b al w ar m i n g.
Th e c au sal m ec h an i sm s t h at d r i v e m o st o f t h e
87
H ighlights of special FAO studies
1
See t h e c i t at i o n t o A . V . Lj u n gm an (1 8 7 9 ) i n : FA O . 1 9 8 3 . FA O
Fi sh er i es Rep o r t , b y A . Li n d q u i st . 2 9 1 (3 ): 8 1 3 8 2 1 .
2
T. Kaw asak i . 1 9 9 4 . A d ec ad e o f t h e r egi m e sh i f t o f sm al l p e-
l agi c s f r o m t h e FA O Ex p er t Co n su l t at i o n (1 9 8 3 ) t o t h e PI CES
I I I (1 9 9 4 ). Bu l l . Jap an ese So c . Fi sh . O c ean . , 5 8 : 3 2 1 3 3 3 .
3
FAO . 2001. Cl i mate change and l ong-term fl uctuati ons of com-
m er c i al c at c h es: t h e p o ssi b i l i t y o f f o r ec ast i n g, b y L. B. Kl y ash t o -
r i n . FA O Fi sh er i es Tec h n i c al Pap er N o . 4 1 0 . Ro m e. 8 6 p p .
88
l o n g- t er m p er i o d i c f i sh ab u n d an c e f l u c t u at i o n s
an al y sed b y Kl y ash t o r i n r em ai n u n c l ear , an d
so m e o f h i s f i n d i n gs ar e st i l l w o r k i n g h y p o t h eses.
H o w ev er , t h e si gn al s an d t r en d s i n c l i m at i c
i n d i c es an d h i st o r i c al f i sh l an d i n gs t h at em er ge
f r o m h i s w o r k ar e o f u t m o st i n t er est , an d m er i t
c l o se st u d y so t h at t h e m ec h an i sm s go v er n i n g
c l i m at e c h an ge an d l o n g- t er m f i sh p r o d u c t i o n
v ar i ab i l i t y c an b e u n d er st o o d b et t er an d u sed f o r
m an agem en t p u r p o ses. Th e ar gu m en t p u t f o r w ar d
i n m o st o f t h e c ases i s t h at b i o m ass an d c at c h es
ar e u l t i m at el y d r i v en b y c l i m at e f l u c t u at i o n s. Th i s
r u n s c o u n t er t o t h e c o n v en t i o n al w i sd o m o f
f i sh er i es m an agem en t , w h i c h c o n si d er s t h at
b i o m ass an d c at c h es ar e d r i v en m o st l y b y f i sh i n g
p r essu r e. I t h as al r ead y b een su ggest ed
4
t h at
u p w el l i n g i n t en si t y i s l i n k ed t o l ar ge- sc al e
c l i m at i c ef f ec t s, w h i c h u l t i m at el y af f ec t t h e r at e o f
n u t r i en t t r an sp o r t i n t o t h e eu t r o p h i c u p p er o c ean
l ay er , t h er eb y c h an gi n g p r i m ar y p r o d u c t i o n an d ,
su b seq u en t l y , f i sh p r o d u c t i o n . H o w ev er , w h i l e
h y p o t h eses r el at i n g c l i m at e t o n u t r i en t av ai l ab i l i t y
m ay b e c o r r ec t , t h er e i s n o d i r ec t ev i d en c e o f t h e
m ec h an i sm , an d n o c o n c l u si v e
m o d el l i n g o f t h e c au sal r el at i o n sh i p
h as so f ar b een p o ssi b l e.
Sp ec t r al an al y si s o f t h e t i m e ser i es o f
t h e at m o sp h er i c gl o b al t em p er at u r e
an o m al y (d T), t h e at m o sp h er i c
c i r c u l at i o n i n d ex (A CI ) an d t h e l en gt h
o f d ay (LO D ) est i m at ed f r o m av ai l ab l e
d i r ec t o b ser v at i o n s (1 1 0 t o 1 5 0 y ear s)
sh o w s a c o m m o n p er i o d i c i t y o f 5 5 t o
6 5 y ear s (Fi gu r e 3 9 ). Sp ec t r al an al y si s
o f t h e r ec o n st r u c t ed t i m e ser i es o f ai r
su r f ac e t em p er at u r es f o r t h e l ast 1 5 0 0
y ear s su ggest s a si m i l ar (5 5 t o 6 0
y ear s) p er i o d i c i t y . Fu r t h er m o r e, t h e
A CI o b ser v at i o n s sh o w t w o al t er n at i n g
c l i m at i c ep o c h s, eac h o f
ap p r o x i m at el y 3 0 y ear s d u r at i o n ,
ac c o r d i n g t o t h e d o m i n an c e i n ai r
m ass t r an sp o r t o n t h e h em i sp h er i c
sc al e (Fi gu r e 4 0 ). Th e A CI h as
t h er ef o r e b een u sed as a su i t ab l e
c l i m at i c i n d ex f o r f u r t h er i n v est i gat i o n o f l o n g-
t er m r egu l ar c h an ges i n t h e l an d i n gs o f m aj o r
c o m m er c i al f i sh st o c k s.
CO RRELATI O N BETWEEN FI SH ERI ES AN D
CLI M ATE
Ev i d en c e f o r t h e r el at i o n sh i p b et w een c l i m at e
an d f i sh er i es l an d i n gs c o m es f r o m t w o m ai n
so u r c es: a f ew l o n g- t er m i n d i c es o f c l i m at e an d
f i sh st o c k si z e f o r u p t o 1 7 0 0 y ear s, w h i c h sh o w
si m i l ar c y c l i c p at t er n s as w el l as c o r r el at i o n
b et w een ser i es; an d f l u c t u at i o n s i n c at c h es f r o m
m o st o f t h e st o c k s t h at w er e ex am i n ed , w h i c h
h av e sy n c h r o n i z ed si n c e 1 9 0 0 , c o r r esp o n d i n g t o
c l i m at i c i n d i c es o v er t h e sam e p er i o d . Bo t h l o n g-
an d sh o r t - t er m ser i es ap p ear t o h av e a c o m m o n
c y c l e. Th e m o st p r o n o u n c ed p er i o d i c i t y o f l o n g-
t er m f l u c t u at i o n s i n c at c h es f o r al l t i m e ser i es
(ex c l u d i n g an c h o v y ) v ar i es f r o m ab o u t 5 4 t o 5 8
y ear s. Th e c o r r esp o n d i n g c l i m at e c y c l es (b o t h
m easu r ed an d r ec o n st r u c t ed ) v ar y f r o m 5 0 t o 6 5
y ear s (w i t h an av er age o f 5 6 y ear s). O t h er , l ess
si gn i f i c an t , c y c l es (1 3 an d 2 0 y ear f l u c t u at i o n s o f
su m m er t em p er at u r e) m ay al so b e o f i n t er est , b u t
so f ar n o r el i ab l e c o r r el at i o n b et w een t h ese
c y c l es an d c o m m er c i al c at c h f l u c t u at i o n s h as
b een f o u n d .
4
A . Bak u n . 1 9 9 6 . O c ean p r o c esses an d m ar i n e p o p u l at i o n d y -
n am i c s. La Paz , M ex i c o , Cal i f o r n i a Sea G r an t an d CI B. 3 2 3 p p .
1600 1600 1640 1640 1680 1680 1720 1720 1760 1760 1800 1800 1840 1840 1880 1880 1920 1920 1960 1960 2000 2000
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-32.6
-33
-33.4
-33.8
-34.2
-34.6
-35
Temperature anomaly (C) Greenland ice core temperature (C)
Japanese sardine outbursts
Global temperatures anomaly (dT)
Temperature reconstructed by Greenland ice cores
FIGURE 38
Cyclic temperature fluctuations and Japanese sardine outbursts 16002000
A m o n g t h e l o n g- t er m c y c l es,
Jap an ese c h r o n i c l es c o n t ai n h i st o r i c al
i n f o r m at i o n o n Jap an ese sar d i n e
ab u n d an c e f o r t h e l ast 4 0 0 y ear s
(Fi gu r e 3 8 ). Ch an ges i n t h e av ai l ab i l i t y
an d ab u n d an c e o f sar d i n e st o c k s l ed
t o t h e d ev el o p m en t o f sev er al c o ast al
f i sh i n g v i l l ages, as w el l as t h e c o l l ap se
o f o t h er s. Th e av er age c y c l e l en gt h i s
ab o u t 6 0 y ear s, an d p er i o d s o f h i gh
ab u n d an c e t en d t o c o i n c i d e w i t h
w ar m er at m o sp h er i c p er i o d s.
O f f t h e c o ast o f Cal i f o r n i a,
an aer o b i c c o n d i t i o n s i n seaso n al l y
l ay er ed sed i m en t s h av e p r eser v ed f i sh
sc al es f r o m p o p u l at i o n s o f sm al l
p el agi c f i sh . Tw o t i m e ser i es o f t h e
ab u n d an c e i n d ex c o u l d b e
r ec o n st r u c t ed f o r sar d i n e an d an c h o v y
st o c k s f o r t h e l ast 1 7 0 0 y ear s f r o m
t h ese sed i m en t s.
5
A l t h o u gh t h ey
d em o n st r at e l ar ge f l u c t u at i o n s, i t i s
i n t er est i n g t o n o t e t h at t h ese t i m e
ser i es sh o w n o c l ear d i f f er en c es
b et w een t h e ear l i er p er i o d , w h en
f i sh i n g w as n egl i gi b l e, an d t h e m o r e
r ec en t p er i o d , w h en ex p l o i t at i o n h as
b ec o m e f ar gr eat er .
A n al y si s o f t h e p er i o d i c i t y i n d i c at ed
t w o p r i n c i p al o sc i l l at i o n s i n sar d i n e
ab u n d an c e t i m e ser i es: o n e o c c u r r i n g
ev er y 5 4 t o 5 7 y ear s, an d t h e o t h er
ev er y 2 2 3 t o 2 7 3 y ear s. Th e f i r st o f
t h ese o sc i l l at i o n s i s si m i l ar t o t h at
o b ser v ed i n b o t h ai r t em p er at u r e as
m easu r ed f r o m f o ssi l i c e c o r es an d
sar d i n e b i o m ass, m ak i n g i t p ar t i c u l ar l y
i m p o r t an t f o r f i sh er y f o r ec ast i n g.
D o m i n an t f l u c t u at i o n p er i o d s f o r an c h o v y ar e
ab o u t 1 0 0 , 7 0 an d 5 5 y ear s i n d u r at i o n .
H o w ev er , u n l i k e o t h er c o m m er c i al p el agi c
sp ec i es, t h e r egu l ar c l i m at e- d ep en d en t d y n am i c s
o f Per u v i an an c h o v y ar e gr eat l y p er t u r b ed ev er y
1 0 t o 1 5 y ear s b y st r o n g El N i o ev en t s, so t h e
f u t u r e c at c h d y n am i c s o f t h i s sp ec i es ar e n o t w el l
ap p r o x i m at ed b y a sm o o t h "av er age" c u r v e.
A b o u t 7 0 t o 7 5 p er c en t o f t h e t o t al an c h o v y c at c h
i n t h e Pac i f i c i s Per u v i an an c h o v y . Th e i n c r eases
i n sar d i n e an d an c h o v y ab u n d an c e ap p ear t o b e
l i n k ed , r esp ec t i v el y , t o t h e t w o at m o sp h er i c
r egi m es (z o n al an d m er i d i o n al ep o c h s) t h at h av e
al r ead y b een m en t i o n ed , su ggest i n g t h at t h ese
t w o sp ec i es m ay b e f av o u r ed b y d i f f er en t c l i m at i c
c o n d i t i o n s.
I t i s r easo n ab l e t o ex p ec t t h at f i sh l an d i n gs
89
5
T. R. Bau m gar t n er , A . So u t ar an d V . Fer r ei r aBar t r i n a. 1 9 9 2 .
Recontructi on of the hi story of Paci fi c sardi ne and northern an-
chovy popul ati ons over the past tw o mi l l enni a from sedi ments
of the Santa Barbara Basi n, Cal i forni a. Cal CO FI Report, 33: 2440.
w o u l d h av e a gr eat er c o r r el at i o n w i t h
c o r r esp o n d i n g r egi o n al c l i m at i c i n d i c es t h an w i t h
m o r e gl o b al o n es. H o w ev er , t h e r esu l t s o b t ai n ed
so f ar su ggest t h at t h e c at c h d y n am i c s o f t h e m ai n
Pac i f i c c o m m er c i al sp ec i es (Pac i f i c sal m o n ,
Jap an ese, Cal i f o r n i an an d Per u v i an sar d i n e,
A l ask a p o l l o c k an d Ch i l ean j ac k m ac k er el ) ar e i n
c l o ser c o r r el at i o n w i t h t h e gl o b al c l i m at i c
i n d i c es, d T an d A CI t h an t h ey ar e w i t h t h ei r
c o r r esp o n d i n g r egi o n al i n d i c es. Th er e i s n o t y et a
sat i sf ac t o r y ex p l an at i o n f o r t h i s.
FO RECASTI N G PO SSI BI LI TI ES
A ssu m i n g t h at t h e o b ser v ed p ast
c o r r el at i o n b et w een f i sh c at c h es an d
at m o sp h er i c r egi m es w i l l c o n t i n u e i n
t h e f u t u r e, Kl y ash t o r i n at t em p t s t o
f o r ec ast t o t al c at c h es o f a sel ec t ed
gr o u p o f m aj o r c o m m er c i al sp ec i es b y
f i x i n g t h e c y c l e p er i o d s at 5 5 , 6 0 an d
6 5 y ear s (b ased o n t h e c l i m at e c y c l e)
r at h er t h an r el y i n g o n est i m at es o f t h e
c y c l e l en gt h f r o m t h e r el at i v el y sh o r t
c at c h t i m e ser i es. H i s an al y ses su ggest
t h at a sh i f t b et w een t h e t w o al t er n at i v e
at m o sp h er i c r egi m es i s, i n d eed ,
o c c u r r i n g. A s a r esu l t , p r o v i d ed t h at
t h e o b ser v ed sy n c h r o n y b et w een f i sh
an d c l i m at i c ep o c h s p er si st s,
p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e sel ec t ed m aj o r
c o m m er c i al sp ec i es o v er t h e n ex t
d ec ad e w o u l d b e ex p ec t ed t o
d ec r ease i n t h e N o r t h Pac i f i c an d
i n c r ease i n t h e N o r t h A t l an t i c (Fi gu r e
4 1 ). Fo r ec ast i n g o f t h e m aj o r
c o m m er c i al f i sh l an d i n gs f o r t h e n ex t
3 0 t o 4 0 y ear s i s l ar gel y i n sen si t i v e t o
t h e c h o i c e o f p er i o d i c i t y w i t h i n t h e 5 5
t o 6 5 y ear r an ge. Sp ec i es su c h as
A t l an t i c an d Pac i f i c h er r i n g, A t l an t i c
c o d , So u t h A f r i c an sar d i n e an d
Per u v i an an d Jap an ese an c h o v y
w o u l d b e ex p ec t ed t o i n c r ease d u r i n g
2 0 0 0 2 0 1 5 , d ec r easi n g t h er eaf t er .
D u r i n g t h e sam e p er i o d , t o t al c at c h o f
sp ec i es su c h as Jap an ese, Per u v i an ,
Cal i f o r n i an an d Eu r o p ean sar d i n e,
Pac i f i c sal m o n , A l ask a p o l l o c k an d
Ch i l ean j ac k m ac k er el w o u l d b e
ex p ec t ed t o d ec r ease, i n c r easi n g
t h er eaf t er . O v er al l , t h e t o t al c at c h o f t h e m ai n
w o r l d c o m m er c i al sp ec i es c o n si d er ed i n t h e
an al y ses, an d r ep r esen t i n g ab o u t o n e- t h i r d o f
w o r l d m ar i n e c ap t u r e l an d i n gs, w o u l d b e
ex p ec t ed t o i n c r ease b y 5 . 6 m i l l i o n t o n n es b y
2 0 1 5 , t h en t o d ec r ease b y 2 . 8 m i l l i o n t o n n es b y
2 0 3 0 .
PO LI CY I M PLI CATI O N S
Th e p o ssi b i l i t y o f f o r ec ast i n g l o n g- t er m c h an ges
i n w o r l d c ap t u r e f i sh p r o d u c t i o n , b ased o n
90
o b ser v ab l e i n d i c es o f l o n g- t er m
c l i m at i c v ar i ab i l i t y , r ai ses j u st i f i ed
sc i en t i f i c , ec o n o m i c an d p o l i c y
ex p ec t at i o n s an d c o n c er n s. Fi sh i n g
p r essu r e i s u su al l y c l ai m ed t o h av e t h e
m aj o r i n f l u en c e o n t h e l o n g- t er m
p r o d u c t i v i t y an d si z e o f w i l d f i sh
st o c k s. I t i s c o m m o n l y ac c ep t ed t h at
ap p r o p r i at e m an agem en t c o u l d
m ai n t ai n st o c k si z e l ev el s t h at ar e
c o m m en su r at e w i t h su st ai n ab l y h i gh
c at c h es, an d t h at t h e u su al
c o n seq u en c es o f m an agem en t f ai l u r e
ar e d ep r essed an d ev en d ep l et ed
st o c k si z es an d l o w er y i el d s.
Rec o gn i t i o n t h at , f o r so m e k ey
sp ec i es, d et er m i n i st i c l o n g- t er m
c l i m at e- d r i v en i m p ac t s o n st o c k
ab u n d an c e ar e, o r c o u l d b e, as
i m p o r t an t as su ggest ed c al l s f o r a
r ev i ew o f r esear c h an d m an agem en t
st r at egi es an d o b j ec t i v es r egar d i n g
f i sh er i es o f t h e sp ec i es c o n c er n ed , as w el l as o f
r el at ed sp ec i es. M an agem en t r esp o n ses t o sh o r t -
t er m f l u c t u at i o n s w o u l d h av e t o t ak e i n t o ac c o u n t
t h e p o ssi b i l i t y t h at u n d er l y i n g l o n g- t er m
d et er m i n i st i c f l u c t u at i o n s ex i st . Lo n g- t er m
m an agem en t ai m s, w h i c h w o u l d t y p i c al l y i n v o l v e
c ap i t al i n v est m en t an d so c i al an d i n f r ast r u c t u r e
d ev el o p m en t , w o u l d al so b en ef i t f r o m
c o n si d er at i o n o f t h e l o n g- t er m c l i m at e ef f ec t s.
O v er al l , d et er m i n i st i c c l i m at e- d r i v en i n c r eases
an d d ec r eases i n f i sh p r o d u c t i o n d o n o t seem t o
b e o f gr eat gl o b al i m p o r t an c e, as i n c r eases i n a
gr o u p o f st o c k s i n o n e r egi o n t en d t o b e b al an c ed
b y d ec r eases i n an o t h er gr o u p i n an o t h er r egi o n .
H o w ev er , t h e f ac t t h at l o n g- t er m c l i m at i c
c h an ges c o u l d d et er m i n e m aj o r ep o c h al
i n c r eases i n f i sh p r o d u c t i o n f r o m so m e st o c k s i n
so m e ar eas, an d eq u i v al en t d ec l i n es f r o m o t h er
st o c k s an d ar eas, m er i t s ser i o u s c o n si d er at i o n
b ec au se t h e i m p ac t s at t h e l o c al an d r egi o n al
l ev el s ar e b o u n d t o b e f ar l ar ger . Fo r i n st an c e, at
p r esen t , l ar ge i n t er n at i o n al m ar k et f l o w s c o m e
f r o m d ev el o p i n g ar eas i n t o d ev el o p ed o n es (i . e.
f r o m t h e t r o p i c s t o t h e N o r t h ), b u t t h e o sc i l l at i o n s
i n p r o d u c t i o n b et w een t h e N o r t h A t l an t i c an d t h e
Pac i f i c O c ean ar e l i k el y t o r esu l t i n c h an ges t o
t h ese t r ad e f l o w s. Su c h c h an ges w o u l d h av e
si gn i f i c an t i m p ac t s o n n at i o n al an d r egi o n al
m ar k et s, ev en t h o u gh t h e t o t al su p p l y c o u l d
r em ai n st ab l e. Ch an ges i n i n v est m en t s an d f l eet
m o v em en t s (an d f i sh i n g agr eem en t s) ar e al so
ex p ec t ed t o b e gr eat er t h an su ggest ed b y t h e
w o r l d ac c u m u l at ed t o t al l an d i n g f i gu r es.
Th i s an al y si s h as n o t c o n si d er ed an t h r o p o gen i c
c l i m at e c h an ge an d i t s p o ssi b l e ef f ec t s o n f i sh
p r o d u c t i o n . H o w ev er , as av ai l ab l e d at a su ggest
t h at t h er e i s a l i n k b et w een f i sh p r o d u c t i o n an d
c l i m at e, t h e n eed t o i n c l u d e t h e ef f ec t s o f gl o b al
w ar m i n g i n p o ssi b l e p r o j ec t i o n s i s c l ear . Th e
resul ts reported suggest that shi fts i n cl i mate coul d
h av e n o t i c eab l e p o si t i v e o r n egat i v e ef f ec t s o n
so m e, i f n o t m o st , m aj o r c o m m er c i al f i sh st o c k s.
TH E SEARCH FO R AN O PERATI O N AL
D EFI N I TI O N O F SU BSI D I ES PRO VI D ED
TO TH E FI SH ERI ES SECTO R
BACKGRO U N D
Lead i n g f i sh i n g n at i o n s ar e d eb at i n g t h e si z e, t h e
ef f ec t s an d v ar i o u s w ay s t o d eal w i t h su b si d i es i n
t h e f i sh er i es sec t o r . Th e d eb at e i s c o n d u c t ed i n
i n t er n at i o n al f o r a an d st ar t ed ab o u t a d ec ad e ago .
Pr o gr ess h as b een sl o w , i n p ar t b ec au se o f a l ac k
o f c l ar i t y i n t h e t er m s u sed . N o t al l p ar t i c i p an t s i n
91
t h e d eb at e h av e t h e sam e u n d er st an d i n g o f w h at
i s, an d w h at i s n o t , a su b si d y i n t h e f i sh er i es
sec t o r .
6
O n e o f t h e f i r st t ask s t h at FA O u n d er t o o k i n
su p p o r t o f t h i s d eb at e w as, t h er ef o r e, t o ex am i n e
t h e t er m "su b si d y " an d t o t r y t o o b t ai n c o n sen su s
at l east am o n g ex p er t s as t o w h at i t sh o u l d
m ean i n t h e c o n t ex t o f f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e.
Th e ex am i n at i o n t o o k t h e f o r m o f an FA O Ex p er t
Co n su l t at i o n , h el d i n D ec em b er 2 0 0 0 .
Th e ex p er t s d i sc u ssed , i n t er al i a, w h at w o u l d
c o n st i t u t e a su i t ab l e an d o p er at i o n al d ef i n i t i o n o f
"su b si d y " f o r t h e p u r p o se o f an al y si n g t h e ef f ec t s
o f su b si d i es o n r eso u r c e su st ai n ab i l i t y an d o n
t r ad e. Th i s d i sc u ssi o n d r ew t h e c o n c l u si o n t h at
n o si n gl e d ef i n i t i o n c o u l d b e agr eed t o . I n st ead ,
t h e ex p er t s i d en t i f i ed f o u r set s o f su b si d i es. Th ey
w en t o n t o r ec o m m en d t h at t h ese set s o f
su b si d i es b e r ef er r ed t o an d u sed as st an d ar d s i n
f u t u r e st u d i es an d d i sc u ssi o n s.
Th e ex p er t s h ad t w o m aj o r r easo n s f o r
c h o o si n g t h i s so l u t i o n : t h ey w an t ed t o m ak e t h e
d ef i n i t i o n i n d ep en d en t o f an y ev al u at i o n o f t h e
ef f ec t s o f su b si d i es an d , at t h e sam e t i m e, t h ey
w an t ed t o en su r e t h at t h e d ef i n i t i o n w o u l d
f ac i l i t at e su c h ev al u at i o n . Th ey ac h i ev ed t h ese
o b j ec t i v es b y , o n t h e o n e h an d , t y i n g t h e
d ef i n i t i o n t o t h e f o r m o f t h e su b si d y as o p p o sed
t o i t s ef f ec t s an d , o n t h e o t h er h an d , c l assi f y i n g
su b si d i es i n t o f o u r gr o u p s ac c o r d i n g t o c r i t er i a
t h at r ef l ec t t h e r el at i v e ease o f i d en t i f y i n g an d
q u an t i f y i n g a su b si d y an d i t s ef f ec t s: set 1 b ei n g
t h e easi est , an d set 4 t h e m o st c o m p l i c at ed .
I n ad d i t i o n , t h e ex p er t s i n t en d ed t h at t h e
d ef i n i t i o n r esp ec t t h e n o t i o n t h at a su b si d y i s a
n at i o n al p o l i c y i n st r u m en t t h at r ef l ec t s an
ex c ep t i o n t o a n at i o n w i d e pol i cy. The excepti on
i s general l y refl ected both i n the form of the
pol i cy i nstrument and i n i ts effects.
Th e i n t er n at i o n al d eb at e ab o u t su b si d i es
c o n t i n u es. I t h as m o v ed o n f r o m t h e d ef i n i t i o n o f
su b si d i es an d i s n o w m o r e c o n c er n ed w i t h t h ei r
c l assi f i c at i o n w h i c h i s u su al l y b ased o n t h ei r
p er c ei v ed ef f ec t s an d w i t h h o w t o assess t h ei r
i m p ac t .
Th i s ar t i c l e d esc r i b es t h e d ef i n i t i o n o f su b si d i es,
as p r o p o sed b y t h e FA O Ex p er t Co n su l t at i o n . Th e
t ex t , w i t h a f ew ed i t o r i al d i f f er en c es, c an b e
f o u n d i n t h e r ep o r t o f t h e Ex p er t Co n su l t at i o n .
7
GEN ERAL CO N SI D ERATI O N S
M an y d i f f er en t d ef i n i t i o n s o f a su b si d y h av e b een
u sed i n ec o n o m i c an al y ses o f t r ad e an d n at u r al
r eso u r c e u se. Rev i ew o f t h ese l ead s t o t h e
c o n c l u si o n t h at n o n e o f t h e c o m m o n l y u sed
d ef i n i t i o n s i s ad eq u at e f o r a c o m p r eh en si v e
an al y si s o f su b si d i es ef f ec t s o n t r ad e an d
su st ai n ab i l i t y i n f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e.
U n f o r t u n at el y , t h e Ex p er t Co n su l t at i o n d i d n o t
r ec o m m en d an y si n gl e d ef i n i t i o n f o r t h e
m easu r em en t , an al y si s an d p o l i t i c al d eb at e o f
su b si d i es i n f i sh er i es.
Ex p er t s t en d t o p l ac e d i f f er en t em p h asi s o n f o u r
at t r i b u t es o f su b si d i es i n f i sh er i es an d
aq u ac u l t u r e:
1 . go v er n m en t i n t er v en t i o n s t h at i n v o l v e o n l y
f i n an c i al t r an sf er s t o p r o d u c er s;
8
2 . go v er n m en t i n t er v en t i o n s t h at c o n f er
b en ef i t s t o p r o d u c er s, w i t h o u t i n v o l v i n g
f i n an c i al t r an sf er s f r o m t h e go v er n m en t t o
p r o d u c er s;
3 . an ab sen c e o f go v er n m en t i n t er v en t i o n s t o
c o r r ec t d i st o r t i o n s t h at c o n f er b en ef i t s o n
p r o d u c er s; an d
4 . t h e l o n g- an d sh o r t - t er m ef f ec t s o f
go v er n m en t i n t er v en t i o n s o n f i r m s b en ef i t s
an d c o st s.
92
7
FA O . 2 0 0 1 . Rep o r t o f t h e Ex p er t Co n su l t at i o n o n Ec o n o m i c
I n c en t i v es an d Resp o n si b l e Fi sh er i es. Ro m e, 2 8 N o v em b er 1
D ec em b er 2 0 0 0 .
8
The term "producers" i ncl udes pri mary producers (fi shi ng fi rms),
fi sh processors, di stri butors, w hol esal ers and retai l ers of fi sh and
f i sh p r o d u c t s. I n o t h er w o r d s, p r o d u c er s i n c l u d e al l t h e f i r m s
i n v o l v ed i n su p p l y i n g f i sh t o t h e f i n al u ser s o f f i sh an d f i sh
p r o d u c t s.
6
Exam pl es of di fferent understandi ngs of the term "subsi dy" can
b e o b t ai n ed f r o m : FA O . 1 9 9 3 . M ar i n e f i sh er i es an d t h e Law o f
t h e Sea: a d ec ad e o f c h an ge. Sp ec i al c h ap t er (r ev i sed ) o f Th e
St at e o f Fo o d an d A gr i c u l t u r e 1 9 9 2 . FA O Fi sh er i es Ci r c u l ar N o .
8 5 3 . Ro m e; M . M i l az z o . 1 9 9 8 . Su b si d i es i n w o r l d f i sh er i es a
r e- ex am i n at i o n . W o r l d Ban k Tec h n i c al Pap er N o . 4 0 6 . W a-
sh i n gt o n , D C, I n t er n at i o n al Ban k f o r Rec o n st r u c t i o n an d D ev e-
l o p m en t / W o r l d Ban k , 8 6 p p . ; FA O . 2 0 0 1 . Su b si d i es f o r f i sh e-
r i es: a r ev i ew o f c o n c ep t s, b y W . E. Sc h r an k . I n Pap er s p r esen -
t ed at t h e Ex p er t Co n su l t at i o n o n Ec o n o m i c I n c en t i v es an d Re-
sp o n si b l e Fi sh er i es, Ro m e, 2 8 N o v em b er 1 D ec em b er 2 0 0 0 .
FA O Fi sh er i es Rep o r t N o . 6 3 8 , Su p p l . , p p . 1 1 3 9 . Ro m e.
93
I n o r d er t o ad v an c e t h e
m easu r em en t , an al y si s an d d i sc u ssi o n
o f su b si d i es i n f i sh er i es an d
aq u ac u l t u r e, t h e ex p er t s at t h e
c o n su l t at i o n p r o p o sed d ef i n i t i o n s f o r
f o u r set s o f su b si d i es. Th e c o n su l t at i o n
r ec o m m en d ed t h at an y an al y si s an d
d i sc u ssi o n o f t h i s i ssu e st at e ex p l i c i t l y
w h i c h o f t h e f o u r set s o f su b si d i es i s
b ei n g c o n si d er ed .
