DLM 14 - PHYSICS OF TRANSDUCERS FOR IMAGING AND DOPPLER

Benjamin Adeyemi MB M.Sc North Middlesex University Hospital London

Objectives To understand the properties of the basic ultrasound pulse as applied to 2D and Doppler imaging To understand the design and development of the modern day phased array transducer, the piezo-electric materials and physical construction of a phased array transducer as applied to clinical echocardiography, and how it functions effectively to improve image quality To understand the principles behind the development of the modern day transducer, its clinical applications, and improvement in technology To understand broadband imaging, why image texture is different in harmonic imaging, and how this knowledge can be used effectively to optimise imaging techniques To understand recent technological advances in the design of transducers.

1. Introduction The development of ultrasound transducers has been driven by efforts to improve image quality. Image quality is largely determined by beam width, frame rates, the length of the ultrasound pulse (l/bandwidth), and sensitivity. Reducing beam width and increasing frame rates have benefited from previous developments that have have largely concentrated on electronic beam forming techniques such as focussing to reduce beam width and improve lateral resolution, faster signal processing to improve display of the ultrasound image, and increasing frame rates using faster digital processing. Most modern machines now have greatly increased frame rates. In recent years, manufacturers have concentrated on other aspects of transducer design, and have made substantial improvements which include: 1. Using acoustics and vibration properties such as electromechanical properties of PZT and other ceramics, and impedance matching to improve sensitivity and axial resolution. 2. Developments in transducer materials and impedance matching to improve sensitivity and bandwidth, with greater penetration and increased dynamic range, and improved axial, spatial and contrast resolution. 3. Focussing in the elevation plane which controls slice thickness and produces higher resolution. 4. Focussing in both elevation and lateral planes with improved image quality in 3D applications. 5. Further improvements in digital signal processing which affects all aspects of image quality. 6. Wider imaging field distribution for 3D imaging

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The Basic Ultrasound pulse and Pulse generation

A typical ultrasound pulse consists of cycles of oscillating amplitudes (figure 1a), and contains a spectrum of frequencies (bandwidth) dominated by a centre frequency. A high frequency transducer generates a short pulse (1-3 cycles), producing a wide bandwidth (broadband), this gives accurate distance information with good axial resolution, and is ideal for diagnostic 2D imaging (figure 1a). Figure 1a. Short Pulse

1 3 cycles

Wide bandwidth

A low frequency transducer generates a long pulse about 5 30 cycles (figure 1b ), producing a narrow bandwidth, this gives accurate frequency information but poor axial resolution, therefore used typically for Doppler imaging (figure 1b).

Figure 1b. Long Pulse

5 30 cycles

Narrow bandwidth

The ultrasound pulse occurs in microseconds therefore difficult to measure. The pulse generated by the transducer is sent to tissues, and the reflected echo is received by the same transducer within a time interval determined by the depth or range of the reflector (Figure 1c). A brief pulse generates a single echo allowing the delay to be measured, with continuous transmission individual echoes cant be identified.

Figure 1c.

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Structure of Phased Array Transducers

All transducers have a thin piezoelectric ceramic plate often made of lead zirconate titanate (PZT), a matching layer, and a backing layer with a single lens across the transducer arrays. (figure 2a). The piezoelectric plate generates and detects ultrasound waves. Some piezoelectric materials (e.g quartz) occurs naturally, but (PZT) is a synthetic ceramic material commonly used. The curved cylindrical lens after the matching layer is used to focus the beam in the elevation plane and improve electronic focussing, producing the greatest transmitted amplitude and receive sensitivity at the focal zone. Figure 2a: Cross-section of a typical phased array transducer

Figure 2b: Cross-section of a typical phased array transducer

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PZT and generation of ultrasound pulse

