C L Wadhwa REVISED EDITIONCopyright © 1989, 1993 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers First Edition : 1989 Revised Edition : 1993 Reprint ; 2005 NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LEMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110 002 Visit us at : www.newagepublishers.com Offices at : Bangalore, Chennai, Cochin, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jalandhar, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai and Ranchi ‘This book or any part thereof may not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher. This book cannot be sold outside the country to which it is consigned by the publisher without the prior permission of the publisher. Rs, 200.00 ISBN : 81-224-0073-6 15 16 17 18 19 20 Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110 002 and printed in India at Ram Printograph (India), Dethi-110 051.CONTENTS Preface 1,0 Inteaduction J 1.1 Tidal power 2 1.2, Wind power 5 1.3 Geothermal power 8 1.4 Wave power 10 1,5 Magneto hydro dynamic (MHD ) Generation _12 1.6 Solar energy i3 1.7 Hydro station 18 1.8 Steam power plant 27 1.9 Nuclear power plants 40 1.10 The gas turbine plant 55 2. ECONOMICS OF GENERATION 6 21 Introduction 68 2.2 Definitions 68 2.3. Load duration curve 73 2.4 Number and size of generator units 74 25 Cost of electrical energy 8/ 2.6 Tariff or charge to consumer 85 3. DISTRIBUTION a4 3.1 Introduction 94 3.2. Types of Distribution system 95 3.3 Kelvin'slaw 96 3.4 Distributor 103 3.5 Substation 116 3.6 Cost comparison of distribution systems 120 4. ELECTRIC DRIVES AND INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS 128 4.1 Introduction 128 4.2 Factors affecting selection of motor 129 43° Types of loads 129 4.4 Steady state characteristics of drives 131 4.5 Transient characteristics 152 4.6 Sizeof motor 168 4.7 Load equalisation 175viti Contents 48 Industrial applications 179 4.9 Modern approach to speed control of D.C. Drives 181 ELECTRIC HEAT! W) 4.1_Introduction _20) 5.2 Classification of methods of electric heating 202 4.3 Requirements of a good heating material 202 5.4__Design of heating element 203 5.5 Temperature control of resistance furnace 205 $6 Electric arc furnace 207 5.7 Induction heating 2/7 58 5.9 Dielectric heating 2/9 Electric welding 224 5.10 Resistance welding 225 S.11 Electric arc welding 229 6. ILLUMINATION ENGINEERING 234 61 69 Introduction 234 ‘The nature of radiation = 235 Definitions 236 Polarcurve 239 Law of illumination 242 Luminous efficacy 254 Photometry 255 Lumen or flux method of calculations 260 The eleetriclamp 262 6.10 Flood lighting and calculations 267 6.11 Street Lighting 269 6.12 Design of choke and capacitor 270 7. ELECTRIC TRACTION 277 7.1 Introduction 277 7.2 Requirements of an ideal traction system 278 7.3 Supply system for electric traction 279 74 Train movement 280 7.5 Mechanism of train movement 288 7.6 VT The traction motors 302 Traction motor control = 314 7.8 Control of single phase series motors 329 7.9 Speed contro! of 3-phaseinduction motors 330 7.10 Multiple unit control 331 7.11 Braking of electric motors 33! 7.12 Electrolysis by currents through earth 337 7.13 Current collection systems 337 7.14 Thyristors used in traction system 340 Index1. NON-CONVENTIONAL AND CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY 1.0 NON-CO: VENTIONAL The contemporary non-conventional sources of energy like wind, tidal, solar etc. were the conventional sources until James: Watt invented the steam engine in the eighteenth century. In fact, the New World was explored by man using wind- powered ships only. The non-conventional sources are available free of cost, are pollution-free and inexhaustible. Man has used these sources for many centuries in propelling ships, driving windmills for grinding corn and pumping water, etc. Beacuse ofthe poor technologies then existing, the cost of harnessing energy from these sources was quite high. Also because of uncertainty of period of availability and the difficulty of transporting this form of energy, to the place of its use are some of the factors which came in the way of its adoption or development. The use of fossil fuels and nuclear energy replaced totally the non-conventional methods becasue of inherent advantages of transportation and certainty of availability; however these have polluted the atmosphere to a great extent. In fact, it is feared that nuclear energy may prove to be quite hazardous in case it is not properly controlled. In 1973 the Arab nations placed an embargo on petroleum. People began to realise that the fossil fuels are not going to last longer and that remaining reserves should be conserved for the petro-chemical industry. But unfortunately, both nuclear and coal ‘energy pose serious environmental problems. The combustion of coal may upset the planet’s heat balance. The production of carbondioxide and sulphurdioxide may adversely affect the ability of the planet to produce food for its people. Coal is also a valuable petro-chemical and from long term point of view it is undesirable to burn coal for generation of electricity. The major difficulty with nuclear energy is waste disposal and accidental leakage (e.g. leakage at Chernobyl nuclear power plant). Asa result of these problems, it was decided by almost all the countries to develop and harness the non-conventional sources of energy, even though they are relatively costlier as compared to fossil-fuel sources. It is hoped that with advancement in technology and more and more research in the field of development of non- conventional sources of energy, these sources may prove to be cost-effective as well. The future of wind, solar, tidal and other energy sources is bright and these will play2 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy an important role in the world energy scenerio. The following sections have been devoted to the study of some of the important non-conventional sources of energy. 1.1 TIDAL POWER 1.1.1 Introduction Tidal or lunar cnergyas it issometimes called, has been known to mankind since time immemorial. Various devices, particularly the mills were operated using tidal power. In the past water supply of London was pumped to a water tower by a mill operated by the tidal power (which consisted of a large paddle wheel. mounted on a raft and fastened between two of the piers of old London Bridge). The tidal power has been used to irrigate fields in Germany and to saw firewood in Canada. Tides are caused by the combined gravitational forces of Sun and Moon on the waters of the revolving Earth. When the gravitational forces due to the Sun and the Moon add together, tides of maximum range, called spring tides, are obtained. On the other hand, when the two forces oppose each other, tides of minimum range, called reap tides, are obtained. In one year there are approximately 705 full tidal cycles. 1.1.2 Basic Schemes ‘thas been suggested, that for harnessing tidal power effectively the most practicable ‘nethod is the basin system. Here a portion of the sea is enclosed behind a dam or dams ind water is allowed to run through turbines, as the tide subsides. ‘The power available from a given head of water varies as the square of the head and since the head varies with the tidal range, the power available at different sites from idal energy shows very wide variation. Various tidal basin systems have, therefore, deen evolved, in order to overcome this wide variation in availability of tidal power. Single Basin System The simplest scheme for developing tidal power is the single basin arrangement, in which a single basin of constant area is provided with sluices (gates), large enough to admit the tide, so that the loss of head is small. The level of water in the basin is the same as that of the tide outside. When the tides are high, water is stored in the basin and sluice gates are closed. When the tides are falling, sluices are opened to allow water to go through the turbine to generate power. A head of water is obviously tequired for the turbine to generate water. This continues to generate power till the evel of the falling tides coincides with the level of the next rising tide. The major disadvantage of this single basin scheme is that it gives intermittent supply of power, varying considerably over the period of operation. It is for this reason that the tidal power has not been developed on a large scale. Also with this scheme, only about 50 per cent of tidal energy is available. Two Basin System An improvement over the single basin system is the two-basin system. In this system, a constant and continuous output is maintained by suitable adjustment of the turbine valves to suit the head under which these turbines are operating.Non-Conventional Sources of Energy 3 Atwo-basin system regulates power output of an individual tide but it cannot take care of the great difference in outputs between spring and neap tides. This system, therefore, provides a partial solution to the problem, of getting a steady output of power from a tidal scheme. This disadvantage can be overcome by the joint operation of tidal power and pumped storage plant. During the period when the tidal power plant is producing more energy than required, the pumped storage plant utilizes the surplus power for pumping water to the upper reservoir. When the output of the tidal power plant is low, the pumped storage plant generates electric power and feeds it to the system. This arrangement, even though technically feasible, is much more expensive, asit calls for higher installed capacity for mecting a particular load. This basic principle of joint operation of tidal power with steam plant, is also possible when it is connected toa grid. In this case, whenever tidal power is available, the output of the steam plant will be reduced by that extent which leads to saving in fuel and reduced wear and tear of steam plant. This operation requires the capacity of steam power plant to be equal to that of tidal power plant and makes the overall cost of power obtained from such a combined scheme very high. In the system shown in Fig. 1.1, the two basins close to each other, operate alternatively. One basin generates power when the tide is rising (basin getting filled up) and the other basin generates power while the tide is falling (basin getting emptied). The two basins may have a common power house or may have separate power house for each basin. In both the cases, the power can be generated continuously. The system could be thought of as a combination of two single basin systems, in which one is generating power during tiding cycle, and the other is generating power during emptying. Basin 2 Sluice SEA Fig.1.1 Double Basin System4 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy Cooperating double basin system. This scheme consists of two basins, at different elevation connected through turbine. The sluices in the high and low level basin vommunicate w‘th sea water directly as shownin Fig. 1.2. The high level basin: slukg are called the inlet sluices and the low level as outlet sluices. The basic operation of the scheme is as follows. High level basin Low level basin Power house Intet sluices Outlet. sluices t Dyke SEA Fig. 1.2 Cooperating Double Basin System Let us assume that the upper basin is filled with water. The water is allowed to flow :o the lower basin through the turbine. Therefore, the level in the upper basin falls and that in the lower basin rises. Atan instant when the rising level in the basin is equal to the level of the falling tide, the outlet gates are opened. When the tide reaches its lower most level, the outlet gates are closed. After a while the tide rises. When its level becomes equal to the low level of the upper basin, the inlet gates are opened. As a result, the level of the upper basin starts rising. At the same time, the turbines are fed from the upper basin transferring water to the lower basin, thus raising level of water there. When the tide reaches its peak value, the inlet gates are closed again. Thus the cycle is repeated. 1.1.3 Turbines for Tidal Power Tidal power plants operate using a rapidly varying head of water and, therefore, their turbines must have high efficiency at varying head. The Kaplan type of water turbine operates quite favourably under these conditions. The propeller type of turbine is also suitable because the angle of the blades can be altered to obtain maximum efficiency while water is falling. Acompact reversible horizontal turbine has been developed by French Engineer which acts with equal efficiency both as a pump and as a turbine. The bulb-typ:Non-Conventional Sources of Energy 5 urbine (Fig. 1.3) consists of a ste! shell completely enclosing the generator which is upled to the turbine runner. The turbine is mounted in a tube within the structure of se barrage, the whole machine being submerged at all times. Runner vanes Metal casing Draft tube Fig. 1.3 Bulb-Type Turbine When the power demand on the system is low during the rising tides, the unit Operates as a pump to transfer water from sea to the basin. When the load on this system is high, the unit will work as a geuerator, and deliver the stored energy which is a valuable additional input to the system. There are two tidal power plants in France now in operation; an experimental one with a capacity of 9 MW at Saint Malo anda 240 MW Plant with a 700 m long dam -at the mouth of the Rance River. A large number of tidal power projects have been planned but subsequently abandoned because of the high cost involved and obstruction in navigation. Even though many problems have to be overcome in tidal power development. this form of power has certain definite advantages. Output of a tidal power station is independent of the seasonal changes and can be predicted well in advance. as it depends on the cosmic phenomenon. It is possible to predict the amount of powerand the time at which it will be available throughout the year. This power can, therefore, be utilized at the proper position of the load curve. More than fifty sites have been identified in the world for possible generation of tidal power. As more and more technological advancement take place, even more sites could be identified for tidal power development. Some of the important sites are: (i) La Rance (France), (if) Severn Barrage (UK), (iii) White Sea (USSR), (iv) Passamaquoddy (USA), (v) Gulf of Cambey (India) and (vi) Gulf of Kutch (India). The maximum tidal range in the Gulf of Cambey is about 10.8 m and is quite attractive for a tidal plant. However, the silt charge of the Gulf of Cambey is relatively high and needs a closer study for further development. The Gulf of Kutch has a maximum spring tide of 7.5m and the silt charge is relatively low. 1.2 WIND POWER 1.2.1 Introduction The wind wheel, like the water wheel, has been used by man for a long time for6 Generation. Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy grinding com and pumping water. Ancient seamen used wind power to sail their ship8. With the development of the fossil fuelled and hydro-electric plants, there was decline in the use of wind power due to the less cost involved in the new methods. Another difficulty with wind power was the problem of energy storage. The energy could not be made available, on demands, due to uncertainties of wind. Due to these two reasons, no further attempt was made to develop wind power for large scale power generation. In recent years, however, as a result of energy crisis in the world, it has been decided to investigate all possible means of developing power, as alternatives to fuel fired plants. The wind could supply a significant portion of the world’s energy demand. An estimate by an American Professor indicates the potentialities of wind power. According to him about 350,000 wind mills each rated for about 1250 K W to 2200 KW could develop power of the order of 190,000 MW. With the advancement in the knowledge of aero-dynamics it has been possible to build larger and more efficient wind power plants. A typical example is the 1250 K W installation at Grandpa’s Knol in U.S.A. Whereas some success has been achieved in developing small and medium size plants, the prospects of large scale generation i.e. | MW or above are not, as yet very encouraging. 1.2.2 Characteristics of Wind Power Wind asa source of energy is plentiful, inexhaustible and pollution free but it has the disadvantage that the degree and period of its availability are uncertain. Also, movement of large volumes of air is required, to produce even a moderate amount of power. As a result, the wind power must be used as and when it is available, in contrast to conventional methods where energy can be drawn upon when required. Wind power, therefore, is regarded as a means of saving fuel, by injection of powe into an electrical grid, or run wind power plant in conjunction with a pumped storage plant. ‘The power that can be theoretically obtained from the wind, is proportional to the cube of its velocity and thus high wind velocities are most important. The power developed using this law, in atmospheric condition where the density of airis 1.2014 kg/cu metre, is given as Power developed = 13.14 X 10° A V? KW where A is the swept area in sq. metre and V the wind velocity in Km/hr. The energy developed is affected by: The Altitude of the Site The velocity of the wind increases with the altitude. In general, the higher the wind wheel is placed above ground, the greater will be wind power available. Velocity Duration Curve ‘The variation of velocity of wind over the period affects the power output, e.g. let the velocity over the first hour be 30 kmph and the next hour be 20 kmph. The energy developed is proportional to 30° + 20° = 35,000. On the other hand, if we assume average velocity during these two hours of 25 kmph, the power developed isNon-Conventional Sources of Energy 7 proportional to 2 X 25' = 33250. Thus, the relation between the actual energy available, and that available from a steady wind of average velocity, varies considerably and depends on the shape of the velocity-duration curve for the period of generation. The wind speeds, between which a wind wheel generator operates, are limited. A certain minimum wind velocity is required to overcome frictional and other losses of the machine and, on the other hand, it would be uneconomical to design a plant for very high velocity wind which would occur only for a small period over the year. Therefore, the machine must be designed for a rated wind velocity, for which the output is maximum. Typical wind velocities for some sites may range between 20 kmph to 45 kmph. The rated wind velocity, for which a plant is designed substantially affects the specific output (Kwhr generated per annum per K W installed capacity) and also the cost of construction. If the rated velocity is low, the specific output is high as full output will be generated for a relatively longer duration of the year, whereas if the rated velocity is high, the converse will be true. But with low rated wind velocity, a larger diameter wheel will be required for a given K W rating, which in turn increases the cost of the plant. Economic development of wind power, therefore, requires selection of sites where high specific outputs are compatible with reasonable cost of construction of plant. It is, therefore, necessary to obtain wind velocity duration curve for a patticular site and to know the output of the machine for varying wind velocities. The maximum efficiency of the wind power plant is found not to exceed 40%. 