Th e n u m b er i n g o f set s 1 , 2 , 3 an d 4
i s n o t m ean t t o i m p l y an y r an k i n g o f
su b si d i es. Rat h er , i t i n d i c at es t h at t h e
d ef i n i t i o n o f su b si d i es i n h i gh er
n u m b er ed set s i n c l u d es m o r e
el em en t s. I n o t h er w o r d s, set 2
i n c l u d es t h e el em en t s t h at ar e
i n c l u d ed i n set 1 , set 3 i n c l u d es t h e
el em en t s i n c l u d ed i n set 2 , an d so o n .
Th i s i s i l l u st r at ed i n Fi gu r e 4 2 .
SU BSI D I ES
Set 1 subsidies
Su b si d i es i n set 1 ar e go v er n m en t f i n an c i al
t r an sf er s t h at r ed u c e t h e c o st s an d / o r i n c r ease t h e
r ev en u es o f p r o d u c er s i n t h e sh o r t t er m .
Set 1 su b si d i es i n c l u d e d i r ec t p ay m en t s b y
go v er n m en t t o o r o n b eh al f o f p r o d u c er s, f o r
ex am p l e, gr an t s t o p u r c h ase o r m o d er n i z e v essel s
an d i n c o m e su p p o r t p ay m en t s.
A l l t h e ex p er t s at t h e c o n su l t at i o n b el i ev ed t h at
d ef i n i t i o n s o f su b si d i es t h at i n c l u d e o n l y
go v er n m en t f i n an c i al t r an sf er s t o p r o d u c er s ar e
t o o n ar r o w f o r t h e p r esen t p u r p o ses. Su c h
d ef i n i t i o n s ex c l u d e go v er n m en t i n t er v en t i o n s t h at
af f ec t t r ad e an d t h e u se o f f i sh er y r eso u r c es an d
t h at i n v o l v e n o f i n an c i al t r an sf er s. Th er ef o r e, t h e
d ef i n i t i o n o f set 2 su b si d i es i n c l u d es al l t h e
go v er n m en t i n t er v en t i o n s r egar d l ess o f w h et h er
o r n o t t h ey i n v o l v e f i n an c i al t r an sf er s t h at c an
p o t en t i al l y r ed u c e t h e c o st s an d / o r i n c r ease t h e
r ev en u es o f p r o d u c er s i n t h e sh o r t t er m .
Set 2 subsidies
Su b si d i es i n set 2 ar e go v er n m en t i n t er v en t i o n s
r egar d l ess o f w h et h er o r n o t t h ey i n v o l v e
f i n an c i al t r an sf er s t h at r ed u c e t h e c o st s an d / o r
i n c r ease t h e r ev en u es o f p r o d u c er s i n t h e sh o r t
t er m .
Set 2 su b si d i es i n c l u d e t ax w ai v er s an d
d ef er r al s, as w el l as i n su r an c e, l o an s an d l o an
gu ar an t ees p r o v i d ed b y go v er n m en t . Set 2
su b si d i es al so i n c l u d e go v er n m en t p r o v i si o n o f
go o d s an d ser v i c es at b el o w m ar k et p r i c es.
9
Set 2
su b si d i es c o r r esp o n d c l o sel y t o m an y o f t h e
d ef i n i t i o n s u sed b y , f o r ex am p l e, t h e W o r l d Tr ad e
O r gan i z at i o n (W TO ).
M o st ex p er t s at t h e c o n su l t at i o n v i ew ed
d ef i n i t i o n s o f su b si d i es t h at r eq u i r e ac t i v e an d
ex p l i c i t go v er n m en t i n t er v en t i o n , i n c l u d i n g set 2
su b si d i es, as t o o n ar r o w . Th e l ac k o f go v er n m en t
ac t i o n t o c o r r ec t d i st o r t i o n s (i m p er f ec t i o n s) i n t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f , an d m ar k et s f o r , f i sh an d f i sh
p r o d u c t s c o n f er s an i m p l i c i t b en ef i t t o p r o d u c er s,
w h i c h c an af f ec t t r ad e an d t h e u se o f f i sh er y
r eso u r c es. Th e ex p er t s at t h e c o n su l t at i o n
t h er ef o r e d ef i n ed set 3 su b si d i es as i n c l u d i n g t h e
l ac k o f c o r r ec t i n g i n t er v en t i o n s b y go v er n m en t t o
r em o v e d i st o r t i o n s (i m p er f ec t i o n s) t h at c an
p o t en t i al l y af f ec t f i sh er y r eso u r c es an d t r ad e.
Set 3 subsidies
Su b si d i es i n set 3 ar e set 2 su b si d i es p l u s t h e
9
N o t e t h at t h i s ap p l i es o n l y t o go o d s an d ser v i c es f o r w h i c h a
m ar k et ex i st s. I t d o es n o t ap p l y t o go o d s an d ser v i c es p r o v i d ed
b y th e go vern m en t an d fo r w h i ch th ere i s n o m arket. See th e d i -
sc u ssi o n o f m an agem en t c o st s i n set 3 su b si d i es.
Set 1
Set 2
Set 3
Set 4
FIGURE 42
Sets of subsidies
sh o r t - t er m b en ef i t s t o p r o d u c er s t h at r esu l t f r o m
t h e ab sen c e o r l ac k o f i n t er v en t i o n s b y
go v er n m en t t o c o r r ec t d i st o r t i o n s (i m p er f ec t i o n s)
i n p r o d u c t i o n an d m ar k et s, w h i c h c an p o t en t i al l y
af f ec t f i sh er y r eso u r c es an d t r ad e.
Set 3 su b si d i es i n c l u d e t h e i m p l i c i t b en ef i t s t o
p r o d u c er s t h at ar e asso c i at ed w i t h a l ac k o f
go v er n m en t r egu l at i o n s r eq u i r i n g p r o d u c er s t o
b ear t h e c o st s t h at t h ey i m p o se o n o t h er p ar t i es,
i n c l u d i n g t h e c o st s o n t h e en v i r o n m en t an d
n at u r al r eso u r c es. W h en t h e c o st s i m p o sed o n
o t h er s d o n o t h av e t o b e p ai d f o r , t h e c o st o f
p r o d u c t i o n i s l o w er , w h i c h i n t u r n i n f l u en c es t h e
am o u n t s o f f i sh p r o d u c ed an d t r ad ed as w el l as
t h e h eal t h o f r eso u r c e st o c k s. Su c h i m p l i c i t
b en ef i t s ar e p r esen t w h er e go v er n m en t d o es n o t
r eq u i r e m easu r es t o r ed u c e t h e c at c h o f , f o r
ex am p l e, sea t u r t l es, sea b i r d s o r m ar i n e
m am m al s. I n su c h c ases, p r o d u c er s i m p o se c o st s
o n o t h er s, i n t h e f o r m o f d am age t o t h e
en v i r o n m en t , w h i c h t h ey d o n o t p ay f o r an d d o
n o t t ak e i n t o ac c o u n t i n t h ei r p r o d u c t i o n
d ec i si o n s. A n o t h er ex am p l e i s w h er e go v er n m en t
d o es n o t d o en o u gh t o p r ev en t t h e
overexpl oi tati on of a fi shery resource. In thi s case,
producers avoi d payi ng for the costs of harvesti ng
t h e r eso u r c e i n t h e sh o r t t er m , w h i l e i m p o si n g
c o st s o n o t h er s an d t h em sel v es i n t h e l o n g
t er m . Bo t h t h e su st ai n ab i l i t y o f t h e r eso u r c es an d
t h e t r ad e i n f i sh ar e t h er eb y af f ec t ed .
A l l t h e ex p er t s at t h e c o n su l t at i o n agr eed t h at
t h ese t y p es o f i m p l i c i t b en ef i t s (u n p ai d c o st s) c an
h av e si gn i f i c an t i m p ac t s o n f i sh er y r eso u r c e
su st ai n ab i l i t y an d t r ad e. H o w ev er , n o t al l agr eed
t h at su c h i m p l i c i t b en ef i t s sh o u l d b e i n c l u d ed as
su b si d i es f o r t h e p r esen t p u r p o ses. I n p ar t i c u l ar ,
so m e o f t h e ex p er t s b el i ev ed t h at t h i s d ef i n i t i o n
en c o m p asses m easu r es t h at ar e n o t o p en t o
c l assi f i c at i o n as su b si d i es, an d t h at t h ei r i n c l u si o n
m o v es t h e d i sc u ssi o n o f f i sh er i es su b si d i es i n t o
ar eas t h at ar e d i st i n c t f r o m , an d sh o u l d b e
ad d r essed i n d i f f er en t c o n t ex t s f r o m , t h e f i sh er i es
su b si d i es d eb at e.
Th e ex p er t s at t h e c o n su l t at i o n w er e u n ab l e t o
d ec i d e w h et h er t h e f ai l u r e t o c h ar ge f o r t h e c o st s
o f f i sh er i es m an agem en t ser v i c es c o n st i t u t es a
su b si d y t o p r o d u c er s. Th er e i s a l ac k o f r esear c h
o n t h i s i ssu e, an d ec o n o m i c r easo n i n g l ead s t o
am b i gu o u s c o n c l u si o n s.
Cl ear l y , go v er n m en t p r o v i si o n o f a f ac t o r i n p u t
at b el o w t h e m ar k et p r i c e c o n st i t u t es a su b si d y
u n d er al l f o u r d ef i n i t i o n s. H o w ev er , t h er e i s n o
m ar k et f o r m an agem en t ser v i c es i n m o st
f i sh er i es.
1 0
So m e ex p er t s ar gu e t h at p r o d u c er s
h av e n o d em an d f o r m an agem en t ser v i c es an d
t h at , i n st ead , m an agem en t i s f o r c ed u p o n t h em .
I n ad d i t i o n , i n m an agi n g f i sh er i es, go v er n m en t i s
at t em p t i n g t o en su r e t h e su st ai n ab i l i t y o f t h e
r eso u r c e f o r t h e u se o f f u t u r e gen er at i o n s an d t h e
en j o y m en t o f n o n - p r o d u c er s w h o v al u e t h e
ex i st en c e o f h eal t h y f i sh er y r eso u r c es.
Th e p r o f essi o n al l i t er at u r e o n r ec o v er i n g t h e
c o st s o f f i sh er i es m an agem en t essen t i al l y
c o n c l u d es t h at r eq u i r i n g p r o d u c er s t o p ay u ser
f ees i m p r o v es t h e o v er al l ef f i c i en c y o f
m an agem en t ; i n o t h er w o r d s, u ser f ees en h an c e
t h e v al u e gai n ed f r o m t h e u se o f sc ar c e
m an agem en t r eso u r c es. H o w ev er , t h e l i t er at u r e
d o es n o t ad d r ess t h e i ssu e o f w h et h er a f ai l u r e t o
c h ar ge u ser f ees (o r t o i n t r o d u c e so m e o t h er f o r m
o f c o st r ec o v er y ) sh o u l d b e c o n si d er ed a su b si d y .
Ch ar gi n g u ser f ees r ed u c es r ev en u es (o r i n c r eases
c o st s), b u t w h et h er su c h f ees af f ec t su p p l y , t r ad e
an d su st ai n ab i l i t y , an d h o w t h ey d o so , ar e n o t
c l ear at t h i s t i m e. M o r e r esear c h i s r eq u i r ed o n
t h i s i m p o r t an t i ssu e.
So m e o f t h e ex p er t s at t h e c o n su l t at i o n ar gu ed
t h at d ef i n i t i o n s o f su b si d i es t h at i n c l u d e o n l y
t h o se go v er n m en t i n t er v en t i o n s (o r an ab sen c e o f
c o r r ec t i n g i n t er v en t i o n s) t h at c o n f er sh o r t - t er m
b en ef i t s o n p r o d u c er s ar e l i m i t ed b ec au se t h ey d o
n o t ac c o u n t f o r t h e ef f ec t s o v er t i m e o f su c h
i n t er v en t i o n s. A n i n t er v en t i o n t h at c o n f er s an
i m m ed i at e b en ef i t c an u l t i m at el y c o n f er h ar m o r
l o sses o n p r o d u c er s, esp ec i al l y i n f i sh er i es. So m e
o f t h e ex p er t s r ec o m m en d ed ex t en d i n g t h e
d ef i n i t i o n o f a su b si d y t o i n c l u d e i n t er v en t i o n s
(an d t h e ab sen c e o f c o r r ec t i n g i n t er v en t i o n s) t h at
af f ec t c o st s an d r ev en u es i n an y d i r ec t i o n an d
o v er t i m e, i . e. i n t h e sh o r t , m ed i u m an d l o n g
t er m s.
94
1 0
Th e c ase o f so l e o w n er sh i p i s an ex c ep t i o n i n w h i c h t h e
o w n er s o f t h e f i sh er y r eso u r c e w o u l d b e w i l l i n g t o p ay f o r a set
o f ser v i c es t h at i n c l u d e r esear c h , m an agem en t ad m i n i st r at i o n
an d en f o r c em en t .
Set 4 subsidies
Su b si d i es i n set 4 ar e go v er n m en t i n t er v en t i o n s,
o r t h e ab sen c e o f c o r r ec t i n g i n t er v en t i o n s, t h at
af f ec t t h e c o st s an d / o r r ev en u es o f p r o d u c i n g an d
m ar k et i n g f i sh an d f i sh p r o d u c t s i n t h e sh o r t ,
m ed i u m o r l o n g t er m .
Set 4 su b si d i es i n c l u d e al l set 3 su b si d i es p l u s
su c h i n t er v en t i o n s as m an agem en t m easu r es t h at
m ay d ec r ease (o r i n c r ease) t h e sh o r t - t er m b en ef i t s
t o p r o d u c er s b u t t h at r esu l t i n an i n c r ease (o r
d ec r ease) i n l o n g- t er m b en ef i t s t o p r o d u c er s. A n
ex am p l e i s w h er e c l o su r e o f a f i sh er y (o r an ar ea
o f a f i sh er y ), w h i c h i m p o ses sh o r t - t er m l o sses o n
p r o d u c er s, u l t i m at el y r esu l t s i n a r eb u i l t r eso u r c e
st o c k an d h i gh er l o n g- t er m b en ef i t s t o p r o d u c er s.
Set 4 su b si d i es ex p l i c i t l y ac c o u n t f o r t h e ef f ec t s
o v er t i m e o f go v er n m en t i n t er v en t i o n s an d t h e
ab sen c e o f c o r r ec t i n g i n t er v en t i o n s. Th e ef f ec t s
o n b en ef i t s t o p r o d u c er s i n t h e sh o r t t er m m ay b e
t h e o p p o si t e o f t h e l o n g- t er m ef f ec t s.
TECH N O -ECO N O M I C PERFO RM AN CE O F
M ARI N E CAPTU RE FI SH ERI ES
I N TRO D U CTI O N
I n 1 9 9 9 an d 2 0 0 0 , i n c l o se c o o p er at i o n w i t h
sev er al f i sh er i es r esear c h i n st i t u t i o n s an d n at i o n al
f i sh er i es ad m i n i st r at i o n s i n A si a, A f r i c a, Lat i n
A m er i c a an d Eu r o p e, FA O r ev i ew ed t h e
ec o n o m i c an d f i n an c i al p er f o r m an c e o f m o r e
t h an 1 0 0 f i sh i n g f l eet s i n 1 5 c o u n t r i es. Th e r esu l t s
ar e p r esen t ed i n a FA O Fi sh er i es Tec h n i c al
Pap er .
1 1
Th e st u d i es ar e p ar t o f t h e m o n i t o r i n g o f
t h e ec o n o m i c v i ab i l i t y o f m ar i n e c ap t u r e f i sh er i es
o r gan i z ed b y t h e FA O Fi sh er i es D ep ar t m en t .
Th e st u d i es h i gh l i gh t t w o asp ec t s o f t h e
ec o n o m i c an d f i n an c i al d at a: t h e st r u c t u r e o f
c o st s an d t h e p r o f i t ab i l i t y . I n 1 9 9 9 2 0 0 0 , t h e
i n f l u en c e o f f i n an c i al t r an sf er s o n p r o f i t ab i l i t y
w as al so r ev i ew ed .
Th i s ar t i c l e c o n t ai n s so m e o f t h e h i gh l i gh t s o f
t h e d at a c o l l ec t ed an d t h e c o n c l u si o n s r eac h ed .
Sp ec i al em p h asi s i s gi v en t o an i n t er n at i o n al
c o m p ar i so n o f t h e st r u c t u r e o f c o st s f o r sm al l -
sc al e f i sh i n g v essel s.
CO ST STRU CTU RE O F SM ALL-SCALE
FI SH I N G VESSELS
Europe
Lab o u r c o st s ac c o u n t f o r t h e m aj o r sh ar e o f
o p er at i n g c o st s (4 5 t o 6 4 p er c en t ) i n Eu r o p ean
sm al l - sc al e f i sh er i es (N o r w ay , G er m an y an d
Fr an c e). V essel c o st s ar e t h e sec o n d h i gh est c o st
c o m p o n en t , r an gi n g f r o m 2 0 t o 3 5 p er c en t o f
t o t al o p er at i n g c o st s. A t 7 t o 2 0 p er c en t , r u n n i n g
c o st s p l ay a m i n o r r o l e, m ai n l y b ec au se o f l o w er
f u el ex p en ses. Th e i m p o r t an c e o f l ab o u r c o st s
c o m p ar ed w i t h v essel c o st s an d r u n n i n g c o st s i s
ev en h i gh er t h an i t i s i n d eep sea t r aw l f i sh er i es.
W h en ad d i n g t h e c o st s o f i n v est m en t , i . e.
d ep r ec i at i o n an d i n t er est o n v essel c o st s, v essel
c o st s gai n c o n si d er ab l e i m p o r t an c e, as sh o w n i n
Fi gu r e 4 3 . V essel c o st s an d d ep r ec i at i o n an d
i n t er est c o m b i n ed r an ge f r o m 3 3 t o 5 1 p er c en t o f
t h e t o t al c o st s.
Th i s f i n d i n g sh o w s t h at Eu r o p ean sm al l - sc al e
f i sh er i es ar e r el at i v el y c ap i t al - i n t en si v e an d t h at
c ap i t al i s su b st i t u t i n g ex p en si v e l ab o u r . Th i s t r en d
i s m o r e p r o n o u n c ed i n t h e c ase o f G er m an an d
Fr en c h v essel s t h an i t i s i n t h e c ase o f N o r w egi an
v essel s.
Senegal
Th e c o st st r u c t u r e o f Sen egal ese sm al l - sc al e
f i sh i n g v essel s d i f f er s f r o m t h at o b ser v ed i n
Eu r o p e. W h i l e l ab o u r c o st s ar e t h e m o st
i m p o r t an t el em en t o f t h e o p er at i n g c o st s i n
Eu r o p e, t h ei r sh ar e i s si gn i f i c an t l y h i gh er i n
Sen egal t h an i n t h e d ev el o p ed Eu r o p ean
c o u n t r i es r ep o r t ed . Th i s su p p o r t s t h e gen er al
n o t i o n t h at sm al l - sc al e f i sh er i es i n d ev el o p i n g
c o u n t r i es ar e m o r e l ab o u r - i n t en si v e t h an i n
d ev el o p ed c o u n t r i es. I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h at v essel
c o st s ar e t h e l east i m p o r t an t el em en t o f o p er at i n g
c o st s i n Sen egal , r ef l ec t i n g t h e l o w c o st s o f v essel
m ai n t en an c e an d r ep ai r .
D ep r ec i at i o n an d i n t er est ar e l ess i m p o r t an t i n
Sen egal t h an i n m o st Eu r o p ean c o u n t r i es. Th i s
r ef l ec t s t h e f ac t t h at v essel s ar e l ess ex p en si v e, so
d ep r ec i at i o n an d i n t er est ar e al so r ed u c ed , an d
r an ge f r o m 7 p er c en t o f t h e t o t al c o st s (f o r
h an d l i n er s) t o 2 1 p er c en t (f o r t w o - c an o e p u r se
sei n i n g), c o m p ar ed w i t h Eu r o p e w h er e t h ei r sh ar e
i s b et w een 3 3 an d 5 1 p er c en t .
95
1 1
FA O . 2 0 0 1 . Tec h n o - ec o n o m i c p er f o r m an c e o f m ar i n e c ap -
t u r e f i sh er i es. FA O Fi sh er i es Tec h n i c al Pap er N o . 4 2 1 . Ro m e.
The Caribbean
I n t h e c ase o f sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g v essel s i n t h e
Car i b b ean , a d i f f er en t p i c t u r e em er ges. O n l y f o r
f i sh i n g b o at s t h at ex p l o i t f l y i n g f i sh f r o m
Bar b ad o s (u si n g gi l l n et s, d i p n et s, h an d l i n es an d
f i sh aggr egat i n g d ev i c es) d o l ab o u r c o st s r an k as
t h e h i gh est c o st c o m p o n en t , f o l l o w ed b y r u n n i n g
c o st s an d v essel c o st s. I n al l t h e o t h er c ases (b o at s
f i sh i n g f o r l o b st er an d h i gh - v al u e b o t t o m sp ec i es
i n A n t i gu a an d Bar b u d a, an d ar t i san al sh r i m p
t r aw l er s i n Tr i n i d ad ), r u n n i n g c o st s ar e t h e m o st
i m p o r t an t c o st c o m p o n en t . Th i s r ef l ec t s t h e
si t u at i o n o b ser v ed f o r d eep sea t r aw l er s o p er at i n g
i n d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es.
Fo r t r ad i t i o n al l o b st er b o at s i n A n t i gu a an d
Bar b u d a, l ab o u r c o st s ar e t h e l east i m p o r t an t c o st
c o m p o n en t . Th i s c o n t r ast s w i t h t h e si t u at i o n
r ep o r t ed f o r t h e c o u n t r y s l ar ger l o b st er b o at s an d
f o r t h e ar t i san al sh r i m p t r aw l er s i n Tr i n i d ad ,
w h er e l ab o u r c o st s ar e t h e sec o n d h i gh est c o st
c o m p o n en t , f o l l o w ed b y v essel c o st s.
I n f ac t , t h e t o t al c o st st r u c t u r e o f sm al l - sc al e
96
f i sh i n g v essel s i n t h e Car i b b ean r esem b l es t h e
si t u at i o n f o u n d i n Eu r o p e m o r e c l o sel y t h an i t
d o es t h e o n e i n Sen egal . W h en d ep r ec i at i o n an d
i n t er est ar e ad d ed , t h e v essel c o st s r an ge f r o m 2 4
t o 4 8 p er c en t , w h i c h i s c l o se t o t h e si t u at i o n i n
Eu r o p e an d i n d i c at es o n l y a sl i gh t l y l o w er l ev el o f
c ap i t al i n v est m en t t h an t h at o b ser v ed t h er e. Fo r
b o at s t h at c at c h f l y i n g f i sh i n Bar b ad o s an d
sl o o p s t h at c at c h l o b st er s an d b o t t o m f i sh i n
A n t i gu a an d Bar b u d a t h e r esu l t i s ev en c l o ser t o
Eu r o p e s. Fo r t h ese v essel s, t h e v essel c o st s p l u s
d ep r ec i at i o n an d i n t er est ac c o u n t f o r t h e h i gh est
sh ar e o f t h e t o t al o p er at i n g c o st s.
Ru n n i n g c o st s r an k sec o n d , an d l ab o u r c o st s
ar e t h e l east i m p o r t an t c o m p o n en t o f b o t h
o p er at i n g an d t o t al ex p en ses f o r sm al l - sc al e
f i sh i n g v essel s i n t h e Car i b b ean (Fi gu r e 4 5 ). I n
t h i s t h ey d i f f er f r o m Eu r o p ean v essel s.
South and Southeast Asia
I n So u t h an d So u t h east A si a, l ab o u r c o st s ar e t h e
m o st i m p o r t an t c o m p o n en t o f t h e o p er at i n g c o st s
f o r f o u r o f t h e si x t y p es o f sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g
v essel s st u d i ed . Th e si t u at i o n i s t h u s si m i l ar t o
t h at o f sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g v essel s i n Eu r o p e an d
Sen egal . I n t h e c ases o f t h e I n d i an l o g r af t , w h i c h
o p er at es t r am m el n et s, an d t h e Th ai p u sh - n et t er ,
r u n n i n g c o st s ex c eed l ab o u r c o st s. A s i s t h e c ase
f o r m o st Car i b b ean an d Sen egal ese v essel s (b u t
n o t f o r Eu r o p ean sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g v essel s),
r u n n i n g c o st s r an k sec o n d , an d v essel c o st s t h i r d .
Fi gu r e 4 6 sh o w s t h at v essel c o st s, t o get h er w i t h
t h e c o st s o f d ep r ec i at i o n an d i n t er est , r an ge f r o m
1 5 t o 4 6 p er c en t , w h i c h i s m o r e si m i l ar t o t h e
si t u at i o n f o u n d i n t h e Car i b b ean an d Eu r o p e t h an
t o t h at o f sm al l - sc al e f i sh i n g v essel s i n Sen egal .
H o w ev er , i n n o c ase d o v essel c o st s p l u s
d ep r ec i at i o n an d i n t er est ac c o u n t f o r t h e h i gh est
sh ar e o f t o t al ex p en ses, as w as o b ser v ed f o r so m e
c at ego r i es o f v essel s i n Eu r o p e an d t h e
Car i b b ean . I n t h r ee o f t h e si x c ases (Th ai p u sh -
n et t er s an d an c h o v y b o at s an d I n d i an c at am ar an ),
v essel c o st s p l u s d ep r ec i at i o n an d i n t er est r an k
sec o n d , w h i l e f o r t h e o t h er t h r ee f l eet s t h ey ar e
t h e l east i m p o r t an t c o st c o m p o n en t . A gai n , t h i s
i n d i c at es a r el at i v el y l o w l ev el o f c ap i t al
i n v est m en t .
RECEN T TREN D S I N FI N AN CI AL AN D
ECO N O M I C PERFO RM AN CE
Th e st u d i es c ar r i ed o u t i n 1 9 9 9 an d 2 0 0 0 c o n f i r m
an d v al i d at e t h e f i n d i n gs o f t h e c o st an d ear n i n gs
st u d i es c ar r i ed o u t b et w een 1 9 9 5 an d 1 9 9 7 . O f
t h e 1 0 8 t y p es o f f i sh i n g v essel s st u d i ed , 1 0 5 (9 7
97
Antigua and Barbuda,
open trap/line vessel, 6 m
decked trap/line vessel, 7 m
trap/line sloop, 10 m
wooden launch, trap/lines, 11 m
Barbados,
flying fish day boat, 9 m
Barbados,
flying fish ice boat, 12 m
Trinidad,
artisanal shrimp trawler, 9 m
17%
22%
18%
12%
10%
17%
26%
32%
37%
30% 16%
22%
12% 8%
15% 22%
8%
15%
20%
21% 2% 1%
Running costs
Vessel costs
Labour costs
Depreciation
Interest
0% 0% 20% 20% 40% 40% 60% 60% 80% 80% 100% 100%
FIGURE 45
p er c en t ) h ad a p o si t i v e gr o ss c ash f l o w an d f u l l y
r ec o v er ed t h ei r c o st o f o p er at i o n . O n l y t h r ee
t y p es o f v essel s (st o w - n et t er s i n Ch i n a an d sem i -
i n d u st r i al an d i n d u st r i al sh r i m p an d b o t t o m f i sh
t r aw l er s i n Tr i n i d ad an d To b ago ) sh o w ed
o p er at i o n al l o sses. So m e 9 2 o f t h e 1 0 8 t y p es o f
v essel s (8 5 p er c en t ) sh o w ed a n et p r o f i t af t er t h e
c o st s o f d ep r ec i at i o n an d i n t er est h ad b een
d ed u c t ed . Th i s c o m p o si t e r esu l t i s m o r e p o si t i v e
t h an t h at o b t ai n ed f r o m st u d i es c ar r i ed o u t d u r i n g
t h e 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 7 p er i o d , w h en o n l y 6 1 o f t h e 8 4
t y p es o f v essel s st u d i ed (7 3 p er c en t ) h ad a
p o si t i v e n et c ash f l o w . Th e i m p r o v em en t i s
l ar gel y d u e t o t h e i n c l u si o n o f f l eet s o p er at i n g i n
N o r w ay , Th ai l an d an d t h e Car i b b ean , al l o f
w h i c h r ec o r d ed n et p r o f i t s.
O f t h e t en c o u n t r i es t h at p ar t i c i p at ed i n b o t h
t h e p r ev i o u s an d t h e r ec en t st u d i es, t w o (Fr an c e
an d Sp ai n ) sh o w ed m ar k ed i m p r o v em en t s i n t h e
p r o f i t ab i l i t y o f t h ei r f i sh i n g v essel s, w h i l e an o t h er
t w o (Ch i n a an d G er m an y ) sh o w ed d ec l i n i n g
p r o f i t ab i l i t y . I n t h e r em ai n i n g si x c o u n t r i es
(Rep u b l i c o f Ko r ea, I n d o n esi a, I n d i a, Sen egal ,
A r gen t i n a an d Per u ), t h e ec o n o m i c r esu l t s
r em ai n ed su b st an t i al l y u n c h an ged .
Th e h i gh er p r i c es p ai d t o p r o d u c er s i n
1 9 9 9 2 0 0 0 , c o m p ar ed w i t h t h e p r ev i o u s st u d y
p er i o d , c o n t r i b u t ed t o t h ese o v er al l p o si t i v e
r esu l t s. Th er e w er e f ew i n d i c at i o n s t h at f i sh i n g
ef f o r t h ad b een r ed u c ed an d f i sh st o c k s h ad
r ec o v er ed . I t w as al so o b ser v ed t h at so m e f l eet s
h ad c h an ged t h ei r f i sh i n g o p er at i o n s t o ad ap t t o
t h e n ew c o n d i t i o n s t h at r esu l t ed f r o m d ep l et ed
an d c h an gi n g ab u n d an c es o f r eso u r c es an d
ac c ess t o n ew m ar k et s.
