Ntelligence: HIS Covers

1
THIS
INTELLIGENCE
CHAPTER COVERS
CONTENTS
Introduction What is Intelligence? Beginnings of Intelligence Testing (Box 1.1) Definitions of Intelligence Intelligence: The Interplay of Nature and Nurture Intelligence: Some Classical Approaches (Box1.2) Contemporary Approaches to Intelligence Theory of Multiple Intelligences Triarchic Theory of Intelligence PASS Model of Intelligence Samples of PASS Measures (Box 1.3) Creativity and Intelligence Culture and Intelligence Intelligence in Non-Western Traditions Intelligence in the Indian Context Assessment of Intelligence Distribution of IQ Scores Types of Intelligence Test Alternatives to IQ Testing (Box 1.4) Intelligence Testing in India Variations in the Level of Intelligence Giftedness: Nature and Identification Identification of Talent in the Indian Context (Box 1.5) Intellectual Deficiency: Nature and Types New Directions: Emotional, Practical, and Spiritual Intelligences (BOX 1.6) Special Abilities or Aptitudes: Nature and Measurement Key Terms Summary Review Questions Answers to Learning Checks
Nature of intelligence and approaches to its understanding Culture and conceptualisation of intelligence Methods of assessing intelligence Range and variations in intelligence Nature and measurement of aptitude BY
THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD
BE ABLE TO
describe the concept of intelligence, explain the multiple facets of intelligence, discuss cultural differences in conceptualising intelligence, acquaint yourself with different methods of assessing intelligence, explain the nature of intellectual deficiency and giftedness, understand some emerging notions of intelligence, and describe the concept of aptitude and its measurement procedure.
Introduction to Psychology
INTRODUCTION
Intelligence is probably one of the most popular psychological terms used in everyday life. And it is rightly so, because it is due to the intellectual development that humans have been able to transcend the physical frailties and gain dominance over the more powerful and numerous animals. Every parent wishes his/her child to be intelligent. However, you must have noticed individual differences in this highly valued trait. People differ from each other in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles. We often make judgements about the intellectual competence of people on the basis of these and related characteristics and label them as being more intelligent or less intelligent. You too must have encountered people showing different levels of intelligence. The expression of intelligence is not limited to any particular activity, domain, or context; rather, it is manifested in every human activity, may it be in school, during social interaction, at work, and so on. You must have heard about tests that are used to measure intelligence in different settings including school, industry, defence organisations, bureaucratic set-ups and so on. These tests are useful in selection, training, placement, and providing educational and vocational guidance and counselling to the students. For long, the study of intelligence was confined to the cognitive domain. In recent years, however, understanding about the nature of intelligence has changed drastically. It is now believed that intelligence is not a single entity or unidimensional, rather has multiple dimensions or facets. The notion of intelligence has expanded to encompass affective, and social domains also. The emphasis on one or the other aspects of intelligence varies across cultures. In this chapter you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitions of intelligence, cultural differences in its conceptualisation, its assessment, range and variations in the intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilities or aptitudes.
Intelligence
WHAT
IS
INTELLIGENCE?
ACTIVITY 1.1 Understanding the Concept of Intelligence Find out the synonyms of intelligence and analyse the similarities and differences among them. On the basis of the analysis of synonyms make three or four statements about the nature of intelligence. Discuss your observations with your classmates and teacher.
The term intelligence has not only been used more popularly in daily life, it has also received maximum attention of the researchers in the fields of psychology, education, and child development. A perusal of dictionaries will reveal that the term intelligence has been taken in a broad sense. For example, the following terms have been listed as the meaning of intelligence: ability to understand, reason, and perceive; quickness in learning; mental alertness; ability to grasp relationships etc. The words such as capacity, shrewdness, acumen, discrimination, talent, aptitude, etc. are used as synonyms of intelligence. In the Indian context, words such as Buddhi Pratibha, Prajna, Medha, Dhi, Chaturya, etc., are used for intelligence.
BOX 1.1
DEFINITIONS
OF
INTELLIGENCE
Broadly speaking, intelligence is a capacity to profit from experience and to go beyond the given. Psychologists have proposed a number of definitions of intelligence. Binet and Simon in 1905 defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, to
BEGINNINGS OF INTELLIGENCE TESTING The first systematic attempt to develop a test of intelligence was made by Alfred Binet, a Frenchman. At the request of the French Ministry of Education, in 1904, Binet attempted to devise a method to identify children who did not benefit from regular classroom teaching and needed to be placed in special schools. Binet with his student T. Simon developed the first test of intelligence in 1905. The test consisted of 30 items ranging from the ability to touch ones nose or ear when asked, to the ability to draw designs from Binet memory and define abstract concepts. Unlike Galton who reduced intelligence to sensory, perceptual, and motor processes, Binet argued that the core of intelligence consists of more complex mental processes such as memory, imagery, comprehension, and judgement.
The development of the concept of intelligence in modern psychology is closely related to the efforts in the direction of assessing intelligence. Historically, the work of a Frenchman, J. Esquirol, in 1838, on mental disorders is considered to be the beginning of modern mental testing. However, Sir Francis Galton, an Englishman, is considered to be the father of mental tests. In 1884, Galton attempted to measure intelligence by administering a battery of tests which measured such characteristics as head size, strength of hand grip, breathing capacity, reaction time, visual acuity, and memory for visual forms. Galton Alfred believed that simple sensory, perceptual, and motor responses were key aspects of intelligence. J.M. Cattell is credited with introducing the term mental test. The works of Galton and Cattell together paved the way for further studies on intelligence.
understand well, and to reason well. There were four elements that were believed to be important for intelligence: (1) Direction or ability to set up a goal and work towards it, (2) Adaptability or ability to make the necessary adjustments to solve a problem, (3) Comprehension or ability to have a basic understanding of exactly what the problem is, and (4) Self evaluation or persons idea of whether he or she has been able to solve the problem correctly. The definition proposed by Wechsler in 1939 has been very popular. He defined it as the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment. According to Howard Gardner (1986), intelligence is the ability or skill to solve problems or to fashion products which are valued within one or more cultural settings. An analysis of the above and other definitions indicates that intelligence consists of three general classes of skills or abilities: l Adapting to new situations and changing task demands. l Learning or profiting optimally from experience or training. l Thinking abstractly using symbols and concepts. More recently Robert Sternberg (1997), a pioneer in the field of intelligence research, has defined intelligence as follows: Intelligence comprises the mental abilities necessary for adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context. This definition goes beyond the adaptive nature of intelligence. Thus, intelligence is not just reacting (in the form of adaptation) to the demands of the environment, but also involves actively shaping and selecting the environment. When a person is not able to adapt to an environment, he/she may try to bring changes in the environmental context (shaping) according to his or her own likings. For example, when you visit a relative on holidays, first of all you try to behave according to their expectations. Slowly, you begin to suggest them changes according to your taste. However, bringing out change in
the environmental context may not always be possible due to various reasons. In that case an intelligent person tries to find another suitable environment (selection). For example, when you find it difficult to adapt or bring about changes in the relatives house, you may go to another relatives house or go back to your home. It should be noted that intelligence does not simply mean possessing certain abilities per se; rather the use of these abilities in real life situations is important. The second important point, according to Sternberg, is that the landscape of an environmental context changes over time. Thus, adequate adaptation, shaping, and selection involve a process of life-long learning, one that starts during infancy and continues throughout the life span.
ACTIVITY 1.2 Processes Involved in Intelligence Find two examples each from everyday activities that relate to shaping, selection, and adaptation. Discuss these examples with classmates and teacher.
INTELLIGENCE: THE INTERPLAY NATURE AND NURTURE
OF
There is no end to the debate as to whether intelligence is innate or acquired. The controversy has aroused fierce passions, become politicised, and is notable for the dogmatic nature of the opinions. The evidence for the innateness comes from studies on twins. As you know monozygotic twins result from the fertilisation of a single ovum by a single sperm and they are genetically identical. Therefore, it may be assumed that their intelligence (genetic) level should be similar and any difference would be due to non-genetic (environmental) factors. On rare occasions, such as death or illness of the mother, some of these monozygotic (identical) twins were reared apart. Studies have shown high level of similarity between the intelligence levels of such monozygotic twins. It has also been reported in some studies that identical twins separated very early in life share considerable degree of
Intelligence
similarity in intelligence, personality, and mannerisms when they were identified later. The limitation of these studies is that the samples have been generally very small. Adoption studies lend support to the nurture side of the debate. In these studies childrens intelligence levels were compared with their biological and adopting mothers. Some studies have reported that IQ of the adopted children tends to move toward that of their adopting parents. Other studies have shown greater closeness with the IQ of biological mothers. Generally, the presence of adoptive parents of higher IQ level raises a disadvantaged childs IQ. There is evidence to show that deprived environments may result in lowering of IQ scores. A range of environmental factors, such as nutrition, family background, and quality of schooling, are found to be related to IQ scores. The most accepted view today is that intelligence is a product of a complex
interaction of genetic factors and environmental conditions. Probably, the maximum limit is drawn by the genetic factors, within which the actual development depends upon the support from environmental conditions. Recapitulation The systematic attempt to define and assess intelligence in modern period began with the work of Binet in 1904. Since then many definitions of intelligence have been proposed. In all these definitions, intelligence is defined in terms of adaptation to new situations, learning from past experiences, and abstract thinking. However, contemporary view of intelligence goes beyond adaptation skillswhere adaptation is not possible, an intelligent person either attempts to shape and bring changes in the environment, or carve out another environment of his/her liking.
BOX 1.2
INTELLIGENCE: SOME CLASSICAL APPROACHES
Charles Spearman (1927) proposed a Two Factor theory of intelligence. According to him, intelligence consists of General (g) and Specific (s) factors. This theory maintained that all intellectual activities share a single common factor, called g. Characterised as mental energy, g is considered responsible for relationships between different human activities. Positive correlations between any two factors were attributed to g factor. In addition to g, this theory also postulates a number of specific factors s, each being strictly specific to a single activity Fig 1.1 shows this pattern. Louis Thurstone (1938) advanced the Theory of Primary Mental Abilities which states that intelligence consists of seven major factors, each of which is relatively independent of the others. These factors are: Verbal Comprehension, Verbal Fluency, Inductive Reasoning, Spatial Visualisation, Number, Memory, and Perceptual Speed.
Raymond Cattell (1971) proposed that there are two g factors, gf (for fluid
g
SI
S2 S3
Fig. 1.1 Relationship between g and s conceptualised by Spearman