1.2.3 Design of Wind Wheels Several types of wind wheels have been used but the advantage of propetter rotating about a horizontal shaft, in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the wind make it the most likely type to realise economic generation on a large scale. A propeller consisting of two or three blades (with an aerofoil section) and capable of running at the high speeds is likely to be the most efficient. Present technology has been able to build systems with 60 m long blades, on towers as high as 305 m. A large tower system, to support many small rotor-generator units, can also be built. Wind pressure rotates the wind vanes or propellers attached to a shaft. The revolving shaft rotates the rotor of a generator, through a mechanism of gears couplings etc. Thus, electricity is generated. ‘The wind power plants can be operated in combination with steam or hydro power station, which will lead to saving in fuel and increase in firm capacity, respectively of these plants. ‘Wind energy can prove to be a potential source of energy for solving the energy problem. Itcan certainly goa long way to supply pollution-free energy to millions of people, living in the villages all over the world. The economic viability of wind mills is better in situations where conventional tranamission costs are extremely high (because of inaccessiability and small load) or where continuous availability of supply is not essential so that only a limited amount of storage ompandby power need be provided.8 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy 1.3 GEOTHERMAL POWER 1.3.1 Introduction Many geothermal power plants are operating throughout the world. Although larger geothermal powcr plants are in operation in America today, it is to the credit of the Italians that the first impressive breakthrough in geothermal power exploitation was achieved. The oldest geothermal power station is near Larderello in Italy, which hasan installed capacity of 380 MW. In Newzealand geothermal power accounts for 40% of the total installed capacity, whereas in Italy it accounts for 6%. It is a common knowledge that the earth's interior is made of a hot fluid called ‘magma’. The outer crust of the earth has ar average thickness of 32 Km and below that, is the magma. The average increase in temperature with depth of the earth is 1°C for every 35 to 40 metre depth. At a depth of 3 to 4 Kms, water boils up and at a depth of about 15 Kms, the temperature is, in the range of 1000°C to 1200°C. If the magma finds its way through the weak spots of the earth’s crust, it results into a volcano, At times, due to certain reasons the surface water penetrates into the crust, where it turns into steam, due to intense heat, and comes out in the form of springs or geysers. Moreover, the moltcn magma also contains water, which it releases in the form of steam, which could be utilized for electric power generation. 1.3.2 Principle of Operation Yarious types of cycles have been suggestedfor geothermal power generation. Only two important ones, which are being used if practice, are discussed here. Indirect Condensing Cycle While developing Larderello power plant, it was thought, that geothermal steam may corrode the turbines. Therefore, an indirect system was adopted, which involved the use of a heat exchanger by means of which clean steam was raised from contaminated natural steam (Fig. 1.4). In spite of the fact that about 15% to 20% of the steam power potential had to be sacrificed in the heat exchanger, the cycle was considered economical, because of the recovery of minerals and non-condensible gases from the new steam. fa) Fig. 1.4 Indirect Condensing Cycle With the advancement in metallurgy technology and the declining economic attractions of mineral extraction, through this process, this cycle has been readered obsolete.Non-Conventional Sources of Energy 9 Direct Non-Condensing Cycle ‘This is the simplest, cheapest and most widely used geothermal cycle. Bore stean., either direct from dry bores, or after separation (using centrifugal separator) from wet bores, is simply passed through a turbine and exhausted to atmosphere (Fig. 1.5). 7 BS—Bore Steam X— Exhaust G—Generator as Fig. 1.5 Direct Non-Condensing Cycle There is a need for utilizing the heat available from the high temperature (about 1000°C) layers of the earth. It has been suggested that water should be pumped into artificial volcanic craters and then tumed into useful steam. Like hydro powerstations, geothermal power plantsare unattended and do not need full time supervision. Since the units are unattended, the warning alarm can be transmitted to the attended station where appropriate action can be taken. Ifa well has been shut down, it requires several hours to get it upto rated flow to clear it of water and debris. Some more time is required to warm up the steam collection system piping and drain condensate from it. No attempt should be madé to fast start ups as it results in damage to the turbine blades. Steam temperature and steam line drains should be closely monitored, for any indication of water. If there is any possibility of water coming alongwith the steam, the unit should be tripped to prevent damage to the turbine. Rated turbine throttle pressure is maintained by connecting sufficient number of wells tothe supply line of a unit. Whenever a unit trips, thesteam should be released to the atmosphere. Ifa unit is to be shut down for along time, the wells should also be shut down. It is impoitant that a systematic schedule of preventive maintenance be observed at these rlants. A rigidly planned periodic maintenance schedule must be adhered to. Units should be inspected every three years. An adequate stock of spare parts— especially the turbine blades—must be maintained. With proper maintenance, it is possible to operate these plants at very high annual plant load factor of the order of 90% or even more. 1.3.5 Combined Operation of Geothermal Plant It is well known that a composite power system can be supplied more economically by a combination of two main types of plants: (i) Base Load Plant which is characterised by high fixed costand low variable cost. (ii) Peak load Plant which is characterised by low fixed cost and high variable cost. In case of a geothermal plant, the usual practice is to regard all the production cost as fixed cost, with zero variable cost as no fuel is required for its operation. This is justified by the fact, that once geothermal steam has been made available by means of capital spent on exploitation, drilling and pipe work, it may be regarded as free. eothermal plants are, therefore, ideally rated as base load plants. Most of the plants10 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy today are being used as base load plants as they can achieve annual plant load factor of 90% or more—higher than that obtainable from thermal or nuclear plant. The commercial viability of a geothermal power plant as compared to other sources, depends upon the cost of alternative power sources and other local factors. Asa rule of thumb, the following guidelines may be followed to assess its viability: (i) The fluid temperature at the bottom of the bore should be at least 180°C. (ii) A temperature of 180°C should be available at depths not exceeding 3 Kms. (iii) The yield from a 24% cm bore should be at least 20 tons/hr of steam. The following are some of the geothermal power projects in operation: Larderello ‘ Italy Geysers 3 California (USA) Cerro Prieto : Mexico Hatchobaru : Japan Matsukawa : Japan Paratunka : USSR Wairakei : New Zealand Pugga Multipurpose 5 India Project (Ladakh) At present geothermal energy makes a very small, but locally important, * contribution to world energy requirements. This situation will not change unless important technological advances are made. Environmentally, it is probably the least objectionable form of power generation available at present, with, the exception of hydroelectric methods. 1.4 WAVE POWER 1.4.1 Introduction Another source of non-conventional cnergy generation is the wave power. The major problem with the wave power is that it is not concentrated at a place. If.means could be developed for collecting the energy in the wave, spread over a large surface area, and concentracing it into a relatively small volume, the propspects, would be considerably improved. It has been observed that a typical wave measures 2 to 3 metres in height throughout the year. The energy per square metre of wave surface area is given as 1/2 p ga’ where p is density of sea water, g is acceleration due to gravity and a is the amplitude of the wave. In the Atlantic, the wave period 7 is around 9 s, and the average velocity of propagation of wave is 14 m/s. It has been observed that a power flow of around 70 KW for every metre of wave front, can be obtained. This is a considerable amount of power, especially when we think of the availability of this power throughout the year. If the length of the coast line is, say 1200 Km, the power available is around 84 GW. 1.4.2 Wave Power Conversion Devices A large number of devices for converting wave power to mechanical power haveNon-Conventional Sources of Energy 11 been suggested in the literature e.g. flaps, ramps, floats and converging channels. A device known as Salter Cam is being used for this purpose which has a high efficiency (75%). A cross section of the device is shown in Fig. 1.6. It simulates the action of a vertical flapping plate at the front where energy isabsorbed, but the rear is cylindrical so that the water beyond the device is not disturbed, as it rotates. Due to its asymmetrical shape, the response of this device depends upon its loading and therefore, counter-balancing is necessary. Independently osc comethaped Posts Fig. 1.6 Saller Cam Another device suggested by Masuda uses a bell shaped chamber filled with air, which is pumped through an air turbine by the rising and falling motion of the water. A large number of such devices are in use, for providing about 60 watt of power for marine buoy lights. Such devices are inherently small in size, but a large number of them could be put together, to provide a large floating structure e.g. an arrow-shaped triangular structure (Fig. 1.7) for mounting, near the shore. Fig. 1.7 Masuda System of Floating Buoys Wave power, even though looks to be a single component, but it must be considered in its entirety if it has to make significant contributions. Fig. 1.8 shows various possible ways in which wave power can be used and shows the various links between the sea-waves and the consumer of power. If the wave poweris to be brought off-shore as electrical power, a submarine cable12 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy Transmission Electrical S/S ore hydra 1 Transmesion shore F alectrcal | L Turbogenerat aa Sistas oF Tianaanare circa stadt) | | “econdary ‘mon waren [~ Eleciricity consumer Fig. 1.8 Use of Wave Power will be required. In recent times a lot of technological developments have taken place in the design and manufacture of submarine cables and it should not be a problem tc produce economical submarine cables. A variable frequency generator could feed a rectifying device. The power could be transmitted through the cable to the substation. It could then be inverted and fed into a grid system. Alternatively, the power could be used on-board floating factories. Also, hydrogen could be produced by the d.c. output which could be supplied to the consumer as fuel. Another possibility is that the energy could be transmitted hydraulically, using a storage system to provide short term storage before transfer to a turbo-generator. The conversion equipment, would be inside the cams and the electrical outputs connected to a floating substation by cable. 1.5 MAGNETO HYDRO DYNAMIC (MHD) GENERATION 1.5.1 Introduction In the conventional steam power plants, the heat released by combustion of fuel is transformed into the internal energy of steam. The temperature and pressure of steam increase in the process. The steam turbine, then, converts steam energy into mechanical energy, which drives a generator. This way, the mechanical energy isNon-Conventional Sources of Energy 13 converted into electric energy. The repeated conversion of various forms of energy involves losses and, hence, the overall efficiency of thermal power plant decreases. The typical range of efficiency of thermal plants is 37 to 40%. The direct conveision of heat to electricity would enable the industry to use the fuel resources more efficiently . MHD generation is one form of energy technology, wherein direct conversion of heat into electric energy has been devised. The technological development in the field of plasma physics and metallurgy etc. and other branches of science and technology has made it possible for this kind of direct transformation of energy. An ionized gas is used as conducting medium in the MHD generator. The gas can be made electrically conducting when it is maintained at least at a temperature of 2000° C. This tact does not allow MHD generation from being used in the entire temperature range from 3000 K to 300 K. It is, therefore, thought beneficial that MHD generators be used in conjunction with steam operated thermal plants utilising the heat of the gas leaving the MHD ducts. The combined operation of MHD generators alongwith the conventional thermal plant, will raise the overall efficiency to nearly 60%, thereby lot of saving in the fuel cost will result. 1.5.2 Principle of Operation of MHD Generator The basic principle of operation is based on Faraday’s law of electro magnetic induction, which states an e.m_f. is induced in a conductor moving in magnetic field. The conductor may be a soild, liquid or a gaseous one. The study of the dynamics of an electrically conducting fluid interacting with a magnetic field, is called magneto hydro dynamics. In this method (Fig. 1.9) gases at about 2500°C are passed through the MHD duct across which a strong magnetic field has been applied. Since the gases are hot, am. partly ionized they form an electrically conducting conductor moving in the magnetic field. An e.m.f. (direct-current) is thus induced, which can be collected at suitabie electrodes. Fig. 1.9 Basic Principle of MHD Generator Block diagram of a typical open cycle MHD power plant is shown in Fig. 1.10. 1.6 SOLAR ENERGY 1.6.1 Introduction Sun is the primary source of energy. The earth receives 1.6 Y 10"* units of energy14 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energp seed tr Fist ‘MHD it preheater [Super Re | Duct and seed [10% Ineater| near ome Jo cenit a re cae er me OF cura | ono whe uke on Ain Fig. 1.10 Block Diagram of Open Cycle MHD Power Station from the Sun annually, which is 20,000 times the requirement of mankind on the earth. Some of the solar energy causes evaporation of water, leading to rains and creation of rivers etc. Some of it is utilized in photosynthesis which is essential for sustenance of life on earth. Man has tried, from time immemorial, to harness this infinite source of energy, but has been able to tap only a negligibly small fraction of this energy, till today. Three broad categories of possible large scale applications of solar power are: (i) The heating and cooling of residential and commercial buildings; ii) The chemical and biological conversion of organic material to liquid, solid and gaseous fuels: and (iii) Conversion of solar energy to electricity. The use of solar energy for generation of electricity is costly as compared to conventional methods. However, due to scarcity of fuel, solar energy will certainly find a place in planning the national energy resources. 1.6.2 Residential cooling and heating A major component of our electricity bill is due to heating and cooling of buildings. This can be achieved using solar energy. A typical solar energy scheme is shown in Fig. 1.11. A flat plate collector is located on the roof of a house, which collects the solar energy. The cooling water is pumped through the tubes of the solar collector. The heat is transferred from the collector to the water and the hot water isstored in a storage tank which may be located at ground level or in the basement of the house. Hot water is then utilized to heat or cool the house by adjusting the automatic valve A separate circuit is there to supply hot water. Thus all the three requirements i.e. space cooling, heating and water heating are met.Non-Conventional Sources of Energy i3 Winter operation ‘Summer operation \ ester (sed ony when ot water Solar (wioter) (Summer collector Warmair Coot air Coot water Air [Absorption water heating| ‘ai cool unit ‘nit Hot water storage tank, / Waren ¥ water ‘nir blower | return Pump Fig. 1.11 Schematic Diagram of Residential Cooling ard Heating with Solar Energy Pump 1.6.3 Photosynthesis Production of Energy Sources Solar energy can be transformed into chemical energy ia the form of plants and trees, through the process of photosynthesis, which is the basis of the world’s fossil fuels. It is, now possible, to produce organic matter with high heat content, by using suitable chemical processes. 