Th e i m p ac t o f c o st - r ed u c i n g an d r ev en u e-
en h an c i n g go v er n m en t f i n an c i al t r an sf er s d i f f er ed
si gn i f i c an t l y f r o m c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y . I n t w o
c o u n t r i es i n t h e EC an d i n I n d i a, t h er e w er e
st r o n g i n d i c at i o n s t h at al m o st al l t h e v essel t y p es
t h at w er e c o v er ed b y t h e c o st an d ear n i n gs st u d y
an d r ec ei v ed f i n an c i al t r an sf er s w o u l d h av e b een
p r o f i t ab l e ev en w i t h o u t t h o se t r an sf er s. Th e
t r an sf er s p l ay ed a r o l e, h o w ev er , i n i n c r easi n g
ear n i n gs an d p r o f i t ab i l i t y si gn i f i c an t l y . I n t h e
Rep u b l i c o f Ko r ea t h e si t u at i o n w as m i x ed , w h i l e
i n Th ai l an d v essel s t h at c o u l d av ai l t h em sel v es o f
t ax ex em p t i o n s o n f u el n eed ed t o d o so i n o r d er
t o h av e a p o si t i v e gr o ss c ash f l o w .
Ex am p l es o f n ew t r en d s i n c o ast al f i sh er i es
i n c l u d e t h e ex p an d ed u se o f t r am m el n et s b y
t r ad i t i o n al l o g r af t s (k at t u m ar am s) o n t h e east
c o ast o f I n d i a, t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m i n i o u t r i gger
t r aw l er s f i sh i n g f o r sh r i m p an d d em er sal sp ec i es
i n sh al l o w w at er s o f f t h e I n d i an c o ast o f O r i ssa
an d Ben gal , t h e r ep l ac em en t o f d ay b o at s b y so -
c al l ed i c e b o at s w i t h i m p r o v ed o n b o ar d
p r eser v at i o n f ac i l i t i es i n t h e f l y i n g f i sh f i sh er y o f
98
Bar b ad o s, t h e m o d er n i z at i o n an d i m p r o v em en t o f
sl o o p s an d l au n c h es t o c at er t o t h e r eq u i r em en t s
o f ex p o r t m ar k et s i n A n t i gu a an d Bar b u d a, t h e
d i v er si f i c at i o n o f p u r se sei n i n g an d p o l e an d l i n e
f i sh i n g i n I n d o n esi a, an d t h e m o d er n i z at i o n an d
u p gr ad i n g o f c o ast al v essel s i n Th ai l an d , N o r w ay ,
Fr an c e an d G er m an y .
In offshore fi sheri es, the expansi on/devel opment
o f n ew p r o f i t ab l e f i sh er i es w i t h h i gh
c ap i t al i z at i o n an d t ec h n o l o gy w as o b ser v ed .
Ex am p l es i n c l u d e Fr en c h an d Sp an i sh t u n a
sei n er s, G er m an p el agi c t r aw l er s, N o r w egi an
c o m b i n at i o n v essel s eq u i p p ed f o r p el agi c
t r aw l i n g an d p u r se sei n i n g, an d t u n a l o n gl i n er s i n
I n d i a an d I n d o n esi a.
V essel s t h at h ad p r ev i o u sl y sh o w n p o si t i v e
r esu l t s b u t n o w i n c u r r ed l o sses w er e gen er al l y
o l d er v essel s, w h i c h w er e c o n t i n u i n g t o w o r k o n
o v er ex p l o i t ed st o c k s. Ex am p l es ar e Ch i n ese
b o t t o m p ai r t r aw l er s o f 2 5 t o 2 8 m i n l en gt h ,
Ch i n ese si n gl e b o t t o m t r aw l er s o f 2 6 m i n l en gt h ,
Ch i n ese st o w - n et t er s o f 3 0 . 5 m i n l en gt h an d
Ch i n ese p u r se sei n er s/ set - n et t er s o f 3 6 m i n
l en gt h , al l o f w h i c h sh o w ed n et l o sses t h e st o w -
n et t er s ev en sh o w ed o p er at i o n al l o sses w h i l e
p r ev i o u sl y o n l y p ai r t r aw l er s h ad sh o w n a n et
l o ss an d n o v essel sh o w ed o p er at i o n al l o sses.
I n d i an p u r se sei n er s o f 1 4 m i n l en gt h f i sh i n g
m ac k er el an d sar d i n e i n t h e A r ab i an Sea al so
sh o w ed n et l o sses, w h i l e p r ev i o u sl y t h ey h ad
m ad e a n et p r o f i t .
Sen egal ese p u r se sei n er s t ar get i n g sm al l
p el agi c s an d f i sh i n g o f f t h e W est A f r i c an c o ast ,
w h i c h h ad p r ev i o u sl y sh o w n n et p r o f i t s, n o w
r ec o r d ed n et l o sses, al t h o u gh t h ey st i l l r ec o v er ed
t h ei r o p er at i n g c o st s.
Th e si t u at i o n al so d et er i o r at ed f o r G er m an
c u t t er t r aw l er s o f 2 2 t o 3 2 m i n l en gt h f i sh i n g
d em er sal f i sh st o c k s i n t h e N o r t h Sea an d Bal t i c
Sea, as w el l as f o r G er m an f ac t o r y t r aw l er s o f 6 0
t o 8 0 m i n l en gt h f i sh i n g d em er sal f i sh r eso u r c es
o f f G r een l an d an d i n t h e w at er s o f t h e EC. Th ese
al l sh o w ed n et l o sses, b u t n o t o p er at i o n al l o sses,
h av i n g p r ev i o u sl y sh o w n a n et p r o f i t .
Sp an i sh p o l e an d l i n e v essel s o f 2 4 m i n l en gt h
al so m ad e n et l o sses af t er m ak i n g a n et p r o f i t
d u r i n g t h e p r ev i o u s st u d y p er i o d .
Ty p es o f v essel s t h at sh o w ed n et l o sses d u r i n g
t h e f i r st st u d y an d a n et p r o f i t i n t h e sec o n d
i n c l u d e t h r ee t y p es o f Sp an i sh t u n a sei n er s o f 5 6 ,
6 4 an d 7 0 m i n l en gt h , d eep sea t r aw l er s o f ab o u t
3 0 m i n l en gt h , an d t h r ee t y p es o f d eep sea
t r aw l er s r an gi n g f r o m 1 5 t o 2 4 m i n l en gt h .
AQ U ACU LTU RE D EVELO PM EN T I N CH I N A:
TH E RO LE O F PU BLI C SECTO R PO LI CI ES
I N TRO D U CTI O N
Po l i c y - m ak er s an d d ev el o p m en t agen t s ar e
i n c r easi n gl y v i ew i n g aq u ac u l t u r e as an i n t egr al
c o m p o n en t o f t h e sear c h f o r gl o b al f o o d sec u r i t y
an d ec o n o m i c d ev el o p m en t . M ai n l an d Ch i n a i s
t h e w o r l d s l ead er i n aq u ac u l t u r e p r o d u c t i o n
f o l l o w i n g a st ead y d ev el o p m en t d u r i n g t h e l ast
t h r ee d ec ad es. I d en t i f i c at i o n an d an al y si s o f t h e
i ssu es an d f ac t o r s t h at m o t i v at ed aq u ac u l t u r e
d ev el o p m en t i n Ch i n a c o u l d p l ay a c r i t i c al r o l e,
n o t o n l y i n u n d er st an d i n g t h e f u t u r e o f
aq u ac u l t u r e i n Ch i n a, b u t al so i n sh ap i n g
aq u ac u l t u r e d ev el o p m en t i n m an y p ar t s o f t h e
w o r l d . I t i s w i t h i n t h i s f r am ew o r k t h at t h e FA O
Fi sh er i es D ep ar t m en t an d t h e G o v er n m en t o f
Ch i n a j o i n t l y c o n d u c t ed t h i s st u d y . Th e u l t i m at e
go al w as t o ev al u at e w ay s i n w h i c h t h e Ch i n ese
ex p er i en c e o f su st ai n ab l e an d l u c r at i v e
aq u ac u l t u r e d ev el o p m en t c o u l d b en ef i t o t h er
c o u n t r i es w i t h aq u ac u l t u r e p o t en t i al , esp ec i al l y
d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es.
1 2
Th e ap p r o ac h t ak en t o ac h i ev i n g t h i s go al
c o n si st ed o f an sw er i n g f o u r q u est i o n s c o n c er n i n g
aq u ac u l t u r e i n Ch i n a: W h y d i d aq u ac u l t u r e
d ev el o p so su st ai n ab l y ? W h at i s i t s c u r r en t
d ev el o p m en t l ev el ? H o w w as t h i s d ev el o p m en t
ac h i ev ed ? an d W h er e i s aq u ac u l t u r e h ead i n g?
Th e i n f o r m at i o n p r esen t ed i n t h i s ar t i c l e c am e
99
1 2
Th i s ar t i c l e i s a su m m ar y o f FA O . I n p r ess. A q u ac u l t u r e d e-
v el o p m en t i n Ch i n a. Th e r o l e o f p u b l i c sec t o r p o l i c i es. FA O Fi -
sh er i es Tec h n i c al Pap er N o . 4 2 6 . Th e p ap er an d t h e asso c i at ed
study cover al l of Chi na except Tai w an Provi nce of Chi na. It w as
p r ep ar ed b y a t eam o f Ch i n ese ex p er t s an d FA O st af f an d c o n -
su l t an t s. Th e d at a p r esen t ed o n Ch i n ese aq u ac u l t u r e w er e p r o -
v i d ed b y t h e G o v er n m en t o f Ch i n a an d d i f f er so m ew h at f r o m
so m e o f t h e d at a p r ev i o u sl y p u b l i sh ed b y FA O . G i v en t h at t h e
p r i m ar y p u r p o se o f t h i s ar t i c l e i s t o h i gh l i gh t t h e p o l i c y c o n t r i -
b u t i o n s t o t h e r ap i d gr o w t h o f aq u ac u l t u r e i n Ch i n a, i t w as n o t
c o n si d er ed essen t i al t h at t h ese st at i st i c al d i f f er en c es b e r ec o n -
c i l ed .
m ai n l y f r o m ex i st i n g d o c u m en t at i o n o n t h e
sec t o r , o b ser v at i o n s f r o m f i el d v i si t s b y ex p er t s,
an d t h e st u d y t eam s k n o w l ed ge o f t h e sec t o r .
M aj o r p l ay er s i n t h e sec t o r al so p r o v i d ed u sef u l
i n f o r m at i o n . Th e ar t i c l e d i sc u sses t h e m ai n
f i n d i n gs o f t h e st u d y b ef o r e c l o si n g w i t h so m e
c o n c l u d i n g c o m m en t s.
M AI N FI N D I N GS
The reason for aquaculture development
Ch i n a h as a l o n g h i st o r y o f aq u ac u l t u r e
d ev el o p m en t , w h i c h c an b e d i v i d ed i n t o t h r ee
m ai n p h ases: t h e p r e- 1 9 4 9 p er i o d , t h e
1 9 4 9 1 9 7 8 p er i o d , an d t h e p er i o d f r o m 1 9 7 8 t o
t h e p r esen t . Th e f o u n d at i o n s f o r aq u ac u l t u r e
d ev el o p m en t an d gr o w t h w er e l ai d i n t h e p er i o d
b et w een 1 9 4 9 an d 1 9 7 8 , af t er w h i c h
d ev el o p m en t h as b een r ap i d an d st ead y .
D ev el o p m en t seem s t o h av e b een p r o m p t ed b y
f o o d sel f - su f f i c i en c y an d ec o n o m i c f ac t o r s. W h en
t h e Peo p l e s Rep u b l i c o f Ch i n a w as b o r n i n 1 9 4 9 ,
t h e c o u n t r y h ad j u st em er ged f r o m a p er i o d o f
f o r ei gn d o m i n at i o n an d c i v i l st r i f e. Th e ec o n o m y
w as t o t al l y w r ec k ed . Po v er t y w as r am p an t , f o o d
sc ar c e an d f am i n es f r eq u en t an d w i d esp r ead . A s
t h e go v er n m en t st r i v ed t o r eb u i l d t h e c o u n t r y s
ec o n o m y , i t s f i r st p r i o r i t y w as t o m o b i l i z e an d
o r gan i z e al l t h e av ai l ab l e n at i o n al r eso u r c es at i t s
d i sp o sal i n o r d er t o p r o d u c e en o u gh f o o d an d
r aw m at er i al s t o f eed an d c l o t h e t h e p o p u l at i o n .
G i v en t h ei r p r o d u c t i o n c y c l es, f i sh er i es an d
aq u ac u l t u r e w er e c o n si d er ed t o b e t w o so u r c es o f
an i m al p r o t ei n t h at c o u l d b e t ap p ed i n a sh o r t
t i m e. I n ad d i t i o n , f i sh w as al r ead y an ac c ep t ed
f o o d i t em i n p eo p l e s d i et an d i t s p r o d u c t i o n
t h r o u gh f ar m i n g an d t h e h ar v est o f n at u r al w at er s
w as w el l est ab l i sh ed i n Ch i n a. Th e go al w as al so
t o p r o d u c e f o r ex p o r t i n o r d er t o ear n m u c h -
n eed ed f o r ei gn ex c h an ge w i t h w h i c h t o p u r c h ase
c ap i t al go o d s f o r t h e c o n st r u c t i o n o f t h e
ec o n o m y .
Current state of the art
M aj o r aq u ac u l t u r e sy st em s, sp ec i es an d
p r o d u c t i o n t ec h n o l o gi es. M aj o r f r esh w at er
aq u ac u l t u r e sy st em s i n c l u d e p o n d , c age, p en an d
p ad d y f i sh c u l t u r e i n r i c e f i el d s an d i n d o o r
r u n n i n g w at er sy st em s. Po n d c u l t u r e i s t h e m o st
p o p u l ar an d m o st i m p o r t an t f i sh f ar m i n g sy st em
i n Ch i n a. M aj o r sp ec i es c u l t i v at ed i n p o n d s
i n c l u d e c ar p s, Ch i n ese b r eam (M egal o b r am a
am b l y o c ep h al a), m an d ar i n f i sh (Si n i p er c a
c h au t si ), Jap an ese eel (A n gu i l l a j ap o n i c a),
Jap an ese p r aw n (M ac r o b r ac h i u m n i p p o n en si s),
m u ssel (H y r i o p si s c u m i n gi i an d Cr i st al i a p l i c at a),
r i v er c r ab (Er i o c h ei r si n sen si s), so f t - sh el l ed t u r t l e
(Tr i o n y x si n en si s) an d i n t r o d u c ed ex o t i c sp ec i es
su c h as c h an n el c at f i sh (I c t al u r u s p u n c t u t at u s),
t i l ap i a (O r eo c h r o m i s n i l o t i c u s), gi an t p r aw n
(M ac r o b r ac h i u m r o sen b er gi i ), l ar ge- m o u t h b ass
(M i c r o p t er u s sal m o i d es) an d r ai n b o w t r o u t
(O n c h o r h y n c h u s m y k i ss).
M ar i n e an d b r ac k i sh w at er c u l t u r e sy st em s
r an ge i n t y p e f r o m p o n d s t o f l o at i n g r af t s, p en s,
c ages (i n sh o r e, o f f sh o r e an d su b m er ged ), t u n n el s,
i n d o o r t an k s w i t h w at er r ec i r c u l at i o n , sea b o t t o m
c u l t u r e an d sea r an c h i n g. Bef o r e 1 9 8 0 , t h r ee
sp ec i es t h e seaw eed s Jap an ese k el p (Lam i n ar i a
j ap o n i c a) an d p u r p l e l av er (Po r p h y r a t en er a) an d
t h e m o l l u sc b l u e m u ssel (M y t i l u s ed u l i s)
ac c o u n t ed f o r ab o u t 9 8 p er c en t o f t h e t o t al
m ar i n e aq u ac u l t u r e o u t p u t . Cu r r en t l y , i n ad d i t i o n
t o t h ese sp ec i es, i m p o r t an t m ar i n e sp ec i es
i n c l u d e t w o sh r i m p sp ec i es (Pen aeo u s m o n o d o n
an d P. c h i n en si s), t h e m o l l u sc s o y st er s (O st r ea
sp p . ) an d r az o r c l am (So l en c o n st r i c t a), sc al l o p s
(A r go i p ec t en sp p . ), ab al o n e (H al i o t i s d i sc u ss
h an n ai an d H . d i v er si d o r ) an d f i n f i sh .
Far m o r gan i z at i o n an d st r u c t u r e, an d
r el at i o n sh i p s am o n g f ar m er s. O w n er sh i p o f
aq u ac u l t u r e v en t u r es i n Ch i n a c o m p r i ses st at e,
c o r p o r at e, i n d i v i d u al , j o i n t v en t u r e an d
i n d ep en d en t f o r ei gn v en t u r e o w n er sh i p . I n t h e
so u t h er n p ar t o f Ch i n a s c o ast al p r o v i n c es an d
au t o n o m o u s r egi o n s, i n c l u d i n g Z h ej i an g, Fu j i an ,
G u an gd o n g, G u an gx i an d H ai n an , m o r e t h an 9 0
p er c en t o f t h e f ar m s b el o n g t o i n d i v i d u al s an d
p r i v at e c o r p o r at i o n s. I n so m e ar eas o f t h e r egi o n ,
su c h as W en z h o u an d Tai z h o u i n Z h ej i an g
Pr o v i n c e, j o i n t v en t u r es an d c o o p er at i v e f ar m s
ac c o u n t f o r 1 0 0 p er c en t o f aq u ac u l t u r e
b u si n esses. M o st p ar t n er s i n j o i n t v en t u r es w i t h
f o r ei gn i n v est o r s ar e f r o m Tai w an Pr o v i n c e o f
Ch i n a. I n t h e n o r t h er n p ar t o f Ch i n a s c o ast al
p r o v i n c es, ab o u t 8 0 p er c en t o f aq u ac u l t u r e
b u si n esses ar e c o r p o r at i o n s. I n t h e c o u n t r y s
i n l an d ar eas, m o r e t h an 9 0 p er c en t o f f r esh w at er
100
f i sh f ar m s ar e i n d i v i d u al l y o r f am i l y - o w n ed .
Far m si z es an d d i st r i b u t i o n d ep en d o n t h e
sp ec i es c u l t u r ed an d t h e geo gr ap h i c al l o c at i o n . I n
n o r t h er n ar eas, esp ec i al l y i n Sh an d o n g an d
Li ao n i n g p r o v i n c es, m o st m ar i c u l t u r e f ar m s ar e
l ar ge- sc al e, c o m m er c i al o p er at i o n s p r o d u c i n g
m ai n l y k el p , f l at f i sh (Par al i c h t h y s o l i v ac eu s),
sc al l o p an d ab al o n e. I n so u t h er n an d i n l an d
ar eas, sm al l - sc al e f ar m s ar e p r ep o n d er an t ; m o st
o f t h em ar e f r esh w at er f i sh f ar m s o p er at ed b y
f am i l y u n i t s.
M u t u al l y r ei n f o r c i n g r el at i o n sh i p s b et w een
sm al l - an d l ar ge- sc al e p r o d u c er s ex i st . Th e h ead s
o f l ar ge- sc al e c o m p an i es, r ef er r ed t o as "h ead s o f
d r ago n s", c an si gn c o n t r ac t s w i t h sm al l - sc al e f i sh
f ar m s i n v o l v i n g c ap i t al i n v est m en t , p r o d u c t
c o l l ec t i o n , t ec h n i c al gu i d an c e an d p r o v i si o n o f
m ar k et i n f o r m at i o n t o t h e sm al l - sc al e f ar m s. I n
r et u r n f o r t h ese ser v i c es, l ar ge- sc al e c o m p an i es
gai n c o m m u n i t y su p p o r t , w h i c h i s an essen t i al
i n gr ed i en t f o r t h e su st ai n ab i l i t y o f t h ei r
en t er p r i ses, an d ec o n o m i c gai n s.
Seed an d f eed p r o d u c t i o n . Bec au se o f t h e h i gh
d em an d f o r seed s, Ch i n a h as h at c h er i es f o r a h o st
o f d i f f er en t sp ec i es.
W i t h t h e ex c ep t i o n o f eel f ar m i n g, w h i c h st i l l
c o l l ec t s seed s f r o m est u ar i n e ar eas o r i m p o r t s
t h em f r o m o t h er c o u n t r i es, i n c l u d i n g Fr an c e,
m o st o f t h e seed s o f f ar m ed sp ec i es ar e su p p l i ed
f r o m h at c h er i es. H at c h er i es c o n si st o f w el l -
d ev el o p ed b ases/ st at i o n s t h at ar e o p er at ed b y
c o r p o r at i o n s, c o l l ec t i v es o r i n d i v i d u al s. Th e
N at i o n al Fi sh er i es Tec h n o l o gy Ex t en si o n Cen t r e
i s r esp o n si b l e f o r gu i d i n g b r eed i n g t ec h n i q u es
an d i n t r o d u c i n g gen et i c m at er i al s f r o m o n e
r egi o n t o an o t h er . Th e Fi sh I d en t i f i c at i o n
Co m m i t t ee, u n d er t h e l ead er sh i p o f t h e N at i o n al
Bu r eau o f Fi sh er i es, i s r esp o n si b l e f o r t h e
i d en t i f i c at i o n o f gen et i c m at er i al s an d t h e
est ab l i sh m en t o f m u l t i p l i c at i o n c en t r es.
Th er e ar e ab o u t 1 2 0 0 0 f eed m i l l s p r o d u c i n g
v ar i o u s k i n d s o f an i m al f eed s, i n c l u d i n g f i sh f eed .
O f t h ese, ab o u t 1 9 0 0 h av e a p r o d u c t i o n c ap ac i t y
ex c eed i n g 5 t o n n es p er h o u r . Th e st at e st i l l p l ay s
an i m p o r t an t r o l e i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f f eed f o r
aq u at i c an i m al s an d o w n s sl i gh t l y m o r e t h an 4 7
p er c en t o f t h e m i l l s, d o w n f r o m 9 9 p er c en t i n
1 9 9 0 . D o m est i c c o r p o r at i o n s c o n t r o l 4 7 . 6
p er c en t o f t h e m i l l s, u p f r o m 0 p er c en t i n 1 9 9 0 .
Th e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f j o i n t v en t u r es h as al so b een
i n c r easi n g, al t h o u gh sl o w l y ; i n 1 9 9 9 , t h ey
ac c o u n t ed f o r 3 . 8 p er c en t o f t h e f eed m i l l s f o r
aq u at i c an i m al s, c o m p ar ed w i t h 0 . 1 p er c en t i n
1 9 9 0 .
M ar k et s an d m ar k et i n g. A q u ac u l t u r e p r o d u c t s ar e
so l d i n f r esh an d p r o c essed f o r m s. A l t h o u gh m o st
p r o d u c t s ar e so l d f r esh , b asi c f i sh h an d l i n g an d
p r o c essi n g t ec h n o l o gi es ar e b ei n g p r o gr essi v el y
r ep l ac ed b y t h e l at est m o d er n t ec h n o l o gi es t o
ad d m o r e v al u e t o v ar i o u s f i sh p r o d u c t s. Fr o z en
o r c o l d - st o r ed p r o d u c t s ar e r ep l ac i n g sal t ed o n es;
l ar ge p ac k ages ar e gi v i n g w ay t o sm al l o n es; an d
so f t t i n c o n t ai n er s ar e u sed i n l i eu o f gl ass
c o n t ai n er s.
Resear c h , ed u c at i o n an d ex t en si o n . Th e r esear c h
sy st em c o n si st s m ai n l y o f n at i o n al an d l o c al
f i sh er i es r esear c h i n st i t u t i o n s an d u n i v er si t i es. I n
1 9 9 9 , t h er e w er e 2 1 0 f i sh er i es r esear c h i n st i t u t es
i n Ch i n a. N at i o n al r esear c h i n st i t u t i o n s an d
u n i v er si t i es, m o st o f w h i c h ar e en gaged i n b asi c
an d ap p l i ed r esear c h , ar e t h e m aj o r p o w er f o r
aq u ac u l t u r e r esear c h an d t ec h n o l o gi c al
d ev el o p m en t . N at i o n al r esear c h i n st i t u t i o n s ar e
f u n d ed b y t h e c en t r al go v er n m en t an d ar e u n d er
t h e d i r ec t ad m i n i st r at i o n o f t h e Ch i n ese A c ad em y
o f Fi sh er y Sc i en c es w i t h i n t h e M i n i st r y o f
A gr i c u l t u r e. U n i v er si t i es f al l u n d er t h e
ad m i n i st r at i o n o f t h e M i n i st r y o f Ed u c at i o n o r
p r o v i n c i al go v er n m en t s. Lo c al i n st i t u t i o n s f o c u s
o n so l v i n g t h e t ec h n i c al p r o b l em s t h at af f ec t l o c al
aq u ac u l t u r e d ev el o p m en t . Th ey ar e m o r e
p r o d u c er - o r i en t ed an d ar e so m et i m es q u i c k er t o
r esp o n d t o f ar m er s n eed s t h an ar e t h e o t h er t w o
c at ego r i es. O f t en , t h ey ar e al so a st ep ah ead o f
n at i o n al i n st i t u t i o n s an d u n i v er si t i es i n t er m s o f
p r ac t i c al t ec h n o l o gi c al ad v an c es. Th ey ar e
f u n d ed m ai n l y b y p r o v i n c i al an d / o r m u n i c i p al
go v er n m en t s. N o n - f i sh er i es c o m m er c i al p r i v at e
c o m p an i es al so sp o n so r aq u ac u l t u r e r esear c h ,
esp ec i al l y i n t h e ar eas o f aq u ac u l t u r e f eed s,
c h em i c al s (f o r t h e c o n t r o l o f f i sh d i seases) an d
b r eed i n g an d c u l t u r e t ec h n o l o gi es o f h i gh - v al u e
sp ec i es.
Th e go v er n m en t h as est ab l i sh ed a sy st em o f
aq u ac u l t u r e ed u c at i o n an d t r ai n i n g t h at c an
101
gen er al l y m eet h u m an r eso u r c e r eq u i r em en t s f o r
t h e d ev el o p m en t o f t h e sec t o r .
Ed u c at i o n an d o n - t h e- j o b t r ai n i n g ar e f u l l y
su p p o r t ed b y c en t r al an d l o c al go v er n m en t . So m e
3 0 u n i v er si t i es en r o l ab o u t 1 0 0 0 u n d er gr ad u at e
st u d en t s i n aq u ac u l t u r e ev er y y ear , f i v e
u n i v er si t i es an d r esear c h i n st i t u t i o n s o f f er
d o c t o r al d egr ees, an d n i n e aw ar d m ast er s
d egr ees i n aq u ac u l t u r e an d c l o sel y r el at ed ar eas.
Th er e ar e al so ab o u t 2 0 t ec h n i c al sec o n d ar y
sc h o o l s an d a l ar ge n u m b er o f v o c at i o n al sc h o o l s
w i t h t h e m aj o r t ask o f p r o d u c i n g sk i l l ed w o r k er s
f o r t h e aq u ac u l t u r e an d f i sh er i es sec t o r .
A q u ac u l t u r e ex t en si o n h as al w ay s b een
st r o n gl y su p p o r t ed b y t h e go v er n m en t . Th e
N at i o n al Fi sh er i es Tec h n o l o gy Ex t en si o n Cen t r e
i s t h e n at i o n al i n st i t u t i o n r esp o n si b l e f o r
aq u ac u l t u r e ex t en si o n , an d 1 8 4 6 2 f i sh er i es
ex t en si o n st at i o n s f o r m a n et w o r k o f ser v i c es
ac r o ss t h e c o u n t r y . Ex t en si o n i s j o i n t l y f u n d ed b y
c en t r al an d l o c al go v er n m en t . Resear c h
i n st i t u t i o n s ar e al so st ar t i n g t o ex t en d t h ei r
f i n d i n gs d i r ec t l y t o f ar m er s. A s aq u ac u l t u r e
d ev el o p s, a gr o w i n g n u m b er o f o r gan i z at i o n s an d
c o m m er c i al c o m p an i es o u t si d e go v er n m en t ,
esp ec i al l y f eed an d c h em i c al c o m p an i es, ar e
sh o w i n g i n t er est i n ex t en si o n ac t i v i t i es. Th ei r
m o t i v e i s p r o f i t , as t h ey see ex t en si o n as an
ef f ec t i v e m ean s o f p r o m o t i n g m ar k et s f o r t h ei r
p r o d u c t s.
M aj o r st r en gt h s an d c o n st r ai n t s. A s w el l as
su p p o r t i v e go v er n m en t p o l i c i es (w h i c h ar e
d i sc u ssed i n t h e f o l l o w i n g su b sec t i o n ), t h e m ai n
st r en gt h s o f Ch i n ese aq u ac u l t u r e i n c l u d e w el l -
est ab l i sh ed seed p r o d u c t i o n t ec h n o l o gy f o r
f r esh w at er sp ec i es, a st r o n g an d c o n t i n u i n g
r esear c h an d d ev el o p m en t i n f r ast r u c t u r e, a so l i d
ex t en si o n ser v i c e, r el at i v el y h i gh er p r o f i t an d n et
i n c o m e p er u n i t o f l ab o u r , an d a st r o n g d o m est i c
an d i n t er n at i o n al d em an d f o r aq u at i c p r o d u c t s.
M aj o r c o n st r ai n t s i n c l u d e: t h e c o n t i n u ed t h r eat o f
en v i r o n m en t al d egr ad at i o n an d d i sease
o u t b r eak s; l i t t l e i m p r o v em en t i n seed su p p l y an d
gen et i c c o n ser v at i o n ; l i m i t ed su i t ab l e l an d f o r
ex p an si o n o f l an d - b ased aq u ac u l t u r e; an d , i n
m an y ar eas, i n ad eq u at e p r i m ar y f i sh er y f ac i l i t i es
an d i n f r ast r u c t u r e.
D EVELO PM EN T PO LI CI ES
General sector-specific policies
A r i c h gen er al p o l i c y m i x l ed t o t h e n o t i c eab l e
d ev el o p m en t o f aq u ac u l t u r e at d i f f er en t p er i o d s
i n Ch i n a.
Sel f - r el i an c e i n f i sh t h r o u gh t h e f u l l em p l o y m en t
o f r eso u r c es. W h en t h e Peo p l e s Rep u b l i c o f
Ch i n a w as p r o c l ai m ed i n 1 9 4 9 , t h e go v er n m en t
d ev el o p ed a h i gh l y c en t r al i z ed sy st em o f
p l an n i n g, d ev el o p m en t an d m an agem en t t h at
c o n t i n u ed u n t i l t h e i m p l em en t at i o n o f an o p en -
d o o r p o l i c y an d ec o n o m i c r ef o r m s i n t h e l at e
1 9 7 0 s. D u r i n g t h i s p er i o d , t h e go v er n m en t s
p o l i c y w as t o p u sh f o r t h e p o p u l at i o n s f u l l
p ar t i c i p at i o n i n t h e ec o n o m i c l i f e o f t h e c o u n t r y ,
i n c l u d i n g i n t h e aq u ac u l t u r e sec t o r . Th e p r i m ar y
go al w as f i sh sel f - r el i an c e.