The properties of piezoelectric materials are that they deform in response to an electrical voltage, and generate electrical voltages when stretched or compressed by an external force. Newer versions of PZT have been developed to improve sensitivity and produce larger acoustic power, and other piezoelectric materials are being developed to generate stronger electrical signals when receiving echo pulses with greater sensitivity and penetration and wider bandwidth, producing better axial resolution. PZT generates and transmits ultrasound imaging pulses when fired by rapidly changing voltages. In order to transmit an ultrasound pulse, the oscillating voltage of the required frequency is applied across

the PZT plates making it vibrate at this frequency sending the ultrasonic pulse into tissues. During reception, the pressure variation of returning echoes cause the PZT plate to contract and expand generating voltage variations across the plate that form an electronic version of the received echo signal. For the PZT plate to vibrate most strongly, its thickness must be exactly half the wavelength of the signal produced by the vibrating frequency produced ie half-wave resonance. Resonance occurs because the ultrasound wave propagating across the thickness of the PZT plate reverberates within the plate. If the thickness of the PZT is equal to half the wavelength of the vibrating frequency, it will travel a full wavelength within the PZT before arriving at its starting point, this means that it will be in phase with the original wave and add constructively to produce a greater output. A PZT plate with thickness that is equal to half the wavelength at the required centre frequency will resonate and produce a larger output at this frequency. PZT crystals transmit impulses 1% of the time, and receive impulses 99% of the time. The electrical pulse applied across the PZT plate typically consists of 1-3 cycles of oscillating voltages of peak to peak amplitude of as much as 200 to 300 Volts determined by the output power control. The frequency and duration of the oscillating pulse is determined by the transducer centre frequency and pulse length. Excess internal ringing The main disadvantage of PZT is that it has a high density therefore high characteristic acoustic impedance up to 20 times higher than that of soft tissue. This results in up to 80% reflection of the ultrasound energy at the PZT-tissue interface, multiple prolonged internal reverberation (ringing), and very long pulses with ultimately poor axial resolution, poor sensitivity and reverberation artifarct. Backing layer A backing (damping) layer with a high characteristic acoustic impedance and ability to absorb ultrasound is used behind the PZT plate to reduce unwanted ringing (figure 2a). Modern transducers have a backing layer with impedance somewhat lower to give a useful reduction in ringing without lowering sensitivity too much, but prevent total absorption of ultrasound. The remaining ringing is removed by adding a matching layer (figure 2a). Apart from the ringing problem, poor sensitivity is made worse because only 20% of the ultrasound waves power would be transmitted through the front PZT-tissue interface. To correct this problem a single impedance matching layer is bonded to the front face of the PZT plate to increase transmission across the front face of the PZT by nearly 100%, and increase the efficiency of the transmitted wave as it exits the transducer surface (figure 2a). This is done effectively by ensuring that the matching layer has a thickness equal to a quarter of a wavelength, and an impedance equal to :

Impedance of PZT x Impedance of Tissue

This is called the geometric mean of the impedances. Figure 2c shows reverberation within PZT plate that produces multiple transmission into tissues resulting in reinforced signals and a larger amplitude pulse. Multiple reflections back into PZT cancel out the original (top) reflection into backing layer. The most efficient (near 100%) transmission through the matching layer only occurs when its thickness is exactly one-quarter of a wavelength of its vibrating frequency.

Figure 2c: Quarter-wave length matching layer

Matching layer and bandwidth Although the matching layer improves sensitivity, it gives high sensitivity at a single frequency, and good performance only over a narrow range of frequencies. It also acts as a filter therefore reducing bandwidth. Figure 3 below shows the bandwidth or range of frequencies for a transducer. A -3db bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which the transducer is most efficient. A transducer with a matching layer will have a -3db bandwidth of about 60% of the centre frequency, therefore a 3MHz transducer with a matching layer will have a -3dB lower frequency of 1.8MHz. and an upper frequency of 4.2MHz. Figure 3: Transducer bandwidth

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Improvements in efficiency of Transducers

A large transducer bandwidth is produced by a short pulse, and is crucial for good axial resolution. Transducer bandwidth can be increased by using two or more matching layers of different thickness. Improvements in backing layers and introduction of multiple matching layer technology have led to transducers with wider bandwidths. Up to -3dB bandwidth with greater than 100% centre frequency is now available. Larger transducer bandwidths are now a common feature in modern day transducers. This allows a choice of operating frequencies according to penetration or resolution required. Modern day transducers can now operate at three frequencies for example a 1, 2 and 3MHz transducer would need to have a centre frequency of 2MHz and a bandwidth of 2MHz which is 100% of the centre frequency. Axial

resolution of bandwidths generated at the upper and lower frequencies is however less than if the whole transducer bandwidth were used. Figure 4: Broadband Transducer bandwidth