1.6.4 Solar Power Plant It is known that only a small fraction of the energy radiated by the Sun reaches the Earth. It would, therefore, be an attractive proposition, if energy could be received from outside the atmosphere and then transmitted to the earth. A man-made satellite revolving around the earth will receive energy for all the 24 hours and will not be affected by the weather conditions. Figure 1.12 shows the arrangement and general view of a solar power plant, carried by a man-made satellite. The solar cell panels to be installed on the satellite may vary um - OF ong tite ® Or _ ° Earth Transmitting oper 2-3 GHz \ Ih solar cet Receiving Panels antenna Fig. 1.12 Solar Power Plant16 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy in area from 16 to 100 sq km according to the plant capacity. The solar cells arranged in space would generate d.c. electric power and transmit it by means of microwaves (of about 10 cm. wave length), using a transmitting antenna. Microwave transmission may beat 2 to 3 GHz, as this keeps the losses at minimum. On the earth, this energy will be converted into high voltage d.c. or commercial frequency electric power. The diameter of transmitting antenna would be around | km and that of the receiving antenna, 7 to 10 Kms. The efficiency of transmission is estimated to bein the range of 55 to 75%. The overall efficiency, with the present technology, isaround 25% but is likely to go upto 60% in the near future. The solar cells operate on the principle of photo clectricity ie. electrons are liberated from the surface of a body when light is incident on it. Backed by semi-conductor technology, it is now possible to utilize the phenomenon of photo-electricity. It is known that if an n-type semi-conductor is brought in contact with a p-type material, a contact potential difference is set-up at the junction (Schottky effect), due to diffusion of electrons. When the p-type material is exposed to light, its electrons get excited, by the photons of light, and pass into the n-type semi-conductor. Thus, an electric current is generated ina closed circuit. The pn junction silicon solar cells have emerged as the most important source of long duration power supply necessary for space vehicles. These cells are actuated by both, direct Sun rays and diffuse light. The efficiency of silicon solar cells increases with decreasing temperature. In cold weather the decreased luminous flux is compensated for, by higher efficiency. The efficiency of these solar cells varies from 15 to 20%. Although the energy from the Sun is available free of cost, the cost of fabrication and installation of systems, for utilization of solar energy, is often too high to be economically viable. In order to make solar installations economically attractive, plastic materials are being increasingly used for the fabrication of various components of the system. The efficiency of solar heating/cooling installation depends on the efficiency of collection of solar energy and its transfer to the working fluid (e.g. water, air etc.). There are two main classes of collectors. The flat plate collector is best suited for low and intermediate temperature applications (40°-60°, 80°-120°C) which include water heating for buildings, air heating and small industrial applications like agricultural drying etc. The concentrating collectors are usually employed for power generation and industrial process heating. 1.6.5 Solar Concentrators Solar concentrators are the collection devices which increase the flux on the absorber surface as compared to the flux impinging on the concentrator surface. Optical concentration is achived by the use of reflecting or refracting clements, positioned to concentrate the incident flux onto a suitable absorber. Due to the apparent motion of the Sun, the concentrating surface, whether reflecting or refracting, will not be in a position to redirect the sun rays onto the absorber, throughout the day if both the concentrator surface, and absorber are stationary. Ideally, the total system consisting of mirrors or lenses and the absorber should follow the Sun’s apparent motion so that the Sun rays are always captured by the absorber. In general, a solar concentratorNon-Conventional Sources of Energy 17 consists of the following: (® a focussing device; i) a blackened metallic absorber provided with a transparent cover; and (iii) a wracking device for continuously following the Sun! Temperatures as high as 3000° C can be achieved with such devices and they find applications in both photo-thermal and photo-voltaic conversion of solar energy. The use of solar concentrators has the following advantages: (i) Increased energy delivery temperature, facilitating their dynamic match between temperature level and the task. (ii) Improved thermal efficiency due to reduced heat loss area. (iii) Reduced cost due to replacement of large quantities of expensive hardware material for constructing flat plate solar collector systems, by less expensive reflecting and/or refracting elements and a smaller absorber tube. (vi) Increased number of thermal storage options at elevated temperatures, thereby reducing the storage cost. Parameters Characterising Solar Concentrators Several terms are used to specify concentrating collectors. These are: (i) The aperture area is that plane area through which the incident solar flux is accepted. It is defined by the physical extremities of the concentrator. (ii) The acceptance angle defines the limit to which the incident ray path may deviate, from the normal drawn to the aperture plane, and still reach the absorber. (iii) The absorber area is the total area that receives the concentrated radiation. It is the area from which useful energy can be removed. (iv) Geometrical concentration ratio or the radiation balance concentration ratio is defined as the ratio of the aperture area to the absorber area. (v) The optical efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy, absorbed by the absorber, to the energy, incident on the aperture. (vi) The thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of the useful energy delivered to the energy incident on the aperture. Solar concentrators may be classified as point focus or line focus system. Point focus systems have circular symmetry and are generally used when high concentra- tion is required asin the case of solar furnaces and central tower receiver systems. Line focus systems have cylindrical symmetry and generally used when medium concentration is sufficient to provide the desired operating temperature. A solar concentrator consists of the following components: (i) A reflecting or refracting surface, (if) An absorbing surface i.e. an absorber, (iif) A fluid flow system to carry away the heat, (iv) a cover around the absorber, (v) Insulation for the unirradiated portion of the absorber and (vi) A self supporting structural capability and well adjusted tracking machanism.18 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy 1.6.6 Flat Plate.Collector The schematics of a flat plate collector are shown in Fig. 1.13. It usually consists of five main components viz. (i) an absorber plate (metallic or plastic), :) tubes or pipes for conducting or directing the heat transfer fluid, (iii) one or more covers, (iv) insulation to minimise the downward heat loss from the absorbing plate (v) casing which encloses the foregoing components and keeps them free of dust and moisture and also reduces the thermal losses. Generally flat platecollectors are framed sandwich structures, mounted on roofs or sloping walls. In most of these collectors, the absorber element is made of a metal such as galvanised iron, aluminium, copper etc. and the cover is usually of glass of 4 mm thickness. The back of the absorber is insulated with glass wool, asbestos wool or some other insulating material. The casing, enclosing all the components of the collector is either made of wood or some light metal like aluminium. The cost, with such meterials, is rather too high to be ‘acceptable for common use. As the temperatures needed for space heating are rather low, plastics are being considered as potential materials for fabrication of various components of the flat, plate collector. This would make solar energy systems comparable with other energy systems. Absorbing Transparent surface Direct-solar covers radiation Fluid tubes Insulation Fig. 1.13 Schematics of a Flat Plate Solar Collector 1.7 CONVENTIONAL SOURCES 1.7.1 Hydro Station The water wheel, as deveopled in the early part of 19th century, played an important role in converting water power into machanical power. With the invention of steam engines, the use of water wheel began to decrease and larger steam engines were developed. Steam engines possessed the advantage of mobility, allowing power to be produced, where it was required and also that of flexibility in its application. It was only later with the discovery of conversion of machanical energy into clectric energy, and transmission of electric energy being the most efficient method of transporting energy from one place to another, that water wheel was revived. The modern water turbine, is being built in single unit of more than 200 MW. Also, the concept of multipurpose project, in which the production of poweris included as oneNon-Conventional Sources of Energy 19 of several uses (flood control, navigation, irrigation, water for domestic and industrial purpose, etc.), has led to the development of sites which otherwise could not be harnessed economically for power alone. The capital investement per KW is much higher in case of hydro power as compared to thermal power. This is because in order to store water at sufficient head, it is essential to construct a dam which is a costly affair. However, the running cost of hydro electric energy is much less as no fuel is used. Water power differs fundamentally from thermal! power in that it represents an inexhaustible source of energy which is continually replenished by the direct agency of the Sun; whereas thermal power represents chemical energy which has been created and stored within the earth’s crust during past geological ages. The use of chemical energy is thus equivalent to the consumption of capital as the replacement is not so easy. Another important difference between the two is that whereas water power can be developed only where it is present in nature, thermal power (liquid or soild fuel) can be transported for use from one place to another. 1.7.2 Selection of Site Preliminary investigations regarding catchment area, average rainfall, ground gradient, geology of foundation, availability ofraw material for construction work are required. The important factors governing selection are as follows: 1. Location of Dam From the cost point of view, the smaller the length of dam, the lower will be the costof construction. Therefore, the site has to be where the river valley has a neck formation. In order to have capacity, a valley which has a large storage capacity on the upstream side of the proposed dam site is probably the best. It is desirable to locate a dam after the confluence of two rivers so that advantage of both the valleys to provide larger storage capacity is available. 2. Choice of Dam The most important consideration in the choice of the dam is safety and economy. Failure of a dam may result in substantial loss of life and property. The proposed dam must satisfy the test of stability for: (/) shock loads which may be due to earthquakes or sudden changes in reservoir levels and (if) unusually high floods. The dam should, as far as possible, he close to the turbines and should have the shortest length of conduit. 3. Quantity. of Water Available This can be estimated on the basis of measurements of stream flow ovr as long a period as possible. Storage of water is necessary for maintaining continuity of power supply throughout the year. Sufficient storage of water should be available since rainfall is not uniform throughout the year and from one year to another. 4. Accessibility of Site The site should be accessible from the view point of transportations of man and20 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy material, so that the overall cost for construction, of project is kept low. 5. Distance from the Load Centre The distance should be as small as possible so that the cost of transmission of power is minimum. Availability of construction material and general knowhow, should also be considered in site selection. 1.7.3 Classification of Hydro Plants The hydro-power plants can be classified in terms of location and topographical features, the presence or absence of storage, the range of the operating head etc. Classification Based on Plant Capacity (i) Micro hydel plant : less than 5 MW. (ii) Medium capacity plant : Stol00MW (iii) High capacity plant : 101 MW to 1000 MW. (iv) Super capacity plant : above 1000 MW Classification Based on Construction Run-off-river plant without pondage. A run-off-river plant is one in which a dam is constructed across a river and the low head thereby created is used to generate power. It is typically a low head plant and is generally provided with an overflow weir, the power station being an integral part of the dam structure. In many plants of this type, it is necessary to provide locks for the passage of ships, so that navigation may continue without hinderance. Water passes to the power station through racks made of steel bars to keep out all foreign bodies which might damage the turbine, these racks must be cleared periodically. These plants, thus use water as and when it is available. The firm capacity of such plants is very low if the supply of water is not uniform throughout the year. Run-off-river with pondage. Th>pondage increases the usefulness of this type of plant. The main requirement for the plant is that the tail race should be such that floodsdo not raise the tail race water level, otherwise the operation will be affected adversely ‘With pondage it is possible to meet hour to hour fluctuations of load throughout a week or longer periods depending upon its size. Valley dam plant. The main feature of a valley dam plant is a dam in the river which creates a storage reservoir that develops the necessary head required for the turbines. The power plant is located right at the toe of the dam. Water flows through penstocks embedded in the dam to the power house and joins the main river course directly at the outlet of the power house. The plant can be used efficiently throughout the year as it has a large storage capacity. Its firm capacity is relatively high. The following are the main components of a valley dam plant: (a) The dam with its appurtenant structure like spillways etc.Non-Conventional Sources of Energy 21 (6) The intake with gate, stop logs and racks etc. (c) The penstocks (d) The main power plant with its components. Diversion canal plant. The characteristic of this plant is that the waters of the river ate diverted away from the main channel through a diversion canal, known as power canal. A power plant is located at a suitable point along the length of the canal. The water after passing through the power plant joins the parent river. These plants are usually low head or medium head plants. They do not have any storage reservoir. The power house requirements of pondage are met through a pool called forebay which is located just before the power plant. The main components of a diversion canal plant are—(a) Diversion Weir; (b) Diversion Canal Intake with its ancilliary works; (ec) Bridges or culverts etc. of the diversion canal; and (d) Forebay and its appurtenances. Hig:t head diversion plant. The main feature of this plant is the development of high head resulting from the diversion of water. The diversion of water can be achieved in two ways—(a) Through a system of channels and tunnels to another neighbouring river or basin which is at a much jower level as compared to the level of the parent river; (b) Along the tunnels from an upstream point of the river to a down stream point of the parent river. The main point of difference between high head and low head diversion plantis the elaborate conveyance system for the high head plants. The main'components of thi. type of plant are as follows: (a) Diversion Weir (5) The Canal tunnel intake (c) The head race (d@) Surge tank (e) Penstock (/) The tail race Classification Based on Operation Base load plant, These plants operate on the base portion of the load curve of the power system if they are of large capacity. Plants with large storage can best be used as base load plants especially in rainy seasons when the water level of the reservoir will be raised by rain water. As these loads operate throughout the year at approximately fall capacity, the load factor of such plants is high. Peak load plant. These plants supply powerto the system corresponding to the load at the top portion of the load curve. Run-off-river plants with pondage can be used for such purposes. The load factor of such plantis relatively low as they operate only for a short period of the total operating time. Pumped storage plant. Pumped storage plants are a special type of power plants which work as ordinary hydro power plants for part of the time and when such plants are not producing power, they can be used as pumping stations which pump water from tail race to the head race. During this time, these plants utilize power available from the grid to run the pumping set. Thus, pumped storage plants can operate only if these plants are interconnected in a large grid.