Set t i n g aq u ac u l t u r e as a p r i o r i t y i n t h e
d ev el o p m en t o f t h e f i sh er i es sec t o r . Bef o r e 1 9 7 9 ,
t h e gu i d i n g p r i n c i p l es f o r f i sh er i es an d
aq u ac u l t u r e em p h asi z ed m ar i n e f i sh er i es an d
f i sh i n g an d t en d ed t o u n d er r at e f r esh w at er
f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e. Th i s p o l i c y l ed t o t h e
sev er e d est r u c t i o n o f f i sh er y r eso u r c es an d t h e
sl o w d ev el o p m en t o f aq u ac u l t u r e. Th er eaf t er , t h e
go v er n m en t i ssu ed a ser i es o f r egu l at i o n s t o
p r o t ec t f i sh er y r eso u r c es an d t o m ak e aq u ac u l t u r e
d ev el o p m en t o n e o f i t s p r i o r i t i es. Tar get s w er e set
an d m ean s o f ac h i ev i n g t h em d ef i n ed . G u i d ed b y
t h ese gen er al p r i n c i p l es an d p o l i c i es, w h i c h w er e
su p p l em en t ed b y o t h er r el ev an t an d m o r e
sp ec i f i c p o l i c i es, Ch i n ese aq u ac u l t u r e
d ev el o p m en t r ec o v er ed f r o m st agn at i o n . By
1 9 8 5 , o u t p u t f r o m f r esh w at er an d m ar i n e w at er
aq u ac u l t u r e h ad r eac h ed 3 0 9 0 0 0 0 t o n n es,
ac c o u n t i n g f o r ab o u t 4 3 p er c en t o f t h e c o m b i n ed
c ap t u r e f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e o u t p u t .
Est ab l i sh m en t o f aq u ac u l t u r e p r o d u c t i o n b ases.
O w i n g t o t h e c o n st r u c t i o n o f go v er n m en t
aq u ac u l t u r e p r o d u c t i o n b ases, aq u ac u l t u r e
d ev el o p ed i n t o an i m p o r t an t i n d u st r y f o r t h e r u r al
ec o n o m y . By 1 9 8 6 , t h e t o t al ar ea c o v er ed b y t h e
go v er n m en t s aq u ac u l t u r e b ases i n Ch i n a h ad
r eac h ed n ear l y 2 4 0 0 k m
2
an d w as y i el d i n g
1 . 5 m i l l i o n t o n n es, n ear l y 5 0 p er c en t o f t h e
c o u n t r y s t o t al aq u ac u l t u r e o u t p u t f o r t h at y ear .
102
Pr o m o t i o n o f su st ai n ab l e aq u ac u l t u r e
d ev el o p m en t . Ten y ear s af t er t h e I n st r u c t i o n s o n
t h e Rel ease o f Rest r i c t i o n s t o Ex p ed i t e t h e
D ev el o p m en t o f t h e A q u at i c Pr o d u c t s I n d u st r y
w er e p r o m u l gat ed i n 1 9 8 6 , t h e i n d u st r y h ad
d ev el o p ed v er y r ap i d l y . H o w ev er , m an y
p r o b l em s em er ged al o n gsi d e t h e i n c r ease i n
o u t p u t . Po o r m an agem en t o f aq u at i c seed
r esu l t ed i n h i gh m o r t al i t y ; d i seases b r o k e o u t ; t h e
d i ssem i n at i o n an d t r an sf er o f aq u ac u l t u r e
t ec h n o l o gi es w as i n ad eq u at e; an d p o o r l y
c o n st r u c t ed i n f r ast r u c t u r es an d f ac i l i t i es w er e
w i d esp r ead . I n o r d er t o f o st er an d b o o st t h e
su st ai n ab l e an d r ap i d d ev el o p m en t o f
aq u ac u l t u r e, t h e St at e Co u n c i l i ssu ed r egu l at i o n s
t h at d em an d ed f u r t h er r ef o r m an d l i b er al i z at i o n
o f aq u ac u l t u r e, r ad i c al c h an ges t o t h e st r u c t u r e o f
t h e sec t o r , ad j u st m en t o f t h e sp ec i es m i x an d
p r o d u c t i o n st r u c t u r e t o m ar k et c o n d i t i o n s, an d
t h e d ev el o p m en t o f n ew t ec h n o l o gi es t o i m p r o v e
t h e p er f o r m an c e o f t h e w h o l e f i sh er i es sec t o r so
as t o en su r e i t s su st ai n ab l e d ev el o p m en t .
Co n t i n u o u s ad j u st m en t o f t h e st r u c t u r e o f t h e
aq u ac u l t u r e sec t o r . A s t h e i n d u st r y d ev el o p ed , i t
so o n b ec am e ap p ar en t t h at t h er e w er e ser i o u s
i n h er en t st r u c t u r al p r o b l em s, w h i c h n eed ed t o b e
ad d r essed i f gr o w t h w as t o c o n t i n u e. I n t h e m ai n
aq u ac u l t u r e p r o d u c t i o n ar eas, t h e su p p l y o f so m e
t r ad i t i o n al sp ec i es ex c eed ed d em an d , r esu l t i n g i n
l o w p r i c es, r ed u c ed sec t o r ef f i c i en c y an d
d ep r essed p r o d u c er i n c o m es. I n r esp o n se, i n
1 9 9 9 t h e M i n i st r y o f A gr i c u l t u r e r el eased t h e
G u i d i n g I n st r u m en t o n A d j u st i n g t h e St r u c t u r e o f
t h e Fi sh er y Sec t o r , w h i c h h ad t h e ai m o f
r est r u c t u r i n g t h e f i sh er i es sec t o r , i n c l u d i n g
aq u ac u l t u r e. Th e gu i d i n g p r i n c i p l e c o n c er n i n g
aq u ac u l t u r e w as t o i n c r ease ef f o r t s t o d ev el o p
n ew m ar k et s an d ex p an d ex i st i n g o n es, i n c r ease
t h e d em an d f o r f i sh t h r o u gh m ar k et p r o m o t i o n ,
d ev el o p n ew v al u e- ad d ed p r o d u c t s, i m p r o v e t h e
q u al i t y o f aq u at i c p r o d u c t s t h r o u gh t ec h n o l o gi c al
i n n o v at i o n , p r o v i d e i m p r o v ed i n f r ast r u c t u r e an d
f ac i l i t i es, an d r ef o r m t h e l egal sy st em .
Est ab l i sh m en t o f a go o d ad m i n i st r at i v e f r am ew o r k
f o r aq u ac u l t u r e m an agem en t an d c r eat i o n o f a
sp ec i al i z ed agen c y . Th e N at i o n al Bu r eau o f
Fi sh er i es i s t h e f u n c t i o n al d ep ar t m en t i n t h e
M i n i st r y o f A gr i c u l t u r e t h at c o o r d i n at es t h e
ad m i n i st r at i o n o f t h e f i sh er i es sec t o r , i n c l u d i n g
aq u ac u l t u r e. I t s m ai n f u n c t i o n s ar e t o :
su p er v i se i m p l em en t at i o n o f t h e st at e s
gen er al p r i n c i p l es, p o l i c i es an d p l an s f o r t h e
f i sh er i es sec t o r ;
st u d y an d p u t f o r w ar d m easu r es f o r
t ec h n o l o gi c al ad v an c es i n f i sh er i es
d ev el o p m en t ;
p r o t ec t f i sh er y r eso u r c es an d u t i l i z e t h em
r at i o n al l y ;
p r o m o t e f i sh er i es d ev el o p m en t ;
o r gan i z e an d su p er v i se t h e c o n st r u c t i o n o f
i n f r ast r u c t u r e i n t h e f i sh er i es sec t o r .
I n gen er al , t h e N at i o n al Bu r eau o f Fi sh er i es
st u d i es an d i n i t i at es t h e est ab l i sh m en t o f gen er al
p o l i c i es an d r egu l at i o n s, w h i c h ar e t h en
su b m i t t ed t o t h e M i n i st r y o f A gr i c u l t u r e, t h e St at e
Co u n c i l o r t h e Peo p l e s Co n gr ess f o r ap p r o v al .
O n c e gen er al p o l i c i es an d r egu l at i o n s h av e b een
p r o m u l gat ed , t h e N at i o n al Bu r eau o f Fi sh er i es
su p er v i ses t h ei r i m p l em en t at i o n . Th e b u r eau c an
al so set u p so m e sp ec i f i c p o l i c i es w i t h i n i t s ar ea
o f j u r i sd i c t i o n . D ep en d i n g o n t h e p r o v i n c e
c o n c er n ed , p r o v i n c e- l ev el f i sh er y au t h o r i t i es
i n i t i at e t h e i m p l em en t at i o n o f t h e
p o l i c i es/ r egu l at i o n s b y t h em sel v es o r af t er
o b t ai n i n g ap p r o v al f r o m t h e p r o v i n c i al
go v er n m en t . O t h er su p p o r t i n g st r u c t u r es f o r t h e
f i sh er i es sec t o r i n c l u d e: t h e N at i o n al Fi sh er i es
Tec h n o l o gy Ex t en si o n Cen t r e, w h i c h i s a sem i -
go v er n m en t al i n st i t u t i o n d eal i n g w i t h
i m p l em en t at i o n o f t h e st at e s p o l i c i es o n f i sh er y
t ec h n o l o gy an d ex t en si o n ser v i c es; t h e Ch i n ese
Fi sh er y A c ad em y , w h i c h i s t h e n at i o n al - l ev el
ac ad em y i n v o l v ed i n r esear c h o n sp ec i f i c
su b j ec t s, su c h as t h e b i o l o gy o f aq u at i c an i m al s,
f i sh er y r eso u r c es an d t h e so c i o - ec o n o m i c s o f
f i sh er i es; an d t h e Ch i n a So c i et y o f Fi sh er i es,
w h i c h i s an o r gan i z at i o n o f f i sh er y t ec h n i c i an s
d eal i n g w i t h t ec h n i c al ex c h an ge an d p r o m o t i o n .
Th e ac t i v i t i es o f al l o f t h ese ar e c o o r d i n at ed b y
t h e N at i o n al Bu r eau o f Fi sh er i es.
Est ab l i sh m en t o f a go o d l egal an d r egu l at o r y
f r am ew o r k f o r aq u ac u l t u r e d ev el o p m en t . Th e
b asi c l aw i n f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e i s t h e
103
Fi sh er i es Law o f t h e Peo p l e s Rep u b l i c o f Ch i n a,
w h i c h w as p r o m u l gat ed b y t h e St an d i n g
Co m m i t t ee o f t h e N at i o n al Peo p l e s Co n gr ess i n
1 9 8 6 an d r ev i sed i n 2 0 0 0 . I t f i r st est ab l i sh ed
gu i d i n g p r i n c i p l es i n t h e d ev el o p m en t o f
aq u ac u l t u r e, f i sh i n g an d p r o c essi n g. O t h er
i m p o r t an t p ar t s o f t h e l egal sy st em t h at r egu l at e
su st ai n ab l e d ev el o p m en t i n t h e f i sh er i es sec t o r ,
i n c l u d i n g aq u ac u l t u r e, ar e t h e r egu l at i o n s, r u l es
an d d i r ec t i v e n o t i c es t h at p r o t ec t f i sh er y
r eso u r c es, p r o v i d e ac c ess t o w at er an d ar eas,
p r o t ec t t h e en v i r o n m en t an d c o n t r o l aq u ac u l t u r e
p r o d u c t i o n m et h o d s an d t ec h n i q u es, as w el l as
en su r i n g t h e saf et y o f aq u at i c p r o d u c t s. Th e
Fi sh er i es Law i s o f t en su p p l em en t ed b y N o t i c es
f o c u si n g o n c r i t i c al i ssu es f ac i n g t h e i n d u st r y at
t h e n at i o n al l ev el .
Em p h asi s o n r esear c h , t ec h n o l o gi c al
d ev el o p m en t an d i n f o r m at i o n d i ssem i n at i o n . Th e
r ap i d d ev el o p m en t o f aq u ac u l t u r e o f t h e p ast t w o
d ec ad es h as b een st r o n gl y su p p o r t ed b y r esear c h ,
t ec h n o l o gy d ev el o p m en t , ed u c at i o n , t r ai n i n g an d
ex t en si o n , m o st o f w h i c h i s f u n d ed b y t h e
go v er n m en t . Sc i en t i f i c r esear c h an d
t ec h n o l o gi c al p r o gr ess, esp ec i al l y t h e ad o p t i o n o f
b r eed i n g t ec h n o l o gi es f o r d i f f er en t c u l t u r e
sp ec i es, c o n t r i b u t ed m o r e t h an 5 0 p er c en t t o t h e
gr o w t h o f aq u ac u l t u r e o u t p u t b et w een 1 9 7 9 an d
1 9 9 9 .
Pr o m o t i o n o f h i gh - v al u e sp ec i es. Pr i o r t o t h e
1 9 7 0 s, t h e m ai n sp ec i es c u l t u r ed i n m ar i c u l t u r e
w er e seaw eed s an d m o l l u sc s, w h i l e h er b i v o r o u s
o r o m n i v o r o u s f i l t er - f eed i n g f i sh sp ec i es, su c h as
c ar p s, d o m i n at ed f r esh w at er aq u ac u l t u r e. Th er e
w er e n o f eed m an u f ac t u r er s f o r aq u at i c an i m al s
i n Ch i n a, as t h er e w as n o su p p o r t i n g d em an d .
W h en a p r o t ei n d i et w as r eq u i r ed , t r ash f i sh w er e
u sed as t h e m ai n i n gr ed i en t . W i t h t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f h i gh - v al u e sp ec i es su c h as sh r i m p
i n t h e l at e 1 9 7 0 s, t h e h o m e- b ased f eed
p r o c essi n g m o d el q u i c k l y f ai l ed t o m eet t h e
i n c r easi n gl y h i gh d em an d f o r h i gh - q u al i t y f eed ,
an d t h i s st i m u l at ed t h e d ev el o p m en t o f t h e f i sh
f eed i n d u st r y . Th e d ev el o p m en t o f t h e f eed
i n d u st r y f u r t h er i n d u c ed t h e p r i v at e sec t o r t o
en gage i n t h e f ar m i n g o f m o r e h i gh - v al u e sp ec i es
i n b o t h f r esh an d b r ac k i sh w at er , su c h as t h e
m i t t en c r ab , t h e so f t - sh el l ed t u r t l e, eel an d t h e r ed
seab r eam i n t h e l at e 1 9 8 0 s an d ear l y 1 9 9 0 s. Th e
d i v er si f i c at i o n o f h i gh - v al u e sp ec i es r esu l t ed i n
ex p an d ed aq u ac u l t u r e o u t p u t .
I ssue-specific policies
Th e go v er n m en t al so u sed p o l i c i es t o ad d r ess
sp ec i f i c i ssu es, su c h as seed s, f eed , t ec h n o l o gy ,
l an d an d m ar k et i n g.
Po l i c i es o n seed i ssu es. Th e go v er n m en t
ad d r essed t h e l i m i t ed av ai l ab i l i t y o f h i gh - q u al i t y
seed s, esp ec i al l y o f st r o n g, d i sease- f r ee an d
d i sease- r esi st an t seed s, b y en c o u r agi n g p r i v at e
i n v est m en t i n h at c h er i es, en ac t i n g p o l i c i es
ai m ed at c o n t r o l l i n g seed q u al i t y , an d set t i n g
u p l egal p r o v i si o n s o n seed p r o d u c t i o n an d
d i ssem i n at i o n .
Po l i c i es d eal i n g w i t h f eed i ssu es. Feed - r el at ed
i ssu es w er e al l ev i at ed t h r o u gh t h e sp o n so r i n g o f
r esear c h i n f eed s an d n u t r i t i o n , t h e est ab l i sh m en t
o f a r egu l at o r y f r am ew o r k f o r t h e d ev el o p m en t o f
t h e f eed i n d u st r y , an d t h e p r o v i si o n o f ec o n o m i c
i n c en t i v es t o i n v est o r s, esp ec i al l y p r ef er en t i al
t ar i f f s o n t h e r aw m at er i al s u sed i n f eed
m an u f ac t u r i n g.
Po l i c i es d eal i n g w i t h ap p r o p r i at e t ec h n o l o gi es.
Th e go v er n m en t h as c o n t i n u ed t o ap p l y a
m u l t i t ec h n o l o gy p o l i c y t o t h e d ev el o p m en t o f
aq u ac u l t u r e. Th u s, n at i o n al r esear c h i n st i t u t i o n s
ar e d i st r i b u t ed ac r o ss t h e c o u n t r y s c l i m at i c an d
geo gr ap h i c z o n es. Th er e ar e f i v e f r esh w at er
f i sh er i es r esear c h i n st i t u t i o n s: o n e i n t h e
su b t r o p i c s; o n e i n t h e ar ea c l o se t o f r i gi d z o n es;
o n e i n t h e c en t r al east er n p ar t o f t h e c o u n t r y ; an d
t w o i n t h e i n n er w est er n p ar t . Th e t h r ee m ar i n e
f i sh er i es r esear c h i n st i t u t es ar e al so ev en l y
d i st r i b u t ed , f r o m so u t h t o n o r t h al o n g Ch i n a s
c o ast . D i f f er en t r esear c h i n st i t u t i o n s h av e
d ev el o p ed b r o ad v ar i et i es o f p r o d u c t i o n
t ec h n o l o gi es f o r d i f f er en t r egi o n s. Th e
go v er n m en t al so st r o n gl y p r o m o t es t h e
d i v er si f i c at i o n o f sp ec i es, esp ec i al l y t h r o u gh t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f f o r ei gn t ec h n o l o gi es an d ex o t i c
sp ec i es w i t h go o d c o m m er c i al aq u ac u l t u r e
p o t en t i al an d t h e ex p an si o n o f p r i v at e sec t o r
i n v o l v em en t i n t ec h n o l o gi c al d ev el o p m en t ,
104
p ar t i c u l ar l y i n su c h ar eas as t h e b r eed i n g o f h i gh -
v al u e sp ec i es an d t h e en c l o su r e o f r u n n i n g w at er
sy st em s.
Po l i c i es d eal i n g w i t h m ar k et i n g i ssu es. Rec en t
go v er n m en t p o l i c i es i n m ar k et i n g h av e c o n si st ed
o f b r eak i n g t h e st at e s m ar k et m o n o p o l y . U n d er
t h e c en t r al i z ed p l an n i n g ec o n o m i c st r u c t u r e p r i o r
t o 1 9 7 8 , t h e st at e h ad t h e m o n o p o l y f o r b u y i n g
an d d i st r i b u t i n g aq u at i c p r o d u c t s. Th i s p o l i c y
gr eat l y r ed u c ed f ar m er s i n c en t i v es t o ex p an d
aq u ac u l t u r e p r o d u c t i o n . Si n c e 1 9 7 9 , t h e
go v er n m en t h as b een r ef o r m i n g t h e m ar k et i n g
sy st em f o r aq u at i c p r o d u c t s b y gr ad u al l y , b u t
d r ast i c al l y , l i b er al i z i n g an d p r i v at i z i n g t h ei r
p r o d u c t i o n , m ar k et i n g an d d i st r i b u t i o n . Tr ad e
b ar r i er s am o n g t h e c o u n t r y s r egi o n s w er e al so
ab o l i sh ed . I n o r d er t o d ev el o p Ch i n a s f i sh er i es
an d aq u ac u l t u r e f u r t h er , si n c e 1 9 8 5 t h e
go v er n m en t h as c r eat ed an en ab l i n g en v i r o n m en t
f o r m ar k et d ev el o p m en t b y i ssu i n g a ser i es o f
p o l i c i es t h at al l o w m ar k et f o r c es t o d et er m i n e
p r i c es o f aq u at i c p r o d u c t s; i n f l u en c e o p en m ar k et
d y n am i c s an d c r eat e an d set c r i t er i a f o r t h e
c o n st r u c t i o n , d esi gn , o r gan i z at i o n an d
m an agem en t o f w h o l esal e m ar k et s; est ab l i sh
o f f i c es r esp o n si b l e f o r t h e m an agem en t o f f i sh
p r o d u c t d i st r i b u t i o n c h an n el s; an d p r o m o t e l o c al
w h o l esal e m ar k et d ev el o p m en t . Th e go v er n m en t
h as al so est ab l i sh ed seaf o o d m ar k et i n f o r m at i o n
n et w o r k s an d c en t r es w h i c h c o l l ec t i n f o r m at i o n
f r o m v ar i o u s m ar k et s an d d i ssem i n at e i t t o t h e
p u b l i c , esp ec i al l y t o c o m p an i es f o r u se i n t h ei r
p r o d u c t i o n d ec i si o n - m ak i n g an d p l an n i n g.
Lan d i ssu e p o l i c i es. Lan d i ssu es w er e ad d r essed
t h r o u gh t h e st r u c t u r al r ef o r m o f f ar m o w n er sh i p
an d p r o p er t y r i gh t s p o l i c i es. Si n c e t h e ear l y
1 9 8 0 s, t h e go v er n m en t h as en c o u r aged an d
su p p o r t ed t h e t r an sf er o f f ar m o w n er sh i p f r o m t h e
p u b l i c t o t h e p r i v at e sec t o r . I n c o n t r ast t o t h e
f o r m er c o l l ec t i v e sy st em , i n w h i c h o w n er sh i p an d
t h e b en ef i t s ac c r u i n g f r o m f ar m i n g b el o n ged t o
t h e st at e an d / o r t h e c o l l ec t i v e, u n d er t h e n ew
l an d l aw , t h e so c i al i st i c p r i n c i p l e o f a c o l l ec t i v e
ec o n o m y an d p r o p er t y r i gh t s (p ar t i c u l ar l y
o w n er sh i p an d i n d i v i d u al r i gh t s t o f ar m p r o d u c e)
ar e gu ar an t eed an d gi v en t o c o l l ec t i v e m em b er s.
Eac h m em b er h as eq u al r i gh t s t o t h e f ar m an d
get s a sh ar e o f t h e v al u e o f i t s p r o d u c e.
I n v est m en t i ssu e p o l i c i es. Pr i o r t o 1 9 7 9 ,
go v er n m en t en t er p r i ses w er e t h e n o r m .
Th er eaf t er , a p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t i v e c ap i t al
h as c h an ged f r o m go v er n m en t al l o c at i o n t o
go v er n m en t l o an s. Th e go v er n m en t h as al so
p r o v i d ed gr an t s an d su b si d i es t o i n v est o r s,
i n t r o d u c ed a t ax sy st em w h er eb y t h e t ax b u r d en
o n i n v est m en t s i s sh ar ed b et w een c en t r al an d
l o c al go v er n m en t , an d en c o u r aged j o i n t v en t u r es
b et w een c en t r al an d l o c al go v er n m en t , o n t h e
o n e h an d , an d b et w een d o m est i c an d f o r ei gn
p r i v at e i n v est o r s, o n t h e o t h er .
TH E WAY FO RWARD
Th e go v er n m en t i n t en d s t h at aq u ac u l t u r e i n
Ch i n a sh o u l d n o t o n l y b e en v i r o n m en t al l y
f r i en d l y , b u t al so r at i o n al , h eal t h y an d
su st ai n ab l e. I t i s w o r k i n g t o w ar d s est ab l i sh i n g a
p l an o f ac t i o n an d a so u n d m an agem en t sy st em
t o saf egu ar d t h e en v i r o n m en t . St ep s h av e al so
b een m ad e i n d ev el o p i n g ap p r o p r i at e
m an agem en t st r at egi es t h r o u gh ad o p t i o n o f t h e
p r ec au t i o n ar y p r i n c i p l e ap p r o ac h , as em b o d i ed
i n FA O s Co d e o f Co n d u c t f o r Resp o n si b l e
Fi sh er i es. Pr ev en t i v e m easu r es f o r n o n - p o i n t
so u r c es o f p o l l u t i o n af f ec t i n g aq u ac u l t u r e, m ai n l y
r esu l t i n g f r o m l an d w ast es, ar e p l an n ed . Th ese
w i l l b e ac h i ev ed t h r o u gh su i t ab l e aw ar en ess
b u i l d i n g an d t h e i m p l em en t at i o n o f r egu l at o r y
c o n t r o l p r o gr am m es b y t h e r esp o n si b l e
au t h o r i t i es.
Th e f u t u r e o f aq u ac u l t u r e i n Ch i n a l o o k s
p r o m i si n g. Th e go v er n m en t s c o m m i t m en t an d
su p p o r t o f t h e sec t o r i s st r o n g. A q u ac u l t u r e
c o n t i n u es t o b e a h i gh p r i o r i t y . Th e p r i v at e sec t o r
i s m o r e i n t er est ed i n aq u ac u l t u r e t h an i t i s i n
o t h er agr i c u l t u r e su b sec t o r s o f t h e n at i o n al
ec o n o m y . O u t p u t f r o m c ap t u r e f i sh er i es i s
u n l i k el y t o i n c r ease i n t h e f o r eseeab l e f u t u r e. Th e
d em an d f o r f i sh er y p r o d u c t s i s gr o w i n g, b o t h
w i t h i n Ch i n a an d i n t er n at i o n al l y . Ch i n a h as go o d
p o t en t i al f o r i n c r easi n g t h e sh ar e o f i t s
aq u ac u l t u r e p r o d u c t s i n i n t er n at i o n al m ar k et s,
h el p ed b y i t s m em b er sh i p o f t h e W o r l d Tr ad e
O r gan i z at i o n (W TO ). Th e d ev el o p m en t o f
f r esh w at er i n t egr at ed f ar m i n g, p ad d y f i sh c u l t u r e
an d m ar i n e aq u ac u l t u r e, an d t h e i m p l em en t at i o n
o f p ar t i c i p at o r y c o m m u n i t y ex t en si o n ser v i c es ar e
105
t h e m ai n m ean s f o r ac h i ev i n g t h ese ex p ec t at i o n s.
A s i t c o n t i n u es t o d ev el o p , aq u ac u l t u r e i s
ex p ec t ed t o c o n t i n u e p l ay i n g an i m p o r t an t r o l e i n
Ch i n ese so c i et y b y en su r i n g f o o d su p p l y an d
al l ev i at i n g r u r al p o v er t y , esp ec i al l y t h r o u gh j o b
c r eat i o n an d i n c o m e gen er at i o n f o r t h e r u r al
p o o r . Pr o c essi n g, v al u e ad d i n g, m ar k et i n g an d
t h e o r n am en t al f i sh i n d u st r y ar e ex p ec t ed t o
i m p r o v e, t h er eb y c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e w el l - b ei n g
o f Ch i n a s u r b an , su b u r b an an d r u r al p o p u l at i o n .
N ev er t h el ess, t h er e ar e so m e m aj o r
i m p ed i m en t s t o f u r t h er aq u ac u l t u r e d ev el o p m en t
i n Ch i n a. Th e su p p l y an d av ai l ab i l i t y o f q u al i t y
seed i n m ar i n e aq u ac u l t u r e ar e st i l l l o w . I n so m e
w el l - est ab l i sh ed aq u ac u l t u r e ar eas, t h e su p p l y o f
t r ad i t i o n al l y c u l t u r ed sp ec i es su c h as Ch i n ese
c ar p s gr eat l y ex c eed s t h e m ar k et d em an d , an d
t h i s ser i o u sl y d ep r esses p r i c es. Th e h i gh - v al u e o r
m ar k et - p r ef er r ed sp ec i es t h at ar e i n d em an d i n
d o m est i c an d i n t er n at i o n al m ar k et s ar e n o t f u l l y
ex p l o i t ed o n a l ar ge sc al e. Far m i n g t ec h n o l o gi es
ar e o u t d at ed , o f t en r esu l t i n g i n i n ef f i c i en c y .
W at er i s p o l l u t ed i n so m e ar eas, l ead i n g t o
d i sease o u t b r eak s. Su i t ab l e l an d f o r l an d - b ased
aq u ac u l t u r e i s al so l i m i t ed .
CO N CLU SI O N S
Ch i n a i s t h e w o r l d s l ar gest p r o d u c er o f f ar m -
gr o w n aq u at i c p r o d u c t s t o d ay . A p ar t f r o m t h e
c o u n t r y s sh eer si z e an d p o p u l at i o n , t h i s
ac h i ev em en t st em s m ai n l y f r o m p r o ac t i v e
go v er n m en t p o l i c i es o n f i sh er i es, i n gen er al , an d
aq u ac u l t u r e, i n p ar t i c u l ar .
A q u ac u l t u r e i n Ch i n a h as d ev el o p ed t h r o u gh
t w o p o l i c y r egi m es: t h e egal i t ar i an m o d el u n d er
c en t r al i z ed st at e p l an n i n g f r o m 1 9 4 9 t o 1 9 7 8 ,
an d t h e o p en m ar k et ec o n o m y r egi m e, w h i c h
st ar t ed i n 1 9 7 8 . Th e ear l y egal i t ar i an m o d el w as
p r i m ar i l y r esp o n si b l e f o r m u c h o f t h e p r o gr ess
ac h i ev ed i n sec u r i n g f o o d sel f - su f f i c i en c y i n f i sh .