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Improvements in PZT and transducer design

The Piezoelectric (PZT) material is the most effective determinant of beam penetration and image quality. For many years, there has been slow progress in the development of PZT crystals with superior electromechanical properties. Recently transducer design has been focussed on development of new types of PZT materials (e.g. PureWave crystals, as developed by Philips Medical Ltd)) with improved electromechanical properties compared to old PZT ceramics or PZT composites. These are being been used with specially designed matching layers and backing materials producing dramatic improvements in efficiency, sensitivity and bandwidth. Composite PZT is made by cutting closely spaced narrow channels through a solid plate of PZT ceramic and filling them with an inert polymer, this has a lower characteristic acoustic impedance than PZT itself, therefore produces transducers with greater sensitivity and wider bandwidth, and alleviates the problems associated with matching. PureWave crystals are more efficient than PZT ceramic or PZT composites with electro-mechanical properties improved by up to 68 85%, and ten times the ability to deform in the presence of an electrical field. When combined with multiple matching layers and backing material, they greatly increase bandwidth (1 - 5MHz), and sensitivity at transmission and reception, with improved dynamic range, greater penetration, greater clarity of images, and greater uniformity throughout the entire image field. They provide better endocardial border delineation in difficult-to-image patients, with significant benefits in both tissue and contrast harmonics applications. Improved sensitivity means higher frequencies can be used with better image resolution, and provides the main benefit for contrast harmonics allowing the detection of bubbles more easily. There is also better sensitivity at the lower frequency spectrum for colour and spectral Doppler frequencies.

Figure 5a: Broadband versus Pure-wave crystal technology

Figure 5b: PureWave crystal transducer with large bandwidth

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Broadband Transducers and imaging frequencies

These are now used on modern ultrasound scanners. They have a large bandwidth, so they can transmit and receive pulses with several different center frequencies (Pulse spectra shown as dashed in figure 3). A large transducer bandwidth is crucial for good axial resolution and harmonic imaging. It allows the operator a choice of transmitting and receiving frequencies, and to toggle between them according to the penetration or resolution required. Typical imaging frequencies in adult echocardiography can be anything from 1.0MHz to 5MHz. Compared to a lower frequency band, a higher frequency band will have shorter near zone, more divergent beam, greater side-lobes, poor penetration, but better axial & near field resolution. Attenuation or energy loss is greatly increased at higher frequencies, and explains the poor beam penetration. Beam intensity at a particular depth is lower in the higher frequency transducer due early beam divergence. A lower frequency band will have a longer near zone, less divergent beam, better penetration, and poorer axial & near field resolution therefore ideal for Doppler imaging. Narrower beam width results from a less divergent beam, therefore better lateral resolution. The beam characteristics are also ideal for harmonic imaging which requires transmitting at low frequencies, and receiving at higher frequencies. The short wavelengths associated with higher frequencies lead to improved resolution of images. The aim is to choose the optimum frequency band for each particular application. This is a compromise that ensures that the best resolution is obtained while allowing echoes to be received from the required depth.

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Phased Array Transducers (Beam steering and focusing)

Phased array transducers have typically 128 rectangular elements or arrays arranged with individual connections. All arrays are used to transmit and receive beams for every scan line, and each scan line represents the axis of the transmission-receive beam. The larger the arrays on a phased array transducer, the lower the resonation, and the lower the transmitting frequency. Beam steering These transducers allow the beam to be moved electronically with the benefit of being able to change the shape and size of the beam to suit imaging needs. The beam former is the part of the electronics of the scanner that determines the shape size and position of the interrogating beams by controlling the delay period of signals to and from the transducer array elements. During transmission it generates the electronic signals that pulse each array and during reception combines the individual echo sequences from all the elements into a single echo sequence. The beam is angled and then swept as a sector electronically by firing all the arrays as a complete group, with a small delay (< 1 microsecond) called Phasing, the time delay is also changed with each successive transmitted echo signal, so that the wavefronts are inclined, and beam direction is continuously changed and perpendicular to transducer face (figure 6a). However angling the wave-front gives rise to side lobe artefacts affecting near field resolution (figure 6b).