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have 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Ad.c. compound motor is to be selected for the operation ofa lift. The operating cycle is 4s follows ‘andis repeated continously throughout the day: Load going up for 1 min. 75 bp, loading period at the top 2 min. $ hp., load going down 1 min~60 h.p.,loading period at bottom 3 min, 5h.p. Select the smiallest size suitable for the above loading cycle. Ans. 36.5 bp. Q.4.47. A motor has the following operating cycle: A load rising uniformly from zero to a maximum of 200h.p. in 20 sec., a constant load of 100h.p. for 40 sec., regeneration power from 33 hp. to zero in 10 sec. The motor remains stationary for 20 sec. Determine a suitable rating of the motor to meet the above loading cycle. Ans. 86.3 bp. Q.4.48. A motor has the following operating cycle: 100 hp for 15 min. No load for $ min. SOhp. for 15 min No load for 5 min. The cycle is repeated indefinitely. Determine suitable rating of the motor. Ans 68.5 h.p. Q. 4.49. A motor has a heating time constant of 90 min. and a cooling time constant of 120 min. when stationary. When run continuously on full load of 50 HP, the final temperature rise is $0°C. Determine we (09a, the motor can deliver for 10 min. if this is tollowed by a shut aown period ong enough for it Goo! without the temperature rise exceeding 50° C. If it is on an intermittent oad of 10 min. on load and followed by 15 min. shut down, determine the maximum value of the load which it could supply duriug the on-load period without the maximum temperature rise ‘exceeding 50°C. Assume that the losses are propertional to the square of load. Ans. 154 hp. 70.7 hp. References APRS Chilikin, M., Electric Drive, Mir Publishers Moscow 1978. Taylor, E.O., Utilisation of Blectric Energy. Pillai, S.K., A First Course on Electrical Drives, Wiley Eastem Lid. 1983. Fitzgerald, A.E., Kingsley, C., Kusko, A., Electric Machinery, International Student Edition McGraw- Hill 1971, Hancock, N.N.. Electric Power Utilization, Isaac Pitman London 1967. Also please see Appendix to Chapter 4 on page 345.5. ELECTRIC HEATING AND WELDING | 5.1 INTRODUCTION Fire (Heat) and wheel are the basis of present day civilization. If we eliminate these two tools, man will go back to stone age. He used fire to cook food, to warm himself during cold weather, to make tools to protect himself from enemies. In modern times he used fire to extract metals from the ores of the earth’s crust, to raise steam from water, to move from one place to another and to move the turbines of a generator to produce electricity which could be utilized anywhere. With the discovery of electricity, it was found that there were many things common with electricity and heat. When current is passed through a conductor, the conductor becomes hot (Resistance heating). It was further found that when a magnetic material is brought in the vicinity of an alternating magnetic field, heat is produced in the magnetic material (induction heating). Similarly it was found that when an electrically insulating material was subjected to electrical stresses, it too underwent a temperature rise (Dielectric heating). ‘There are various methods of heating a material but electric heating is considered to be far superior for the following reasons: (i) Cleantiness Due to complete elimination of dust and ash, the charges to maintain cleanliness are minimum and the material to be heated does not get contaminated. As the flue gases are not there, no space is to be provided for their exit and the atmosphere around is clean and pollution-free. (ii) Ease of control With the help of manual or automatic devices, it is possible to control and regulate the temperature of a furnace with great ease. In fact, any cycle of heating and cooling can be followed very closely and accurately in this method of heating, (iii) Uniform heating Whereas in other forms of heating a temperature gradient is set up from the outer surface to the inner core, the core being relatively cooler, in case of electric heating, the heat is uniformally distributed and hence the charge is uniformally heated. Ever202 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy non-conducting materials (Insulators) can be heated uniformally with cleciric heating. (iv) Low attention and maintenance cost Electric heating equipments normally do not require much attention and maintenance is also negligible. Hence labour charges on these items are negligibly small as compared to alternative methods of heating. 5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS OF ELECTRIC HEATING (i) Power Frequency Method Direct resistance heating, indirect resistance heating, direct arc heating, and indirect 2ic heating. (ii) High Frequency Heating Induction heating and diclectric heating. 5.2.1. Direct Resistance Heating In this method of heating, current is passed through the body to be heated. The resistance offered by the body to the flow of current produces ohmic loss /’ R which results in heating the body. This method is, therefore, quite efficient. This method of heating is employed in resistance welding, in the electrode boiler for heating water and in salt bath furnaces. Salt bath furnace consists of two electrodes immersed in molten salt (like sodiurs chloride) having fusing point of 1000°C and can be heated to temperatures of 1500° C or more by passage of current between electrodes. Care should be taken to see that the electrodes are so placed with respect to the material (metal) to be heated that the current flows through the salt and not through the metal to be heated. Supply used is a.c., as d.c. would cause electrolysis. A step down transfomer with tapping arrangements is used to supply the bath. The secondary voltage is of the order of 20V with currents varying from a few amperes to as high as 3000 Amps depending upon the furnace and the charge to be heated. With increase in temperature of bath, its resistance decreases. Taps are, therefore, used to adjust the voltage so that a constant ‘ower input can be maintained during the heating process. Salt bath furnace is used for hardening stee! tools and prevents oxidation during hardening. 5.2.2 Indirect Resistance Heating In this method the current is passed through a high resistance wire known as heating element. The heat produced due to /” R loss in the element is transmitted by radiation or convection to the body to be heated. This method of heating is used in room heater, in | ‘metallic strip used in starters, immersion water heaters and in various types of resistance ovens used in domestic and commercial cooking, and salt bath furnace. 5.3 REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD HEATING MATERIAL The material used for heating element should have the following properties:Electric Heating and Welding 203 (i) High specific resistance Itshould have high specific resistance so that a short length of wire will be required for a particular resistance or for the same length and current the heat produced will be more. High melting point It should have high melting point so that higher temperatures can be obtained. Free from oxidation It should not oxidise at higher temperatures, otherwise its life will be shortened (iv) Low temperature coefficient of resistance The material should have low temperature coefficient of resistance so that its resistance docs not change during its temp. range of operation. Also with this the current drawn by the element at cold (start) will not be much different from that when it is hot. The materials normally used as heating elements are either alloys of Ni-chromium, Ni-Chromium iron, Nickel-Chromium-aluminium or Nickel-copper. The use of iron into the alloy even though cheapens the final product but reduces the life of the alloy as it gets oxidised soon. The higher the content of iron the lower the life of the alloy. However, it has been possible to make alloys containing iron, chromium, cobalt and Al which can withstand temperatures as high as 1300°C. Table 5.1 below gives reievant properties of some of the alloys. Table 5.1 Properties of some commercial heating elements Type of alloy Ni-Chromtum —Nickel-Cr-Fe Neu F-Geal Composition 80% Ni 20% Cr, 60.16.24 45,55 70, 25.5 Commercial Name Nichrome Eureka or Kanthal Constantan Maxm, working 150°C 950°C 400°C 1200°C temp. Specific resistance 109 « (1/em* 110 pQ/em* 49 4 Q/em! 140 p Q/em* at 20°C Specific gravity. 8.36 8.28 8.88 72 34 DESIGN OF HEATING ELEMENT Usually circular cross section wires are used as heating elements and the size and the length of wire can be obtained if the wattage of the heating element is known and if the operating voltage and ambient temperatuze and heating element temperatures are known. Initially when the heating element is switched on to supply, the temperature goes on increasing and finally a high steady state temperature is reached when it can be assumed that practically all the heat is being transferred through radiation. Let P be the wattage of the heating element to be operated at V volts. Let 7; be the temperature of the radiating surface, 7; the temperature (in degrees absolute) of the °204 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy absorbing surface. Our objective is'to determine the length and size of the heating element" oO ri pate where R=p— R a ‘Therefore Surface area of the element = 2 mr! Therefore power dissipated or input to the element per sq.m. pu hen (5.1) Ip Heat dissipated per sq. m.according to Stefan’s law f(y (hy n=s.rke[ (A) - ay] Watts/sq. m. (5.2) Now total heat generated = Total heat dissipated. Here K is a constant known as radiating efficiency depending on the disposition of heating element and K = 1 for single element 0.5 to 0.8 for more than one element emissivity = 10 for a black body = 09 for resistance heating element. e P=H2a4l 63) From these equations rand / can be determined Example 5.\ ‘A20 KW single phase, 220 V resistance oven employs circular nichrome wire for its heating element. If the wire temperature is not to exceed 1 127° Cand the temperature of the charge is to be 427°C, calculate the size and length of wire required. Assy ne ¢ = 0.9 and radiation efficiency K = 0.6. What would be the temperature of wire when _ the charge is cold : Solution Heat dissipated in watts/m’ surface 1400 ,* 700 \* =5. (——_) - (——) H 6x09 x06[l [00 700) | = 5.72 X0.9 X 0.6 [38416 — 2401 ] = 111243 watts/sq. m.206 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy smaller capacity oven. An on-off switch can be used to control the temperature. The time for which the oven isconnected to the supply and the time for which it remains isolated from supply Time for which the switch is on Total time for an on-offcycle indication of temperature rise. The higher the ratio the larger will be the temperature of the oven. Again temperature can be controlled by switching in various combinations of groups of resistances used in the oven. In 1-6 supply, various series and parallel combinations along with some resistances being in the circuit, others out of the circuit will give various temperatures. For 3- ovens, however, different connection with star-delta arrangements will give different temperatures. Ifthe temperature is to be controlled automatically some form of thermostat should be used in the circuit so that it operates and switches out or switches in the oven whenever the temperature goes above or below a certain predetermined value Tespectively. It is to be noted that the switching is to be carried out by contactors. For some large capacity ovens some protection schemes against over loading, excess temperatures and in some cases against the possibility of workmen loading or unloading the furnace with power on, should be provided. Example 5.2 The resistance elements of each phase of a 3-phase delta-connected resistance oven consists of two groups of elements in parallel. If the operating temperature of the elements when supplied at normal voltage under these conditions is 1125° C what other possible temperatures could be obtained by reconnecting the elements, the supply voltage being kept same. will determine the temperature. The ratio of isan Solution The power loss < V* and the heat dissipation is approximately proportional to 7* When two groups in parallel are connected in delta, each group has line to line voltage across it. The power loss is say - P= KT*= K (1408) a (2) Let two groups be connected in series first and then in delta. The voltage across each group will be half of what it was initially, therefore the power loss is P guar Q Where 7; will be the absolute temperature under groups in series and chen in delta condition. From equation (1) and (2) we have - Therefore = as ) 7 or 141g = 1408 Nh n= 995.0°K or 722°C Ans.Electric Heating and Welding 207 (ii) The groups are connected in series and then instar connection. The voltage across = @ K.P each group is 5-7z- Therefore, heat generated is Proportional to 45 i.e. 75 Therefore = (Ley: qT 1 x 1.8612 a or Ty = 756.5°K or 1 = 483.5°C Ans. (iii) When the two groups in parallel are connected in star, the voltage across each v group = Therefore or n= 1408 = = 1069.8 K ors = 796,8°C Ans. = 1316 0 or Similarly other combinations can be tried by using only one group of elements. 5.6 ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE As mentioned earlier, there are two types of electric arc furnaces. In case of direct arc furnace the arc is formed between the electrodes and the charge (Fig. 5.1 (a) ) whereas in case of indirect arc furnace the arcis formed between the electrodes (Fig. 5.1 (b) ). Fig. 5.1 (a) Fig. 5.1 (b) The heat is transmitted to the charge through radiations only. The supply voltage is the usual 230V 1 — 6 or 400 V 3 — &. The electrodes are made of carbon or graphite. Initially, before the arc is struck between the electrodes, the electrodes are short-circuited and supply is given. A large current flows through the electrodes. As the electrodes separate, the distance of separation is very very small and a high voltage gradient between the electrodes is set up. The air between the electrodes gets ionised and an arc is set up. The temperature of the arc is as high as208 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy 3500°C and hence a large amount of power is concentrated between the electrodes which can be utilized for heating purposes. In case of indirect furnace, where the heating is through radiations only temperatures between 1500°C to 2000°C can be obtained easily. The arc chamber of both types of furnaces consists of a suitable acid (ground ganister mix) or basic (magnesite mix) refractory lining supported on a metal frame work. The electrodes project through the top or sides of the chamber and are arranged for easy replacement and adjustment. All the furnaces are provided with a door on one side through which heat can be worked and the tap hale and spout on the other side to take out charge and sag, The furnace rests on a platform which can be tilted for emptying. The emptying mechanism is controlled with the help of an electric motor. The arc chamber is made as nearly spherical as practically possible as it is known that for a given volume, the surface area is minimum when the body is spherical in shape. With this shape the surface area of the refractory material becomes minimum. The modern trend in the design of furnaces is to sectionalise three parts of the furnace viz. the hearth the wall and the roof so that these sections can be replaced separately if something goes wrong with them. 5.6.1 The Direct Arc Furnace Since the arc is formed between the electrodes and the charge, heat is also produced by flow of current through the charge which offers very low resistance. It is, therefore, possible to attain high temperatures with this furnace. For large capacity furnaces, 3-phase supply is generally employed which is connected to these electrodes spaced at the comers of an equilateral triangle: the charge forms the star-point. The arc is controlled by either applying variable voltage or by adjusting the arc length and the arc resistance. The most important feature of the direct arc furnace is that since the current flows through the charge. the stirring action is inherent due to the electromagnetic force set up by the current. This results in uniform heating of the charge. The most common application of this type of furnace is to produce steel. This is advantageous as compared to the cupola method as it produces purer products and it is very simple and easy to control the composition of the final product during refining process. Because of these reasons, even though arc furnaces are costlier as compared to the older type of furnaces, these are still used. Even though arc furnaces are used both for melting and refining but wherever electric enrgy is expensive it is economical to use cupola for melting and arc furnace for refining. 