U n d er t h i s m o d el , t h e go v er n m en t s f i r st p r i o r i t y
w as t o m o b i l i z e an d o r gan i z e al l t h e av ai l ab l e
n at i o n al r eso u r c es at i t s d i sp o sal i n o r d er t o
p r o d u c e m o r e f o o d an d r aw m at er i al s w i t h w h i c h
t o f eed an d c l o t h e t h e p o p u l at i o n . Th ese p o l i c i es
i n v o l v ed t h e f u l l p ar t i c i p at i o n o f Ch i n a s r u r al
c o m m u n i t i es, w h i c h c o n st i t u t ed al m o st 8 0
p er c en t o f t h e c o u n t r y s t o t al p o p u l at i o n i n t h e
1 9 5 0 s, an d h av e b een h i gh l y ef f ec t i v e i n m ak i n g
Ch i n ese aq u ac u l t u r e w h at i t i s t o d ay . I n ad d i t i o n ,
t h e p o l i c i es l ed t o t h e c r eat i o n an d ac c u m u l at i o n
o f r eal asset s an d w eal t h at t h e n at i o n al , l o c al
an d i n d i v i d u al l ev el s. Ru r al i n c o m es an d
l i v el i h o o d s si gn i f i c an t l y i m p r o v ed . Th e p o l i c y o f
r u r al c o m m u n i t i es f u l l p ar t i c i p at i o n i n
aq u ac u l t u r e al so p r o d u c ed sk i l l ed aq u ac u l t u r e
w o r k er s f o r t h e d ev el o p m en t an d ex p an si o n o f
t h e i n d u st r y . I n t h e o p en m ar k et ec o n o m y m o d el ,
i n w h i c h f r ee m ar k et f o r c es ar e al l o w ed t o
d et er m i n e t h e al l o c at i o n an d t r an sf o r m at i o n o f
p r o d u c t i v e r eso u r c es an d t o al l o c at e aq u ac u l t u r e
o u t p u t am o n g c o n su m er s, f o o d sel f - su f f i c i en c y
p o l i c y h as c o n t i n u ed t o b e t h e p i l l ar o f
aq u ac u l t u r e d ev el o p m en t . O t h er go al s ar e
ef f i c i en c y an d ac q u i si t i o n o f t h e m u c h - n eed ed
f o r ei gn ex c h an ge w i t h w h i c h t o p u r c h ase c ap i t al
go o d s f o r r eb u i l d i n g t h e ec o n o m y .
Th e m ai n en gi n es o f aq u ac u l t u r e gr o w t h h av e
b een t h e go v er n m en t s r ec o gn i t i o n o f t h e sec t o r
as a d ev el o p m en t p r i o r i t y ; t h e f u l l u t i l i z at i o n o f
p r o d u c t i v e r eso u r c es, i n c l u d i n g su i t ab l e w at er
su r f ac es, m u d f l at s an d w at er l o gged l an d s, as w el l
as p eo p l e; i n v est m en t i n r esear c h an d
t ec h n o l o gy ; t h e est ab l i sh m en t o f a n at i o n w i d e
aq u ac u l t u r e ex t en si o n n et w o r k r eac h i n g t h e
gr assr o o t s l ev el ; t h e p r o m o t i o n o f aq u ac u l t u r e f o r
p o v er t y al l ev i at i o n , f o o d sec u r i t y an d
em p l o y m en t i n p o o r er p r o v i n c es; an d t h e
est ab l i sh m en t an d c o n st an t i m p r o v em en t o f t h e
l egal f r am ew o r k an d r egu l at o r y sy st em .
W i t h c o n t i n u ed p r o ac t i v e go v er n m en t p o l i c i es,
ad eq u at e ad v an c ed p l an n i n g, sc i en t i f i c al l y
d esi gn ed p r o d u c t i o n t ec h n o l o gi es an d so u n d
m an agem en t , aq u ac u l t u r e i n Ch i n a c an b e, an d
i s l i k el y t o b e, p r o d u c t i v el y st ab l e, su st ai n ab l e,
eq u i t ab l e an d p r o f i t ab l e. Resp o n si b l e
aq u ac u l t u r e i n t en si f i c at i o n r em ai n s p h y si c al l y
f easi b l e an d w i l l m o st l i k el y d ev el o p , as t h e b est
si t es h av e al r ead y b een u sed an d t h er e i s a
gr o w i n g n eed t o p r o t ec t an d p r eser v e t h e n at u r al
en v i r o n m en t .
Th e m ai n c h al l en ges t o f u r t h er aq u ac u l t u r e
d ev el o p m en t i n Ch i n a ar e t h e l i m i t ed su p p l y o f
go o d - q u al i t y seed s f o r so m e sp ec i es; t h e
o v er su p p l y o f t r ad i t i o n al l y c u l t u r ed sp ec i es, su c h
as c ar p s, w h i c h r esu l t s i n l o w p r i c es; t h e
u n d er ex p l o i t at i o n o f h i gh - v al u e sp ec i es; o u t d at ed
f ar m i n g t ec h n o l o gi es; w at er p o l l u t i o n ; t h e l i m i t ed
106
su i t ab l e l an d f o r ex p an si o n ; an d f r eq u en t f i sh
d i sease o u t b r eak s. I n o r d er t o o v er c o m e t h ese
c o n st r ai n t s, i t c an b e ex p ec t ed t h at t h e Ch i n ese
au t h o r i t i es w i l l :
c o n si d er d ev el o p i n g i n d u st r i al i z ed f ar m i n g
sy st em s b y i m p r o v i n g t h e d esi gn o f an d
u p gr ad i n g p r o d u c t i o n sy st em s, em p l o y i n g t h e
l at est t ec h n o l o gy an d sel ec t i n g t h e b est
c o m b i n at i o n o f sp ec i es t o r esp o n d t o m ar k et
c o n d i t i o n s i n b o t h d o m est i c an d i n t er n at i o n al
ar en as;
st r i v e t o i n c r ease t h e m ar k et sh ar e o f h i gh -
v al u e f r esh w at er sp ec i es su i t ab l e f o r ex p o r t ,
an d ac h i ev e p r o d u c t i o n ef f i c i en c y , w h i c h i n
t u r n su ggest s l ar ge- sc al e i n d u st r i al f ar m s;
gi v e gr eat er em p h asi s t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f
h i gh - q u al i t y seed b y m ak i n g u se o f m o d er n
b i o t ec h n o l o gy ;
est ab l i sh an i n t egr at ed sc i en t i f i c sy st em an d
n et w o r k o f f i sh b r eed i n g an d seed p r o d u c t i o n
f o r h i gh - q u al i t y i n d i gen o u s o r en d em i c
sp ec i es, as w el l as d ev el o p i n g f i sh h eal t h
m an agem en t an d d i sease p r ev en t i o n ,
d i agn o si s, c o n t r o l an d t r eat m en t .
Th e p u r su i t o f p o l i c i es o f t h i s k i n d i m p l i es
al l o c at i n g ad d i t i o n al f u n d s t o aq u ac u l t u r e
d ev el o p m en t , p ar t i c u l ar l y t o su p p o r t p r o j ec t s i n
ap p r o p r i at e ar eas an d l o c at i o n s, esp ec i al l y i n
m i d - w est er n r egi o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y .
Th e Ch i n ese m o d el s an d ex p er i en c es o f
aq u ac u l t u r e d ev el o p m en t p r o v i d e t h e f o l l o w i n g
v al u ab l e l esso n s t o o t h er d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es i n
t h ei r ef f o r t s t o p r o m o t e an d d ev el o p aq u ac u l t u r e:
A q u ac u l t u r e c an b e d ev el o p ed i n a
su st ai n ab l e m an n er t o gen er at e f o o d an d j o b s
an d i m p r o v e t h e i n c o m e an d l i v el i h o o d s o f
r u r al an d u r b an p o p u l at i o n s, t h u s al l ev i at i n g
h u n ger an d p o v er t y .
Th e en gi n e f o r ec o n o m i c al l y r esi l i en t an d
su st ai n ab l e aq u ac u l t u r e i s t h e go v er n m en t s
w i l l an d r eso l v e t o est ab l i sh so u n d p o l i c i es t o
su p p o r t an d d ev el o p t h e sec t o r .
Fu l l em p l o y m en t o f p r o d u c t i v e f ac t o r s,
i n c l u d i n g h u m an r eso u r c es, c o n t i n u o u s
i m p r o v em en t s i n t h e l egal an d r egu l at o r y
f r am ew o r k f o r t h e d ev el o p m en t o f t h e sec t o r ,
an d sc i en t i f i c b r eak t h r o u gh s i n p r o d u c t i o n
t ec h n o l o gi es w i l l st r en gt h en aq u ac u l t u r e an d
en su r e i t s su st ai n ab i l i t y , t h er eb y m ak i n g i t a
go o d c o n t r i b u t o r t o t h e c o u n t r y s o v er al l
ec o n o m i c gr o w t h t h r o u gh t h e su p p l y o f f o o d ,
em p l o y m en t an d f o r ei gn ex c h an ge an d t h e
c r eat i o n o f i n f r ast r u c t u r e, esp ec i al l y i n r u r al
ar eas. !
107
PART 4
Outlook
INTRODUCTION
As part of an Organization-wide study of
agriculture in the coming decades,
1
the FAO
Fisheries Department has commissioned studies
of future fish consumption. These are generally
developed around economic models of the
demand, trade and supply of fish
2
in main
markets. One of the main limitations of such
studies including these FAO studies is that
they are usually developed against a background
of "business as usual" in respect of public policies
and technology change. This means that in the
models (real) prices are assumed not to change,
which implies that any policy changes or
technological developments are assumed to have
affected all producers and consumers in a
uniform and similar fashion. This is seldom, if
ever, the case.
A description of work in progress is given in the
first section of this article. It contains preliminary
results from studies being undertaken to predict
fish consumption by 20152030, on the basis of
economic modelling.
The second section is an effort to mitigate the
weakness of economic modelling. It investigates
the "business as usual" scenario in order to see
whether it would be realistic, at least in the
immediate future, to expect that policy and
technology change will not influence
developments in the sector and, in particular, the
levels of future fish consumption. Thus, the
second section is an attempt to foresee the impact
of changes in public policies regarding capture
fisheries and aquaculture, on the one hand, and
the impact of the developments in technology
that can be applied by capture fishers and
aquaculturists, on the other.
TRENDS IN LONG-TERM PROJECTIONS
OF FISH PRODUCTION
AND CONSUMPTION
With a view to predicting future fisheries and fish
production, FAO commissioned three long-term
fish market forecast studies of Japan, 28 European
countries
3
and the United States, as well as two
global studies.
4
(An analysis of China was also
attempted, but proved difficult to realize at this
time.) Based on economic models of demand,
trade and the supply of fish in main markets,
these studies are helpful in providing an analysis
of plausible trends in production, consumption
and trade. The following five gross trends in
production and consumption for the period up to
2030 emerge from the analyses:
World production, total consumption, food
demand and per capita food consumption will
increase over the next three decades;
however, the rate of these increases will slow
over time.
World capture production is projected to
stagnate, while world aquaculture production
is projected to increase, albeit at a slower rate
than in the past.
In developed countries, consumption patterns
will reflect demand for, and imports of, high-
cost/high-value species.
In developing countries, trade flows will
reflect the exportation of high-cost/high-value
species and the importation of low-cost/low-
value species.
CAPTURE AND AQUACULTURE
PRODUCTION
Table 16 gives forecasts for fish consumption, net
export and production trends up to 2030. Latin
America, Europe and China will supply most of
the fish used for non-food uses. Small pelagic
111
Outlook
1
FAO. In press. Agriculture towards 2015/30. Rome.
2
In this section the term fish also includes crustaceans and
molluscs, unless otherwise stated.
3
Austria, Belgium-Luxembourg, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Re-
public, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, the Netherlands,
Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,
Sweden and the United Kingdom.
4
The results of these five reports will be finalized and published
as a series of FAO publications by 2003.
112
species will continue to dominate the fish species
used as inputs for aquaculture production (via the
fishmeal component of fish feeds).
The largest share in the increase of world
capture production over the projection period is
predicted to come from Latin America, solidifying
its position as the leading producer of capture
fisheries production and the leading net exporter.
Small pelagic and demersal fish will continue as
the major fish groups in total capture fisheries.
Over the last decade, European production has
been characterized by stagnation in capture
fisheries production and strong growth in
aquaculture production. Ranging from a low of
8.6 million tonnes in 1990 to a high of 10.8
million tonnes in 1995, capture production from
28 countries averaged 10.4 million tonnes
between 1994 and 1998. Of this total production,
15 percent was small pelagics and 23 percent
demersal fishes. During the same period, the
share of aquaculture production increased
steadily from 10 percent of total production in
1989 to 15 percent in 1998. The production
forecasts for the Europe-28 study reveal a
stagnation of capture fisheries production.
Japanese domestic production peaked at 12
millions tonnes in 1974, and has subsequently
decreased by almost half to 6.72 million tonnes
in 1997; production from capture fisheries is
expected to remain at the 1997 level of
TABLE 16
Fish consumption, net export and production trends 19972030
Country group Trend in Trend in Increase Increase
per capita net export in capture in aquaculture
consumption production production
(000 tonnes) (000 tonnes)
World + n.a. 13 700 54 000
Share in Share in
world increase world increase
Africa -/+ - 4% 1%
China, mainland + + 5% 70%
Europe, 28 countries / -/+ 0% 5%
Former USSR -/+ No change 0% 0%
Japan + - 0% 1%
Latin America and the Caribbean + + 57% 7%
Near East in Asia -/+ + 2% 2%
Oceania, developed + -/+ 5% 1%
Oceania, developing -/+ No change 0% 0%
South Asia / - 10% 8%
United States + - 0% 1%
Rest of Asia, developing + - 17% 5%
Rest of Europe, developed + No change 0% 0%
Rest of Europe, developing + No change 0% 0%
Rest of North America + - 0% 0%
Notes: Percentage data were derived from the Global 1 study, supported by all other studies.
-/+ indicates that results differed depending on the model used.
approximately 6 million tonnes.
Aquaculture production is expected to
double to 1.5 million tonnes in three
decades. Total production is projected
to increase by 11 percent over the 30-
year period, with small pelagics,
demersals and molluscs remaining the
top three nationally produced species
groups.
Trends in United States seafood
production, consumption and trade
are expected to differ widely among
species. Trends will also vary as a
result of "supply side" changes in
capture harvests and differences in the
extent to which aquaculture can
expand and increase production, as
well as of "demand side" differences
among species in the effects of
changing consumer preferences. As United States
per capita income rises, demand is likely to shift
from lower-priced species to higher-priced ones.
The projections for United States seafood
production and consumption were generated by
a simple model based on assumptions about
changes in fish supply and fish demand in the
United States and in the rest of the world, as well
as price elasticities of fish supply and fish
demand. In the model, prices, consumption and
net trade between the United States and the rest
of the world are simultaneously determined at
levels at which world supply and demand are
balanced. Given the simplicity of the model
structure and assumptions, the model projections
should be considered illustrations of potential
future changes rather than reliable projections of
what will actually occur. Table 17 summarizes
the consumption projections for the year 2030 for
four scenarios, or sets of assumptions: medium
growth, slower aquaculture growth, high
demand, and restricted/partial trade. In all
scenarios, changes from the base period (the
19951997 average) are driven by growth in
aquaculture production and growth in demand,
both of which are higher in the rest of the world
than in the United States.
In all four of the United States scenarios, with
the exception of substantial growth in
aquaculture production of freshwater and
diadromous fish, relatively little change in United
States fish production by 2030 is forecast.
Increases in world aquaculture production will
be driven by increases in Chinese production,
with South Asia, Latin America and the
Caribbean and Europe providing smaller
increases. Freshwater species and molluscs will
dominate aquaculture production.
5
In order to meet growing projected
consumption needs in Europe, total production
increases in volume are estimated to result
primarily from increases in aquaculture
production. Indeed, the model estimates that
farmed production will likely double by 2030,
exceeding 2.5 million tonnes in 2015 and
reaching 4 million tonnes in 2030.
In the United States, aquaculture production is
likely to grow less rapidly than in other countries
because of higher costs of labour and land and
stricter environmental, health and food safety
regulations. As a result, an increasing share of
United States fish consumption is expected to
come from imports.
113
5
However, as indicated in the previous subsection, public po-
licy support for aquaculture is likely to grow worldwide. The im-
plication is that output might, in fact, be expanding at the rates
implied here, even if the Chinese production increases do not
reach the levels foreseen.
CONSUMPTION
Although global annual per capita consumption
of fish is predicted to increase over time, from
about 16 kg today to between 19 and 21 kg
6
(live
weight equivalent) in 2030, the regional picture
will be very diverse. Fish consumption per person
is projected to increase in some areas: South Asia
(up by almost 60 percent), Latin America and the
Caribbean (up by almost 50 percent) and China
(up by more than 84 percent) being the top three
growth regions. However, it may stagnate or
decline in other areas, including: Africa (down by
3 percent), the Near East in Asia (down by 17
percent), Oceania, developing (down by 8
percent), and the countries of the former USSR
(down by 4 percent). Non-food use of fish is
projected to grow more slowly than total supply,
thereby representing a declining share over time.
7
The projections produced in the five studies
(Japan, Europe, United States, Global 1 and
Global 2) that are currently under preparation
show future consumption reaching levels that are
marginally (about 10 percent) below those
suggested in an earlier FAO study. The present
studies indicate an average per capita
consumption of 19 to 21 kg for the world as a
whole, against a prior study showing about 22.5
kg.
8
Globally, changes in consumption patterns
reflect increased demand for ready-to-cook or
114
TABLE 17
Summary of projections for 2030 based on the United States model
(thousand tonnes, live weight)
Average for Projections for 2030 under alternative scenarios
19951997
base period Medium Slower High demand Partial trade
aquaculture
growth
Production Freshwater 691 852 814 1 012 915
Pelagic 1 322 1 322 1 322 1 322 1 322
Demersal 2 251 2 251 2 251 2 251 2 251
Marine 29 29 29 29 29
Crustaceans 387 363 363 363 363
Molluscs 684 627 654 646 659
Cephalopods 105 105 105 105 105
Total 5 469 5 549 5 538 5 728 5 643
Net imports Freshwater - 25 167 139 71 62
Pelagic 169 256 255 107 216
Demersal 273 488 453 250 378
Marine 14 20 18 15 18
Crustaceans 538 872 794 843 796
Molluscs 202 724 607 792 512
Cephalopods - 29 - 25 - 25 - 32 - 28
Total 1 142 2 501 2 242 2 046 1 955
Consumption Freshwater 666 1 019 954 1 084 977
Pelagic 1 491 1 578 1 577 1 429 1 538
Demersal 2 525 2 739 2 705 2 501 2 630
Marine 42 48 47 44 46
Crustaceans 925 1 235 1 157 1 205 1 159
Molluscs 886 1 351 1 261 1 438 1 171
Cephalopods 76 80 80 72 77
Total 6 611 8 050 7 780 7 774 7 598
6
In World agriculture: towards 2015/30 projected annual per
capita consumption is between 19 and 20 kg.
7
There is some uncertainty in estimates of non-food use of fish pro-
duction because an unknown portion of fresh fish is used directly as
inputs into aquaculture, and not for food consumption as was pre-
viously believed. For example, in FAOs Food Balance Sheets, when
estimates of fish that is input directly into
aquaculture are included, the per capita consumption estimates for
China are reduced by approximately 3 kg.
8
FAO. 1999. Historical consumption and future demand for
fish and fishery products: exploratory calculations for the years 2015/30,
by Y. Ye. FAO Fisheries Circular No. 946. Rome. 31 pp.
ready-to-eat products. The emergence
and growth of supermarkets shares in
the distribution of seafood continues
to facilitate a greater penetration of
seafood products in areas that are
remote from the sea. Increased health
consciousness has also changed
consumption patterns. The processing
sector of the fishery industry has
demonstrated its capacity to adjust
and innovate, and the increase in the
importance of supermarkets in fish
distribution has had a substantial
impact on the source and form of fish
products for human consumption.
9
Providers of fish products have
generally benefited from all these
changes by providing a broader variety of cooked
dishes, including fish.
Demand for fishery products
10
has been
increasing in Asia, partly owing to population
and income growth; Japan leads per capita
consumption in the region with historical levels
of approximately 70 kg per capita, which
constitutes approximately 10 percent of the
global demand for fish products.
In the Japanese study, only weak substitution
and complementarity effects were found between
fish and other protein sources.
11
Japanese
demand over the 30-year period for various
categories of fish is represented in Figure 49.
Non-food use is not expected to change over this
period, while average per capita consumption is
expected to increase by 16 percent. Again, prices
in every grouping are expected to increase over
time, with demersal fish and aquatic animals
prices more than doubling.
In 1998, the main species consumed in Europe
were mussels (7 percent of all apparent
consumption), followed by cod (7 percent), tuna
(6 percent), herring (6 percent), cephalopods
(squid, octopus and cuttlefish 5 percent),
sardines (5 percent) and salmon (4 percent).
Other significant species included shrimps
(4 percent) and trout (3 percent). In terms of total
quantity consumed, small pelagic fish such as
herrings, sardines, anchovies and pilchards are
the main species group and represent 15 percent
of the overall consumption, but their market
share in terms of value is relatively low owing to
their low unit prices.
In contrast, demersal species (in particular, the
whitefish species group) are the main group of
species in terms of value, either for direct
consumption or for use in the primary and
secondary processing industries of Europe.
12
In
1998, this group accounted for 15 percent of
115
9
In 1986, United Kingdom fishmongers had a 51 percent market
share of fresh fish, while supermarkets share was 15 percent.
By 1996, the situation was dramatically different: fishmongers
market share had fallen to 30 percent, while that of supermarkets
had increased to approximately 50 percent. In France, super-
markets are now the source of approximately 60 percent of re-
tail fish sales. In Spain, it has been estimated that traditional
fish markets generated less than 40 percent of retail sales in 1998
and that they will continue to lose market share in the future.
10
Fish and fish products groupings comprise: freshwater fish,
anadromous fish, marine fish-pelagic-tunas, marine fish-pela-
gic-small, marine fish-demersal, marine fish-others, crustaceans,
molluscs, cephalopods, aquatic animals and aquatic plants.
11
Own-price elasticities ranged from -0.12 to -0.80 (seaweeds
to seabreams), while income elasticities ranged from 0.07 to
0.80 (pelagic smalls to aquatic animals). As a result, the Japa-
nese regional study includes a detailed econometric analysis of
demand for fish products with the goal of estimating precise
own-price and income elasticities for a large number of fish spe-
cies categories. Substitutions among protein sources (i.e. fish,
beef, pork, chicken and egg) are analysed using an "almost ideal
demand" system. A separate time trend analysis is used to fore-
cast income to 2030, which is then fed back into the previous-
ly estimated demand function in order to estimate fish demand
until 2030.
1999 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2030
0
4 000
8 000
12 000
16 000
20 000
FIGURE 48
Evolution of Europe28 total fish production over time
Capture production
Total fish demand
Aquaculture production
Imports
Thousand tonnes
consumption in volume, but had an appreciably
higher market share in terms of value.
Future trends in fish production and
consumption in 28 European countries are
projected on the basis of estimated production
capabilities, demand functions and the political
framework of the European Union, and the
detailed results of the model can be shown in
terms of percentage changes from the base period
(the average for 19941998). Although the
absolute estimates of fish for food consumption
are expected to decrease in only three countries
(Estonia, Latvia and Spain), per capita fish
consumption is expected to decrease in the same
three countries, plus Norway, Portugal and
Sweden, as a result of demographic changes.
Marine fish (tunas, small pelagic, demersal and
others) will provide the majority of total
116
12
The principal species in this group include cod, hake, had-
dock and whiting.
117
consumption; however, the growth in
consumption will be greatest for cephalopods,
crustaceans, freshwater fish and anadromous fish.
Frozen and prepared and/or preserved fish are
expected to dominate the category of fish for food
consumption.
In all four of the United States model scenarios,
net imports and consumption are projected to
increase, but growth in total fish consumption is
relatively modest, at less than 25 percent in the
highest scenario. Slower aquaculture growth
results in less growth in consumption. Higher
demand in the rest of the world also results in less
growth in United States consumption and imports
because relatively higher growth in demand in
the rest of the world causes a greater share of
world production to be consumed in other
countries. Less trade in fish results in less growth
in imports and, correspondingly, less growth in
consumption.
As elsewhere in the world, future United States
consumption of fish from capture harvests is
highly uncertain and unlikely to increase. Indeed,
both the volumes of fish that are potentially
available to the United States for consumption
and the prices of fish relative to other animal
proteins will be significantly influenced, if not
determined, by global capture harvests and
aquaculture production. Thus, the rapid growth
in United States per capita consumption of
imported farmed shrimp and salmon provides an
example of the kind of changes in United States
fish consumption and trade that will be most
important in the future.
By themselves, the historical trends of the past
several decades do not provide a clear indication
of how United States fish consumption may
change in the future. Total United States per
capita seafood consumption was relatively stable
for the six decades prior to 1970, increased
rapidly during the 1970s and 1980s, and showed
little change during the 1990s. Different fish
species and products exhibit widely varying
trends, many of them driven by changes in
capture fishery conditions. The clearest long-term
trend is for growing per capita consumption of
aquaculture products such as shrimp, salmon and
catfish.
WORLD TRADE FLOWS
In very general terms, the distribution of net
exports at the country/regional level shows:
increasing net exports for some of the
countries/regions, such as China and Latin
America and the Caribbean;
declining net exports for the rest of Asia and
the rest of North America;
rising net imports for Africa, the United States,
Europe and Japan;
a switch from net imports to net exports in the
case of the Near East in Asia;
a change from net exports to net imports for
South Asia.
Because Japan relies increasingly on its imports
as a source of supply, and because these imports
represent 30 percent of world trade in fish
products, it is plausible to anticipate that shifts in
Japanese consumption trends will have significant
impacts on world markets.
13
Europe, including the EC, is one of three
important markets for fish products. Of Europes
more than 480 million consumers, 370 million
live in EC member countries, making the EC as
important an importer of fish as Japan and the
United States are. In addition, because of
differing consumer preferences, there is also
strong intraregional trade of fish products.
The most important developments affecting
future United States fish consumption and trade
will occur outside the United States. In short, the
share of world production that is consumed by
the United States will be affected by the global
demand for fish. Domestically, future capture
harvests are expected to continue to vary over
time as a result of natural factors, such as changes
in ocean conditions, even though United States
fisheries have to be managed to prevent
overfishing (as defined in United States
legislation) and the stocks of most important
commercial species in the United States are not
considered overfished.
In general, those species imported into and
consumed in developed nations are considered
13
See footnote 11, p. 115.
118
TABLE 18
Estimated percentage changes in European fish production and consumption,
19941998 to 2030
Fish for food use Fish for non-food use Fish production by source
Production Consumption Production Use Aquaculture Capture Total
production
Austria - 60 21 - - 7 - 65 0 - 57
Belgium and Luxembourg - 5 12 - 24 74 - 1 0 0
Bulgaria - 18 142 - - 2 78 0 28
Cyprus 11 40 - - 2 261 0 58
Czech Republic - 5 29 - - 30 80 0 66
Denmark 8 35 - 10 - 8 95 0 2
Estonia 0 - 19 - 6 - 38 - 13 0 0
Finland 6 13 - 69 - 23 - 41 0 - 4
France - 6 16 - 1 - 6 109 0 33
Germany 18 33 14 6 217 0 43
Greece - 1 12 - 58 12 160 0 33
Hungary 5 50 - - 11 - 54 0 - 30
Ireland 8 9 12 - 3 1 073 0 91
Italy 3 21 13 - 18 136 0 52
Latvia - 3 - 19 - 23 - 17 - 7 0 0
Lithuania - 28 47 - 5 - 11 - 7 0 0
Malta 27 49 - - 28 159 0 98
Netherlands 11 10 - - 75 45 0 8
Norway 5 9 25 15 142 0 14
Poland - 28 29 - 13 9 463 0 32
Portugal - 6 2 - 42 - 24 35 0 1
Romania - 49 81 - 57 11 - 33 0 - 14
Slovakia - 29 16 - - 11 - 5 0 - 2
Slovenia 0 26 - 100 - 35 100 0 27
Spain 4 - 2 26 12 222 0 39
Sweden 7 5 5 - 58 - 20 0 0
United Kingdom 21 24 - 24 - 24 189 0 21
Note: - = the average 19941998 base was zero.
high-value species (in monetary terms). In
contrast, those imported and consumed in
developing nations tend to be classified as low-
value species, and serve both as important sources
of protein for a large portion of the worlds poor
and as inputs into fish and livestock production.
Exports of high-value products from developing
countries may serve as important sources of
income and may compensate for the decline in
local market access to high-value species.
However, additional research is necessary before
the implications of these trade patterns on food
security can be evaluated.
THE LONG-TERM OUTLOOK
Projecting long-term changes in seafood
production, consumption and trade is a
complicated and challenging task. The factors
that affect the respective models results include:
the increasingly global scale of markets for
fishery products;
the interdependence of the demand for fish
and the supply of competing food products;
the number and diversity of fish species;
uncertainty about factors affecting supply and
demand;
a lack of data.
These factors present significant challenges and
mean that any long-term projections up to 2030
must be carefully interpreted. The practical
modelling assumptions and limitations make it
useful to interpret the models results in the
context of possible technological and policy
changes.
Despite these difficulties and detractions, the
models do provide the opportunity to make
general inferences about probable long-term
trends, given the current state of knowledge. The
similarity of different models results in the face of
varied approaches, data sources and assumptions
provides fortuitous reassurance that the trends
depicted by the models are not unreasonable.
14
FOOD AND EMPLOYMENT:
THE PROSPECTS
This second section reviews the interaction
between production possibilities (as limited by
the ecosystem and available technology) and
public sector policies in the short and medium
terms. The review is carried out from of the point
of view of capture fishers, aquaculturists and
policy-makers. Because there are different points
of view and interests within these groups, the
analysis is broad and not applicable to all
members of the groups; there will be exceptions.
Public sector policy-makers are primarily
concerned about the contribution that
aquaculture and capture fisheries make, and can
make, to jobs and food supplies. They formulate
public sector policies for fisheries and
aquaculture, taking into account the extent to
which food and employment are created by these
two sectors of the economy.
Capture fishers and fish farmers are largely
preoccupied about the same aspects as policy-
makers food and employment but on a
microscale. They strive to improve their incomes
by perfecting equipment and methods. Generally,
each individual has a natural tendency to try to
circumvent the limits imposed by nature (the
ecosystem) and by public sector policies.
CAPTURE FISHERS
As reported in The status of fishery resources (Part
1, p. 21), most capture fishers harvest fully
exploited or overexploited stocks, often under
access conditions that are similar to those of open
access. This means that, in the long term, as a
group, they cannot expect to increase the volume
of fish captured or the profits simply by trying
harder or fishing more, and from societys point
of view there is a waste of resources. For fishers
this is a problem; and in growing economies it is
a growing problem because, as time passes,
119
14
Although reflecting different levels of detail (e.g. different lev-
els of aggregations of species groups and geographic regions),
there are similarities in the ways in which the models were de-
veloped. The respective authors first analysed historical trends
to determine income and price elasticities, consumption, pro-
duction and trade patterns related to fish and fish products. Next,
using trend analysis techniques and a multitude of probable as-
sumptions about the future, the authors projected future demand
and supply for fish and fish products. Imbalances were then re-
conciled, either through price clearing mechanisms or through
fluctuations in trade.
fishers will lag further and further behind their
compatriots who are employed in other sectors.