contd...
intelligence) and gc (for crystallised intelligence). Fluid intelligence includes the ability to think creatively, to reason abstractly, to make inferences from data, and to understand relationships. It can be measured by analogy and classification problems. It is strongly influenced by heredity. In contrast, crystallised intelligence includes what a person learns and retains from experience; so, it is strongly influenced by environment. Tests of vocabulary and general information can be used to measure crystallised intelligence. It has been found that fluid intelligence tends to decline at an early age than crystallised intelligence though both show rapid decline starting in the late seventies.
l
stimulus input prior to the outcome or response. Level II refers to a general class of abilities involving effective transformation or manipulation of stimuli, as evinced in higher order learning, such as reasoning and problem-solving.
l
Arthur Jensen has advanced a theory of two levels of intelligence: Level I and Level II. Level I denotes associative learning (e.g. rote learning and memory). These activities involve minimal mental transformation of the
On the basis of more than two decades of factor analytic research, J. P. Guilford proposed a box-like model, which is known as Structure-of-Intellect Model. This theory organises intellectual traits along three dimensions: Operationswhat the respondent does, Contentsthe nature of the materials or information on which operations are performed, and Products the form in which information is processed by the respondents. Guilfords classification includes 6 x 5 x 5 categories, resulting into 150 cells in the model. In each cell at least one factor or ability is expected; some cells may contain more than one factor. The model is shown in Fig.1.2.
Operations Co nv er Di ge ve Ev nt alu rg pr en at od tp ion uc ro tio du n Me ct ion m Co or y gn itio n
Vis
ua
l Au o dit ry bo lic ma nti
Contents
Sym Se
c h io av ura l
Be
Units Classes Products Relations Systems Transformation Implications
Fig. 1.2 Guilfords Structure of Intellect
Intelligence
LEARNING CHECKS I
1. The speed with which one accomplishes a task refers to ones intellectual capacity. T/F 2. Binet developed a test of intelligence to discriminate amongst normal students of a class. T/F 3. Learning from past experiences is a characteristic of an intelligent person. T/F 4. Selection strictly refers to leaving a task, which cannot be accomplished, and selecting a task, which is easy to perform. T/F
CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES TO INTELLIGENCE The classical notion of intelligence, which defined it in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities, has undergone major changes. It is now believed that intelligence is not one or unitary ability, rather there are many intelligences, which people display while solving problems in everyday life. In this section you will study about three such theories. THEORY
OF
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Howard Gardner (1983) proposed this theory. It is based on three principles. First, intelligence is not a single entity; rather, there exist multiple intelligences, each distinct from others. Second, these intelligences are independent of each other. In other words, if a person is good in one type of intelligence, it does not give any indication about how good or bad the person may be on Howard Gardner other types of intelligences. Third, different types of intelligences interact. That is, different intelligences work together to provide a solution of a problem. Gardner has so far proposed eight intelligences. However, all the individuals do not possess them in equal proportion. The particular situation or the context decides the
prominence of one type of intelligence over the others. The eight intelligences are as follows: l Linguistic : This is related to reading, writing, listening, talking, understanding, etc. Poets exhibit this ability better than others. l Logical-mathematical : This type of intelligence deals with abstract reasoning and manipulation of symbols involved in numerical problems. It is exhibited in scientific work. l Spatial : Intelligence of this kind is used while navigating in space, forming, transforming, and using mental images. Sailors, engineers, surgeons, pilots, car drivers, sculptors, and painters have highly developed spatial intelligence. l Musical :Persons with musical intelligence show sensitivity to pitch and tone required for singing, playing an instrument, composing and appreciating music, etc. l Bodily-kinesthetic : It requires the skills and dexterity for fine coordinated motor movements, such as those required for dancing, athletics, surgery, craft making, and the like. l Interpersonal : It requires understanding motives, feelings, and behaviours of other people. Sales people, politicians, teachers, clinicians, and religious leaders have high degree of interpersonal intelligence. l Intrapersonal : It is related to understanding ones self and developing a sense of identity. l Naturalistic : It is related to recognising the flora and fauna and making a distinction in the natural world. It is more possessed by hunters, farmers, tourists, students of biological sciences, and the like.
ACTIVITY 1.3 Application of the View of Multiple Intelligences Prepare a list of about 20 vocations. Analyse these vocations in terms of the type of intelligence required for success in those vocations. Discuss the results of your analysis with your teacher.
TRIARCHIC THEORY
OF
INTELLIGENCE
Robert J. Sternberg (1985) proposed this theory. It attempts to understand the cognitive processes involved in solving problems. According to this theory, there are three l subtheories of intelligence: Componential, Experiential, and Contextual as shown in Fig. 1.3. Robert J. Sternberg l Componential Sub theory: It consists of internal mental mechanisms that are responsible for intelligent behaviour. The components of intelligence serve three different functions. Metacomponents are the executive processes that are involved in planning strategies, monitoring progress, and allocating internal and external resources to problem solving. Performance components ACTIVITY 1.4 are the processes that are used to perform a Application of Triarchic Theory task or solve a problem. This component Read the following problem statements and is the one that is measured best by identify the type of intelligence that would be existing intelligence tests. Knowledge required to solve those problems: acquisition components are the processes l You see a novel word embedded in a used in learning. paragraph and have to infer its meaning l Experiential Subtheory : It focuses on from the context. the relationship between the persons l You have to solve everyday problems inner, mental world and the outer, faced by an adolescent. external world. This aspect is concerned (For answers see Learning Checks on p.11) with the effect of intelligence on ones experiences as well as the effect of Contextual persons interaction Subtheory with the environment Metacomponents Specifies the Control, monitor, and evaluate on intelligence. This behaviours cognitive processing considered intelligent view adds creativity in a particular (or novelty and culture Performance Components originality) to the Execute strategies assembled Experiential overall conception by metacomponents Componential Subtheory of intelligence. A Subtheory Specifies how Knowledge-acquisition creat-ively intelligent Specifies the experiences affect Components cognitive processes person may not intelligence and how Encode, combine, and that underlie all particularly perform intelligence affects a compare information intelligent behavior persons experiences well on a test of intelligence but is Fig. 1.3 Elements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence able to combine
different experiences in uniquely original ways. A second aspect of experiential intelligence is the ability to automatise or make routine tasks that are encountered repeatedly. An example of automatising is reading, which is carried out largely without conscious thought. Playing music is another example of this type of activity. Contextual Subtheory : It deals with the ways people effectively shape their environments, adapt to different contexts, and make the most of their available resources. Contextual intelligence refers to street smarts or situationally smart. It is the effective management of self and the practical management of the business of everyday life. People high on contextual remain practical or down-to-earth in life. Such people remain involved in activities such as implementing, using, applying, and seeking relevance.
Intelligence
PASS MODEL
OF
INTELLIGENCE
Serial
Concurrent
Serial
Concurrent
Extending the information processing approach, J.P. Das, Naglieri, and Kirby (1994) proposed this theory. The basic statement of the model is that intelligence can be understood as a result of interdependent functioning of three neurological systems: those responsible for arousal (and attention), coding (or processing), and planning. The two coding processes are simultaneous and successive. Thus the theory is known as PASS (Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive) Theory. The three components of PASS theory are shown in Fig. 1.4. l Arousal and Attention: Suppose a young lady goes to market with her 3-year-old child. After some time the child becomes restless and also occasionally cries. This arouses J.P. Das the mother to attend to the childs needs. Arousal is basic for initiating an activity. It forces one to focus attention in a particular direction. You have read earlier that attention is selective: You do not pay attention to each and everything that comes on your way; rather, you attend to a few selected objects/events/persons which may be helpful in achieving the desired goal or are related to the motivational state. l Simultaneous and Successive Processing : The mother realises that her child is hungry and decides to take her to a restaurant. She looks at the shops around her. The shops have displayed different types of signboards. The mother attends to those signboards to find out a restaurant and tries to grasp their meaning. Here she uses simultaneous and successive processes to grasp the meaning out of the signboards. Simultaneous processes help you in grasping the meaning out of the pictures. This involves the integration of different stimuli at a time in groups and is holistic
KNOWLEDGE BASE
First Functional Unit AROUSAL/ ATTENTION Third Functional Unit PLANNING
KNOWLEDGE BASE
KNOWLEDGE BASE
Conceptual
Conceptual
Perceptual
Brain Stem
Frontal
Second Functional Unit
Occipital, Parietal and Temporal (Posterior) Memory Conceptual Perceptual
SIMULTANEOUS AND SUCCESSIVE KNOWLEDGE BASE