5.6.2 The Indirect Are Furnace Since the charge is heated due to radiation only, the temperature of the charge is lower than that in the direct arc furnace. -Aiso, as current does not flow through the charge there is no inherent stirring action provided and the furnace must be rocked mechanically. This is why these furnaces are usually cylindrical in shape. The electrodes are projected through this chamber at each end along the horizontal axis. These furnaces are usually single-phase and hence their sii limited by the amount of I-phase load which can be taken from one point. An electric motor is used to operate suitable grinders and rollers to provide rockingElectric Heating and Welding 209 action to the furnace. During start, the rocking action is carried through an angle of 15° to 20° and as the melt proceeds the angle is increased to about 200° at a frequency of about 2 cycles per minute. The rocking action. besides providing thorough mixing of the charge, it adds to the efficiency and increases the life of the refractory. This isdue to the fact that any portion of it is atsome time covered with metal which absorbs its heat and prevents it from attaining excessive temperature. The efficiency is increased because the charge is heated not only by radiation trom the arc but by conduction from the heated refractory during the rocking action. The main application of this furnace is melting of non-ferrous metals even though it can be used in iron foundaries where small quantities of iron is required frequently. Even though Ajax Wyatt furnace is its chief rival in the field of non-ferrous metals, itis more suitable when the charge is to be varied frequently or where heating is intermittent. Electrodes There are mainly two types of electrodes used in these arc furnaces, viz. carbon and graphite electrodes. The size of these electrodes may be 18 cms to 27 cms in diameter. These materials have been chosen because of their electrical condictivity, insolubility, infusibility, chemical inertness, mechanical strength and resistance to thermal shock. Even though carbon and graphite are essentially same, they differ very much in the physical and electrical properties. Carbon electrodes are amorphous whereas graphite electrodes are obtained by heating the carbon electrodes to a very high temperature. This also results in volatilization of impurities from the carbon electrodes. The specific resistance of graphite electrodes is lower than that of carbon and, therefore, for the same resistance the size of the graphite electrode will be almost half that of carbon. This results in facilitation in easy replacement, and relatively lighter control mechanism can be used. For the same conductivity the size of carbon electrode is higher therefore a larger area of charge is in contact with the electrode which results in uniform distribution of heat. On the other hand, however, because of bigger size, the arc is brought nearer to the side of the furnace which has a tendency to reduce the life of the refractory lining. When the temperature exceeds 600°C, oxidation of electrodes starts and hence consumption of electrodes begins. It is found that the consumption of graphite electrode is about half that of carbon for the same job to be completed. Graphite electrodes are costlier as compared to carbon electrodes. Power Transformer The arc voltage is of the order of 50 to 100 volts i.e. secondary voltage is of this order. In order to obtain large powers required for melting metals, the secondary current will be of the order of several hundreds or thousand amperes. This requires a special type of furnace transformer which must be extremely robust in order to take care of electro-mechanical and thermal stresses. Both core type and shell tyg« construction can be used but shell type is preferred because it is possible to bring out and brace the secondary leads. Tappings should be provided on the primary side as ‘ne currents to be handled on that side are relatively small. It is desirable to arrange the furnace and the transformer in such a way that the secondary leads are of shorter length. Also in order to reduce the inductance of these leads they should be placed close together and210 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy they must be of such a shape that the skin effect is minmum. Equivalent circuit of an arc furnance is given in Fig. 5.2. Ry x RL cn Re Supply Ra Fig. 5.2 Equivalent Circuit of an Arc Furnace. Here Rr. Xr represent transformer equivalent resistance and reactance, Ri, X) the lead resistance and reactance Rr, the electrode resistance and Ra the variable arc resistance. It is clear from the Fig. 5.2 that power input to the furnace can be varied by either the supply voltage or by raising or lowering the electrodes i.e. by varying the resistance of the arc. Fig. 5.3 gives performance characteristics of a typical arc furnace. Initially when the electrodes are short-circuited. it is as good as short-circuiting the secondary ofa transformer. The total input to the furnace is almost zero (copper losses in the transformer winding). Again when electrodes are far apart arc is extinguished | and there is no power drawn from the supply. In between these limits there is a particular loading when the power input to the furnace is maximum. 5000 1.0 4000, 08 : 3000] te t 2 a 4 2000 0.4 —_} 9 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 Current. 1 5000 Fig. 5.3 Performance Characteristics of a Typical Are Furnace. 1 Example 5.3 t A 3-phase arc furnace has to melt 10 tons of steel in 2 hours. Determine the average )Electric Heating and Welding 211 KW input to tne rurnaceif its overall efficiency is 50%. If the current inputis 9000A with the above K W input and the resistance and reactance of the furnace are 0.003 ohm and 0.095 ohm respectively, determine the arc voltage and the total KVA taken from the supply. Assume latent heat of steel 0.12. Latent heat of fusion of steel = 8.89 K Cal Kg. and melting point of steel = 1371°C. Solution The heat required to raise the temperature to 1371°C is calculated as follows. Assume an ambient temperature of 20°C. Latent heat required = 10 X 1000 X 8.89 = 8.89X10" K Cal. Heat required to raise the temperature through 1371° —20° = 1351° C, 1000 X 10 X 1351 X 0.12 = 162.12 X 10* KCal. Therefore Total heat required 171 X 10°K cal= 1988.3 KWH (1 KWH = 860 K Cal) This is the energy in two hours. The power required is 2S KW=994.15 KW Since 7 is 50%, the actual power input to the furnance = 1988.3 K W 5 Now 3 VJ cos# = 1988.3 X 1000 1988.3 X 1000 * ¥ 08 @= ——————_ = 73.64 volts 3X 9000 tow V cosé = Arc drop + drop in the resistance lead Tnerefore 73.64 = = Arc drop + 0.003 X 9000 Therefore Are drop = 73.64 ~ 27 = 46.64 volts. Ans. Reagtunce drop = 9000 X 0.005 = 45 volts Therefore Supply voltage = 73.64 + 45° = 86.3 volts Therefore KVA input = 3 X 86.3 X 9000 = 2330 KVA Ans, 5.7 INDUCTION HEATING The basic principle is same as that of a transformer ie. it works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Fig. 5.4 shows a disc of metal surrounded by a copper coil in which an alternating current is flowing. The disc has a finite value of diameter and thickness and is spaced a given distance from the coil and concentric to it. We find that a secondary current /, is caused to circulate around the outer surface of the disc. The following are the characteristics of induction heating : (i) The current flows on the outer surface of the metal disc and in so doing. heats this surface. (ii) The current flow is restricted axially to that surface of the metal which is contained within the turn or turns of the heating coil and it may bea single turr: or « multi-turn coil.212 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy Copper coil. / \— Metallic dise Fig. 5.4 Basic Principle of Induction Heating. (iii) The heat energy is transferred to the metal at an extremely rapid rate, much faster than any conventional method of heating metal. This is due to the fact that heat is developed directly within the metal as with all electrical resistance heating rather than being transmitted through the surface of the metal. (iv) The heat is generated within the metal without any physical contact between the source of electrical energy and the metal being heated i.e. the medium of energy transmission, the magnetic field. can penetrate any non-metallic substance (e.g. air) placed between the heating coil and the material being heated. (v) Ifthe current continues to flow in the disc, the surface would attain extremely higher temperatures which can’t be obtained by any other method. These five characterstics of induction heating give it a wide scope of applications in industry, The heat in the disc can be increased by (i) high coil current: (i) Larger number of coil turns; (iii) high frequency supply: (iv) close spacing between the coil and work; (v) .the disc may be of magnetic material (higher, permeability). (vi) Higher electrical resistivity of the disc (magnetic material). Incase the charge to be heated is non-magnetic the heat generated is duc to eddy current losses, whereas, if it is a magnetic material, there will be hysteresis losses in addition. The hysteresis Joss is proportional to frequency whereas eddy current loss is proportional to square of frequency when operating at low frequency. At high frequency the heating due to hysteresis becomes very small as compared to eddy currents. This is due to higher temperature attained by the charge at higher frequencies when the material ceases to posses magnetic properties. It is well known that above curie temperature the magnetic materials lose their magnetic properties. imilarly eddy current losses also do not follow f* law as frequenc:216 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy These furnaces are used for steel production and are competitive in this field with the electric arc furnace described previously. They are also used for melting of non-ferrous metals like brass. bronze. copper. aluminium, magnesium alongwith various alloys of these elements. ‘There isa large number of specialised applications e.g. vacuum melting. melting in a controlled atmosphere and melting for precision castings where high frequency induction heating is used. The electronic tube industry uses a large number of induction heating installations for parts which cannot be heated by conventional methods because of inaccessibility. Itis very widely employed for various industrial activities like soldering. brazing. hardening and annealing. drying paints. sterlizing surgical instruments etc. 5.7.4 Sources of high frequency for induction heating Basically there are three types of equipments used for converting the electrical energy at low frequency to one at high frequency suitable for induction heating (i) The raotor-generator set; (ii) the spark gap converter and (iii) the vacuum tube oscillator. The motor generator set consists of an induction motor coupled to a specially designed generator having both the armature and field windings on the stator. The change in reluctance produces a corresponding change in the magnetic flux lowing in the iron circuit which induces voltage in the armature winding. The voltage is Proportional to the rate of change of total flux and the frequency is determined by the number of complete flux reversals per second. The basic principle of operation of a spark gap converter is the alternate charging and discharging of a capacitor (Fig. 5.8). The discharge current is passed through the Choke Fig. 5.8 Basic Spark-gap Converter Circuit Dotted Lines. Flow of Low Frequency, Charging Current. Thick arrows, High Frequency Currents. turns of the induction heating coil. The spark gap acts as valve which periodically connects the capacitor to the charging source. The value of inductance and capacitance in the discharge circuit decide the frequency for heating. The spark gap converter produces pulses of high frequency but of decreasing megaitude. The vacuum tube oscillator or electronic heater as it is sometimes called. produces large power outputs at higher frequency of the order of 600 KHZ. Fig. 5.9 shows a typical oscillator. The 50 HZ supply is irst converted into d.c. and then inverted into high frequency currents. The capacitances and inductances (that of working piece also) decide the frequency of supply to the work piece. The vacuum tube oscillators are less efficient as compared to SCR as the voltage drop across the SCR is very low of the order of 1V The SCR operates at 90% efficiency. The SCRs are fired by pulses of gate currentElectric Heating and Weldirg 217 Rectitier Oscillator Tank circuit tots H Fig. 5.9 Simplified Cireuit of 2 Vacuum Ozcillator. produced by a UJT as shown in Fig. 5.10. Work de é supply 8 Ress Fig. 5.10 SCH Inverter Circuit. The frequency of sur ply to the work piece depends upon the value of R and C. The smaller the product RC. higher is the frequency across the work piece. Example 5.4 Determine the efficiency of a high frequency induction furnace which takes 10 minutes to melt 1.815 Kg ofaluminium, the input to the furnace being 5 K W and the initial temperature 15°C. Specific heat of aluminium =0212 ‘Melting point 660°C Latent heat of fusion of aluminium = 76,8 K Cal/Kg Solution Heat required:to melt the aluminium = 76.8 X 1.815 K Cal = 139.39 K Cal The heat required to raise its temp. through (660° — 15°) 1.815% 0.212 x 045 = 248.18 K Cal Total heat required = 387.57 K Cal 60 Heat required per hour = 387.57 X 7 2325.4 K Cal Therefore the power delivered to the charge = Bed =2.704 KW Therefore 2.704 %a = “7% 100 = S4v%¢ Ansaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing 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limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.282 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy Itis desirable to have relatively high average speed so thata good frequency of train service is made available. Therefore, high values of acceleration and retardation are maintained with a short period of coasting in order to obtain reasonable saving on energy consumption. An acceleration of 4 Kmphps and retardation of about 6 Kmphps is recommended. Similarly with suburaban services where there is relatively longer distance between stations, the coasting period is longer but free running period is again absent as shown in Fig. 7.2. (b) In this casealso, in order to have frequent service of trains high values of acceleration and retardation are required. Typical values recommended are 2.5 Kmphps and 4 Kmphps respectively. Main line service (Fig. 7.1) is characterised by the long period of free running at high speeds and the accelerating periods are unimportant as they are short as compared to the total run of the train. For suburban trains running on level track the coasting retardation is approximately 0.16 Kmphgs. 7.4.2. Simplified Speed-time Curve In order to study the performance of various speed-time curves for a particular criterion e.g. the energy requirements, schedule speed (for preparing a time-table) for a particular service, preliminary calculations are required. It is to be noted that at this stage the exact characteristics of the series motors are not known. Therefore, the actual speed time curves are replaced by approximate curves. These simplified curves have simple geometries and hence relationship between the acceleration, retardation, average speed and distance can be deduced by simple mathematical calculations. | While drawing the approximate speed-time curves following points are kept in mind: (i) The values of acceleration and retardation are kept same as those of the original speed-time curve. (ii) The speed-curve running and coasting periods of the actual speed-time curve are replaced by a constant period (Fig. 7.3-a) (Trapezoidal approximation). (iii) The initial acceleration period and the coasting periods are extended in the approximated curve Fig. 7.3 (b) (Quadrilateral approximation) (iv) The area under the approximated curve and the actual speed-time curve (Distance between two stations) is the same. | — {7 Jit te ie at fa) o>) Fig. 7.3, Slnplified speed-time curves.Electric Traction 283 Trapezoidal Curve is a close approximation to main lines service where the duration for free running is long whereas quadrilateral curve isa better approximation to the actual conditions on urban or suburban runs where short distances are involved and where coasting is an important zone of operation. We develop below relationships between various quantities involved in the speed- time curves. Let D = Distancein Kms between two stations. Running time between stations in seconds. acceleration, in Kmphps. B = retardation in Kmphps. V, = Free running or maximum speed in Kmph. V_ = Average speed between stations in Kmph. Time of acceleration in seconds ( Vn/«)., ime of retardation in seconds ( Vm/ 8). Time of free running in seconds. ime of acceleration in seconds (V; / a). (Quadrilateral curve). ime of coasting in second. ¢ = Time of retardation in seconds (2/8). B. = Retardation in Kmphps during coasting. 1 L t L t t Trapezoidal Curve: Fig. 7.3( (a) D= 1/2 Vm (T + t2)/(3600) 1/2 Vm [T+ (1 (4 + ))] /(3600) = 1/2 Vn[2T— Vn ( 1/a + 1/8) ],/3600 Ve = 72001 Vm —(l/a + 1/8) or 7200 D=2 Vm T -Vn? (Ja + 1/B) aa) Equation (7.1) can be used to find out Vn, and a and 6 Quadrilateral Curve : From fig=7.3(b), the area under the curve b= 1/2 wt 1/2 wt 1/2~Kt ¥2) ts} /3600 7200 D= V, (ty + ts) + V2 (ts + to) Vi (Tb) + V(T— 1) = (Nth) T-Vi (B+ la) (1.2) W- bh ts or i= Vi- Bels =Vi-—BAT— (tat te) =h oag + 2 or Vy hy = nat) where286 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy oo 60.8 — 43.1 Therefore coasting period = = 110.63 see. Ans. 0.16 Example 7.2 The distance between two stations is 1.6 kms. and the average speed of the train is 40 km. p.h. The acceleration, retardation during coasting and braking are 2 km. p.h.ps., 0.16 km. p.hs. and 3.2 km. ph.ps. respectively. Assume quadrilateral approximation of speed time curve, determine the duration of the accelerating, coasting and braking periods and distance covered during these periods. Solution 144 sec 1.6 X 3600 =p = (144 Sees. Using equation (7.3), we have V1 - 0.16 (144 — ¥4/2) 1. 0.16 2 3? =p [Mi - 23.04 - 0.08 1) Wn = V2 =1.1368 Vi — 24.25 * Substituting value of V2 in equation (7.2) 7200 X 1.6 =(Vi + 1.1368 Vi — 24,25) X 144 — Vj (1.1368 V1 — 24.25)X ee) . 11520 =(2.1368 Vi — 24.25) X 144 — Vi(1.1368 Vir 24.25) X =QARZ- =307.7 Vi -3492 — 0.9236 Vit 19.7 V1 15012 =327.4 Vi — 0.9236 Viaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.298 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy Time taken down the gradient = £6 250° = 130.9 sec. Using equation (7.1 ) and consting wu! journey, we have adel T. ot 3.53 or 11520 = 288 Vm — 0.91 Vin 7200 X 1.6 = 2 Vn X 144 — Wi or Vir — 316.48 Ve + 12659 = 0 = 316.48 tv 100159 — 50636 es 316.48 + 222.53 2 2 Sitnilarly for the down joumey = 46.97 Kmph 1 7200 X 1.6 = 2X 130.9 Vm — Vin Can? +—) 2.398 2.73 11520 = 261.8 Vn — 0.7833 Vin or Va — 334.22 Vn + 14707 =0 334.22 £V/111707 — S8R28 or Vin = 2 = 52.13 Kmph Up gradient calculations: 46.97 The duration of acceleration period = iss = 29.45 sec. 46: Duration of braking = —— = 13.30 sec. 3.53 Therefore, Duration of constant speed = 144—29.45—13.30 = 101.25 sec. 29.45 Distance covered during acceleration = 1/2 X 46.97 X Jeo" 0.192 Km. I 13.30 Distance covered during braking. =-X 4697 X —— =0.087Km. 2 3600 Distance run with power on = 1.6 — 0.087 = 1.513 Km. 2 Speeific energy output for acceleration.