To improve their standard of living at the same
rate as the rest of the community, fishers need to
increase their net (real) income every year. To do
so they must earn more, and this generally means
catching more, as prices of fish are difficult to
raise unilaterally. Increasing volume caught per
person and year is not feasible unless some
fishers leave the industry voluntarily. In that case,
the use of superior technology or fishing methods
would result in higher catches, without other
fishers necessarily being worse off.
The reduction in the number of fishers that was
observed during the last decades in several
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) countries explains why, in
rich economies recording steady economic
growth, many capture fisheries experience
productivity growth through the adoption of new
materials, equipment and fishing methods.
15
The
labour force usually shrinks because elderly
fishers stop fishing and few young people join the
fishing fleet.
120
15
See: FAO. 2000. The State of World Fisheries and Aquacul-
ture 2000, pp. 1316. Rome.
BOX 12
Limitations inherent in long-term fish projections
For reasons of tractability, the FAO studies used the following
assumptions:
Fish within a species group are homogeneous.
Fish within a species group are traded freely at a single
world price.
There is no interspecies interaction (i.e. zero cross-price
elasticities among species groups), and no cross-price
effects of other substitute commodities.
No major changes in environmental conditions (i.e. normal
weather and climate patterns) have occurred.
No major breakthroughs in science and technology, as well
as in resource management practices, have been made.
No major changes in national, regional and international
regulations governing the fisheries sector have been made.
In modelling fish production and consumption, the number
and diversity of fish species and products pose a major
challenge. Even within seemingly similar species groups, the
outlook for future capture or aquaculture production varies
(e.g. salmonids or crustaceans). Similarly, future demand may
differ from species to species, and different species are likely
to vary in the extent to which they are substitutes for each
other. The more these differences are accounted for, the more
complex the modelling task becomes in terms of statistical
analyses and general control; conversely, the more different
species or species groups are aggregated, the less reliable or
"useful" the results.
A lack of, or inconsistency in, data presents another of the
major challenges in modelling fish production and
consumption. Often, consumption and trade data are
presented as product weight, and production or landings
as live fish weight; exact conversion rates are therefore
necessary in order to match these two sets of data.
Sometimes, price data do not exist, and inexact proxies such
as trade weighted values have to be used. For simplicity, a
single world price may be assumed, even though much
information is lost when price variation is ignored in this way
(e.g. barriers to trade and transportation costs). As with the
diversity of species, the type and quality of data may
constrain a models structure and the general methodology
that can be used.
Improving the quality of data and solving these issues
constitutes a major, ongoing research effort for FAO.
Source: C. de Young, FAO Fisheries Department.
In some fisheries, however, the nature of the
fishing (the combination of the species biological
characteristics and the environment) is such that
fishers have not managed to become significantly
more effective, even when those employed in
commercial fishing have declined in number. In
addition, there are instances in which, after some
time, commercial fishing has ceased altogether,
in spite of fish stocks remaining healthy. This has
been the case in inland fisheries in temperate
climates, particularly in smaller lakes and rivers.
It is likely to become gradually the case in small-
scale marine fisheries, initially in temperate
climates.
In poor countries and in countries with stagnant
economies most fishers harvest stocks that are
fully exploited or overexploited. Growth of
population, and limited employment
opportunities outside the fisheries sector, lead to
a situation in which young people have little
choice but to try to join the sector, thus the
number of fishers increases, or at the very least
remains constant. Only economic growth in the
economy as a whole will make it possible to
introduce technology that will increase
productivity in parallel with a reduction in the
number of effectively employed.
In summary, it seems clear that technology will
not help capture fisheries to overcome the
present limits to global landings. In fact, it is
doubtful that technology developments will be
such that the fishing of smaller fish stocks,
particularly in smaller water bodies, will continue
to be economically attractive.
In the course of the 1990s, it became clear that
the combined capacity of fishing fleets should not
continue to grow and that, in many cases, fleets
were already too large. Several countries have
introduced measures to control and reduce
fishing capacity. As those concerned analysed
how this situation had come about, a consensus
developed that fisheries management must be
based on more secure rights for those who
engage in commercial fishing. Simultaneously, in
several countries, particularly in rich market
economies, the economic consequences of some
public sector activities are being seen as contrary
to the interests of the sector and of society as a
whole. As a result, three public sector-specific
policies are being promoted: the reduction, or
even the complete elimination, of subsidies; the
adoption of an ecosystems-based approach to
fisheries management; and in countries with open
market economies, a call for the state to be
compensated for the costs of managing the
fisheries sector.
Where adopted and promoted, these policies
will increase the average costs per kilogram of
the fish produced by capture fishers. In OECD
countries, yearly financial transfers have been
recorded as corresponding to between 3 and 90
percent of the value of landings.
16
The costs of
fisheries management have been estimated as
being between 3 and 20 percent of landed
values.
17
It is clear that such cost increases could be
substantial if they were all passed on to the
industry at the same time; such costs could not be
passed on abruptly to the consumer. However,
even when shifted gradually to the fishing
industry, and by the industry gradually to the
consumer, the effect will be that the market for
wild-caught fish will shrink in size as real prices
of fish products rise. Production will contract.
These policies may also contribute to an
increase in volumes landed. However, after some
time, the fisheries will encounter a new upper
limit imposed by the natural conditions of the
aquatic ecosystem. Global production increases
from improved management have been estimated
to be a few million tonnes, but it is important to
note that better management would, above all,
lead to smaller but economically far healthier
capture fisheries.
In poor economies, if the same policies (no
subsidies, an ecosystems approach to
management, and cost recovery) were
implemented, costs would increase, although less
so than in developed economies. There are
several reasons for this, including: the existing
weak, or even absent, fisheries management,
121
16
OECD. 2000. Transition to responsible fisheries: economic
and policy implications, p.131. Paris.
17
E. William, R. Arnason and R. Hanesson, eds. In press. The
cost of fisheries management. Aldershot, UK, Ashgate Publi-
shing.
implies that there are correspondingly fewer costs
to recover; a lack of resources for ecosystems-
based management; and limited money for
financial transfers.
It seems likely that these policies will be
promoted first in rich, open market economies.
Even if they were also promoted in developing
countries, cost increases would be more
pronounced in rich economies. The net result
will be that demand for "cheap" imports will
intensify in North America, Europe and, possibly,
Japan. Exports from developing countries are
likely to increase, reflecting the growing gap in
prices between local and export markets.
AQUACULTURISTS
The ecosystem and the technologies used favour
aquaculturists in comparison with capture fishers.
Aquaculturists benefit from the fact that, in their
search for lower costs of production and higher
net revenues, they can work to improve both the
fish and the production methods used, while
fishers can do little or nothing about the fish
18
and have to concentrate on fishing gear and
methods. However, aquaculturists freedom to
improve fish is limited by the need to consider
the effects of new or modified fish on the aquatic
ecosystem and human health.
Many aquaculturists have already benefited
from not only the selective breeding of fish
19
but
also the better performance of, for example,
feeds, vaccines and the automatic handling of
feed, as well as of the fish produced. This is likely
to continue to be the case. The effects have been
significant in terms of increased production of
concerned species. Development has been of the
winwin type, as both producers and consumers
have gained when prices for cultured species
have fallen as a result of increased production.
20
As is natural in market economies, savings have
been passed on to consumers, leading to the
opening up of non-traditional markets (Atlantic
salmon in Asia, tropical marine shrimps in
Europe). This trend will certainly continue.
The vast bulk of aquaculture production is
composed of a small number of species; in 2000,
29 species accounted for 78 percent of
production. There is no evident reason why other
species from among the several thousand that are
exploited by capture fisheries could not
eventually be raised economically in a controlled
environment.
The appropriate legal framework for most
modern aquaculture technologies is known. It is
generally in place in rich economies where
aquaculture is an established economic activity
and is being put in place in developing
economies. In developed economies,
management and enforcement costs as a share of
the value of the produce are lower for
aquaculture than for capture fisheries.
At present, more than 90 percent of production
comes from Asia, although there is no inherent
reason for aquaculture not to be a common,
viable and sustainable activity outside Asia.
Increasingly, it is being realized that aquaculture
can be effectively promoted through appropriate
policies, and in Asia particularly China (see
Aquaculture development in China: the role of
public sector policies, Part 3, p. 99) it has
grown in response to consciously developed
policies aimed at its promotion. Public
management of aquaculture is not dissimilar to
public management of agriculture; it is thus
generally cheaper than the management of
capture fisheries.
So, in developed economies, application of the
three policies will lead to some increase in
aquaculture production costs but, as a rule, this
increase will be significantly smaller than it will
be for capture fishery products. In developing
economies the costs will probably be somewhat
higher.
The real costs of transport and communication
122
18
See: FAO. 2001. The economics of ocean ranching. Expe-
riences, outlook and theory, by R. Arnason. FAO Fisheries Te-
chnical Paper No. 413. Rome.
19
Selective breeding has contributed to improving yields and
results for fish (carp, salmon, tilapia) more than for shrimps or
bivalves.
20
Over a period of 15 years since the mid-1980s, the average
operating costs per kilogram of salmon in Norwegian fish farms
declined by two-thirds in real terms. See: J.L. Anderson. 2002.
Aquaculture and the future, why fisheries economists should ca-
re. Marine Resource Economics, 17(2): 133151.
will most likely continue to fall albeit slowly.
As a result, aquaculturists in rich, temperate
zone economies will be exposed to competition
with producers from increasingly distant areas.
Temperature zone aquaculturists may still be
able to compete, depending on the rate of
technological development and application. It is
not unlikely, however, that they will find it
increasingly difficult to compete with
aquaculture products from poor countries
(tropical and temperate). To some extent, the
outcome will depend largely on whether or not
the "anti-subsidy" lobby wins the present
international argument and, if it does, on
whether the subsidy ban would then be extended
to aquaculture processes and products. In that
case, the possibilities for stimulating and
promoting aquaculture growth in rich, open
market economies will be curtailed and future
growth in non-OECD countries will be
stimulated.
POLICY-MAKERS
Policy-makers for fisheries and aquaculture have
traditionally been concerned with food
production and employment. While policy
objectives in these areas continue to be valid,
policy-makers increasingly need to and do
give attention to demands for non-consumptive
and recreational uses of aquatic resources and to
the imperative demand from global civil society
that the aquatic ecosystem as a whole be
conserved and maintained.
During the last decades the contribution of
aquaculture and capture fisheries to food and
employment has been mixed. Aquaculture has
generally done better than capture fisheries. In
percentage terms, world production and
employment have, since 1990, grown faster in
aquaculture than in capture fisheries (see Figure
1, p. 5, and Figure 12, p. 15).
Although most aquaculture systems are not
labour-intensive, aquaculture has become an
important source of employment in many
countries. In Norway, employment in the sector
rose from virtually zero to about 3 500 people in
1999. In China, expanding aquaculture
production is reflected in a rapidly increasing
number of people employed.
During the recent past, the demand for non-
consumptive and recreational uses of aquatic
resources has, in some instances, conflicted with
the interests of commercial fishers. Although
these conflicts are important where they occur,
they are not frequent and, seen in a global
perspective, they are not a significant impediment
to commercial fisheries. This is likely to remain
the case, at least for recreational fisheries,
because the majority of these fisheries will
gravitate towards smaller water bodies and are
content with small catches; that is, they will take
over fisheries as they become economically
uninteresting for commercial fishers. The
conflicting interests of non-consumptive users
and commercial fishers, on the other hand, may
remain or even expand.
Policies that aim to preserve the aquatic
ecosystem will have an impact on both capture
fishers and aquaculturists, and policy-makers will
be increasingly obliged to ensure that such
policies work. Large-scale, commercial
aquaculturists will probably be able to coexist
with the policies through the adequate selection
of culture sites and technologies. Costs for
cultured products will be higher than when the
policies are not present, but activities will
develop.
Some capture fishers are in a less fortunate
situation. What for them is normal fishing may be
judged by others to have negative consequences
for the aquatic environment. If the fisheries are
small, or not developed, it may become
economically convenient for the government to
close them down or prevent their development.
The cost of compensating (including retraining)
existing fishers may be smaller than the costs
incurred in managing and/or developing the
fisheries.
This is not to say that aquaculture will not
encounter difficulties. It has encountered
obstacles (environmental destruction, disease) in
the past and will do so in the future. So far,
however, major obstacles have been overcome
and, although several species have run into
difficulties, overall growth has been steady.
In summary its seems likely that many policy-
makers will find that, on balance, aquaculture
conforms better than capture fisheries to public
123
policy objectives for food production,
employment, environment and non-food use of
aquatic resources. In concrete terms, fish
produced by capture fishers are likely to become
increasingly costly, and in some instances more
rare, while fish produced through aquaculture
will become more common and price trends for
cultured species may start high but are then likely
to fall.
Some policy-makers will not have to choose
between supporting capture fisheries and
supporting aquaculture. However, representatives
of either group capture fishers or aquaculturists
will no doubt draw the attention of policy-
makers and the general public to any advantage
that their own sector has over the other.
CONCLUSIONS
It seems plausible that, in the medium term, in
both developed and developing countries, public
policies will favour aquaculture, but not
necessarily at the expense of capture fisheries. It
is plausible that policy-makers will find it easier
to defend public support for aquaculture than for
capture fisheries, although among those who put
the environment before employment and income
generation there will be some who argue that the
emergency that must be remedied is that of
unmanaged, or badly managed, capture fisheries,
and not aquaculture.
Part of the analysis in the preceding section
calls into question a commonly held assumption
about the future of capture fisheries: that catches
of food fish have stabilized and will remain at
their present levels during the coming decades. If
the analysis is correct, current landings of
harvested species might fall, not because of
excessive effort but because of a reduction in
effort. Of course, this will be a gradual
development that may not even be noticeable in
this decade. X
124
PART 5
Fi sher i es act i vi t i es of count r y gr oupi ngs
Th e A sso c i at i o n o f So u t h east A si an N at i o n s (A SEA N ) w as est ab l i sh ed o n 8 A u gu st 1 9 6 7 ,
i n Ban gk o k , w i t h t h e si gn i n g o f t h e Ban gk o k D ec l ar at i o n . A t p r esen t , i t s m em b er s ar e
Br u n ei D ar u ssal am , Cam b o d i a, I n d o n esi a, t h e Lao Peo p l e s D em o c r at i c Rep u b l i c ,
M al ay si a, M y an m ar , t h e Ph i l i p p i n es, Si n gap o r e, Th ai l an d an d V i et N am .
Th e A SEA N D ec l ar at i o n st at es t h at t h e ai m s an d p u r p o ses o f t h e A sso c i at i o n ar e: i ) t o
ac c el er at e ec o n o m i c gr o w t h , so c i al p r o gr ess an d c u l t u r al d ev el o p m en t i n t h e r egi o n ,
t h r o u gh j o i n t en d eav o u r s an d i n t h e sp i r i t o f eq u al i t y an d p ar t n er sh i p , i n o r d er t o
st r en gt h en t h e f o u n d at i o n s f o r a p r o sp er o u s an d p eac ef u l c o m m u n i t y o f So u t h east A si an
n at i o n s; an d i i ) t o p r o m o t e r egi o n al p eac e an d st ab i l i t y , t h r o u gh m ai n t ai n i n g r esp ec t f o r
j u st i c e an d t h e r u l e o f l aw i n t h e r el at i o n sh i p am o n g c o u n t r i es i n t h e r egi o n an d t h r o u gh
ad h er en c e t o t h e p r i n c i p l es o f t h e U n i t ed N at i o n s Ch ar t er .
FI SH ERI ES: PU RPO SE AN D ACTI V I TI ES
I n c o n si d er at i o n o f t h e c o n c ep t u al f r am ew o r k o f t h e H an o i Pl an o f A c t i o n t o i m p l em en t
t h e A SEA N V i si o n 2 0 2 0 , t h e Sen i o r O f f i c er s o f t h e A SEA N M i n i st er s o f A gr i c u l t u r e an d
Fo r est r y (SO M - A M A F) h el d a Sp ec i al M eet i n g f r o m 2 7 t o 2 9 A p r i l 1 9 9 8 i n Ph u k et ,
Th ai l an d . A t t h at m eet i n g, i t w as d ec i d ed t h at t h e St r at egi c Pl an o n A SEA N Co o p er at i o n
i n Fo o d , A gr i c u l t u r e (i n c l u d i n g Fi sh er i es) an d Fo r est r y (1 9 9 9 2 0 0 4 ) sh o u l d c o v er o v er al l
c o o p er at i o n i n t h e t h r ee m aj o r sec t o r s, w i t h p ar t i c u l ar em p h asi s o n st r en gt h en i n g f o o d
1 2 7
ASSO CI ATI O N O F SO U TH EAST ASI AN N ATI O N S
TABLE 19
ASEAN : fi sher i es and aquacul t ur e pr oduct i on, food bal ance and t r ade
1 9 8 8 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 6 2 0 0 0
Aquacul t ur e pr oduct i on
I n l an d p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 8 5 6 1 0 0 7 1 5 2 0 1 8 3 0
Per c en t age o f w o r l d t o t al 1 2 . 0 1 0 . 9 9 . 6 8 . 5
M ar i n e Pr o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 3 4 1 5 9 6 7 4 2 8 7 6
Per c en t age o f w o r l d t o t al 7 . 5 9 . 7 6 . 9 6 . 2
Fi sher i es pr oduct i on
I n l an d p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 9 7 1 1 0 3 6 1 1 2 8 1 3 1 9
Per c en t age o f w o r l d t o t al 1 5 . 7 1 6 . 7 1 5 . 2 1 5 . 0
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 7 8 8 2 9 3 7 2 1 0 3 0 9 1 1 7 6 0
Per c en t age o f w o r l d t o t al 9 . 6 1 1 . 8 1 2 . 0 1 3 . 7
Fi sher i es and aquacul t ur e pr oduct i on
Co m b i n ed t o t al (000 tonnes) 1 0 0 5 1 1 2 0 1 2 1 3 7 0 0 1 5 7 8 5
Food bal ance
To t al f o o d su p p l y (000 tonnes) 8 0 3 3 9 6 2 4 1 1 0 1 5
Per c ap i t a su p p l y (kg) 1 9 . 0 2 1 . 1 2 2 . 5
Fi sh as sh ar e o f an i m al p r o t ei n (%) 4 6 . 4 4 4 . 9 4 3 . 9
Tr ade i n fi sher y commodi t i es
To t al i m p o r t s (US$ millions) 1 1 4 2 1 9 0 4 2 0 7 8 1 8 7 8
To t al ex p o r t s (US$ millions) 3 4 3 7 5 7 5 3 7 6 1 9 8 6 6 6
Note: = dat a not avai l abl e.
sec u r i t y ar r an gem en t s i n t h e r egi o n , en h an c i n g t h e i n t er n at i o n al c o m p et i t i v en ess o f f o o d ,
agr i c u l t u r al an d f o r est p r o d u c t s an d st r en gt h en i n g A SEA N s p o si t i o n i n i n t er n at i o n al f o r a.
Th e Pl an s i m p l em en t at i o n i s c o o r d i n at ed b y t h e A SEA N Sec r et ar i at . I n t h e f i el d o f
f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e, t h e i m p l em en t at i o n i s c ar r i ed o u t b y t h e Sec t o r al W o r k i n g
G r o u p o n Fi sh er i es. Co o p er at i o n i n f i sh er i es f o c u ses o n : t h e st an d ar d i z at i o n o f q u al i t y
c o n t r o l m easu r es an d p r o c essi n g t ec h n i q u es f o r f i sh an d f i sh er y p r o d u c t s; t h e
st an d ar d i z at i o n , an d su b seq u en t ad o p t i o n , o f aq u ac u l t u r e p r ac t i c es, p ar t i c u l ar l y f o r
sh r i m p s; t h e h ar m o n i z at i o n o f f i sh er i es san i t ar y m easu r es; an d t h e h ar m o n i z at i o n o f
r egu l at i o n s f o r agr i c u l t u r al p r o d u c t s (i n c l u d i n g t h o se f r o m f i sh er i es) d er i v ed f r o m
b i o t ec h n o l o gy . I n 1 9 9 4 , A SEA N st ar t ed t o c o l l ab o r at e w i t h t h e So u t h east A si an Fi sh er i es
D ev el o p m en t Cen t r e (SEA FD EC) i n p r o m o t i n g t h e su st ai n ab l e m an agem en t an d
u t i l i z at i o n o f m ar i n e f i sh er i es r eso u r c es i n t h e So u t h east A si a r egi o n . A SEA N - SEA FD EC
c o o p er at i o n h as st r en gt h en ed f u r t h er i n r ec en t y ear s, esp ec i al l y si n c e t h e A SEA N -
SEA FD EC Fi sh er i es Co n su l t at i v e G r o u p w as est ab l i sh ed i n 1 9 9 9 .
Th e Sp ec i al M eet i n g o f SO M - A M A F, h el d i n A p r i l 2 0 0 0 i n Br u n ei , d ec i d ed o n t h e
i m p l em en t at i o n o f sev en A SEA N - SEA FD EC c o l l ab o r at i v e p r o gr am m es (al l o f w h i c h h av e
al r ead y b een st ar t ed ). Th e p r o gr am m es c o v er : t h e u p gr ad i n g o f t h e t r ad i t i o n al f i sh
p r o c essi n g i n d u st r y ; p r o m o t i o n o f m an gr o v e- f r i en d l y aq u ac u l t u r e; c o n ser v at i o n an d
m an agem en t o f t h e sea t u r t l e; r egi o n al i z at i o n o f t h e Co d e o f Co n d u c t f o r Resp o n si b l e
Fi sh er i es; d ev el o p m en t o f a f i sh d i sease d i agn o st i c al i n sp ec t i o n m ec h an i sm ;
i m p r o v em en t o f f i sh er i es st at i st i c s; an d f i sh t r ad e an d en v i r o n m en t . Th e Sp ec i al M eet i n g
al so d ec i d ed t o o r gan i z e an A SEA N - SEA FD EC Co n f er en c e o n Su st ai n ab l e Fi sh er i es f o r
Fo o d Sec u r i t y i n t h e N ew M i l l en n i u m (Fi sh f o r t h e Peo p l e), w h i c h t o o k p l ac e i n
N o v em b er 2 0 0 1 . Th i s Co n f er en c e ap p r o v ed t h e Reso l u t i o n o n Su st ai n ab l e Fi sh er i es f o r
Fo o d Sec u r i t y f o r t h e A SEA N Regi o n an d a r el at ed Pl an o f A c t i o n .
CO O PERATI O N W I TH FAO
M em b er c o u n t r i es o f A SEA N an d i t s Fi sh er i es W o r k i n g G r o u p d o c o o p er at e c l o sel y w i t h
FA O t h r o u gh t h e FA O Regi o n al O f f i c e i n Ban gk o k . Th e A SEA N - SEA FD EC Co n f er en c e o n
Su st ai n ab l e Fi sh er i es f o r Fo o d Sec u r i t y i n t h e N ew M i l l en n i u m (Fi sh f o r t h e Peo p l e) w as
p r ep ar ed i n c o l l ab o r at i o n w i t h FA O .
1 2 8
Th e Car i b b ean Co m m u n i t y an d Co m m o n M ar k et (CA RI CO M ) w as est ab l i sh ed b y t h e
Tr eat y o f Ch agu ar am as o n 4 Ju l y 1 9 7 3 f o r t h e p r i n c i p al p u r p o se o f en h an c i n g, t h r o u gh
c o o p er at i o n , t h e ec o n o m i c , so c i al an d c u l t u r al d ev el o p m en t o f t h e p o p u l at i o n s o f
m em b er c o u n t r i es. CA RI CO M S m em b er s ar e A n t i gu a an d Bar b u d a, Bah am as, Bar b ad o s,
Bel i z e, D o m i n i c a, G r en ad a, G u y an a, H ai t i , Jam ai c a, M o n t ser r at , Sai n t Lu c i a, Sai n t Ki t t s
an d N ev i s, Sai n t V i n c en t an d t h e G r en ad i n es, Su r i n am e an d Tr i n i d ad an d To b ago .
I n f i sh er i es, CA RI CO M ai m s t o "p r o m o t e t h e d ev el o p m en t o f t h e f i sh er i es su b sec t o r i n
m em b er st at es w i t h a v i ew t o o p t i m al ex p l o i t at i o n o f t h ei r r eso u r c es o n a su st ai n ab l e
b asi s". I t i n t en d s t o d o t h i s b y st r en gt h en i n g t h e l egal an d i n st i t u t i o n al f r am ew o r k , i n p ar t
t h r o u gh t h e f o r m u l at i o n an d i m p l em en t at i o n o f a c o m m o n CA RI CO M Fi sh er i es Po l i c y .
Th e CA RI CO M Fi sh er i es U n i t , l o c at ed i n Bel i z e, w as est ab l i sh ed i n 1 9 9 1 t o ex ec u t e
t h e CA RI CO M Fi sh er i es Reso u r c e A ssessm en t an d M an agem en t Pr o gr am (CFRA M P),
w h i c h en d ed i n 2 0 0 1 . I t w as f u n d ed j o i n t l y b y t h e Can ad i an G o v er n m en t , t h r o u gh t h e
Can ad i an I n t er n at i o n al D ev el o p m en t A gen c y (CI D A ), an d p ar t i c i p at i n g CA RI CO M
c o u n t r i es. O n e o f t h e o u t c o m es o f CFRA M P i s t h e f o r m at i o n o f t h e Car i b b ean Regi o n al
Fi sh er i es M ec h an i sm (CRFM ). I n Feb r u ar y 2 0 0 2 , t h e h ead s o f go v er n m en t o f CA RI CO M
m em b er c o u n t r i es si gn ed t h e I n t er - G o v er n m en t al A gr eem en t t h at est ab l i sh ed t h e CRFM .
1 2 9
CARI BBEAN CO M M U N I TY AN D CO M M O N M ARKET
TABLE 20
CARI CO M : fi sher i es and aquacul t ur e pr oduct i on, food bal ance and t r ade
1 9 8 8 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 6 2 0 0 0
I n l an d p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 3 3 4 5
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 0 0 1 3
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 8 7 1 0 1 1 0 7 1 7 2
Co m b i n ed t o t al (000 tonnes) 9 2 1 0 7 1 1 4 1 8 2
Food bal ance
To t al f o o d su p p l y (000 tonnes) 1 4 6 1 4 3 1 6 2
To t al i m p o r t s (US$ millions) 6 7 5 5 9 8 1 0 2
To t al ex p o r t s (US$ millions) 8 2 1 0 6 1 4 1 2 1 1
Th e m i ssi o n o f t h e CA RI CO M Fi sh er i es U n i t i n c l u d es: i m p r o v i n g t h e q u al i t y an d
av ai l ab i l i t y o f f i sh er i es r eso u r c e i n f o r m at i o n , i n c l u d i n g i m p r o v i n g f i sh er i es m an agem en t
i n f o r m at i o n sy st em s; st r en gt h en i n g t h e c ap ac i t y o f n at i o n al f i sh er i es ad m i n i st r at i o n s t o
m an age f i sh er i es; p r o m o t i n g f i sh er s i n v o l v em en t i n d ev el o p m en t ; i m p l em en t i n g an d
m o n i t o r i n g f i sh er y m an agem en t p l an s; i m p r o v i n g sc i en t i f i c c ap ab i l i t y i n t h e r egi o n s
f i sh er y sec t o r ; su p p o r t i n g Car i b b ean r esear c h er s an d m an ager s i n t h e su st ai n ab l e
m an agem en t o f aq u at i c r eso u r c es; su p p o r t i n g t h e d ev el o p m en t o f a m u l t i - st ak eh o l d er s
ap p r o ac h t o c o ast al z o n e m an agem en t ; an d p r o m o t i n g t h e r at i o n al u se an d m an agem en t
o f f i sh er i es r eso u r c es i n t h e Car i b b ean .
Th e CA RI CO M Fi sh er i es U n i t i s c u r r en t l y ex ec u t i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o j ec t s:
t h e EC- f u n d ed f i sh er i es c o m p o n en t o f t h e Lo m I V I n t egr at ed Car i b b ean Regi o n al
A gr i c u l t u r al an d Fi sh er i es D ev el o p m en t Pr o gr am (CA RI FO RU M Fi sh er i es Pr o j ec t ),
w h i c h i s i n t en d ed t o b en ef i t sev er al A f r i c an Car i b b ean an d Pac i f i c G r o u p o f St at es
(A CP) c o u n t r i es i n t h e Car i b b ean r egi o n , i n c l u d i n g CA RI CO M c o u n t r i es. Th i s si x - y ear
p r o j ec t st ar t ed i n A u gu st 1 9 9 9 ;
t h e Pr o j ec t o n M u l t i - st ak eh o l d er A p p r o ac h es t o Co ast al Z o n e M an agem en t i n t h e
Car i b b ean , su p p o r t ed b y t h e I n t er n at i o n al D ev el o p m en t Resear c h Cen t r e.
CA RI CO M an d FA O h av e c o o p er at ed c l o sel y o v er t h e p ast d ec ad es o n v ar i o u s asp ec t s o f
f i sh er i es, i n c l u d i n g p o l i c y an d l egal m at t er s. FA O h as p r o v i d ed t ec h n i c al assi st an c e t o
CFRA M P i n sp ec i f i c ar eas si n c e i t s i n c ep t i o n i n 1 9 9 1 an d , o v er t h e p ast f o u r y ear s, FA O
an d CFRA M P h av e c o l l ab o r at ed i n i m p l em en t i n g j o i n t t ec h n i c al ac t i v i t i es t h r o u gh t h e
W est er n Cen t r al A t l an t i c Fi sh er i es Co m m i ssi o n (W ECA FC). Su c h ac t i v i t i es h av e i n c l u d ed
t r ai n i n g i n st o c k assessm en t an d t h e assessm en t o f m aj o r f i sh st o c k s (e. g. sp i n y l o b st er ,
p en aei d sh r i m p , f l y i n g f i sh ) i n t h e W ECA FC r egi o n . O v er t h e p ast t w o y ear s, FA O h as
p r o v i d ed t ec h n i c al su p p o r t t o m em b er c o u n t r i es o f t h e O r gan i z at i o n o f Car i b b ean St at es
an d Bar b ad o s (a su b set o f CA RI CO M m em b er c o u n t r i es) t h r o u gh an FA O Tec h n i c al
Co o p er at i o n Pr o gr am m e o n t h e d ev el o p m en t o f st an d ar d s f o r t h e c o n st r u c t i o n an d
i n sp ec t i o n o f sm al l f i sh i n g v essel s. A t p r esen t , FA O i s p r o v i d i n g assi st an c e t h r o u gh t h e
Tec h n i c al Co o p er at i o n Pr o gr am m e p r o j ec t , Pr ep ar at i o n f o r an Ex p an si o n o f t h e
D o m est i c Fi sh er i es f o r Lar ge Pel agi c Sp ec i es.