Fig. 1.4. The PASS Model of Ability
in nature. On the other hand, the mother reads the letters and words one after another written on the boards, integrating the stimuli in series. In this case she is using successive processing to grasp the meaning. Learning of digits and alphabets is another example of successive processing. Simultaneous and successive processes can be applied to the tasks of various modalities (auditory, visual, kinesthetic etc.) involving different kinds of stimuli (verbal or nonverbal), and may take place during direct perception, retention of information, and at higher cognitive levels. Planning : After the attention and processing of information, you decide that this is a restaurant where you can get something to eat. If there are more than one, you select one of your choice. Thus, planning refers to generation of plans or
Perceptual
Memory
Memory
10
problems as well as to goal setting, strategy selection, and performance monitoring. Planning is responsible for activities such as asking questions, problem solving, and the capacity for self-monitoring. Based on the PASS theory, Das-Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) was developed. The system employs verbal and non-verbal tests presented through visual and auditory sensory channels. It is appropriate for use with individuals between ages 5 to 11, and has been specially designed for use with intervention purposes. Some measures are given in Box 1.3. The system is considered an appropriate and innovative tool for the assessment of cognitive status.
Creativity and Intelligence Highly intelligent people may or may not be creative but highly creative persons are without doubt highly intelligent. Sternberg talks about three types of intelligence: Analytic, Creative , and Practical. Creativity is a process that requires the balance and application of various aspects of intelligence. The creative intelligence is the ability to go beyond the given data to generate novel and interesting ideas. A creative person is a good synthetic thinker, sees the connections and relationships others dont see. In addition, creative people also have the ability to analyse and evaluate ideas. The practical intelligence is the third aspect of creativity, which refers to the ability to translate theory into practice and transfer abstract ideas
BOX 1.3
SAMPLES OF PASS MEASURES
Planned Connections ( for Planning): It requires children to develop some effective way of connecting sequential stimuli (e.g., the numbers 1-2-3-4-5), which appears in a diverse manner on a page. For the first five trials a child is required to connect the series of numbers in their proper numerical sequence (1 to 2, 2 to 3, etc.). On the last two trials the child is required to alternatively connect numbers and letters in their proper sequence (1 to A, A to 2, 2 to B, B to 3, and so on). The test score is the time in seconds taken by the child in each trial separately as well as on all the trials. Expressive Attention ( for Attention):It consists of three pages, although only the last page is used as a measure of attention. The first and second pages contain the words Red, Blue, and Green written in the respective colours (page 1) or coloured rectangle of these colours in varying orders (page 2) arranged in eight rows and five columns. The task before the child is to read all the words on page 1 or say the names of the colours on page 2 as fast as possible. The selective attention component of this task is apparent on page 3 through the use of an interference paradigm. Page 3 contains the words red, blue, and green printed in
colours different than the words (e.g. word GREEN printed in red colour). The childs task is to name the colour used to print the word, rather than read the word, as fast as possible. Time needed to complete is recorded. Ravens Progressive Matrices ( for Simultaneous Processes): These matrices are used to assess the simultaneous processes. In this test, the task involves the completion of figural analogies using a progressive matrix format. The child is required to choose one of the six options that best completes the abstract analogy. The requirement that each component of the matrix must be interrelated to the others makes this task congruent with the simultaneous paradigm. The scores for this test are the total number of correct choices and the time taken by the child to complete the task. Digit Span (for Successive Processes): You present, for example, the following series of digits to the child 4-7-9 2-5-8-9 3-5-6-9-11 After each presentation the child is required to recall the digits. The total number of digits recalled (maximum) is the digit span.
Intelligence
11
into practical accomplishments. Thus, while an intelligent person is high only on analytical intelligence, a creative person is high on all the three aspects. Recapitulation In this section you read about the three important contemporary theories of intelligence. These theories assume that intelligence is not one or a unitary ability rather, a composite of many intelligences. Gardner proposed eight types of intelligences: Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic intelligences. Sternberg proposed componential, experiential, and contextual subtheories of intelligence. Componential intelligence is concerned with the components of mental functioning involved in cognitive tasks that underlie vocabulary, knowledge, insight, and analogies. Experiential and contextual intelligences add creativity and practicality, respectively, to the understanding of intelligence. J.P. Das considered intelligence in terms of planning, attention, simultaneous, and successive processes (PASS model). An Intelligent person is high on analytical intelligence, a creative person is high on all three aspects of intelligence analytic, creative and practical.
LEARNING CHECKS II
CULTURE
AND
INTELLIGENCE
It is increasingly recognised that intellectual processes and skills are determined by the socio-cultural context in which people live and grow. Since successful adaptation to ones own socio-cultural environment is considered a sign of intelligence, it is reasonable to assume that different behaviours may represent intelligence in different cultures, as one would observe variations in what a particular society views as worthwhile, meaningful and valuable. In certain places, for example, the skills needed to be an excellent farmer are far more important than the skills needed to be a lawyer. Thus, intelligence is considered a cultural genre or product of culture. Cultural groups differ in their notions of what constitutes intelligence. Such an understanding depends upon peoples experiences, which is shared by majority of the persons in the group, is passed on from one generation to the next in written or oral form, and is imposed upon each of us without our conscious intent. The salient features of Western culture are urbanisation, high use of technology and schooling. It emphasises the development of following factors in children: l generalisation (or going beyond the information given),
l l
speed (faster performance is superior), minimal moves (the best performance calls for reaching the solution in fewest steps), no hands (a preference for mental rather than physical manipulations), and something of ones own (a preference for originality or creativity).
1. Gardner has proposed seven kinds of interrelated intelligences. T/F 2. Solving logical puzzles requires bodilykinesthetic intelligence. T/F 3. Sailors are high on spatial intelligence. T/F 4. Componential intelligence covers the aspects of intelligence measured by standard intelligence tests. T/F 5. You require componential intelligence when you see a novel word embedded in a paragraph and have to infer its meaning from the context. T/F 6. Contextual intelligence is required to solve everyday problems faced by an adolescent. T/F 7. Street-smart persons are high on experiential intelligence. T/F 8. In the PASS model, the most basic aspect is coding of information. T/F
l l
This type of culture gives rise to a kind of intelligence, called technological intelligence, characterised by attention, observation, speed, and higher achievement in school. Thus, intelligence tests developed in the West look for these qualities among people. Intelligence in Non-Western Traditions In contrast to technological intelligence, many Asian and African cultures consider a person
12
intelligent on the basis of social and emotional attributes as well as his or her ability to perform a task. Table 1.1 summarises the salient features of intelligence emphasised in some non-western cultures. Intelligence in the Indian Context The Indian thought has shown deep concern for human potential and explored its nature in the context of self, society, the universe, and also beyond all these. The Indian view is holistic and emphasises mental abilities, both in the cognitive and non-cognitive domains, and their integration. Buddhi , the word often used to translate the word intelligence, has been used in a broader sense as compared to the scope of intelligence in modern western psychology. The terms that are used for buddhi in Sanskrit, in general, refer to the followings: l The mental vigour or power of forming and retaining conceptions and general notions; l Reason, intellect, mind, discernment, and judgment;
l l l
Perception, comprehension, apprehension, and understanding; Knowledge of ones own self, conscience, will and desire;
Presence of mind, ready wit, and skill. The notion of buddhi not only includes cognitive but also affective and motivational
aspects of life. According to J.P. Das, Buddhi refers to waking up, noticing, recognising, understanding, and comprehending. It includes such things as determination, mental effort, and even feelings and opinions in addition to such intellectual processes as knowledge, discrimination, and decision-making. According to the Indian view, an intelligent person shows the following four competencies: l Cognitive Competence (such as sensitivity to context, comprehension, discrimination, problem-solving, and effective communication), l Social Competence (such as following social norms, service to elders, obedience, helping the needy, showing concern for the environment), l Entrepreneurial Competence (such as hard work, commitment, vigilance, goaldirected behaviour), and l Emotional Competence (such as control of emotions, honesty, politeness, realistic self-appraisal, good conduct). Thus, unlike the IQ notion of intelligence, the Indian view is not limited to the cognitive domain alone. Rather, it encompasses the social and emotional domains, as well as task performance. The Indian concept is more inclusive, which emphasises on the connectivity with the social and work
Table 1.1 Characterisation of Intelligence in Different Cultures