= 0.010726 x Ki = 16.27 Wie Tonne-km: 1,513 Specific energy output for gradient. = 27.25 X 1.25 X 7 = 32.21 Whr/ Tonne-km.Electric Traction 1.513 Specific energy output for resistance. = 0.2778 X 5.43 X 9.81 X ——— = 13.99 Whr/Tonne-km. Therefore total specific energy for the up gradient journey. = 62.47 whr/Tonne-km. For journey down the gradient: 52.13 ZT = 21.73 sec. 2.398 52.13 —— = 19.09 sec. 2.73 Duration of acceleration period. Duration of retardation period. Duration of constant speed period = | 30.9 — 21.73 — 19.09 = 90.07 sec. . . , I 21.73 Distance during acceleration. = — x 52.13 X —— = 0.157 km. 2 3600 ‘ . . r 19.09 Distance during retardation period = | /2 X 52.13 X —— =0.138 km. 3600 2 Specific energy during acceleration = 0.010726 ; 5 Ld = 20.04 Whr/ Tonne-km. Force acting down the gradient due to gravity = 10 WG and force due to resistance = Wr Kg. Therefore net force acting down ward. = (10G—-) W (10 X 1.25 — 6.525) W =5975 W Since the resultant gravity force is positive, therefore to run the train at constant speed brakes will have to be applied rather than supply electric energy. Therefore, the specific energy consumption = 20.04 Whr/Tonne-Km. Example 7.1 An electric train weighing 400 to’, runsalong an up gradient of 1% with following speed-time curve : (1) Uniform acceleration of 15 Kmphps for 30 sec: (ii ) Free-running for 36’secs. (iti) Coasting for 25 secs. nv ) Braking at 2.6 Kmphps to rest. . If tractive resistance is 45 N/Tonne, rotational inertia effect 10%, overall efficiency of transmission and motor 75%, determine the specific energy consumption. Solution The maximum speed at the end of acceleration is 30 X 1.5 = 45 KmphElectric Traction 301 0.6375 0.6375 = 0.010726 xX ——_ x ane a I 27.251 XE + 0.2778 X 4S X = 23.89 + 17.937 + 8.23 = 50.06 Whr/ Tonne-km. Therefore Specific energy consumption = 66.75 Wht/Tonne km. Ans. 7.5.8. Coefficient of Adhesion From equation (7.4) it is clear that greater the torque exerted by the traction motor, greater is the tractive effort at the driving wheels. This relation holds good only upto certain extent beyond which any increase in motor torque does not increase the tractive effort but causes driving wheels to slip. It has been observed that there is a maximum value of tractive effort at which driving wheels will not slip and thus maximum value depends upon the dead weight (adhesive weight) over the driving axles ie FO W or F= pW (7.17) If Fis in Newtons, and W in tonnes, equation (7.17) is rewritten as: = 1000 pa WX 9.81 (7.18) Here y., is knownas confficient of adhesion. This means to haul a given train, thereis a certain minimum weight of locomotive. Again, the maximum allowable weight on each driving axle is limited by the strength of the track bridges etc., to between 15 and 30 tonnes. If this value is known, the number of axles can be obtained. With d.c. locomotives, since the d.c. motors are light, it is desirable to place the whole of the locomotive weight on driving wheels to obtain the required tractive effort whereas with a.c. locomotives since the weight of electric equipment is higher, the required tractive effort can be obtained by placing only a portion of the weight on the driving wheels and supporting the rest on the trailing axles. ‘The value of coefficient of adhesion is affected by the speed of the train and the conditions of the rails. The higher the speed, smaller is the coefficient of adhesion. If the rails are wet and greasy, the coefficient of adhesion is much lower as compared to when they are dry and sandy. During starting, if the tractive effort varies, the maximum value of the tractive effort must be less than the product of adhesive weight and the coefficient of adhesion. This means the more uniform the tractive effort during starting and initial accelerating periods, the heavier will be the train which can be operated by a locomotive of given adhesive weight. This criterionis of paramount importance especially in case of goods train where the weight of the train usually approaches the maximum weight which can be handled by the locomotive. This is why the starting of traction motors either by series parallel method or by rheostatic method or by tap changing method is inferior to the method where applied voltage is smoothly and continuously varied such as by means of grid control in vacuum tubes or by gate control in the case of silicon controlled rectifiers.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.306 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy From Fig. 7.8 it is clear that even though the motors have identical characteristics but current drawn by motor Bisless than that of A. However, the difference between the two currents is small. 7.6.3 Series Motors, Series Operation with Unequal Wheel Diameters Since the motors are connected in series, the current drawn by both the motors is same but due to unequal speeds voltage drops across the two motors are different. Let V4, Vz, and V be the voltage drop across motor A, motor B and the supply voltage respectively. Therefore, Na Vaz Ne ~ “(Va— ir) and Vat Va=V Solving these equations for V4 and Vs we have __voh hn 7.22: YA TENGINa + T+ Nal Ne (122) v- and Y= i (7.23) T+Nal Na * 1+ Nal No Iffora supply voltage V and loading Jamp of the motor, the speed is N for either motors (as they are indentical ), then (V—In=Ex= KON and (Va- I = B= KO Na Therefore NA we Ven, N Vir ayant 7.24) Therefore Na= NG (7.24) Since V, and Vs have been obtained as in equation (7.22) and (7.23) and hence Na and Ng can be obtained. Of course, when motors are series connected, there isno difference in their loadings in terms of currents but the power inputs are slightly different. 7.6.4, Shunt Motors Parallel Operation with Unequal Wheel Diameters Refer to Fig. 7.8. (b) consider two shunt motors having identical speed-current characteristic, driving a car. It can be seen from Fig. 7.8. (b) that / is much less compared with J, i.e. the loadings of the two motors is materially different. 7.6.5 Shunt Motors, Series Operation with Unequal Diameters When shunt motors are operated in series, each machine is normally excited and the voltage across each motor is given by equations (7.22) and (7.23 ). In this case, the Joad is almost equally shared. .Electric Traction 307 7.6.6. Parailel Operation, Equal Wheel Diamters, but Dissimilar Speed-Current Curves Consider Fig. 7.9 (a) and (b) Fig. 7.9 (2) Series Motor (b) Shunt Motor Since the diameters of the driving wheels are equal, for the particular speed of the car, the rpm of both the motors will be same. If the characteristics of the two motors are slightly different, it can be seen that in case of series motors the loading of the two motors is slightly different whereas for shunt motors it is again materially different. From the above analysis it can be concluded that for traction purposes, the permissible deviation from the standard speed-current curves and the difference in the diameters of driving wheels, in case of shunt motors are much smaller as compared to + series motors. However, these restrictions are not applicable as rigorously for d.c. compound motors and they are usually preferred for main line serviceson undulating routes where the chances of wear and tear of wheel are more. Other important considerations against which the performance of series and shunt motors should be compared are (i) sudden voltage rises and (ii) temporary interruptions in the supply. The voltage rise may occur due to opening of acircuit and temporary interruption of supply to motors occurs when cross overs and section- insulators are crossed with the controller ‘on’. 7.6.7. Effect of Sudden Change in Supply Voltage Suppose the change (say increase) in voltage is so sudden that during that period the motor speed does not change because of mechanical inertia and the magnetic flux does not change because of electro-magnetic inertia. The armature current -~£& Ra (a) Series motors With the sudden increase in supply voltage, the armature current tends to increase. But with the increase in armature current the flux also increases which increases the ‘back emf. £, and thus brings the current back to its initial value. Thus series motors are less susceptible to sudden change in supply voltage. (b) Shunt motors Due to high inductance of the field winding, the rate of change of current in thisElectric Traction 309 7.6.10. A.C. Series Motor Many single phase a.c. motors have been developed for traction purposes but none has survived except the compensated series motors. The single phase induction motors have been abandoned as they are not capable of exerting high starting torque. A simple version of single phase series motor consists of a laminated magnetic circuit and an armature with commutator and brushes which closely resembles the armature ofa low voltage d.c. motor. The field winding is connected in series with the armature. When this motor at standstill is connected across a.c. supply, a pulsating torque T = K bm In ~ 5 K @m Im COS 2 wtis obtained. The mean value of the alternating component of torque (3 K dn Jn cos 2 wt), taken over a period of the supply current is zero. Therefore, the mean torque over a period is Towan = K dom Im The commutator helps in both cases single phase and dc. motors to exert a continuous torque. The frequency of alternation of flux and armature current is same in case of d.c. operation and thus the torque exerted by any particular armature conductor when under a given pole is always in the same direction. When this same conductor moves to a position under a pole of opposite polarity, the current in it is reversed due to the action of commutator and brushes and hence the torque remains in the same direction as before. The commutation is, thus, as much necessary for ‘single phase a.c. series motor as is for a d.c. motor. However, the pulsating flux causes heavy core losses in the field and yoke. Heavy sparking at the brushes would take place since the induced voltages and currentsin the armature would be short-circuited at the time of commutation. The overall performance of the motor is thus poor. In case of d.c. motors, the applied voltage V has to balance against the armature resistance drop and the back e.m.f. i.e. V = &, + 2 Ra, whereas in case of a.c. motor, the applied voltage is to be balanced against, besides the resistance drop in armature and field, there will be reactance drop due to both in addition to rotational e.m.f. The phasor diagram for an ac. scrics motor is shown in Fig. 7.10. Fig. 7.10 (a) A.C. Series Motor (b) Phasor Diagram Assuming no core loss, the flux is in phase with the: currentand the backe.m.f. E,. From phasor diagram it is clear that for a particular applied voltage, the back e.m.f. in case of a.c . series motor is less than the back e.m.f. in case of d.c. series motor. Since fietd flux remains constant for the same current —I, reduction in back e.m.f. in the case310 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy ofa.c. series motor results in lower speed than that of d.c. series motor. In other words the output of a.c. series motor is less than that of d.c. series motor. The speed-torque characteristics for a.c. and d.c. series motors are shown in Fig. 7.11. Speed —> de Torque—= Fig. 7.11 Speed-Torque characteristics of A.C. and D.C. Series Motors From the above analysis it is clear that in order toimprove the performance of a.c. series motor, the back e.m.f. must be made as far as possible equal to the back e.m.f. of . .c. series motors. This means that the value of armature and field reactances must be made very small. The field reactance can be reduced by using less number of turns on the field. This, of course, in turn reduces field flux. In order to develop same torque, the armature conductors should be increased in the same ratio. The net result of this exercise is that the field flux is reduced but the armature reaction (which introduces fictitious armature reactance) is increased. In order to decrease the effect of armature reaction, a compensating winding, either in series with the armature or short circuited on itself, is provided as shown in Fig. 7.12. Serie’ Series Toro L______o Compensating Compensating (a) (b) Fig. 7.12 Compensating Winding (a) Conductively excited (b) Inductively Excited Incase of inductively excited compensating winding, the neutralizing ampere-turns are provided by transformer action from the armature winding (primary of transformer) but due to some losses and due to the presence of air gap between the two windings, the neutralising ampere-turns so obtained will always be lower thaaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.316 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy t T babe yi ry) & Fig. 7.14 Energy Diagram. Series Parallel Operation and beyond i.e. 2 1, the motors are switched in parallel with the suitable amount of resistance reintroduced and the acceleration continues till time 4 when the total resistance is again cut off. The ordinate [F represents the back e.m{. developed by cach motor and FE the armature drop of each motor. The area CDE represents the energy loss per motor during the period t, < ¢ < rp. Again assuming armature drop to be negligible, the duration of starting for series and parallel operation will be identical. Therefore, the energy wasted during starting will be (per motor) Fig. 7.4 (b). Power developed by each motor is = Back e.m.f X armature current = Area of triangle OE J 1 _vir =3 Vit = a Vie vir Power input to the motors =" 44 =3/4 vy Vitj2 34 Vit 66.67 % Therefore per cent efficiency of starter x 100 Therefore, with series-parallel method the efficiency of starter has increased from 50% in case of plain starting to 66.67%. Similarly, say, there are four motors which can be started all connected in series, then twoin series and parallel with the other two and finally all four in parallel, With this arrangement of series, series parallel and parallel method of starting it can be seen that with four motors the efficiency of starter becomes 72.73% and with still higher number of motors the efficiency of starter goes up. For calculating the starting time for series and parallel operation refer to Fig. 7.14 (a).318 Generation, Distributior and Utilization of Electrical Energy (a) (b) Series step (c) (e) (f) i | ‘Shunt transition (g) (b) We Fig. 7.15 Series parallel starting-Shunt transition. <>

to a Fig. 7.16. Series Parallel Starting—Bridge Transition. 7.1.2 Calculation of Resistances of Sections for Series Steps Refer to Fig. 7.17. Consider two series motors connected in series with starElectric Traction 319 resistances Let ‘n’ denote the number of sections in the starting rheostat; (7 + 1) the number of notches or steps in the series position of the controller, Ri, R>... Ra. Rnet are the resistances in the circuit corresponding to these notches, R», the resistance of each motor (sum of armature and field resistance). If it is desired to have, at start, equal variation of tractive effort on each step aad also thesame upper value of tractive effort at each step except at the first step, (where a low value of tractive effort is required) the variation of current during series portion of the starting period will be as shown in Fig. 7.17 (b). Let maximum value of current be denoted as ‘max and the minimum value as Jmin, the starting current /= V/ Ri, where Vis the supply voltage assumed to be constant. The resistance R; is kept in the circuit till the current decreases to Jmin when the first section (R; — R:) is cut out and the current starts increasing until it reaches a value J,.., and as the speed is picked up the back e.mf. increases and current starts decreasing again. The current change from Ini 10 Imax iS assumed to take place instantaneously in all cases i.e. the speed is assumed to remain constant during this small interval. PT onan mR pT @ Fig. 7.17 (a) Circuit Diagram (6) Current Variation during starting Since the back e.m.f. of any motor is proportional to the product of flux and its speeds, speed being constant, it is proportional only to the flux. Let Sin and rans be the fluxes corresponding to current Jnm and Ina, therefore, (V = Inin Ri) = K mie I 2: and t (V = Imax Ra) = K bmos or ber _ dmn zy mer Similarly a. and soon min 2 ie Pet a Me tee Re = Ine Re _ Y= 2 Inns Be (7.25) mm V—Inin Ry VV din RV tin Rn ‘These are the basic equations relating to the circuit resistances, the upper and lower320 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy limits of currents and the ratio of fluxes corresponding to these currents. Using these equations the value of resistances in various sections can be determined. 