1 3 0
Th e Co m m o n w eal t h o f I n d ep en d en t St at es (CI S) w as est ab l i sh ed i n D ec em b er 1 9 9 1 . I t i s
a v o l u n t ar y asso c i at i o n c o n si st i n g o f t h e f o l l o w i n g St at es: A r m en i a, A z er b ai j an , Bel ar u s,
G eo r gi a, Kaz ak h st an , Ky r gy z st an , t h e Rep u b l i c o f M o l d o v a, t h e Ru ssi an Fed er at i o n ,
Taj i k i st an , Tu r k m en i st an , U k r ai n e an d U z b ek i st an . Th e m ai n p u r p o se o f t h e
Co m m o n w eal t h i s t o d ev el o p an d st r en gt h en c o o p er at i o n an d t o ser v e t h e c au se o f p eac e
an d sec u r i t y .
To d at e, n o c o m m o n f i sh er i es p o l i c y am o n g c o u n t r i es o f t h e CI S h as b een el ab o r at ed .
Co o r d i n at i o n i s ac h i ev ed t h r o u gh b i l at er al an d m u l t i l at er al agr eem en t s am o n g t h e
m em b er c o u n t r i es, w h i c h c an b e d i v i d ed i n t o t w o gr o u p s:
i ) st at es t h at h av e i n l an d w at er f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e ac t i v i t i es o n l y (A r m en i a,
A z er b ai j an , Bel ar u s, Kaz ak h st an , Ky r gy z st an , t h e Rep u b l i c o f M o l d o v a, Taj i k i st an ,
Tu r k m en i st an , U z b ek i st an ); an d
i i ) st at es t h at h av e a w el l - d ev el o p ed d i st an t - w at er f i sh er i es sec t o r (t h e Ru ssi an
Fed er at i o n , U k r ai n e an d t o a c er t ai n ex t en t G eo r gi a).
M o st CI S c o u n t r i es h av e c o n c en t r at ed o n t h e r est r u c t u r i n g o f t h ei r f l eet s an d o n t h e
p r o c essi n g an d m ar k et i n g sec t o r s.
1 3 1
CO M M O N W EALTH O F I N D EPEN D EN T STATES
TABLE 21
CI S: fi sher i es and aquacul t ur e pr oduct i on, food bal ance and t r ade
1 9 8 8 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 6 2 0 0 0
I n l an d p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 3 0 7 2 1 3 9 9 1 2 0
I n l an d p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 6 7 9 4 4 1 3 0 6 3 5 9
Per c en t age o f w o r l d t o t al 1 1 . 0 7 . 1 4 . 1 4 . 1
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 8 9 5 2 5 7 0 7 4 8 5 3 4 0 7 2
Co m b i n ed t o t al (000 tonnes) 9 9 3 9 6 3 6 2 5 2 6 1 4 5 5 2
Food bal ance
To t al f o o d su p p l y (000 tonnes) 3 5 1 9 3 7 5 9
Per c ap i t a su p p l y (kg) 1 2 . 4 1 3 . 2
Fi sh as sh ar e o f an i m al p r o t ei n (%) 1 0 . 1 1 0 . 5
To t al i m p o r t s (US$ millions) - 3 5 5 7 4 4 4 3
Per c en t age o f w o r l d t o t al - 0 . 1 1 . 1 0 . 8
To t al ex p o r t s (US$ millions) 8 2 6 1 7 8 0 1 4 6 6
Per c en t age o f w o r l d t o t al 2 . 1 3 . 4 2 . 7
To d at e t h er e i s n o agr eed p o l i c y w i t h i n t h e CI S c o u n t r i es c o n c er n i n g t h ei r c o o p er at i o n
w i t h FA O . Eac h St at e ac t s i n d ep en d en t l y i n f i sh er y m at t er s.
1 3 2
Th e Tr eat y o f Lago s, w h i c h est ab l i sh ed t h e Ec o n o m i c Co m m u n i t y o f W est A f r i c an St at es
(ECO W A S), w as si gn ed b y r ep r esen t at i v es o f 1 5 W est A f r i c an St at es i n Lago s o n 2 8 M ay
1 9 7 5 . A t p r esen t , t h e f o l l o w i n g c o u n t r i es ad h er e t o t h e t r eat y : Ben i n , Bu r k i n a Faso , Cap e
V er d e, C t e d I v o i r e, t h e G am b i a, G h an a, G u i n ea, G u i n ea- Bi ssau , Li b er i a, M al i ,
M au r i t an i a, t h e N i ger , N i ger i a, Sen egal , Si er r a Leo n e an d To go .
Th e ECO W A S Tr eat y sp ec i f i es t h e Co m m u n i t y s o b j ec t i v e, t o b e ac h i ev ed i n st ages, as
b ei n g t h e c r eat i o n o f an ec o n o m i c an d m o n et ar y u n i o n . Co o p er at i o n i n t h e d ev el o p m en t
o f agr i c u l t u r e, f o r est r y , an i m al h u sb an d r y an d f i sh er i es i s o n e o f i t s p r i m ar y ai m s. Th e
f i r st st age i n t h i s c o o p er at i o n en t ai l s t h e h ar m o n i z at i o n o f i n t er n al an d ex t er n al p o l i c i es;
t h e sec o n d st age en v i sages t h e ad o p t i o n o f a c o m m o n agr i c u l t u r al p o l i c y .
Based o n t h e r ec o m m en d at i o n s o f t h e I n d u st r y , A gr i c u l t u r e an d N at u r al Reso u r c es
Co m m i ssi o n at i t s m eet i n g i n Co t o n o u , Ben i n , i n A p r i l 1 9 8 0 , ECO W A S o r gan i z ed a
c o n f er en c e o f ex p er t s i n D ak ar , Sen egal , t o d ev el o p n at i o n al p o l i c i es t o en su r e b et t er
m an agem en t an d su r v ei l l an c e o f w at er s u n d er t h e j u r i sd i c t i o n o f i t s M em b er St at es an d
al so t o en su r e t h e c o n ser v at i o n o f f i sh er i es r eso u r c es i n t h e r egi o n . Sev er al
r ec o m m en d at i o n s w er e m ad e c o n c er n i n g r esear c h , su r v ei l l an c e, t h e h ar m o n i z at i o n o f
f i sh i n g agr eem en t s an d l egi sl at i o n , t r ad e i n f i sh an d f i sh er y p r o d u c t s, d at a c o l l ec t i o n , et c .
M em b er s h av e m ad e p r o gr ess i n i m p l em en t i n g su c h r ec o m m en d at i o n s.
1 3 3
ECO N O M I C CO M M U N I TY O F W EST AFRI CAN STATES
TABLE 22
ECO W AS: fi sher i es and aquacul t ur e pr oduct i on, food bal ance and t r ade
1 9 8 8 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 6 2 0 0 0
I n l an d p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 1 1 1 7 2 1 2 8
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 0 1
Per c en t age o f w o r l d t o t al 0 . 0 0 . 0
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 9 7 5 1 2 0 1 1 3 2 2 1 3 9 0
Food bal ance
To t al f o o d su p p l y (000 tonnes) 1 8 1 6 1 8 5 7 2 1 7 3
To t al i m p o r t s (US$ millions) 3 4 3 4 7 9 5 7 8 5 0 9
To t al ex p o r t s (US$ millions) 4 2 5 4 2 5 7 9 1 6 0 3
ECO W A S s f o r m al r el at i o n sh i p w i t h FA O i s b ased o n an ex c h an ge o f l et t er s b et w een t h e
D i r ec t o r - G en er al o f FA O an d t h e Ex ec u t i v e Sec r et ar y o f ECO W A S. A Co o p er at i o n
A gr eem en t w as est ab l i sh ed w i t h FA O i n D ec em b er 1 9 8 4 , si n c e w h i c h t i m e FA O h as
b een c o o p er at i n g w i t h t h e Co m m u n i t y i n v ar i o u s f i el d s. H o w ev er , as an o r gan i z at i o n ,
ECO W A S i s n o t a m em b er o f an y o f FA O s st at u t o r y b o d i es.
I n t h e m i d - 1 9 9 0 s, at t h e r eq u est o f ECO W A S, FA O c ar r i ed o u t a st u d y en t i t l ed
Ec o n o m i c d ev el o p m en t o f f i sh er i es, w h i c h m ad e sp ec i al r ef er en c e t o asp ec t s o f f i sh er i es
b y f o r ei gn v essel s o f f W est A f r i c a. I n i t s c o n c l u si o n s, t h e st u d y em p h asi z ed t h e n ec essi t y
an d t h e o p p o r t u n i t i es f o r r egi o n al c o o p er at i o n i n su p p o r t o f f i sh er i es m an agem en t an d
r egi o n al f o o d sec u r i t y . Fu r t h er m o r e, FA O r egi o n al f i sh er y p r o j ec t s h av e b een
c o o p er at i n g w i t h ECO W A S M em b er St at es, esp ec i al l y i n p r o m o t i n g f i sh er i es
m an agem en t i n t h e ar t i san al su b sec t o r .
1 3 4
Th e Tr eat y o f Ro m e est ab l i sh ed t h e Eu r o p ean Ec o n o m i c Co m m u n i t y (EEC) i n 1 9 5 7 . I n
1 9 9 3 , t h e Tr eat y o f M aast r i c h t est ab l i sh ed t h e Eu r o p ean U n i o n (EU ) as a b r o ad er
f r am ew o r k w h i c h r et ai n ed t h e EEC, n o w t h e Eu r o p ean Co m m u n i t y (EC), as a l egal en t i t y .
Th e ai m s o f t h e EC i n c l u d e t h e ab o l i t i o n o f r est r i c t i v e t r ad i n g p r ac t i c es an d t h e f r ee
m o v em en t o f c ap i t al an d l ab o u r w i t h i n t h e u n i o n . A si n gl e m ar k et w i t h f r ee m o v em en t
o f go o d s an d c ap i t al w as est ab l i sh ed i n Jan u ar y 1 9 9 3 . Th e f o l l o w i n g c o u n t r i es ar e
m em b er s o f t h e EC: A u st r i a, Bel gi u m , D en m ar k , Fi n l an d , Fr an c e, G er m an y , G r eec e,
I r el an d , I t al y , Lu x em b o u r g, t h e N et h er l an d s, Po r t u gal , Sp ai n , Sw ed en an d t h e U n i t ed
Ki n gd o m .
Th e Co m m o n Fi sh er i es Po l i c y (CFP) i s t h e EC s i n st r u m en t f o r t h e c o n ser v at i o n an d
m an agem en t o f f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e. I t w as c r eat ed w i t h t h e ai m s o f m an agi n g a
c o m m o n r eso u r c e an d m eet i n g t h e o b l i gat i o n set i n t h e o r i gi n al Co m m u n i t y Tr eat i es.
W i l d f i sh ar e a n at u r al an d m o b i l e r eso u r c e t h at i s c o n si d er ed c o m m o n p r o p er t y . Th e
t r eat i es c r eat i n g t h e Co m m u n i t y st at ed t h at t h er e sh o u l d b e a c o m m o n p o l i c y i n t h i s
ar ea; t h at i s, c o m m o n r u l es ad o p t ed at t h e Co m m u n i t y l ev el an d i m p l em en t ed i n al l
M em b er St at es. D G Fi sh er i es i s t h e D i r ec t o r at e- G en er al r esp o n si b l e f o r t h e CFP, w h i c h i s
sc h ed u l ed t o b e r ev i ew ed i n 2 0 0 2 .
1 3 5
EU RO PEAN CO M M U N I TY
TABLE 23
EC: fi sher i es and aquacul t ur e pr oduct i on, food bal ance and t r ade
1 9 8 8 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 6 2 0 0 0
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 7 1 4 6 8 6 8 8 9 1 0 4 9
I n l an d p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 9 7 9 6 1 0 4 8 6
Food bal ance
Fi sh as sh ar e o f an i m al p r o t ei n (%) 9 . 3 9 . 9 1 0 . 3
To t al i m p o r t s (US$ millions) 1 2 2 6 1 1 7 2 7 0 1 9 3 5 2 1 9 6 0 9
To t al ex p o r t s (US$ millions) 6 4 0 0 8 5 8 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 3 9 8
Th e CFP c am e i n t o ex i st en c e i n 1 9 8 3 , al t h o u gh t h e f i r st el em en t s o f t h i s p o l i c y h ad
al r ead y b een i n t r o d u c ed i n 1 9 7 0 . Si n c e t h en , i t h as b een d ev el o p ed an d ad j u st ed
c o n t i n u o u sl y i n ac c o r d an c e w i t h i n t er n at i o n al d ev el o p m en t s an d c h an ges w i t h i n t h e EC
i t sel f . Th e CFP t ak es i n t o ac c o u n t t h e b i o l o gi c al , ec o n o m i c , so c i al an d en v i r o n m en t al
d i m en si o n s o f f i sh i n g. I t s i m p l em en t at i o n en t ai l s t h e f o l l o w i n g m ai n i ssu es an d r el at ed
m easu r es.
Conservation and responsible fishing. Th e EC p o l i c y f o r t h e c o n ser v at i o n o f f i sh er y
r eso u r c es f o c u ses o n :
l i m i t i n g f i sh i n g ef f o r t t h r o u gh a st r i c t l i c en si n g sy st em ;
r est r i c t i n g c at c h v o l u m es b y set t i n g t o t al al l o w ab l e c at c h es (TA Cs) an d est ab l i sh i n g
t ec h n i c al m easu r es t o m i n i m i z e t h e o c c u r r en c e o f d i sc ar d s;
p r o m o t i n g m o r e sel ec t i v e f i sh er i es b y est ab l i sh i n g t ec h n i c al m easu r es r el at ed t o m esh
si z es, sel ec t i v i t y d ev i c es, c l o sed ar eas an d seaso n s, m i n i m u m f i sh an d sh el l f i sh
l an d i n g si z es an d l i m i t s o f b y - c at c h ;
r ed u c i n g f i sh i n g c ap ac i t y t o a l ev el c o m p at i b l e w i t h f i sh er y r eso u r c es av ai l ab i l i t y ;
ad ap t i n g m an agem en t t o f i sh i n g ar eas sh ar ed b et w een t h e Co m m u n i t y an d t h i r d
p ar t i es t h r o u gh ac t i v e m em b er sh i p i n n i n e r egi o n al f i sh er i es b o d i es.
Fishing beyond Community waters. Th e EC h as ex c l u si v e c o m p et en c e i n i n t er n at i o n al
r el at i o n s i n t h e d o m ai n o f f i sh er i es. I t i s em p o w er ed t o u n d er t ak e i n t er n at i o n al
c o m m i t m en t s t o w ar d s t h i r d c o u n t r i es o r i n t er n at i o n al o r gan i z at i o n s i n m at t er s r el at i n g t o
f i sh er i es. Th e Eu r o p ean Co m m i ssi o n , o n b eh al f o f t h e Co m m u n i t y , n ego t i at es f i sh er i es
agr eem en t s w i t h t h i r d c o u n t r i es an d p ar t i c i p at es i n v ar i o u s r egi o n al f i sh er i es o r gan i z at i o n s.
Th e EC h as c o n c l u d ed 2 1 f i sh i n g agr eem en t s w i t h t h i r d c o u n t r i es an d i s c u r r en t l y a
m em b er o f n i n e r egi o n al f i sh er i es o r gan i z at i o n s. Th e EC i s al so m em b er o f FA O .
Restructuring the fishing sector.Rest r u c t u r i n g o f t h e EC f i sh er i es sec t o r r el i es h eav i l y o n
t h e i m p l em en t at i o n o f t h e st r u c t u r al p o l i c y , t h e p u r p o se o f w h i c h i s t o ad ap t an d m an age
t h e d ev el o p m en t o f st r u c t u r es (t h e eq u i p m en t r eq u i r ed t o p r o d u c e go o d s an d t h e
o r gan i z at i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n p r o c esses) i n t h e f i sh i n g an d aq u ac u l t u r e i n d u st r y . EC
assi st an c e i n t h e f i sh er i es sec t o r i s p r o v i d ed u n d er t h e Fi n an c i al I n st r u m en t f o r Fi sh er i es
G u i d an c e (FI FG ). Th e FI FG ai m s t o :
c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e ac h i ev em en t o f a l ast i n g b al an c e b et w een f i sh er i es r eso u r c es an d
t h ei r ex p l o i t at i o n ;
st r en gt h en c o m p et i t i v en ess an d t h e d ev el o p m en t o f ec o n o m i c al l y v i ab l e b u si n esses
i n t h e f i sh i n g i n d u st r y ;
i m p r o v e m ar k et su p p l y an d i n c r ease t h e v al u e t h at c an b e ad d ed t o f i sh an d
aq u ac u l t u r e p r o d u c t s t h r o u gh p r o c essi n g;
h el p r ev i t al i z e ar eas t h at ar e d ep en d en t o n f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e.
Common organization of the market. Th e EC set u p a sy st em f o r t h e c o m m o n
o r gan i z at i o n o f t h e m ar k et f o r f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e p r o d u c t s al m o st 3 0 y ear s ago .
Si n c e Ju l y 1 9 9 6 , t h e c o m m o n m ar k et o r gan i z at i o n i n f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e p r o d u c t s
h as b een b ei n g ad ap t ed t o i n c r eased gl o b al i z at i o n o f m ar k et s, gr eat er d ep en d en c e o n
i m p o r t s, c o n t i n u ed sc ar c i t y o f r eso u r c es, c h an ge i n c o n su m p t i o n p at t er n s an d
c o n c en t r at i o n an d v er t i c al i n t egr at i o n w i t h i n t h e d i st r i b u t i o n c h ai n . Th e c o m m o n
o r gan i z at i o n o f t h e EC m ar k et h as f o u r c o m p o n en t s:
1 3 6
c o m m o n m ar k et i n g st an d ar d s f o r q u al i t y , gr ad es, p ac k agi n g an d l ab el l i n g o f b o t h EC
an d i m p o r t ed f i sh er y p r o d u c t s;
p r o d u c er s o r gan i z at i o n s, w h i c h ar e v o l u n t ar y asso c i at i o n s o f f i sh er s t h at ar e
est ab l i sh ed t o h el p st ab i l i z e m ar k et s (t h ei r r o l e i s t o p r o t ec t f i sh er s f r o m su d d en
c h an ges i n m ar k et d em an d );
a p r i c e su p p o r t sy st em t h at set s m i n i m u m p r i c es b el o w w h i c h f i sh p r o d u c t s c an n o t b e
so l d . Fi n an c i al su p p o r t i s av ai l ab l e t o p r o d u c er s o r gan i z at i o n s i f t h ey h av e t o t ak e
f i sh an d sh el l f i sh o f f t h e m ar k et , st o r e t h em f o r l at er u se o r p r o c ess t h em ;
r u l es f o r t r ad e w i t h n o n - EC c o u n t r i es.
Enforcement of the law in the fishing sector.Th e 1 9 9 2 r ev i ew o f t h e CFP st r essed t h e
n eed t o m ak e t h e p o l i c y m o r e ef f ec t i v e. A n ew c o n t r o l r egu l at i o n , c r eat ed i n 1 9 9 3 ,
r ei n f o r c ed t h e r o l e o f su r v ei l l an c e an d ex t en d ed t h e CFP s d o m ai n o f ac t i o n f r o m t h at o f
d i r ec t c o n ser v at i o n m easu r es t o o n e t h at al so i n c l u d ed i m p l em en t at i o n o f st r u c t u r al
p o l i c y , m ar k et i n g, t r an sp o r t an d sal e o f f i sh an d sh el l f i sh . Th e n ew r egu l at i o n al so
en c o u r aged h ar m o n i z at i o n o f t h e p r o c eed i n gs an d p en al t i es agai n st w r o n gd o er s ac r o ss
t h e EC. I n f o r m at i o n t ec h n o l o gy w as t o b e u sed t o c o m p l em en t t r ad i t i o n al m o n i t o r i n g
m et h o d s. Fi sh i n g su r v ei l l an c e h as al so b een su b st an t i al l y st r en gt h en ed b y t h e set t i n g u p
o f a V essel M o n i t o r i n g Sy st em (V M S).
Fishing and the wider environment. I n 1 9 9 7 , a m i n i st er i al m eet i n g o n t h e i n t egr at i o n o f
f i sh er i es an d en v i r o n m en t al i ssu es, h el d i n Ber gen , N o r w ay , an d at t en d ed b y m i n i st er s
f r o m al l N o r t h Sea St at es an d b y EC r ep r esen t at i v es, agr eed o n a so - c al l ed "ec o sy st em
ap p r o ac h " t o m ar i n e en v i r o n m en t s, w h i c h i n c l u d ed el em en t s o f t h e p r ec au t i o n ar y
ap p r o ac h . M o r e r ec en t l y , a gr o u p o f n at i o n s an d t h e EC ad o p t ed t h e Rey k j av i k
D ec l ar at i o n i n O c t o b er 2 0 0 1 . Th e D ec l ar at i o n p l ed ged t h at t h ey w o u l d "i n an ef f o r t t o
r ei n f o r c e r esp o n si b l e an d su st ai n ab l e f i sh er i es i n t h e m ar i n e ec o sy st em , . . . w o r k o n
i n c o r p o r at i n g ec o sy st em c o n si d er at i o n s i n t o t h at m an agem en t t o t h at ai m . " G i v en t h e
c o m m i t m en t d em o n st r at ed b y v ar i o u s st at es an d i n t er n at i o n al o r gan i z at i o n s, i n c l u d i n g
t h e EC, t o i n t egr at i n g an en v i r o n m en t al d i m en si o n i n t o t h ei r p o l i c i es, gr eat er ef f o r t i s
n o w b ei n g m ad e t o i m p l em en t a st r at egy f o r en h an c i n g t h e i n t egr at i o n o f en v i r o n m en t al
p r o t ec t i o n r eq u i r em en t s i n t o t h e CFP.
Th e i n t er n at i o n al d i m en si o n o f f i sh er i es i n r el at i o n t o en v i r o n m en t al i ssu es h as
ac q u i r ed gr eat er i m p o r t an c e f o r t h e EC i n r ec en t y ear s. Bi l at er al an d m u l t i l at er al
n ego t i at i o n s w i t h t h i r d c o u n t r i es h av e i n c r eased , as h av e n ego t i at i o n s w i t h i n r egi o n al
f i sh er i es o r gan i z at i o n s an d i n t er n at i o n al b o d i es. I n t er n at i o n al t r ad e o f f i sh an d f i sh er y
p r o d u c t s h as al so b ec o m e m o r e i m p o r t an t f o r t h e Co m m u n i t y , esp ec i al l y i n r el at i o n t o
i m p o r t t r ad e as w el l as t o en v i r o n m en t al i ssu es an d h eal t h an d saf et y st an d ar d s o f f i sh
an d f i sh er y p r o d u c t s.
Review of the CFP.EC l egi sl at i o n f o r esees a r ev i ew o f t h e CFP d u r i n g 2 0 0 2 . I t al so
p r o v i d es t h at , b ef o r e 3 1 D ec em b er 2 0 0 2 , t h e Co u n c i l sh al l d ec i d e o n an y n ec essar y
ad j u st m en t s t o b e m ad e. I n M ar c h 2 0 0 1 , t h e Co m m i ssi o n p u b l i sh ed a r ep o r t o n t h e
f i sh er i es si t u at i o n i n t h e EC an d a G r een Pap er o n t h e f u t u r e o f t h e CFP, w h i c h d i sc u sses
t h e w eak n esses an d c h al l en ges f ac i n g t h e CFP an d p r esen t s a n u m b er o f o p t i o n s f o r i t s
r ef o r m . O n t h e b asi s o f t h at G r een Pap er , t h e Co m m i ssi o n l au n c h ed w i d e c o n su l t at i o n
w i t h al l i n t er est ed p ar t i es an d , o n 2 8 M ay 2 0 0 2 , i ssu ed t h e Communication from the
Commission on the reform of the Common Fisheries Policy. Th i s d o c u m en t p r esen t s a
1 3 7
b r i ef r ev i ew o f t h e c r u c i al i ssu es t o b e ad d r essed b y CFP r ef o r m , t ak i n g i n t o ac c o u n t t h e
o u t c o m e o f t h e r ec en t d eb at e. I t al so st at es t h at t h e r ef o r m m u st l ead t o a n ew CFP t h at i s
c ap ab l e o f p r o v i d i n g su st ai n ab l e d ev el o p m en t i n en v i r o n m en t al , ec o n o m i c an d so c i al
t er m s. Th i s w i l l b e ac h i ev ed t h r o u gh m easu r es ai m ed at m eet i n g sev er al CFP o b j ec t i v es:
r esp o n si b l e an d su st ai n ab l e f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e ac t i v i t i es t h at c o n t r i b u t e t o h eal t h y
m ar i n e ec o sy st em s; an ec o n o m i c al l y v i ab l e an d c o m p et i t i v e f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e
i n d u st r y t h at b en ef i t s t h e c o n su m er ; an d a f ai r st an d ar d o f l i v i n g f o r t h o se w h o d ep en d
o n f i sh i n g ac t i v i t i es. I n o r d er f o r t h e CFP t o f u n c t i o n ef f ec t i v el y i t i s essen t i al t h at i t
i n c l u d e go o d go v er n an c e p r i n c i p l es. Th e r ef o r m s t h at h av e b een p r o p o sed r egar d t h e
n i n e ar eas: r eso u r c es c o n ser v at i o n an d f i sh er i es m an agem en t ; r ep er c u ssi o n s o f t h e
c o n ser v at i o n p o l i c y o n t h e f i sh i n g f l eet ; ac c ess t o w at er s an d r eso u r c es; c o n t r o l an d
en f o r c em en t ; i n t er n at i o n al f i sh er i es; aq u ac u l t u r e; t h e so c i al d i m en si o n o f t h e CFP;
ec o n o m i c m an agem en t o f f i sh er i es i n t h e EC; an d ef f ec t i v e an d p ar t i c i p at o r y d ec i si o n -
m ak i n g. M easu r es t o p u r su e, o b j ec t i v es t o b e ac h i ev ed an d a p ac k age o f r ef o r m s ar e
p r o p o sed .
Th e EC i s a f u l l m em b er o f FA O . Th e EC i s al so a m em b er o f m o st FA O r egi o n al f i sh er y
b o d i es an d p ar t i c i p at es ac t i v el y i n t h e w o r k o f sev er al o f t h ese.
I n t h e r ec en t p ast , t h e EC h as p r o v i d ed f u n d s t o su p p o r t FA O w o r k i n t h e
i m p l em en t at i o n o f i t s i n t er n at i o n al agr eem en t s an d p l an s o f ac t i o n f o r i m p r o v ed gl o b al
m an agem en t o f f i sh i n g c ap ac i t y , sh ar k f i sh er i es, i n c i d en t al c at c h o f seab i r d s i n l o n gl i n e
f i sh er i es an d i l l egal , u n r ep o r t ed an d u r r egu l at ed (I U U ) f i sh i n g.
1 3 8
Th e Lat i n A m er i c an Ec o n o m i c Sy st em (LA ES) i s a r egi o n al i n t er go v er n m en t al
o r gan i z at i o n t h at gr o u p s 2 8 Lat i n A m er i c an an d Car i b b ean c o u n t r i es: A r gen t i n a, t h e
Bah am as, Bar b ad o s, Bel i z e, Bo l i v i a, Br az i l , Ch i l e, Co l o m b i a, Co st a Ri c a, Cu b a, t h e
D o m i n i c an Rep u b l i c , Ec u ad o r , El Sal v ad o r , G r en ad a, G u at em al a, G u y an a, H ai t i ,
H o n d u r as, Jam ai c a, M ex i c o , N i c ar agu a, Pan am a, Par agu ay , Per u , Su r i n am e, Tr i n i d ad
an d To b ago , U r u gu ay an d V en ez u el a. LA ES w as est ab l i sh ed o n 1 7 O c t o b er 1 9 7 5 b y t h e
Pan am a Co n v en t i o n .
Th e o b j ec t i v es o f LA ES ar e t o p r o m o t e a sy st em f o r c o n su l t at i o n an d c o o r d i n at i o n ,
ai m i n g t o ac h i ev e c o n sen su s i n t h e f o r m o f j o i n t p o si t i o n s an d c o m m o n st r at egi es o n
ec o n o m i c i ssu es f o r t h e Lat i n A m er i c an an d Car i b b ean r egi o n . Th e c o m m o n st r at egi es
m ay b e f o r i n d i v i d u al c o u n t r i es o r gr o u p s o f c o u n t r i es. LA ES al so ser v es t o p r o m o t e
c o o p er at i o n an d i n t egr at i o n am o n g t h e c o u n t r i es o f t h e r egi o n .
Th e A c t i o n Co m m i t t ees o f LA ES ar e f l ex i b l e c o o p er at i o n m ec h an i sm s set u p w h en m o r e
t h an t w o M em b er St at es v o i c e i n t er est i n p r o m o t i n g j o i n t p r o gr am m es an d p r o j ec t s i n
sp ec i f i c ar eas. Th ese c o m m i t t ees ar e d i sso l v ed o n c e t h ei r o b j ec t i v es ar e f u l f i l l ed ,
o t h er w i se t h ey m ay b ec o m e Per m an en t Bo d i es o f t h e Sy st em .