Africa Baoule China Japan Capability in specific situations, and social responsibility (such as cooperativeness and obedience). Service to the family and community, politeness and respect for elders, and speaking well in public. Non-verbal reasoning (or silent thinking). (a) Sociable, humorous, and effective speaker, (b) ability to take anothers point of view, and admitting mistakes, (c) task efficiency, (d) originality, and (e) reading and writing. Ability to judge and perform tasks that are required to be done at homestead. Slow, careful and active. More listening than talking, understanding the problem in the proper perspective and constructive intelligence.
Kenya Uganda Yoruba
Intelligence
13
environment. This type of intelligence is termed as integral intelligence.

ACTIVITY 1.5 Understanding Laypersons conception of intelligence Interview children of different age groups as well as some adults, across various sections of society and find what they think are the characteristics of an intelligent person? Try to understand the concept of intelligence of these groups. Discuss the similarities and differences in their definitions with other students and the teachers.
but good at non-veral reasoning abilities; cooperates with group members; respectful; and willing to share responsibilities. Indian view of intelligence encompasses social and emotional components together with the cognitive and activity related components. Thus, it may not be appropriate to label people as intelligent or not intelligent in these cultures on the basis of intelligence tests developed in Western countries. Culturespecific definitions of intelligence need to be explored and appropriate measures need to be developed. ASSESSMENT
OF
INTELLIGENCE
Recapitulation
The western concept of intelligence is not valid in all the societies. In the West, the emphasis is on technological intelligence, which is characterised by generalisation, speed of work, achievement, etc. On the other hand, in non-western societies, such as Asian and African, a person is considered intelligent more on the basis of social and emotional qualities than on the cognitive attributes alone. In these societies, an intelligent person may not work at a high speed. He/she may be slow but careful; poor in verbal abilities
LEARNING CHECKS III
1. Different behaviours in different cultures are characterised as intelligent. T/F 2. A preference for mental manipulation rather than physical manipulation is the characteristics of intelligent behaviour in non-Western societies. T/F 3. Among Japanese, admitting mistakes is not considered an intelligent behaviour. T/F 4. Willingness to cooperate with group members is considered intelligent in the African societies. T/F 5. The notion of integral intelligence emphasises interconnectivity between cognitive, emotional, and social worlds. T/F
You have read earlier that the first attempt to measure intelligence was made by Binet. He also gave the concept of Mental Age (MA), which refers to an individuals level of mental development relative to the environment in which he/she lives. Binet argued that a mentally retarded child would perform like a normal child of a younger age. He compared MA with Chronological Age (CA) or the biological age or age from birth. A bright child has an MA above CA; a dull child has an MA below CA. The term Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was devised in 1912 by William Stern. IQ refers to a childs mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100: MA IQ = x 100 CA If the mental age is the same as the Chronological age, then the individuals IQ is 100 (normal); if mental age is above CA, then the IQ is more than 100; if mental age is less than the CA, then the IQ is less than 100. For example, a 6-year old child with a mental age of 8 would have an IQ of 133, (8/6 x 100) whereas a 6-year old child with a mental age of 5 ( 5/6 x 100) would have an IQ of 83.
ACTIVITY 1.6 Computing the IQ
l l
Find out the mental age of a 16-year old student who has an IQ of 125. Calculate the IQ of a 12-year old child whose mental age is 9 years.
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Stanford Binet Test The intelligence test developed by Binet in 1905 was revised in 1909 and 1911. Table 1.2 contains some items included in 1911 Binets test. Lewis Terman, a Professor at the University of Stanford, introduced Binets test in the United States of America, where the test underwent many revisions. The first
Table 1.2 Some Items from Binets Test of Intelligence (1911 Version) at Three Different Age Levels.
Year 3 l Point to eyes, nose, and mouth l Repeat 2 digits l Identify objects in a picture l Repeat a sequence of 6 syllables Year 7 Show right hand and left ear l Describe a picture l Carryout 3 commands given simultaneously l Count the value of 6 coins
l
revision appeared in 1916, which is known as Stanford-Binet Test. This was further revised in 1936 and 1961. The fourth and latest revision of Stanford-Binet test was published in 1986. In the earlier revisions, only a general composite score was computed to reflect ones IQ. In the last revision, in addition to a composite score, the individuals responses in four content areas, namely verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, and short-term memory are also obtained. The Wechsler Scales Besides the Stanford-Binet Test, the other most widely used individual intelligence tests are the Wechsler Scales, developed by David Wechsler. These are known as: the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS); the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) for use with children between the ages of 6 and 16; and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) for use with children from the ages of 4 to 6 years. In addition to providing an overall IQ score, separate scores for 11 subscales (6 of which are verbal and 5 non-verbals) are also obtained. Table 1.3 conta ins sample items from WAIS.
Year 15 l Repeat 7 digits l Find 3 rhymes for a given word in 1 minute l Repeat a sentence of 26 syllables l Interpret a set of given facts
Table 1.3 Sample items from Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
Verbal Scale Information: Comprehension: Arithmetic: What is steam made of? What is pepper? Why is copper often used in electric wires? Why do some people save sales receipts? It takes 3 people 9 days to paint a house. How many would it take to do it in 3 days? An automobile goes 25 miles in 45 minutes. How far would it go in 20 minutes? Repeat the following numbers in order: 1, 3, 7, 2, 5, 4 Repeat the following digits in reverse order: 5, 8, 2, 4, 9, 6 In what way are a circle and a triangle alike? In what way are an egg and a seed alike? What is a hippopotamus? What does resemble mean?
Digit Repetition:
Similarities: Vocabulary:
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Distribution of IQ Scores The IQ scores between 90 and 110 are labelled as normal, above 120 superior and below 70 as evidence of mental retardation or mentally challenged (see Table 1.4).
Table 1.4 Descriptive Labels for IQ Scores
IQ Score Above 130 120-130 110-119 90-109 80-89 70-79 Below 70
the correct alternative. Separate answer sheets are provided to write the answers. As regards administration, examiner plays a minimal role that is restricted to reading the instructions of the test and getting the test completed within the stipulated time limit.
Descriptive Label Very Superior Superior Bright normal Average Dull normal Borderline Mentally Challenged
Percent of Population 2.2 6.7 16.1 50.0 16.1 6.7 2.2
TYPES
OF
INTELLIGENCE TEST
Intelligence tests are available in different forms. You can select an appropriate type of test depending upon the purpose of its use. Some of the types of tests available are described below. Individual or Group Tests : These tests may be classified into different types depending upon their mode of administration and content. They may either be administered to one person at a time (Individual Test) or to a number of persons simultaneously (Group Test). The individual tests are administered to one person at a time. A trained psychologist generally administers such tests to one student or one client at a time. Individual tests allow people to answer orally or in written form and performance tasks require manipulation of objects or forms. Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales are individually administered tests. The collection of data using individual tests from a larger sample is time consuming. However, individual tests allow the test administrators to establish proper rapport and give personal attention to testees, and also maintain their interest by providing necessary help when needed. Group tests generally employ a multiplechoice format: A question that is followed by four alternatives and a person has to answer
There is only a negligible opportunity for oneto-one interaction between the tester and the testee. It may, however be noted that, a group test can also be administered to a single individual. A group test is not defined by the number of examinees but by the mode of administration. There is further difference between an individual and a group test. The former helps in the diagnosis and remediation of individual learning difficulties, and the latter is more commonly used for mass screening. Finally, the group tests are standardised on ultra large samples, while the individual tests are standardised on relatively small samples. Though group tests are easy to administer, putting testees at ease and maintaining their interest is generally found to be difficult. Verbal, Non-Verbal, and Performance Tests: A Verbal test demands understanding of written words. Therefore, such tests can only be administered to literates. Also, it is difficult to express spatial relationships between objects through written communication. Non-Verbal tests use pictures or illustrations as items. For example, Ravens Progressive Matrices (RPM) is one such test. In RPM, one incomplete pattern is given. Testees have to find, one out of six available alternative figures, which will complete the pattern (see Fig. 1.5 for an example).