7.7.3. Calculations of Sections for Parallel Steps The same basic principle is involved here as is used for series steps in the last articles. Here we shall consider the case when rheostats are connected in the circuit of each motoras is required when bridge transition is carried out. If transition is effected at the current Jn (per motor) for the parallel steps, then assuming that the speed remains constant during transition, we have for the transition step pmax Vi Ip max Rip _ Va Ip max Ry _ V = ty max Rm (7.26) rin V— Imm Rip V = Inn Rey V— Ion Re Where Ri, is resistance in circuit with each motor on the first parallel step,and R:p.... Ru, the resistances in the circuit inclusive of one motor, on the second and subsequent parallel steps and 7’ is the number of sections. Solution of equations (7.26) gives the values of resistances in the various sections for parallel steps. Example 7.13 Two motors rated at 1500 V have armature resistance of 0.15 ohm and take current of 500 A each during starting. The effective weight of the train 140 tonnes, dead weizht 120 tonnes, specific resistance of 50 Newtons/tonne, tractive effort/motor 38000 Newtons, speed at the end of starting period 40 Kmph, determine (i) duration of starting period (ii) speed of train at transition (iii) rheostatic loss. Solution Tractive effort required by the train: 277.8 Wo a + Wr = 38000 x 2 or 277.8 X 140 X a = 76000 — 120 x 50 = 70000 or a = 1.8 Kmphps, Since maximum speed is 40K mph, the starting time = 7 =99 9 see. Resistance drop per motor = /R = 500 X 0.15 = 75 Volt. From equation 7.24 (a) 2UR 22.22 1350 2 V=IR 1425 = 10,53 Sec. Ke Therefore tp = 22.22 — 10.53 = 11.69 sec. Since acceleration during start is assumed to be constant- Therefore Speed at transition = 1.8 X | = 18.95 Kmph Loss of energy in controller per motor from the Fig. below:Electric Traction 321 1/2 X 675 X 500 X 10.53 + 1/2 X 750 X 11.69 X 500 3600 X 1000 Kohrs = 1.102 Kwhr. Therefore loss of energy in controllers for two motors = 2.204 K Whr. Ans. Example 7.14 Two motors each rated at 650 V drivea coach. One of the motors is geared to driving wheels having diameter of 88 cms. and the other motor to driving wheels having diameter of 86 cms. If the speed of the first motor is 1000 rpm when connected in parallel with other motor across 650 V supply, determine the speed of motors when connected in series. Assume armature drop to be 10% and current toremain constant during starting. Solution As the linear velocity of the two driving wheels is same. N Dr 86 Ni Di = Ni Dr or = Di 88 Using equation 7.22. Vr Tr N: Ni 14= 14+— ™ 650-65 | 65 =o + 88 86 +> += 86 88 = 289.14 + 32.87322 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy = 322 Volts. Therefore 328 Vos, Using equation (7.24) m= 1000 x =2—95 = 439 4 = 1000 x 22 = — m. 1 are P Ans. Since Nz _ 88 M86 88 Therefore Ny = 439 X te = 449 rpm. Ans. Example 7.15 The characteristics of a dc. series motor coupled to a driving wheel having diameter of 86 cms. and gear ratio 71 : 21 are given below: Armature Current (A) 50 100 150 200 250 300 Speed Kmph 80 50 45 40 36 32 Tractive effect in Newtons 2000 6000 12000 16000 18000 22000 Determine the new characteristics if driving wheels are replaced by 88 cms. and gear ratio 74: 19 Solution We know that for a given armature current the angular speed of the motor and the torque developed by the motor are same irrespective of what driving wheel diameter or gear ratios are, Different wheel diameters and gear ratios will give different linear speed and tractive efforts. Let suffix 1 represent given conditions and suffix 2 the new required condition. Let V; be the linear speed given as: MX 60 Y= OM 0 inp 100 X 1000 71 x Ys M= 1000 X 100 yi Vi 60 r Di or Dz Ni X 60 Similarly Vp = [22 "1 *°° kK mph for the same value of current. 100 X 1000 X y2 _ _«DzX 60 100 X 1000 y: Vi or VF ee 100 X 1000 y2 OUT Dt TM = 0.888 i.e. for the same current the linear speed in the second case is 0.888 times the value in the first case.Electric Traction 323 Similarly tor the same current a relation between the tractive efforts can be obtained. Torque T; exerted at the driving wheels. Ds T= Fux - 1 Fa X 356 Newton m Torque exerted by the motor = + =F" Pt a y 1 200%) qi Now torque caerted at the driving wheel in the second case= — y2= Th Xv Let tractive effort in the second case be F's Therefore torque T; exerted at the driving wheel = Fi: x22 200 Theretore Dz Fu X D, X= 200 200 yi Dy or Fa=Fax—x = Do 86 74 2) =FiX—X—X— 88 19°) «71 = 1.126 Fa Therefore, the new characteristics are Armature Current (A) 50 100 150 200 250 300 Speed in Kmph 71.04 44.4 39.96 35.52 32 «28.42 Tractive effort in Newton 22526756 1351218016 20268 24772 Exampie 7.16 Determine the resistance of the various steps and the number of steps for starting a 20 hip. series motor for 500V, the current varying between 1.5 and 2 times full load current. Efficiency 80%, combined resistance of armature and field windings 1 ohm. The flux increases by 100% as the current rises from 1.5 to 2 times full load current. Solution The full load current = 20% 7355. _ 56 775 4 500 X 0.8 Imin = 55.16 and Imax = 73.55 A Using the equation (7.25) for a single motor, we have 500 — 73.55 X 1.0 426.45 ~~ 500—55.16R 500—55.16R324 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy or 550 — 60.67 R = 426.45 or R= 2.0360 Therefore resistance of one step = 2.036 — 1.0 = 1.036 2 Ans, 500 350.25 Similarly 1.1 = —————" = __ 500 — 55.16 Ri 00 — 55.16 Ri or 550 — 60.67 Ri = 350.25 R=3.290 Therefore resistance of next step = 3.29 — 2.036 = 1.26.0 To calculate next step id 500 — 73.55 X 3.29 "500 — $5.16 Re 4810 Therefore next step.= 4.81 — 3.29 = 1.52.0 lis 500 — 73.55 X 4.81 500 — 55.16 Rs Rs = 6.650 Therefore next step = 6.65 — 4.81 = 1.84. Thus, four steps are required and on start, the current Inox = S A 7.7.4, Speed Control by Field Weakening We know that the armature voltage control is used whenever speeds lower than normal speeds are required, and field control is used when speeds more than normal are required. In case of traction motors, due to certain design difficulties, field control is usually limited to one or two tapings so that an increase of 15 to 30% in speed is made possible. Since the speed is inversely propotionnal to the flux, by weakening the field, the speed is increased. For weakening the field either a diverter is provided or the field is tapped. Acombination of both the field and voltage control provides sufficient flexibility in the operation of traction motors. For city service, the speed required is low and frequent starting and stopping are required, the equipment can operate with the full field and when the same vehicle is to operate for suburban services where higher speeds are required, field weakening can be used, thus eliminating the need for change in gear ratio wnicn omerwise would be required. Thus, one type of equipmentcan be used to operate under different service conditions with reasonable energy con- sumption. The effect of ficld weakening on the speed-current and speed tractive effort curves is illustrated by the following example: Example 7.17 ‘The following table gives the data of the speed-current and speed tractive effort of a motor coach when running with the motors having all their field turns in circuit.Electric Traction 325 Determine the corresponding characteristics if run ona field tapping which cuts out 30% of the tums, Current (A) 50 100 150 200 250 Speed (Kmph) BS 4 41 37 35 Tractive effort (Kg.) 131 457 810 1163 1525 Solution In order to study the effect of field weakening on the speed and tractive effort as a function of current, we derive the magnetisation curve. Suppose the flux corresponding toa current of 250A is 100%. The speed at this current is 35 Kmph.Consider a current of SOA where the speed is 73.5, since the flux g oc ! n " 35 7 Therefore the flux corresponding to 73.5 Kmph will be ——~ X 100 = 47.6% Ta Similarly for other currents, the corresponding per cent flux can be obtained: Current ~ 50 +100 «150 = 200 :~=—«-250 percent flux 47.6 122.9 85.4 94.6 100 . From the graph the flux for reduced excitation is given as follows: Current A 50. 100 «150 200 250 Equivalent reduced 35 7 105 140 175 Current (A) Reduced flux in per cent 32. 57_—74 8390 Magretisation th Flux & Speed—= Weat field 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 228 250 Now, reduction of field turns by 30% is equivalent to reducing ampere turns by this amount and the effect, as far as flux is concerned is similar to reducing the current by 30%. Fora current of SOA, the effective flux comes out to be 32% as against 47.6% when the field turns are not cut out326 Generation, Distribution and Utilization. of Electrical Energy ‘Therefore; for a-current of SOA. the speed will be 47.6 X 73.5 ———— = 109.33 Kmph 2 Similarly for other currents, the calculations can be made and results listed below: Current (A) 50 100 150 200 250 Speed Kmph 109.33 61.4 47.3 42.2 38.9 As tractive effort < o/, the new value of tractive efforts will be Current 50 100 150 200 250 Tractive effort 88 = 357.3 7021020 = 1372 7.7.5 Buck and Boost Method Refer to Fig. 7.18. The armatures of both the traction motors and the motor-generator set are connected in series and across the supply. When the generator voltage equals the supply voltage and is in opposition to it, the main contactor (MC) is closed. Under this condition, there is no voltage across the traction motors and hence their speed is zero. If now the generator voltage is reduced, voltage across traction motors starts increasing and their speed rises. When generator voltage is zero, full supply voltage appears across the motorsi.e. each motor receives one-half of the supply voltage. If the polarity of the generated e.m.f. equals supply voltage, each traction motor will receive voltage equal tosupply voltage. Thus by adjusting the generator excitation the equivalent supply-voltage can be reduced or boosted up. Following are the advaniages of this method: hm Controt suppl 4 Fig. 7.18 Buck and Boost Method (i) It is possible to obtain any operating speed of the traction motors, whereas in case of resistance controllers only a few speeds are possible. (ii) Incase of temporary interruption in the supply, the K.E. of the fly wheel can be utilized in generating energy from the MGset and fed to the traction motors. (iii) There is no energy loss in the starting resistance of the traction motors. However, loss does take place in the starting resistance of motor generator set.Electric Traction 329 ‘Shunt motor Variator winding }) Regulator Traction motor Fig. 7.20 Metadyne converter alongwith its control components. the converter goes down. With this the speed of the shunt motor also goes down and “ihe back emf developed decreases. For the same supply voltage the armature current, therefore, increases and hence the current through the regulator winding increases which will have more demagnetising effect along AA . In order to have same value of flux the current drawn by the converter, therefore, increases. Hence. input to the converter increases and a balance between output and input is restored and the metadyne again runs at a constant speed by shunt motor. Thus, complete control of the series motors connected across BB’ can be obtained simply by varying the current in the variator winding and the use of external resistance for the purpose is eliminated. Hence a considerable saving in energy consumption is affected particularly for suburban services. With metadyne converter, regenerative braking can be obtained very easily by reversing the field of traction motor. This resultsin changein direction of Z, which in turn will change the direction of current /; i.e. now the current /; will be fed back to the supply. By controlling the magnitude of reversed excitation of traction motors supplied by metadyne, the magnitude of regenerative braking can be regulated. This is yet another important advantage of metadyne control that regenerative braking down to zero speed can be obtained. Thus saving in energy during acceleration and braking may easily counterbalance the additional cost of the more complicated equipments required in metadyne control. 7.8, CONTROL OF SINGLE PHASE SERIES MOTORS The speed and torque of single phase series motor can be varied by applying variable voltage. Usually the operating voltage of the motor is smaller than the supply voltage, a transformer is an integral part of the equipment. Various voltages for starting and speed control can be obtained from tapping on this transformer. With this not only the starting resistances are avoided and hence the energy saving is obtained but also each control point (tapping) becomes a running point so that a number of economical speeds are made available. The voltage tapping is effected either by a group of330 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy contactors or a tap’changing switch. While changing the tap it should be seen that the successive short circuiting of the sections of the transformer winding between the tappings should be avoided. The contactor methods used for tap changing isshown in Fig. 7.21. The contactors | through 6 are arranged in two groupsi.e. 1, 3, 5 and2, 4,6 with the common terminals of each group connected to preventive coil. The centre point of the preventive coil is cuunected to the motor. For each notching operation two successive contactors are closed, thus each contactor carries half of the motor current. To effect change in tap, one contactor is opened and another belonging to the same group is closed. With the use of preventive coil the shori-circuiting of transformer winding between the tapings is avoided. Fig. 7.21. Tap Changing by Contactor Method. In case larger currents are to be handled by the contactors (for large capacity traction motors), a larger number of contactors should be used simultaneously so that the current is divided between them and each contactor has to deal with not more than a prespecified design value. The a.c. contactors as compared to d.c. contactors differ in many respects. In general, d.c. contactor is much lighter than the a.c. contactor and requires less power for its operation. Other difficulties encountered with a.c. contactors are — (i) the magnetic circuit must be laminated; (ii) A shading coil must be provided to avoid chattering of contactors. 7.9. SPEED CONTROL OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS Assuming that the supply frequency is constant, following methods are used for the speed control of 3-phase induction motors: (1) Rheostatic Control. (2) Pole Changing. (3) Cascade Control. (4) A combination of pole changing and Cascade Control. These methods alongwith, method where the speed is controlled by variable frequency supply have been discussed in Chapter IV.Electric Traction 331 7.10. MULTIPLE UNIT CONTROL The coaches where electric motors are installed are known as motor coaches. For city and suburban services, electric trains are made up of a number of motor and trailer coaches. Depending upon the traffic requirements, a suitable number of motor and trailer coaches are used. Thus, during heavy traffic period two or more than two motor coaches and a number of trailer coaches may be required whereas during off-peak periods one motor coach and one trailer may be good enough. Each motor coach may have two or four motors and it is desirable that it should be possible to control the operation of all the motors in train from a single point and this control system is known as multiple unit control. This system is now invariably used for all motorcoach trains and is also employed in cases where two or more than two locomotives may require to be coupled to haul a heavy train on gradients. The following are the equipments required on a motor coach for control purposes: Master Controller, Series Paratlel Motor Controller, Multi-Core Cable for Control Circuits, Accelerating Relays, a Motor-Generator Set or a Battery or Tapped-Line Connected Potential Divider Supply to the Control Circuit. The equipments required on the trailer coach are Master Controller (if required ), Multi-core Cable with coupler sockets for the Control Circuits. The motor coach is also provided with certain devices for the protection of motors against over loads. These consist of: Overcurrent Relay with Driver’s Control Switch, Isolating Switch for Master Controller, Switches with fuses for isolating the Control Circuit of the Motor Controller from the Control Bus line. With all types of controllers, a Dead Man’s Handle Device is provided in order to stop the train automatically in case the driver fails and/or is not in a position to control the operation. This is in the form of a contact attached to the knob of the Controller Handle. If the driver is not able to operate the handle properly, the knob tises which causes the contact to close and operate the main circuit breaker and apply the brakes. 