Figure 6a. Electronic Steering of a Phased Array Sector Transducer Each waveform merges to form a compound wave, generating a sector beam. Sector scan format of a phased array probe

Constructive interference from wavelets generating sector beam

Huygens principle This states that every point on a wavefront can be considered as a new point source emitting a spherical wave of the same frequency and phase. The width of the source producing the sound wave from a phased array probe is greater than the wavelength of the wave, producing a wave that propagates at 900 to the source ie in form a beam. Each small source generates a sound wave with same frequency and amplitude, and are in phase with each other The spherical waves from each source propagate outwards with parts of the wave parallel to the surface of the source. Some interfere destructively and cancel out, while others interfere constructively and align to form a plane wavefront generating the ultrasound beam.

Figure 6b. Typical Ultrasound Beam From a Phased Arrray Transducer Note!! side lobe artefacts. These grow stronger at larger steering angles

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Beam focusing The ultrasound beam is focussed during transmission and reception. Like beam steering, transmit focussing is achieved by using an electronic delay in firing the arrays resulting in a wavefront curvature that directs the beam to a focal zone, which is the zone of highest beam intensity. Figure 6c.

FOCAL ZONE

The same electronic time delay in receiving early echoes is then used during reception allowing echoes from different depths to arrive at the same time. This is achieved by adjusting the delay periods during the receive phase allowing late arriving echoes also to be in focus. This is called Dynamic Receive Focussing.This reduces beam width and improves lateral resolution, but has no effect on focussing in the elevation plane. This is achieved by using a curved cylindrical lens producing higher resolution. Multi-zone Focusing is achieved by dividing each individual scan line into two or more sections, and interrogating each section with a separate transmission pulse producing transmission foci at different depths. This allows the operator to select two or more or multiple focal zones. This improves lateral resolution, however temporal resolution and frame rate is affected due to the need to remain longer on each scan line while interrogating several zones. Parameters such as centre frequency and pulse length are not affected, but high frequencies within the pulse spectrum will be affected by attenuation because several focal zones are selected at greater depths. Phased array transducers have been established for many years and used in all modern echo transducers. An effective phased array transducer will need to have the right balance between number of elements and crystal size. More advanced phased array transducers for three-dimensional imaging have now up to 3000 much smaller elements compared to 128 elements of standard two-dimensional phased arrays.

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9.

Transducer design and development

Figure 7.

LARGE PROBE

2D Phased Array Up to 128 elements Field of view (Widely used for 2D echo)

A1.5D Array enables dynamic focusing in the elevation plane with better resolution & dynamic range (Potentially useful for 3D volume reconstruction imaging)

3D Matrix Array 3000 Elements Real-time (Live 3D echo)

10. The Three Dimensional Matrix Array This transducer represents a breakthrough in the design of ultrasound transducers. Reduction in PZT crystal size has made it possible for up to 3000 arrays to form a three dimensional (3D) image, that is also ideal for two-dimensional bi-plane imaging. Using a pyramidal burst of ultrasound (Raster scanning), a real-time dynamic 3D image is formed. The main limitation is due to variable distances between individual scan planes with less structural information available, and less resolution. The transducer is bulky, with images limited to a pyramid or cone shape, and acquisition restricted by small acoustic windows and chest wall movement. However improvements in digital signal processing, and high speed acquisition with rapid data processing, resolution and image quality has been improved. Improvements in beam forming techniques have made it possible for electronic steering and beam focusing in both the lateral and elevation planes, and 3D volume quantification. Beam focusing results in a narrow slice thickness, with superior resolution.

Benjamin Adeyemi

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Highlighted references indicate compulsory reading.