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with these cultures in view and the intent or activities in many of these items do not find place in other cultures, particularly Asian and African cultures. The norms for these tests were almost entirely based upon these cultural groups. To overcome these problems, NonVerbal and performance tests have been developed. These tests are considered culturefair tests because people of any culture could take them. However, it has been noticed that these tests too show cultural bias. Intelligence Testing in India The development of intelligence tests in India has for long remained one of the popular academic pursuits. The first systematic attempt to standardise a test of intelligence (Binets test) was made by Dr. Rice in Urdu and Punjabi in 1930s. At about the same time, Mahalanobis attempted to standardise Binets test of intelligence in Bengali. Up to 1950, the work on Binets test was done at Chennai, Dacca, Jabalpur, and Lahore. Work was also done on the development of Indian norms for some other foreign tests like the WAIS, RPM, Minnesota Paper Forms Board, Alexanders Passalong, Cube Construction, Kohs Block Design Test, and others. It was only since 1950s that published evidence points towards the development of Indian tests. The first doctorate on Test Construction was awarded to K.G. Desai in 1954, for the development of a group test of intelligence in Gujarati. Subsequently a number of intelligence tests were either developed originally or were adaptations of tests developed in the West. Some tests developed in India are given in Table 1.5.
Fig. 1.5 An item from Ravens Progressive Matrices (RPM)
Performance tests are made up of certain concrete tasks. For instance in Kohs Block Design Test, small boxes containing a number of wooden blocks of different sizes and shapes are given. The testees task is to arrange these blocks, in accordance with the pattern card, in an order within a given time period. C. M. Bhatia developed a performance test of intelligence, which is popularly known as Bhatia Battery. It is called battery because it is not just one test; rather it consists of a series of five performance tests. Culture-biased vs. Culture-fair Tests : Many intelligence tests show a bias towards the culture in which they are developed. They sample items from the experience of a particular culture. Majority of early tests favoured urban, middle class, white European and American people. The items were written
Table 1.5 Some Tests Developed in India
Verbal 1. Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta 2. Group Test of Mental Ability by S. Jalota 3. Indian Adaptation of Binet-Simon Scale by S.K. Kulshrestha 4. Test of General Mental Ability by M.C. Joshi 5. The Bihar Test of Intelligence by S.M. Mohsin
Performance 1. Adaptation of Wechsler Adult Performance Intelligence Scale by R. Ramalingaswamy 2. Draw-A-Man Test by Pramila Phatak 3. Performance Test of Intelligence by C.M. Bhatia 4. CIE Non-Verbal Test
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Recapitulation Intelligence is measured in terms of IQ, which refers to a childs mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100. Binet developed the first test of intelligence, which has undergone several modifications and has been used extensively. Wechsler scales (WAIS, WISC, & WPPSI) are the other widely used scales. Since then, many intelligence tests have been developed, some of which can be administered to a group while others can be administered individually. Intelligence tests come in three categories: Verbal, Non-Verbal, and Performance. Test contents that show bias toward a particular culture are called Culturally Biased Tests. Some tests have been developed on the assumption that they can be administered in any culture and, thus, called Culture-Fair Tests. IQ tests, providing a single index of intelligence, have in recent years been
BOX 1.4
loosing their popularity for several reasons and alternative measures such as reaction time, dynamic testing, etc, are gaining popularity. In India, after 1950, a number of tests for assessment of intelligence have been developed. VARIATIONS
IN THE
LEVEL
OF
INTELLIGENCE
You have observed in Table 1.4 that about 2 per cent of the population possess IQ scores above 130 and a similar percentage possess IQ scores below 70. The first group is termed as the intellectually gifted and the later as mentally retarded or challenged. These individuals are different from the average population for the reason that their performance is at variance from what is expected from people of their age and circumstances.
ALTERNATIVES TO IQ TESTING to an individual to make a judgement about it that meets some pre-established criteria of accuracy. The shorter the inspection time, the faster will be, presumably, the persons cognitive (mental) operations. Dynamic Testing : As you have read, the available intelligence tests measure developed abilities of the individuals. You have learnt (in chapter 12, class XI) about Vygotskys notion of Zone of Potential Development (ZPD). ZPD refers to the difference between the actual development and the developmental level which a child can attain after proper guidance. The dynamic testing is based upon the principle of ZPD. It is done in two phases. In the first phase, (also called interaction phase), an adult (usually a teacher or a parent) familiarises the child with the tasks, gives them hints about how they could be solved, motivates them, and also makes some modifications in the tasks (such as changing the order of presentation, frequency of presentation, etc.) depending upon the childs developmental level. In the second phase, the actual testing takes place, in which the child is given the tasks or the test to solve them. Piagetian Tasks: Recall Piagets theory of development (Chapter 12, class XI). There you have read about seriation, conservation, pendulum tasks, etc. These tasks are also used for the assessment of intelligence.
In recent years some alternative ways of assessing intelligence have emerged. Some of these are: Biological Measures of Intelligence: Among the biological measures, Reaction Time (RT) is considered a more valid measure of intelligence. Reaction time refers to the time gap (in seconds) between presentation of a stimulus and the beginning of a response by the individual. For example, when traffic light is red, you stop and wait for the green light. After the light turns green, you take some time to start moving. The time gap between onset of the green light and your movement is a measure of RT. It could be in visual or auditory mode. The speed and consistency with which people perform on reaction time tasks discriminate between groups of individuals expected to differ in their intellective functions. It is based on the assumption that being intelligent involves being able to process information quickly. For example, individuals with mental retardation have slower and less consistent reaction times than normal people. Similarly, gifted individuals have faster and more consistent reaction time than average persons. Inspection time is another measure of intelligence. It reflects the minimum amount of time a particular stimulus must be exposed
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LEARNING CHECKS IV
1. Mental age is obtained on the basis of the individuals performance on a test of intelligence. T/F 2. Maximum number of individuals possess an average IQ, ranging between 90 to 110. T/F 3. Professor Stanford adapted Binets tests. Therefore, these tests are called Stanford-Binet tests. T/F 4. Wechsler scales of intelligence have both verbal and performance subtests. T/F 5. Culture-fair tests can only be administered to the persons of a particular culture. T/F 6. You can also know ones intelligence on the basis of his/her reaction time. T/F
combination of general ability, specific talents, self-concept, and motivation that predisposes the gifted person to learn, to achieve, and to strive for excellence. l It is not limited to school related activities alone but also involves areas, such as sports and leadership. l Mere possession of cognitive abilities is not regarded as giftedness. Rather, it is the nature and organisation of abilities (i.e., processes) that constitute giftedness. The nature, direction, and speed of this process depends partly upon cognitive factors, but is strongly influenced by personality and motivation, and has strong social elements including an ethical dimension, and an important communication aspect. Joseph Renzulli proposes that giftedness depends on the interaction of three factors : high intelligence, high creativity, and high motivation as shown Fig. 1.6.
Giftedness
GIFTEDNESS : NATURE
AND
INDENTIFICATION
The term gifted is an adjective, which refers to a person endowed with one gift or many gifts; exceptionally talented or intelligent. The study of such gifted persons began with the work of Lewis Terman, in 1925, who developed intelligence tests for screening populations to identify individuals of superior cognitive ability. Thus, giftedness was defined as high general intelligence as measured by high score on a test of intelligence. In recent years, however, giftedness is defined as a superior ability in any worthwhile line of human endeavour including moral, physical, emotional, social, intellectual, or aesthetic life of the humanity. Outstanding talents are present in children and youth from all cultural groups, across all economic strata, and in all areas of human endeavours. It is evident from the above definition that: l Gifted individuals exhibit high levels of performance in comparison to their peers living in the same socio-cultural background. l Giftedness is not restricted to performance on a test of intelligence. Rather, it is a
High Intelligence
High Creativity
High Motivation
Fig. 1.6 Aspects of Giftedness
Characteristics of Gifted Children : Gifted children show early signs of being exceptional. During infancy such children show large attention span, good recognition memory, preference for novelty, over-reactivity to sensations, and early onset of language. Table 1.6 contains some of the salient characteristics of such children. Identifying the Gifted The tests of intelligence and achievement have been most frequently employed for the identification of the gifted children. Many
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Table 1.6 Characteristics of Gifted Children