7.11, BRAKING OF ELECTRIC MOTORS In electric traction both types of braking, the electrical and mechanical areemployed as electrical braking alone can’t bring the train to stationary position. It provides additional factor of safety in case of failure of mechanical brakes and also reduces wear of brake shoes. Another important advantage of electric braking is that it provides higher retardation, thus bringing a vehicle quickly to a halt thereby considerable saving in operating time is obtained especially for suburban services. In case regnerative braking is employed a saving of 15 to 20% in energy consumption can be achieved. The subject of Electric Braking as such has been discussed in Chapter IV. Braking relevant only to electric traction is being discussed here. D.C. Series Motors, Rheostatic Braking Rheostatic Braking for series motor when applied to a single motor has already been discussed in Chapter IV. If two or more d.c. series motors are employed, these are connected in parallel for braking as shown in Fig. 7.22s the series connections would"332 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy Produce high voltage depending upon the number of motors and the back e.m.f. developed by cach motor. fa) ty) Fig. 7.22. Rheostatic braking— (a) Equaliser Connections. (b) Cross Connections. In order that the two motors share equal loads an equaliser connection is used as shown in Fig. 7.22 (a). If this is not done, the machine that builds up excitation first would force a current through the second machine in the opposite direction, thereby the second motor is excited in the opposite direction and the two motors would short-circuit on themselves, A large braking torque would be developed due to dangerously high currents. An altemative method is to cross-connect the two motors as shown in Fig. 7.22 (b). ‘Suppose the voltage of one of the motors is higher than that of the other. The first one will pass a higher current through the field winding of the second one, as a result the second machine will have higher voltage whereas the field current in the first one due to second motor is smaller and hence this will result in lower voltage of first one. ‘Thus, an automatic compensation of the unbalancing is obtained. Cross-connection is better than equaliser connections. If the direction of rotation of the armatures is reversed say on run back (due to upgradient) the machines fail to excite with equaliser connections and hence no braking is possible which may prove fatal for the passengers whereas with cross connections, the motors will build up in series and provide braking action. Regenerative Braking: Reguerative braking can’t be applied to d.c. series motors in the same simple way as is done for a shunt motor for the following reasons: (@ During regeneration the direction of current through the field winding is reversed, thereby the back e.m_f. is reversed and a short-circuit condition is set up, as the supply voltage and back e.m.f. aid each other. Therefore, for regeneration, reversal of field connections are required and tojudge the instant when this is to be done requires considerable skill on the part of the operator. Gi) A small change in supply voltage may cause a large change in regnerated current unless some compensating device is used. One of the methods employed is as shown in Fig. 7.23 wherein the series motors are connected as shunt motors during regeneration. Suitable resistances are connected in series with the series field windings and the combination is connected across the supply. Afthere is only one motor, the condhtions would be similar to the rheostatic braking, as the current regenerated by the motor will be utilized in exciting the field windingElectric Traction 333 and the energy would be wasted in the series resistances. However, if there are more than one motor, the arrangement as shown in Fig. 7.23 is used. Here regenerated current from one of the motors is sufficient to excite the fields of all the motors and the current from the other motorsis fed back tothe supply. ‘This arrangement is quite stable as any change in supply voltage produces a change in excitation and hence e.m.f. induced in these machines is changed. Suppose there is increase in supply voltage, the current through the series fields also increases which increases the e.m.f. induced in the generators and hence the regenerated current is controlled. Thus, inherent compensation for any increase or decrease in supply voltage is obtained in this system. ap Fig. 7.23 Regenerative braking—shunt connection. Another method using separate exciter for regenerative braking is shown in Fig. 7.24(a ). The exciter may be driven either by a separate motor operated from an auxiliary supply or from one of the axles of the locomotives. The exciter is differentially compounded. The shunt winding of the exciter is separately excited from an auxiliary supply, the differential series winding is connected in the main circuit and carries the regnerated current. The series winding opposes the separately excited winding of exciter during regeneration. Suppose, there is increase in line voltage during regeneration, the regenerated current will decrease (as during regeneration induced e.m.f. should be greater than the supply voltage), the differential effect of the series field winding of exciter decreases and hence, the current in the armature circuit of exciter increases thereby the excitation of the series generator (fields of traction motors) increases, the e.m.f. induced by the series generator increases hence counter-balances the increase in supply voltage. Stabilizing resistance R also helps in this action.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Appendix to Chapter 4 347 Fig. 4.47 shows the superposition of speed torque characteristic of a blower type load on the speed torque characteristics of induction motor for different stator voltages. For different stator voltages, the stable operating speed is given by the point of intersection of load characteristic and the corresponding speed torque curve of the motor. It is clear from figure that the range of speed control will be reduced if the motor is designed with low full load stip. Load characteristic — Slip Fig. 4.47 Load and Motor Characteristic under Variable Stator Voltage. In this method of control the torque per ampere of stator current is reduced as the stator voltage is reduced to decrease the speed. The emf equation is given as follows : V=E=4.44 ba fN Since the frequency is normal and if the supply voltage is reduced m is reduced. Therefore, for the same value of torque, the stator current increases which results in poor torque/amp characteristic. Fig. 4.48 shows a delta connected controller where a thyristor pair is connected in series with each delta winding and thus each phase constitutes as an inde- pendent single phase load to the line. This arrangement has the advantage of reducing the current of the device as it has to carry now ah of the current if they were connected in the line of the delta winding. Once the phase current wave is known. the line current wave can be constructed by superposition. If the motor is to be star connected and if the neutral point is accessible, the regulator circuit shown in Fig. 4.49 requires only three thyristors and simplifies considerably the control circuitry. However, the harmonic penalty is very severe. The power consumption by the motor may be as high as 100% greater than that with sine wave voltage control especially at reduced speeds.348 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy Fig. 4.48 Deita Connected Speed Controller. Motor winding Fig. 4.49 Neutral Connected Regulator.Appendix to Chapter 4 349 VARIABLE VOLTAGE VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL This is further classifed as (i) square wave inverter and (ii) pulse-width modulated inverter. Fig. 4.50 shows a square wave inverter power circuit. A three phase bridge rectifier converts a.c. to variable voltage d.c. which is fed to 36 ac supply O Converter Filter (controlled) zt Fig. 4.50. Variable Voltage Variable Frequency Control of LM. the force commutated bridge inverter. The inverter generates a variable voltage variable frequency power supply to control the speed of the induction motor. The inverter is also known as voltage-fed as a large filter capacitor provides a stiff voltage supply to the inverter and the inverter output voltage wave form is not affected by the nature of load. Fig. 4.51 shows the voltage wave forms Vm, Von and Vo» and the line to line voltages Viy Vi», Vor. Each line voltage wave form is displaced in time phase by 120° and each is of 120° in width. It is to be noted here that the inverter thyristors are force commutated as induction motor is a lagging pf. load. The feedback diodes help circulation of load reactive power with filter capacitor and maintain the output voltage waves fixed to the level of d.c. link voltage. The basic philosophy of controlling the speed using variable voltage variable frequency control is given as follows : The torque developed by an induction motor depends on air gap flux and the armature current. The torque can be kept constant for fixed value of air gap flux which in turn can be maintained constant by keeping ratio of induced emf to frequency constant. Thus for constant flux operation, the induced e.m.f. should linearly increase or decrease with applied frequency. At higher voltages and at higher frequency operation stator drops are small and thus constant torque operation can be obtained by keeping + ratio constant. This is known as constant flux mode operation. This mode of operation ensures the ability of350 Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy Ven Fig. 451 Output Vohage Wave form at the Motor Terminal. developing the highest possible torque per unit stator current and. therefore, results in the best possible utilisation of the available current capability of the drive. Constant flux operation also ensures constancy in the parameters of the motor. Fig. 4.52 shows the desired voltage-frequency relationship of the in- duction motor. If the frequency is less than the normal frequency, the air gap flux is kept constant by reducing the voltage by the same proportion so that V/f is constant. However, at very low frequencies, as the reactance drop becomes small as compared to stator resitance drop (wZ) 3 Kmphps and 2 Kmphps. (c) 1.5 Kmphps and 4 Kmphps. (a) None of the above. ‘Typical value of acceleration and deceleration for suburban services are: (a) 4 Kmphps and 6 Kmphps. (b) 6 Kmphps and 4 Kmphps. (©) 2.5 Kmphps and 4 Kmphps. (d) None of the above. In suburban services as compared with urban services: (a) the coasting period is longer. (b) the coastng period is smaller but free running period is longer. (©) the coasting and free running periods are smaller. (d) None of the above is true. ‘The distance between two stations is 1 Km and the schedule speed is 30 Km per hour. Station stopping time 20sec. The average speed is : (a) 25.7 km per hr. (b) 36 km per br. (©) 45 km per hr. (d) 54 km per br. The overall thermal efficiency of a thermal power plant lies in the range: (a) 20 per cent to 25 per cent (b) 30 per cent to 40 per cent (c) 45 per cent to 60 per cent (@) 65 per cent to 80 per cent. Water is supplied to a boiler : {a) at 120 kg/cm? (b) at atmospheric pressure (©) at slightly more than atmospheric pressure. {d) at more than the steam pressure in the boiler. The PH value of water used for boiler is : (a) Unity (b)7 ©) 10 (A) Slightly more than seven. For low head and high discharge, the hydraulic turbine used is : (a) Francis turbine (b) Kaplan turbine (c) Pelton wheel The distance between two stations is 1 Kmand the average and scheduled speeds of the train are 36 Kmph and 30 Kmph respectively. The stations stopping time is : (a) 20 sec. (b) 40 sec. (6) 10 sec. (d) 16 sec.Q.38 0.39 Q.40 Qal Q.42 Q43 Q44 Q.45 Q.46 Q.47 Objective Type Questions 373 For a given run and a given schedule speed : (a) the specific energy consumptionis lower. the higher theacceleration and retardation. (b) the specific energy consumptionis higher. the higher the acceleration and retardation. (6) the specific energy consumption is lower, the higher the acceleration and lower the retardation. (d) the specific energy consumption is lower the lower the acceleration and higher the deceleration. The specific energy consumption : (a) increases with increase in maximum speed {(b) decreases with increase in maximum speed. (©) is independent of maximum specd. If the speed-time curves are similar (not identical), the specific energy consumption of the curve having higher maximum speed is : (a) higher than that of lower maximum speed (b) lower than that of lower maximum speed (©) equal to that of lower maximum speed. Co-efficient of adhesion is higher if : (a) the speed is low and the rails are sandy and dry. (b) the speed is high and the rails are sandy and dry. (©) the speed is high and the rails are wetty. (d) the rails are wet and greasy. Two shunt motors having identical characteristics are used to drive a car with vpequal wheel diameters. The two motors share load equally if they are connected in (a) series (b) parallel (©) the loading will always be unequal. ‘Two locomotives having identical tractive-effort-slip characteristic haul a heavy train. ‘The loco with larger diameter shares : (a) larger tractive effort (b) smaller tractive effort (©) equal tractive effort, For rheostatic braking of two series motors connected in parallel : (a) equaliser connection is better (b) cross connection is better (©) both are equally good (d) none of the two is used. For braking of electric trains, normally : (a) regenerative braking is used to bring the speed down to zero. (b) regenerative braking is used down to a speed of 4 kmph followed by mechanical brakes. (©) regenerative braking is used down to a speed of 16 kmph, and finally mechanical brakes. (d) regenerative braking is used down to a speed of 16 kmph followed by rheostatic braking till zero speed. Run away speed of a Pelton wheel is : (a) full load speed (b) actual speed operating at no load (©) no load speed when governor mechanism fails. (d) 80 per cent greater than the normal speed. For regenerative braking, the regenerated power thould have (@) the same frequency as that of the main supply.Q. 58 Q.61 Q.62 Q.63 Q.65 Q.67 Q. 68 Objective Type Questions 378 Tick out the incorrect combination (a) Pelton turbine Needle Valve (b) Francis turbine Wicket gate {c) Kaplan turbine Needle valve A Kaplan turbine is : {a) inward flow. impulse turbine (b) outward flow reaction turbine (c) a high head mixed flow turbine (d) low head axial flow turbine Iumination level required for precision work is approximately : (a) $0 km/m? (b) $00 Im/m* {c) 100 1m/m? (4) 200 Im/m* Which of the following lamps gives nearly monochromatic light : (a) Fluorescent tube (b) Sodium vapour lamp (c) Mercury vapour lamp (4) GLS lamp Luminous efficacy of fluorescent tube is : (a) 60-65 Im/watt (b) 15-20 Im/watt {c) 100-200 Im/watt (d) 150-250 Im/watt The life of incandescent lamp is expected to be: (a) 500 hrs. (b) 1000 brs. (c) 100 hrs. (d) 10,000 hrs. ‘An auto-transformer used with sodium vapour lamp should have: (a) higher step up ratio (b) high leakage reactance (c) high step down ra (A) high efficiency Choke is provided (a) to (b) to improve power factor (c) to eliminate corona effect (d) to provide stability to the arc in the tube, a fluorescent tube: ‘The p.f. of the fluorescent tube alone is: (a) 08 lag (b) 0.5 lag (©) Unity (d) 0.8 lead Current taken by 80 watt fluorescent lamp will be: (a) equal to that of 80 watt filament lamp (b) less than that of 80 watt filament lamp (c) more than that of 80 watt filament lamp (d) none of the above is necessary. Filament lamp at starting will take current:Q.78 9.79 Q.80 Q.82 Q.83 Q.85 Q. 86 Q.87 Ubjective Type Questions 377 Tick out the correct statement : (a) smaller size machines have their critical speeds above their synchronous speeds. (b) smaller size machines have their critical speeds below their synchronous speeds (c) Critical speed is always greater than synchronous speed irrespective of size ot machine. (4) critical speed is always less than synchronous speed irrespective of the size of the machine. The co-effieient of adhesion is highest when- (a) the rails are dusty (b) the rails are wet (c) the rails are dry (d) the rails are oiled. Specific energy consumption is minimum in: {a) main-ine service (b) sub-urban service (c) urban service (d) equal for all types. Steel rails are welded by: (a) Argon are welding (b) Thermit welding (c) Gas welding (a) Resistance welding. Quadrilateral speed time curve is used for : (a) suburban service (£) urban service (c) main line service (d) urban and sub-urban service. In arc welding the temperature of the arc is of the order of : (a) 150°C (b) 1540°C (c) 3500°C (a) 10000°C For welding aluminium alloys, the method used is : (a) Tungsten are welding (b) Acetylene oxygen gas welding (©) DC. are welding (d) A.C. are welding In are welding better results are obtained when arc length is equal to: (a) 3/4” (b) 1 (c) half the diameter of electrode (4) diameter of electrode In seam welding (a) the work piece is fixed and the disc electrodes move. (b) the work piece moves through fixed but rotating electrodes. (c) any one of the two methods may be present. (d) None of the above. Aluminium is difficult to weld because (a) it has an oxide coating. (b) it conducts away heat very rapidly. (©) of (a) and (b) (4) None of the above reasons.Generation, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy has been written for undergraduate students of Indian & Foreign universities. An attempt has been made to provide in a concise form the essential features of generation distribution and utilization aspects of electric energy. The non-conventional methods have been given due weightage they deserve under the present world energy scenerio. The economics of generation starting with the load survey to the fixation of tariffs by the electric-utilities, has been discussed. Both steady state and transient state characteristics of motors have been discussed. Various modern methods of speed control and braking have been explained. Various methods of ‘Heating and Welding’ have been discussed. A chapter on illumination Engineering deals into aesthetic and design aspect of illumination in offices, factories etc. Tables at the end of the chapter give some guidelines for illumination levels in different places of public and private concern. The last chapter deals in all aspects of Electric traction. A large number of problems have been solved to help understand the relevant theory. At the end of each chapter unsolved problems with their answers have been suggested for further. practice. At the end, a large number of objective type questions have been added to help the reader to test himself. An extensive bibliography at the end of each chapter will help the reader to locate detailed information on various topics of his interest. C.L. Wadhwa Dr. Wadhwa, Professor in Electrical Engineering at the Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi obtained his Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi. Professor Wadhwa has an experience of more than 21 years in teaching undergraduate as well as graduate classes in the areas of electrical machines, transmission networks, utilization of electric energy, switchgear and protection, high voltage engineering, electric field theory, advanced network analysis, computer optimization, economics of power system, etc. He has also contributed a few papers in national and international journals. His current interests are economic operation of power systems and sparsity techniques in power systems. NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS New Delhi ¢ Bangalore » Chennai * Guwahati * Hyderabad Kolkata * Lucknow * Mumbai ISBN 81-224-0073-6