A t p r esen t , LA ES h as n o A c t i o n Co m m i t t ees, b u t i t d o es h av e t w o f u n c t i o n i n g
1 3 9
LATI N AM ERI CAN ECO N O M I C SYSTEM
TABLE 24
LAES: fi sher i es and aquacul t ur e pr oduct i on, food bal ance and t r ade
1 9 8 8 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 6 2 0 0 0
I n l an d p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 4 6 8 4 1 6 5 2 8 2
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 9 9 2 1 9 3 8 7 5 5 6
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 1 5 7 7 7 1 7 3 8 5 2 1 0 6 6 1 9 2 4 7
Co m b i n ed t o t al (000 tonnes) 1 6 4 2 1 1 8 1 2 7 2 2 1 0 4 2 0 5 5 7
Food bal ance
Per c ap i t a su p p l y (kg) 8 . 5 8 . 4 9 . 8
Fi sh as sh ar e o f an i m al p r o t ei n (%) 7 . 8 7 . 4 7 . 8
To t al i m p o r t s (US$ millions) 3 5 8 4 7 2 1 0 4 9 1 0 2 2
Per c en t age o f w o r l d t o t al 9 . 9 1 0 . 6 1 2 . 6 1 1 . 9
c o o p er at i o n m ec h an i sm s. O n e o f t h ese t h e Lat i n A m er i c an O r gan i z at i o n f o r Fi sh er i es
D ev el o p m en t (O LD EPESCA ) h as t h e o b j ec t i v es o f p r o m o t i n g t h e r at i o n al ex p l o i t at i o n
o f f i sh er i es i n t h e r egi o n an d c o o r d i n at i n g j o i n t ac t i o n s w i t h i t s M em b er St at es:
A r gen t i n a, Br az i l , Co l o m b i a, Co st a Ri c a, Cu b a, Ch i l e, t h e D o m i n i c an Rep u b l i c , Ec u ad o r ,
El Sal v ad o r , G u at em al a, H o n d u r as, M ex i c o , N i c ar agu a, Pan am a, Par agu ay , Per u ,
U r u gu ay an d V en ez u el a.
Th er e i s a l o n g r ec o r d o f c o o p er at i o n i n t ec h n i c al ac t i v i t i es b et w een FA O an d LA ES.
I n i t i al l y t h e f o r u m f o r t h i s c o o p er at i o n w as t h e A c t i o n Co m m i t t ee o f Sea an d Fr esh - w at er
Pr o d u c t s. W h en t h i s ac t i o n c o m m i t t ee w as d i sso l v ed , O LD EPESCA w as est ab l i sh ed , an d
t h i s i n d ep en d en t b o d y h as b ec o m e t h e c en t r e o f c o o p er at i o n . FA O u su al l y at t en d s t h e
an n u al O LD EPESCA c o n f er en c es o f Fi sh er i es M i n i st er s.
1 4 0
Th e Leagu e o f A r ab St at es, m o r e gen er al l y k n o w n as t h e A r ab Leagu e, w as est ab l i sh ed
o n 2 2 M ar c h 1 9 4 5 . I t c o m p r i ses A l ger i a, Bah r ai n , t h e Co m o r o s, D j i b o u t i , Egy p t , I r aq ,
Jo r d an , Ku w ai t , Leb an o n , t h e Li b y an A r ab Jam ah i r i y a, M au r i t an i a, M ay o t t e, M o r o c c o ,
O m an , Pal est i n e, Q at ar , Sau d i A r ab i a, So m al i a, t h e Su d an , t h e Sy r i an A r ab Rep u b l i c ,
Tu n i si a, t h e U n i t ed A r ab Em i r at es an d Yem en .
Th e b r o ad o b j ec t i v es o f t h e A r ab Leagu e ar e t o d ev el o p c o o p er at i o n an d st r en gt h en
c o m p l em en t ar i t y am o n g t h e M em b er St at es i n ec o n o m i c , c u l t u r al , sc i en t i f i c , so c i al an d
m i l i t ar y f i el d s. To d o so , t h e Leagu e h as set u p sev er al sp ec i al i z ed agen c i es. Th o se o f
i n t er est t o FA O ar e: t h e A r ab Ban k f o r Ec o n o m i c D ev el o p m en t i n A f r i c a (Kh ar t o u m , t h e
Su d an ); t h e A r ab Cen t r e f o r t h e St u d y o f A r i d Z o n es an d D r y Lan d s (D am asc u s, t h e
Sy r i an A r ab Rep u b l i c ); t h e A r ab Fu n d f o r Ec o n o m i c an d So c i al D ev el o p m en t (Ku w ai t );
t h e A r ab Leagu e Ed u c at i o n al , Cu l t u r al an d Sc i en t i f i c O r gan i z at i o n (Tu n i s, Tu n i si a); t h e
A r ab O r gan i z at i o n f o r A gr i c u l t u r al D ev el o p m en t (Kh ar t o u m , t h e Su d an ); t h e A r ab
A c ad em y f o r Sc i en c e, an d M ar i t i m e Tr an sp o r t (A l ex an d r i a, Egy p t ); an d t h e I n t er - A r ab
I n v est m en t G u ar an t ee Co r p o r at i o n (Ku w ai t ).
Th e Leagu e o f A r ab St at es h as n o su b si d i ar y b o d y o r i n st i t u t i o n t h at d eal s ex c l u si v el y
w i t h f i sh er i es m at t er s.
1 4 1
LEAG U E O F ARAB STATES
TABLE 25
League of Ar ab St at es: fi sher i es and aquacul t ur e pr oduct i on, food bal ance and t r ade
1 9 8 8 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 6 2 0 0 0
I n l an d p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 6 1 7 4 8 4 3 1 5
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 1 9 1 5 5 1
Food bal ance
To t al ex p o r t s (US$ millions) 7 5 4 8 4 1 1 1 0 2 1 3 2 3
FA O h as p ar t i c i p at ed i n sev er al m eet i n gs o r gan i z ed b y su b si d i ar y b o d i es o f t h e A r ab
Leagu e. Th e O r gan i z at i o n h as at t en d ed an d p ar t l y sp o n so r ed m eet i n gs o f t h e A r ab
Fed er at i o n o f Fi sh Pr o d u c er s (A FFP), w h i c h i s a su b si d i ar y o f t h e Co u n c i l f o r A r ab
Ec o n o m i c U n i o n . I n 1 9 9 8 , FA O w as r ep r esen t ed at t h e Co n f er en c e o n t h e D ev el o p m en t
o f M ar i n e Fi sh er i es i n t h e A r ab W o r l d , o r gan i z ed b y t h e Co u n c i l .
1 4 2
Can ad a, M ex i c o an d t h e U n i t ed St at es o f A m er i c a ar e m em b er s o f t h e N o r t h A m er i c an
Fr ee Tr ad e A gr eem en t (N A FTA ), w h i c h c am e i n t o ef f ec t o n 1 Jan u ar y 1 9 9 4 . N A FTA s
m ai n ai m s ar e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e ex p an si o n o f w o r l d t r ad e; c r eat e, ex p an d an d sec u r e
m ar k et s f o r t h e go o d s p r o d u c ed i n t h ei r t er r i t o r i es; r ed u c e d i st o r t i o n s t o t r ad e; c r eat e n ew
em p l o y m en t o p p o r t u n i t i es an d i m p r o v e w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s an d l i v i n g st an d ar d s i n t h ei r
r esp ec t i v e t er r i t o r i es; an d ad d r ess r el at ed en v i r o n m en t al an d c o n ser v at i o n i ssu es.
N A FTA i s a t r ad i n g b l o c k o f gl o b al r eac h . I t i s i n n o v at i v e, as i t est ab l i sh es l i n k ages
b et w een ec o n o m i es w i t h d i f f er en t l ev el s o f ec o n o m i c d ev el o p m en t . Cu r r en t d i sc u ssi o n s
en v i sage t h e l i n k i n g o f ex i st i n g su b r egi o n al i n t egr at i o n sc h em es, o f w h i c h N A FTA i s o n e,
i n t o a Fr ee Tr ad e A r ea o f t h e A m er i c as.
FI SH ERI ES: PU RPO SES AN D ACTI V I TI ES
N A FTA d o es n o t h av e an y p ar t i c u l ar ac t i v i t i es c o n c er n ed w i t h f i sh er i es.
To d at e, t h er e i s n o c o o p er at i o n b et w een N A FTA an d FA O o n f i sh er i es m at t er s. N A FTA
m em b er c o u n t r i es d eal i n d i v i d u al l y w i t h FA O i n t h i s f i el d .
1 4 3
N O RTH AM ERI CAN FREE TRAD E AG REEM EN T
TABLE 26
N AFTA: fi sher i es and aquacul t ur e pr oduct i on, food bal ance and t r ade
1 9 8 8 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 6 2 0 0 0
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 1 4 7 1 8 8 1 9 4 2 4 8
Food bal ance
To t al i m p o r t s (US$ millions) 6 0 2 1 6 7 8 5 8 3 2 1 1 1 9 8 3
1 4 4
Th e So u t h A si an A sso c i at i o n f o r Regi o n al Co o p er at i o n (SA A RC) w as est ab l i sh ed i n 1 9 8 5
b y t h e H ead s o f St at e an d G o v er n m en t o f Ban gl ad esh , Bh u t an , I n d i a, M al d i v es, N ep al ,
Pak i st an an d Sr i Lan k a. SA A RC s m ai n go al i s t o ac c el er at e ec o n o m i c an d so c i al
d ev el o p m en t i n M em b er St at es t h r o u gh j o i n t ac t i o n i n c er t ai n agr eed ar eas o f
c o o p er at i o n . To ac h i ev e t h i s o b j ec t i v e SA A RC seek s t o :
p r o m o t e t h e w el f ar e o f t h e p eo p l es o f So u t h A si a an d i m p r o v e t h ei r q u al i t y o f l i f e;
ac c el er at e ec o n o m i c gr o w t h , so c i al p r o gr ess an d c u l t u r al d ev el o p m en t i n t h e r egi o n ,
an d p r o v i d e al l i n d i v i d u al s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o l i v e i n d i gn i t y an d r eal i z e t h ei r f u l l
p o t en t i al ;
p r o m o t e an d st r en gt h en c o l l ec t i v e sel f - r el i an c e am o n g t h e c o u n t r i es o f So u t h A si a;
p r o m o t e ac t i v e c o l l ab o r at i o n an d m u t u al assi st an c e i n t h e ec o n o m i c , so c i al , c u l t u r al ,
t ec h n i c al an d sc i en t i f i c f i el d s;
st r en gt h en c o o p er at i o n w i t h o t h er d ev el o p i n g c o u n t r i es;
st r en gt h en c o o p er at i o n am o n g M em b er St at es i n i n t er n at i o n al f o r a o n m at t er s o f
c o m m o n i n t er est , an d c o o p er at e w i t h i n t er n at i o n al an d r egi o n al o r gan i z at i o n s w i t h
si m i l ar ai m s an d p u r p o ses.
SO U TH ASI AN ASSO CI ATI O N FO R REG I O N AL CO O PERATI O N
TABLE 27
SAARC: fi sher i es and aquacul t ur e pr oduct i on, food bal ance and t r ade
1 9 8 8 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 6 2 0 0 0
I n l an d p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 1 0 5 0 1 5 8 1 2 0 4 5 2 6 7 3
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 3 7 6 3 1 4 8 1 1 9
I n l an d p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 9 8 6 9 3 5 1 3 4 5 1 6 9 7
Food bal ance
To t al i m p o r t s (US$ millions) 3 8 6 1 7 9 8 9
To t al ex p o r t s (US$ millions) 7 6 5 1 0 1 2 1 6 8 0 2 1 0 2
1 4 5
FI SH ERI ES: PU RPO SES AN D O BJECTI V ES
Th e I n t egr at ed Pr o gr am m e o f A c t i o n i s t h e k ey c o m p o n en t o f SA A RC s ac t i v i t i es. I t n o w
i n c l u d es 1 1 ar eas o f c o o p er at i o n , eac h c o v er ed b y a Tec h n i c al Co m m i t t ee: A gr i c u l t u r e;
Co m m u n i c at i o n s; Ed u c at i o n ; Cu l t u r e an d Sp o r t s; En v i r o n m en t an d M et eo r o l o gy ; H eal t h
an d Po p u l at i o n A c t i v i t i es; Pr ev en t i o n o f D r u g Tr af f i c k i n g an d D r u g A b u se; Ru r al
D ev el o p m en t , Sc i en c e an d Tec h n o l o gy ; To u r i sm ; Tr an sp o r t ; an d W o m en i n
D ev el o p m en t . Regu l ar m eet i n gs o f c o u n t er p ar t sc i en t i st s ar e a v er y i m p o r t an t f eat u r e o f
t h e Tec h n i c al Co m m i t t ee o n A gr i c u l t u r e, an d a l i st o f f i sh er i es c o u n t er p ar t sc i en t i st s h as
al so b een p r ep ar ed an d m ad e av ai l ab l e.
SA A RC d o es n o t c o o p er at e f o r m al l y w i t h FA O i n f i sh er i es o r aq u ac u l t u r e.
1 4 6
Th e D ec l ar at i o n an d Tr eat y est ab l i sh i n g t h e So u t h er n A f r i c an D ev el o p m en t Co m m u n i t y
(SA D C) w as si gn ed at t h e Su m m i t o f H ead s o f G o v er n m en t i n W i n d h o ek , N am i b i a, i n
A u gu st 1 9 9 2 . I t s m em b er c o u n t r i es ar e A n go l a, Bo t sw an a, t h e D em o c r at i c Rep u b l i c o f
t h e Co n go , Leso t h o , M al aw i , M au r i t i u s, M o z am b i q u e, N am i b i a, Sey c h el l es, So u t h
A f r i c a, Sw az i l an d , t h e U n i t ed Rep u b l i c o f Tan z an i a, Z am b i a an d Z i m b ab w e. Th e
o b j ec t i v es o f t h e SA D C ar e t o :
ac h i ev e d ev el o p m en t an d ec o n o m i c gr o w t h , al l ev i at e p o v er t y , en h an c e t h e st an d ar d
an d q u al i t y o f l i f e o f t h e p eo p l es o f so u t h er n A f r i c a an d su p p o r t t h e so c i al l y
d i sad v an t aged t h r o u gh r egi o n al i n t egr at i o n ;
ev o l v e c o m m o n p o l i t i c al v al u es, sy st em s an d i n st i t u t i o n s;
p r o m o t e an d d ef en d p eac e an d sec u r i t y ;
p r o m o t e sel f - su st ai n i n g d ev el o p m en t o n t h e b asi s o f c o l l ec t i v e sel f - r el i an c e an d t h e
i n t er d ep en d en c e o f M em b er St at es;
ac h i ev e c o m p l em en t ar i t y am o n g n at i o n al an d r egi o n al st r at egi es an d p r o gr am m es;
p r o m o t e an d m ax i m i z e p r o d u c t i v e em p l o y m en t an d u t i l i z at i o n o f t h e r eso u r c es o f t h e
r egi o n ;
ac h i ev e su st ai n ab l e u t i l i z at i o n o f n at u r al r eso u r c es an d ef f ec t i v e p r o t ec t i o n o f t h e
en v i r o n m en t ;
SO U TH ERN AFRI CAN D EV ELO PM EN T CO M M U N I TY
TABLE 28
SAD C: fi sher i es and aquacul t ur e pr oduct i on, food bal ance and t r ade
1 9 8 8 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 6 2 0 0 0
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 1 5 5 6 1 2 0 5 9 4 7 1 2 8 9
Food bal ance
Per c ap i t a su p p l y (kg) 1 0 . 3 8 . 0 6 . 7
To t al ex p o r t s (US$ millions) 2 0 0 2 9 9 6 0 2 8 9 2
1 4 7
st r en gt h en an d c o n so l i d at e t h e l o n g- st an d i n g h i st o r i c al , so c i al an d c u l t u r al af f i n i t i es
an d l i n k s am o n g t h e p eo p l es o f t h e r egi o n .
FI SH ERI ES: PU RPO SES AN D ACTI V I TI ES
SA D C s w o r k r el at ed t o sp ec i f i c sec t o r s h as b een h an d l ed b y Sec t o r Co o r d i n at i n g U n i t s
(SCU s). Th ese w er e al l o c at ed t o i n d i v i d u al M em b er St at es, w h o p r o v i d ed c o o r d i n at i o n ,
l ead er sh i p an d gu i d an c e o n t h e f o r m u l at i o n , i m p l em en t at i o n an d m an agem en t o f sec t o r -
sp ec i f i c p o l i c i es, p r o gr am m es an d p r o j ec t s. A Sec t o r al Co m m i t t ee o f M i n i st er s, c h ai r ed
b y t h e c o o r d i n at i n g c o u n t r y s m i n i st er f o r t h e sec t o r , su p er v i sed t h e sec t o r al ac t i v i t i es.
Th er e ar e c u r r en t l y 2 1 su c h SCU s. A t p r esen t , h o w ev er , SA D C i s u n d er go i n g an
i n st i t u t i o n al r est r u c t u r i n g p r o c ess, w h i c h i n v o l v es st r en gt h en i n g t h e SA D C Sec r et ar i at
b ased i n G ab o r o n e an d p h asi n g o u t t h e SCU s w i t h i n t h e n ex t t w o y ear s. A s p ar t o f t h i s
r est r u c t u r i n g, i n D ec em b er 2 0 0 1 , SA D C l au n c h ed a n ew Fo o d , A gr i c u l t u r e an d N at u r al
Reso u r c es D i r ec t o r at e (FA N R) w h i c h d eal s w i t h ei gh t su b sec t o r s, i n c l u d i n g M ar i n e
Fi sh er i es an d Reso u r c es. FA N R i s gr ad u al l y assu m i n g r esp o n si b i l i t y f o r m ar i n e f i sh er i es
an d r eso u r c es, an d t h e p r ev i o u s Co u n c i l o f M i n i st er s d ec i si o n t o al l o c at e su c h
r esp o n si b i l i t y t o N am i b i a s M i n i st r y o f Fi sh er i es an d M ar i n e Reso u r c es (t ak en i n 1 9 9 1 )
h as b een c an c el l ed .
O n e o f SA D C s m o st i m p o r t an t r ec en t ac h i ev em en t s i n t h e f i el d o f m ar i n e an d i n l an d
f i sh er i es an d aq u ac u l t u r e i s t h e Pr o t o c o l o n Fi sh er i es, w h i c h w as ad o p t ed d u r i n g t h e
Su m m i t o f H ead s o f St at e an d G o v er n m en t i n A u gu st 2 0 0 1 . Th e Pr o t o c o l i s i n sp i r ed b y
t h e FA O Co d e o f Co n d u c t f o r Resp o n si b l e Fi sh er i es an d ai m s t o p r o m o t e t h e r esp o n si b l e
u se o f l i v i n g aq u at i c r eso u r c es i n t h e SA D C r egi o n . Sp ec i al i st c o m m i t t ees an d t ec h n i c al
w o r k i n g gr o u p s h av e b een est ab l i sh ed t o t h i s en d .
SA D C h as al so i d en t i f i ed an d an al y sed p r i o r i t i es f o r m ar i n e p o l i c y i ssu es w i t h i n t h e
r egi o n w i t h a v i ew t o d ev el o p i n g a st r at egy t o su p p o r t t h e h ar m o n i z at i o n o f f i sh er i es
p o l i c y an d t h e l egal f r am ew o r k , b ased o n t h e p r i n c i p l es est ab l i sh ed b y t h e Co d e o f
Co n d u c t f o r Resp o n si b l e Fi sh er i es an d t h e Pr o t o c o l o n Fi sh er i es. Th i s p r o c ess r ec ei v ed
t ec h n i c al an d f i n an c i al assi st an c e f r o m an FA O Tec h n i c al Co o p er at i o n Pr o gr am m e
p r o j ec t .
Th e SCU o f m ar i n e an d f i sh er i es r eso u r c es i s c o o r d i n at i n g t h e i m p l em en t at i o n o f
sev en p r o j ec t s t h at f o c u s o n t h e p r i o r i t y ar eas f o r t h e sec t o r : t h e Regi o n al Fi sh er i es
I n f o r m at i o n Sy st em ; SA D C m o n i t o r i n g, c o n t r o l an d su r v ei l l an c e (M CS) o f f i sh i n g
ac t i v i t i es; su p p o r t t o t h e SA D C M ar i n e Fi sh er i es Sec t o r SCU ; an d Ben gu el a Cu r r en t Lar ge
M ar i n e Ec o sy st em p r o gr am m es.
Fu n d i n g o f m o r e t h an U S$ 6 0 m i l l i o n , f o r c u r r en t SA D C m ar i n e f i sh er i es p r o j ec t s o v er
t h e n ex t f i v e y ear s, h as b een c o m m i t t ed .
SA D C an d FA O c o o p er at e c l o sel y i n r el at i o n t o f i sh er y m at t er s. FA O i s p r o v i d i n g
t ec h n i c al an d f i n an c i al assi st an c e t o t w o o f t h e p r o j ec t s b ei n g i m p l em en t ed b y t h e SCU
f o r m ar i n e an d f i sh er i es r eso u r c es.
1 4 8
Th e So u t h Pac i f i c Fo r u m (SPF), c o n si st i n g o f H ead s o f G o v er n m en t , w as est ab l i sh ed i n
1 9 7 1 . I t p r o v i d es an o p p o r t u n i t y t o d i sc u ss a w i d e v ar i et y o f So u t h Pac i f i c an d
i n t er n at i o n al c o n c er n s an d i ssu es c o m m o n t o m em b er s, i n c l u d i n g t h e p r o m o t i o n o f a
f r ee t r ad e ar ea i n t h e So u t h Pac i f i c r egi o n . I n 1 9 9 8 , t h e m em b er s o f t h e SPF an d i t s
af f i l i at ed agen c i es w er e: A u st r al i a, Co o k I sl an d s, Fed er at ed St at es o f M i c r o n esi a, Fi j i ,
Ki r i b at i , M ar sh al l I sl an d s, N au r u , N ew Z eal an d , N i u e, Pal au , Pap u a N ew G u i n ea,
Sam o a, So l o m o n I sl an d s, To n ga, Tu v al u an d V an u at u . Th e SPF h as a Sec r et ar i at (Fo r u m
Sec r et ar i at ) w h i c h p r o m o t es r egi o n al c o o p er at i o n am o n g m em b er s o n i m p o r t an t
ec o n o m i c i ssu es.
Th e So u t h Pac i f i c Fo r u m Fi sh er i es A gen c y (FFA ) w as est ab l i sh ed as a sp ec i al i z ed agen c y
b y t h e SPF i n 1 9 7 9 . Th e FFA Co n v en t i o n r ef l ec t s t h e c o m m o n c o n c er n s o f m em b er
c o u n t r i es r egar d i n g c o n ser v at i o n , o p t i m u m u t i l i z at i o n an d c o ast al st at es so v er ei gn r i gh t s
o v er t h e r egi o n s l i v i n g m ar i n e r eso u r c es. Th e f u n c t i o n s o f FFA i n c l u d e ac c u m u l at i n g
d et ai l ed an d u p - t o - d at e i n f o r m at i o n o n asp ec t s o f l i v i n g m ar i n e r eso u r c es i n t h e r egi o n ;
ev al u at i n g an d an al y si n g d at a t o p r o v i d e c l ear , t i m el y , c o n c i se, c o m p l et e an d ac c u r at e
ad v i c e t o m em b er c o u n t r i es; d ev el o p i n g an d m ai n t ai n i n g a c o m m u n i c at i o n n et w o r k f o r
t h e d i ssem i n at i o n o f i n f o r m at i o n t o m em b er c o u n t r i es, an d i m p l em en t i n g p o l i c i es an d
SO U TH PACI FI C FO RU M
TABLE 29
SPF: fi sher i es and aquacul t ur e pr oduct i on, food bal ance and t r ade
1 9 8 8 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 6 2 0 0 0
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 3 9 6 6 9 8 1 2 4
I n l an d p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 2 2 2 3 1 9 2 2
M ar i n e p r o d u c t i o n (000 tonnes) 5 8 8 8 5 6 8 2 4 1 0 3 1
Co m b i n ed t o t al (000 tonnes) 6 5 0 9 4 7 9 4 3 1 1 8 1
Food bal ance
To t al f o o d su p p l y (000 tonnes) 5 2 2 5 3 7 5 8 4
1 4 9
p r o gr am m es t h at b een ap p r o v ed b y t h e Fo r u m Fi sh er i es Co m m i t t ee. Th e f o l l o w i n g ar e
t h e m ai n f u n c t i o n s an d o b j ec t i v es o f FFA .
Economics and marketing. A ssi st an c e i s gi v en t o m em b er c o u n t r i es i n t h e f o r m u l at i o n o f
p o l i c i es an d i d en t i f i c at i o n o f p r o j ec t s f o r t h e su st ai n ed u se o f t h ei r t u n a r eso u r c es (t h e
m ai n ar eas c o v er ed ar e t u n a m an agem en t , i n d u st r y , m ar k et i n g, f i sh er i es ac c ess, t r ai n i n g
an d l i n k ages).
Legal services. Su p p o r t i s p r o v i d ed t o st r en gt h en m em b er c o u n t r i es i n t h e u n d er st an d i n g
o f t h ei r l egal r esp o n si b i l i t i es an d r i gh t s an d ab i l i t y t o f u l f i l r esp o n si b i l i t i es an d t ak e
ad v an t age o f r i gh t s. Th i s su p p o r t i n c l u d es t h e p r o v i si o n o f ad v i c e i n t h e f i el d s o f
i n t er n at i o n al l aw , n at i o n al l egi sl at i o n , i l l egal f i sh i n g, ac c ess n ego t i at i o n s an d o f t r ai n i n g
f o r r esp o n si b l e l aw y er s an d o f f i c er s w i t h i n m em b er c o u n t r i es. FFA i s si m u l t an eo u sl y
assi st i n g m em b er s i n ac h i ev i n g f u l l an d i n d ep en d en t l egi sl at i v e c o n t r o l o f t h ei r f i sh er i es
r eso u r c es an d en su r i n g t h e n ec essar y r egi o n al c o m p at i b i l i t y an d c o h esi o n .
Monitoring, control and surveillance. M CS ac t i v i t i es ai m at r ei n f o r c i n g t h e c ap ac i t y o f
f i sh i n g o p er at o r s i n m em b er c o u n t r i es t o c o m p l y w i t h n at i o n al r egu l at i o n s an d r egi o n al
l i c en c e c o n d i t i o n s. Th i s f u n c t i o n i n c l u d es su c h ac t i o n s as: assi st an c e t o m em b er
c o u n t r i es i n d ev el o p i n g an d c o o r d i n at i n g n at i o n al M CS p l an s; c o o r d i n at i o n o f r egi o n al
o b ser v er p r o gr am m es an d assi st an c e t o t h e d ev el o p m en t o f n at i o n al o b ser v er
p r o gr am m es; c o o r d i n at i o n o f r egi o n al su r v ei l l an c e o p er at i o n s; c o l l ec t i o n an d
d i ssem i n at i o n o f d at a i n su p p o r t o f n at i o n al M CS o p er at i o n s; assi st an c e t o FFA m em b er s
i n d et er m i n i n g t h ei r m ar i t i m e b o u n d ar i es; an d p r o v i si o n o f t r ai n i n g, ad v i c e an d r egi o n al
ex c h an ges o n en f o r c em en t an d t ec h n o l o gi c al d ev el o p m en t s. FFA s ac h i ev em en t s i n t h i s
f i el d i n c l u d e:
p ar t i c i p at i o n i n t h e c o o r d i n at i o n an d p l an n i n g o f aer i al su r v ei l l an c e f l i gh t s c o v er i n g
m em b er s EEZ s;
t h e su c c essf u l d ev el o p m en t an d i m p l em en t at i o n o f a r egi o n al o b ser v er p r o gr am m e
f o r t h e So u t h Pac i f i c ;
t h e r esear c h , d esi gn an d i m p l em en t at i o n o f a sat el l i t e- b ased V M S;
t h e est ab l i sh m en t o f a M ar i t i m e Su r v ei l l an c e Co m m u n i c at i o n s N et w o r k , w h i c h w i l l
i n t egr at e o t h er i n f o r m at i o n sy st em s, i n c l u d i n g t h e V M S.
Th e FFA al so u n d er t ak es corporate and treaty services, i n c l u d i n g t h e est ab l i sh m en t
an d m ai n t en an c e o f ad m i n i st r at i v e sy st em s t h at m eet t h e r eq u i r em en t s o f t r eat i es an d
agr eem en t s f o r w h i c h FFA i s r esp o n si b l e. I n t h e f i el d o f information technology and
communication, FFA h as d ev el o p ed an i n n o v at i v e an d so p h i st i c at ed c o m p u t er sy st em
t h at p r o v i d es su p p o r t i n t h e r ec ep t i o n , p r o c essi n g an d t r an sf er o f i n f o r m at i o n t o f ac i l i t at e
t h e m o n i t o r i n g an d c o n t r o l o f f o r ei gn f i sh i n g f l eet s as w el l as t o i n c r ease t h e sp eed ,
ef f i c i en c y an d c o st - ef f ec t i v en ess w i t h w h i c h FFA c o n d u c t s i t s w o r k .
FFA h as b r o u gh t i m p o r t an t ec o n o m i c an d so c i al b en ef i t s t o i t s m em b er s. Sm al l i sl an d
d ev el o p i n g st at es h av e b en ef i t ed , i n p ar t i c u l ar t h r o u gh r egi o n al c o o p er at i o n an d t h e
ad o p t i o n o f r egi o n al m i n i m u m st an d ar d s. Regi o n al l y agr eed m easu r es t o l i m i t f i sh i n g
ef f o r t (e. g. i n t h e p u r se sei n e t u n a f i sh er y ) h av e al so b een o f t an gi b l e b en ef i t t o FFA
m em b er c o u n t r i es.
1 5 0
FFA h as f o r m al r el at i o n s w i t h FA O , w h i c h c o o p er at es w i t h t h e agen c y o n a r an ge o f
t ec h n i c al i ssu es, i n c l u d i n g su c h m at t er s as j o i n t t r ai n i n g ex er c i ses an d ex c h an ges o f
t ec h n i c al i n f o r m at i o n . FA O p ar t i c i p at es i n t h e an n u al Fo r u m Fi sh er i es Co m m i t t ee
m eet i n g as an o b ser v er .
FA O al so p ar t i c i p at es as an o b ser v er i n t h e Pr ep ar at o r y Co n f er en c e f o r t h e
Est ab l i sh m en t o f t h e Co m m i ssi o n f o r t h e Co n ser v at i o n an d M an agem en t o f H i gh l y
M i gr at o r y Fi sh St o c k s i n t h e W est er n an d Cen t r al Pac i f i c O c ean . Th i s c o n f er en c e i s
p r ep ar i n g f o r t h e est ab l i sh m en t o f t h e Co m m i ssi o n af t er t h e en t r y i n t o f o r c e o f t h e
Co n v en t i o n o n t h e Co n ser v at i o n an d M an agem en t o f H i gh l y M i gr at o r y Fi sh St o c k s i n t h e
W est er n an d Cen t r al Pac i f i c . !

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