l l l l l l l l
A Higher order in thinking process, problem solving and decision-making. Transferring skills to new problems and solving problems insightfully. Independent thinking and non-conformism. High on self-efficacy and internal locus of control. Preference for being solitary and introverted. High incidence of social and emotional problems. Intrinsically motivated to achieve mastery, derive pleasure from work, and having a high self-esteem about their intellectual capacities. Possibility of showing giftedness in one area and poor learning in another.
BOX 1.5
IDENTIFICATION OF TALENT IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT of India caters to the gifted children in rural areas and in the weaker sections of the society. The admission to these vidyalayas are made through an objective type test, which consists of Mental Ability, Language Proficiency and Arithmetic Ability. For promoting cultural talent, the Cultural Talent Search Programme is run by the Centre for Cultural Resources and Training. Under this scheme, facilities are provided to outstanding young children in the age group of 10-14 years studying either in recognised schools or belonging to the families of practicing traditional performing or other arts for developing their talent in various cultural fields such as traditional form of music, dance, drama as well as painting, sculpture and crafts, laying emphasis on rare forms, which are in the process of becoming extinct.
The National Talent Search Scheme is run by the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) in which 1000 scholarships are awarded each year to the students studying in Grade 10. The scholarship is awarded on the basis of examination conducted in two phases: State and National Level examinations. The state level examination is conducted by the State Governments. The students recommended by the States appear in the national level written examination, which consists of Mental Ability and Scholastic Aptitude Tests. The candidates selected at the national level are called for interview. Awards are declared on the basis of the national level written tests and interviews. The scholarship is available for studies up to the doctorate level in the basic and social sciences and up to seconddegree level in engineering and medicine. The Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas, another prominent scheme of the Government
special programmes for gifted children have rather used rigid cut off points such as IQs of 130, 135, 150, or 160, or achievement at about the 95th percentile. In recent times, however, attention is given to the following types of data as indicator of giftedness: l Performance on group intelligence test l Teacher judgment l School record, including achievement test scores and teacher grades l Performance on individual intelligence test l Appraisal of social and emotional maturity and adjustment
Parent interviews l Pupil ambition and drive In addition, peer and self-nominations also do help in identification of the gifted child in certain cases. Giftedness is a multi-dimensional term. Though, differences in gifted and talented students may be observed at all levels, it is more pronounced at the secondary school level. Some gifted youngsters are just slightly above average, while others are very unusual to the extent of being extremely rare. Some are gifted in just one area, while others show
l
20
it in many areas. Also, gifted children differ in terms of motivation or interest. INTELLECTUAL DEFICIENCY: NATURE AND TYPES There are defined diagnostic schemes, as given by the American Association on Mental Retardation (1992), and American Psychiatric Association (1994), for judging the presence and degree of mental retardation. According to these criteria, mental retardation (or mentally challenged) is currently defined as intelligence test performance two or more standard deviations below the mean, accompanied by limitations in adaptive functioning such as failure to cope with
the common tasks of daily living appropriate to ones age and situation. According to this definition, persons having IQ below 70, coupled with the inability to manage their everyday activities like a normal person, are classified as intellectually deficient or mentally challenged. Table 1.7 contains the characteristics of different types of mentally challenged persons. It may be noted that the IQ ranges, as shown in Table 1.6, are not viewed rigidly. Rather, a persons ability to function in everyday life is important. The decision about the level of mental retardation is based upon the skills to perform in daily life. Two points here are worth noting. First, low performance on a test may also be due to defects in vision, hearing, and health, which
Table 1.7 Characteristics of the Mentally Challenged Level of Mental Retardation
Area of
Functioning
Mild (IQ range = 50-70)
Moderate (IQ range = 35-49)
Severe (IQ range = 20-34) and Profound (IQ = below 20) No skills to partial skills, but some can care for personal needs on limited basis Receptive language is limited to good; expressive, language is limited to poor No academic skills
Self-help Skills
Feeds and dresses self and cares for own toilet needs Receptive and expressive, language is adequate; understands communication Optimal learning environment, third to sixth grade Has friends; can learn to adjust quickly Can hold a job; competitive to semicompetitive; primarily unskilled work Usually marries, has children; needs help during stress
Has difficulties and requires training but can learn adequate self-help skills Receptive and expressive, language is adequate; has speech problems Very few academic skills; first or second grade is maximal Capable of making friends but has difficulty in many social situations Sheltered work environment; usually needs consistent supervision Usually does not marry or have children; dependent
Speech and Communication
Academics
Social Skills
Not capable of having real friends; No social interactions Generally no employment; usually needs constant care No marriage or children; always dependent on others
Vocational Adjustment
Adult Living
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BOX 1.6
NEW DIRECTIONS: EMOTIONAL, PRACTICAL, AND SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCES intelligence, as measured by the tests of intelligence. Spiritual Intelligence (SQ): It is the intelligence with which humans address and solve problems of meaning and value, the intelligence with which we can place our actions and our lives in a wider, richer, meaning-given context, the intelligence with which we can assess that one course of action or one life-path is more meaningful than the other. It is considered to be the Ultimate Intelligence. We have a longing to see our lives in some larger meaning-giving context, be it family, the community, the work, religious framework or the universe itself. It takes us beyond the present moment and ourselves. Spiritual intelligence allows human beings to be creative, to change the rules and to alter situations by extending the boundaries. SQ operates out of the brains centre and integrates all our intelligences. SQ makes us the fully intellectual, emotional and spiritual creatures that we are. SQ has no necessary connection with religion. Danah Zohar and Ian Marshall in their book Spiritual Intelligence: The Ultimate Intelligence (2000) have reported the indicators of a highly developed SQ. These include: l The capacity to be flexible (actively and spontaneously adaptive).
l l l l l l l l
Emotional Intelligence (EI): Salovey and Mayer first formally defined the concept of EI in 1990, which emphasises blending cognition with emotions. It gained popularity by the publication of the best selling popular book Emotional Intelligence by Goleman in 1995. EI is generally defined as a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide ones thinking and actions. Briefly, it consists of the following four dimensions. l Perception, appraisal, and expression of emotion l Emotional facilitation of cognitive activities l Understanding and analysing emotional information and employing l Regulation of emotion Practical Intelligence: It refers to the kind of thinking people do in solving their dayto-day problems, whether at home, in social settings, or at work. It may be viewed as mind in action or the thinking that is embedded in the larger scale purposive activities of life. It serves to achieve the goals of everyday activities of daily life. In occupational settings, it is the ability to learn and then apply information that is never explicitly taught to workers nor is rarely verbalised, but is essential for success. Also called Tacit Knowledge or Procedural Knowledge, it enables the workers to meet the often unwritten or unspoken demands of their job. There are three characteristic features of tacit knowledge.
l
A high degree of self-awareness. A capacity to use and face suffering. A capacity to face and transcend pain. The quality of being inspired by value and vision. A capacity to inspire others. A reluctance to cause unnecessary harm. A tendency to see the connections between diverse things (being holistic). A marked tendency to ask why? or what if? questions and to seek fundamental answers. Being what psychologists call fieldindependentpossessing a facility for working against convention.
Tacit knowledge is procedural in nature and intimately linked to action. It takes the form of knowing how to do something rather than knowing that subject. It helps in attaining ones goals. It is acquired without direct help from others on ones own. It is the knowledge that is unspoken, under-emphasised, or poorly conveyed relative to its importance for practical success.
l l
Thus, practical intelligence seems to be of more use in concrete situations than academic
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may erroneously lead to categorising a person as mentally challenged. You need to be certain that vision, hearing, and general health conditions of the person likely to be categorised as mentally challenged are functioning normally. Second, the persons linguistic and cultural backgrounds must also be taken into consideration. You cant expect someone to perform a task appropriately if he/she has not performed similar tasks in past or is not a part of his/her everyday activities. Children should be classified as retarded only if they exhibit both a low IQ and deficiencies in everyday skills, and only if linguistic or cultural barriers, physical handicaps, emotional disturbances, or ill health cannot explain those problems. Causes of Mental Retardation Many organic conditions can cause mental retardation. For example, Down Syndrome is associated with mild to severe retardation. Persons suffering with this syndrome show distinctive physical characteristics, such as slanted eyes, stubby limbs, and thin hair. Down syndrome is caused by the possession of an extra chromosome. Phenylketonuria is a metabolic disorder (due to an inherited enzyme deficiency) that can lead to retardation if it is not caught and treated in infancy. Hydrocephaly or excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the skull destroys brain tissues and causes retardation. Scientists have been able to unravel more of the genetic bases for various kinds of mental disorders. A variety of unfavourable environmental factors also cause mental retardation. A vast majority of mildly retarded children come from the lower socioeconomic classes, where a host of factors such as greater marital instability, parental neglect, inadequate nutrition and medical care, and lower quality schooling many of these factors contribute to childrens poor intellectual development. Recapitulation There are two major types of extreme variations in intellectual abilitythe giftedness and the mental retardation (or mentally challenged). Giftedness refers to
the high levels of accomplishments in comparison to ones age, experience, and environment and also with respect to the norms. Gifted children show long attention spans, good recognition memory, preference for novelty, over reactivity to sensations, and early onset of language. Multiple methods such as test, teacher judgement, school record, social and emotional maturity, etc, are used to identify these children. On the other hand, mentally retarded children score two or more standard deviations below the mean on a test of intelligence. Also, they show poor performance in comparison to the normal children in areas like self-help, speech and communication, social skills, academics, vocational adjustments, and adult living. Many organic conditions can cause mental retardation. For example, Down Syndrome is associated with mild to severe retardation. Similarly, Phenylketonuria, a metabolic disorder, can lead to retardation.
LEARNING CHECKS V 1. One can be gifted in the moral and aesthetic aspects of life as well. T/F 2. The performance of gifted people is superior to the performance of all other individuals irrespective of their age and background. T/F 3. High incidence of social and emotional problems is observed in the gifted people. T/F 4. The verbal expression of a severely retarded person is similar to that of a normal person. T/F 5. Moderately retarded persons can learn self-help skills by appropriate training. T/F
SPECIAL ABILITIES OR APTITUDES: NAURE AND MEASUREMENT An aptitude is a combination of characteristics that indicates an individuals capacity to acquire some specific knowledge, or skill, after training. It simply states that you need to
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23
possess various qualities in different proportions to learn or become something, such as to acquire ability to speak a language, to become a musician, to do some mechanical work, and so on. These qualities can be harnessed by appropriate training. In other words, if a person does not have the special abilities required to become a musician, such as discrimination between pitch, tone, rhythm, and other aspects of musical sensitivity, he/she would not be a musician, even after sufficient training. There are salient differences between intelligence, aptitude, and achievement. Intelligence refers to the ability of a person to do certain thing at a given time. Aptitude refers to the potential ability of the individual to perform a task, which generally consists of a combination of abilities. Achievement involves performance at any given point of time in a particular subject (e.g. mathematics) with which you have been made familiar. Aptitude tests, because they are concerned with the potential of doing something, are used for prediction. Many aptitude tests, such as clerical aptitude, mechanical aptitude, musical aptitude, typing aptitude, etc. have been developed to predict success in specific professions. Each of these tests usually contains a number of sub-tests. Several multiple aptitude test batteries have been developed. In a Multiple Aptitude Test Battery the examinee is tested in several separate, homogenous aptitude areas. Prominent aptitude test batteries are: The Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), etc. Salient characteristics of one of the batteries most often used in educational settings are described here. The DAT was first developed to provide a basis for the educational and vocational guidance of students for grades 8 through 12. Subsequently, it has been found useful for vocational counselling of young adults out of school and in the selection of employees. It consists of eight independent sub-tests: l Verbal Reasoning (VR) l Numerical Ability (NA)
Abstract Reasoning (AR) l Clerical Speed and Accuracy (CSA) l Mechanical Reasoning (MR) l Space Relations (SR) l Spelling (S) l Language Use (LU) J.M. Ojha has developed an Indian adaptation of the DAT. In addition, a number of aptitude tests have been developed in India for measuring scientific, teaching, clerical, engineering, scholastic, medical, literary and other aptitudes. Let us understand the nature of some of the tests, which are used for aptitude testing. Mechanical Reasoning : This test attempts to predict success in fields involving repair of autos, refrigerators, air-conditioners equipments, and the like. A typical test item is shown below in Fig. 1.7. It has two gears. If gear x is moving in the direction of the arrow, will gear y move : (a) clockwise or (b) counter clockwise?
Fig. 1.7 An Item of Mechanical Aptitude Test
Verbal Skills : This test measures a persons interest in and knowledge about words. It is assumed that a person who scores poorly in this area will not do well in occupations requiring a great deal of reading and writing. Clerical Speed and Accuracy : It attempts to measure some of the skills necessary in clerical and office jobs. This is a timed, speed test because such a job require speed with which one works. Generally, the tests measuring different aptitudes are grouped together in the form of a Test battery. The battery of tests is administered to the client for counselling.
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ACTIVITY 1.7 Test Your Mechanical Engineering Aptitude This is a test of applied science and mechanics. Twenty items are given below, read each item carefully and mark () one answer (a,b or c) that you think is correct. In this manner complete the test without spending too much time. 1. A heavy weight is kept on a wooden plank in such a way that the weight is closer to side A and away from side B. If the plank is lifted by two persons then: a) Person on side A will have the heavier load. b) Person on side B will have the heavier load. c) The load will be equal on both sides. 2. If a heavy weight is to be lifted with the help of a rope, which person will have to pull it harder. a) The person who pulls the rope through a single pulley. b) The person who pulls the rope through a double pulley. c) The effort will be the same in both the cases. 3. If a bicycle has two unequal wheels, which wheel will turn faster. a) The smaller wheel. b) The larger wheel. c) Both will be equal. 4. If one table fan has three blades and the other five, which fan needs a more powerful motor: a) The fan with 3 blades. b) The fan with 5 blades. c) Both will need equally powerful motors. 5. Which liquid is heavier: a) One in which a piece of wood gets totally sub-merged. b) c) One in which it doesnt get submerged. Both are equal.
6. If a car turns towards the right, man sitting inside will move towards: a) b) c) Right. Left. Wont move at all.
7. If a moving train turns towards the right direction, which side of the rails will be higher: a) b) c) The outer rail. The inner rail. Both would be equal.
8. If hot liquid is poured into a glass tumbler which is likely to break: a) b) c) The tumbler with thick walls. The tumbler with thin walls. Both are equally likely to break.
9. In a moving wheel, which point moves faster a) b) c) The point on the inner side of the wheel. The point on the outer side of the wheel. Both will move at an equal pace.
10. Which stool will be steadier: a) b) c) Stool with three legs. Stool with four legs. Stool with five legs.
11. In a moving car the left hand break of the front wheel somehow gets locked, resulting in stopping the wheel. Which side will the car turn : a) Towards the right. b) Towards the left. c) It will just stop.
contd...
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25
12. Three different weights fall from a certain height under a vacuum condition. They will reach the earth: a) At the same time. b) Time will be proportional to the weight. c) None of the above. 13. The car engine idling or in low speed operation requires: a) A rich mixture. b) A lean mixture. c) Theoretically correct mixture. 14. In a head-on collision the driver is thrown: a) Forward. b) Backwards. c) Restrained by the safety belt. 15. The apparent weight of a man in a moving lift is less than his real weight when it is moving down with: a) An acceleration. b) Uniform speed. c) Retardation. 16. Fins over engine cylinder in scooter are provided for: a) Strengthening the cylinder. b) Better cooling. c) Good appearance.
17. There are two pendulums, one has short length and the other long. Which pendulum will oscillate faster: a) Pendulum with shorter length. b) Pendulum with longer length. c) Both will oscillate with equal movement.
18. If the water in the building is coming from an overhead roof-top-tank, which floor will get the greatest pressure in the taps: a) Second floor. b) First floor. c) Ground floor. 19. If the flying plane is to be turned in the left direction, in which direction must the rudder be turned: a) Left. b) Right. c) No need to turn the rudder. 20. If we keep a silver spoon in one glass tumbler and a wooden spoon in the other, which tumbler is more likely to break, when boiling water is poured into it: a) The tumbler with the silver spoon. b) The tumbler with the wooden spoon. c) Both are equally likely.
K.D.BROOTA Note: These are sample items. They should not be used for evaluation and diagnosis. KEY Give a Score of 1 if you have marked the following answers and finally, add all the scores.
1. a, 2.b, 3.a, 4. b, 5. b, 6. b, 7. a, 8. a, 9. b, 10.a, 11. b, 12. a, 13.a, 14. a, 15. a, 16. b, 17. a, 18. c, 19. a, 20. b
INTERPRETATION Scores 15-20 10-14 Scores below 10
Level of Aptitude High, Medium Poor
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ACTIVITY 1.8
Test Your Abstract Reasoning Out of the four figures (a), (b), (c) & (d) given in each problem, three are similar in some way, choose and mark the figure that is different from the other three.
(A) I. ODD MAN OUT (B) II. COMPLETING THE SQUARE QF AF
QF
AF
QF
AF
QF
AF
QF
AF
K.D. Broota Attention : These are sample items. They should not be used for evaluation or diagnosis KEY INTERPRETATION Scores and Abstract Reasoning 8-10 High, 5-7 Medium and Scores below 5: Poor. Assign a score of 1 for correct answers. Add all the scores in I and II
II. I. ODDMAN OUT Right Answers : 1b, 2d, 3b,4d, 5d. COMPLETING THE SQUARE Right Answers : 1a, 2b, 3d, 4c, 5b
Intelligence
27
Key Terms
Adaptation, Aptitude, Aptitude Test, Culture-fair-test, Emotional Intelligence, Group Tests, Individual Test, Integral Intelligence, Intelligence, Intelligence Quotient, Intelligence Tests, Linguistic Intelligence, Logical-mathematical Intelligence, Mental Age, Mental Retardation, Multiple Intelligences, Non-verbal Tests, PASS Theory, Performance Tests, Practical Intelligence, Shaping, Technological Intelligence.
SUMMARY
l
Intelligence is one of the highly popular psychological concepts. Traditionally, intelligence was defined in terms of ability to do abstract reasoning, ability to learn, and ability to adapt in novel situations. The recent views of intelligence recognise active role of an intelligent person in terms of shaping and selecting an environment according to his/her choice. The more recent approach to understand intelligence does not see it as a unitary ability; rather it assumes that there are many type of intelligences. Gardner proposed eight different types of intelligences: Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic. Sternbergs theory distinguishes three aspects of intelligencea componential aspect, an experiential aspect, and a contextual aspect. The PASS model of J.P. Das conceptualised intelligence in terms of Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive Processing. Studies about the nature of intelligence in different cultures have shown that it is culturally variable. In the West it is more conceptualised in terms of cognitive abilities and the speed with which cognitive functions are performed. In contrast, non-Western cultures view intelligence in terms of social and emotional competence such as obedience, cooperation, fulfilling role-related obligations, and giving weightage to group goals than individual goals. In India, the conceptualisation is more integral as it includes cognitive, social, emotional, and task performance. Intelligence is assessed with the help of a specially designed test which gives an indication about the mental age of a person. The score on an intelligence test may be converted into IQ, which is obtained by dividing mental age (MA) by chronological age (CA), and multiplying by 100. IQ between 90-110 is considered average in intelligence. The first attempt to assess intelligence was made by Alfred Binet in 1905, which has undergone several revisions. Intelligence tests can be administered in groups as well as individually; can be verbal or performance types; and may be culturally biased or culturally fair. A small proportion of the population is found to possess very high level of intelligence. They are called gifted. These persons show higher order thinking, easily transfer skills to new problems and solve problems insightfully, are nonconforming, high on self efficacy, prefer to remain solitary, intrinsically motivated, and also show high incidence of social and emotional problems. The gifted children can also be identified on the basis of teachers judgement, school record, social and emotional maturity, and parental opinion. Mentally retarded children, on the other hand, score two or more standard deviations below the mean on a test of intelligence. Mental retardation can be of four types: mild, moderate, severe, and profound. Such mentally challenged people have difficulty in feeding, dressing, and communicating, lack social skills, and are vocationally maladjusted. An aptitude refers to the potential of an individual to performa a task. It is used for prediction purposes. A number of aptitude tests are available for use in different areas. Generally, a battery of tests is administered to identify the potential areas.
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Review Questions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. How can you relate intelligence to adaptation, shaping, and selection? What are the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner? How is Sternbergs theory different from that of Gardner? What is experiential intelligence? What are the components of PASS model of intelligence? What is IQ? How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence? What is giftedness? How can gifted children be identified? What is mental retardation? What are the salient characteristics of a mentally retarded person? What is aptitude? How is it measured? Is concept of intelligence similar across cultures? What are the different types of intelligence test?
ANSWERS
I II : : 1. 1. 6. 1. 1. 6.
TO
LEARNING CHECKS
III : IV :
V :
T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F F, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. T, T, 7.F, 8.F T, 2. F, 3. F, 4. T, 5. T T, 2. T, 3. F., 4. T, 5. F, T
1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T

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1

INTELLIGENCE: THE INTERPLAY NATURE AND NURTURE

INTELLIGENCE: SOME CLASSICAL APPROACHES

Fig. 1.1 Relationship between g and s conceptualised by Spearman

Operations Co nv er Di ge ve Ev nt alu rg pr en at od tp ion uc ro tio du n Me ct ion m Co or y gn itio n

l Au o dit ry bo lic ma nti

Units Classes Products Relations Systems Transformation Implications

Fig. 1.2 Guilfords Structure of Intellect

Second Functional Unit

Occipital, Parietal and Temporal (Posterior) Memory Conceptual Perceptual

SIMULTANEOUS AND SUCCESSIVE KNOWLEDGE BASE

Fig. 1.4. The PASS Model of Ability

SAMPLES OF PASS MEASURES

Table 1.1 Characterisation of Intelligence in Different Cultures

Kenya Uganda Yoruba

environment. This type of intelligence is termed as integral intelligence.

Percent of Population 2.2 6.7 16.1 50.0 16.1 6.7 2.2

Fig. 1.5 An item from Ravens Progressive Matrices (RPM)

Fig. 1.6 Aspects of Giftedness

Table 1.6 Characteristics of Gifted Children

Table 1.7 Characteristics of the Mentally Challenged Level of Mental Retardation

Mild (IQ range = 50-70)

Moderate (IQ range = 35-49)

Speech and Communication

Fig. 1.7 An Item of Mechanical Aptitude Test

INTERPRETATION Scores 15-20 10-14 Scores below 10

Level of Aptitude High, Medium Poor

T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F F, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. T, T, 7.F, 8.F T, 2. F, 3. F, 4. T, 5. T T, 2. T, 3. F., 4. T, 5. F, T

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