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Trading Strtegies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Trading Strtegies and Accounting Procedure of Derivatives
Investment banks develop their own innovative derivatives to underwrite corporate issues but they cannot preclude other banks from imitating them. However, during the process of underwriting an innovator can learn more than its imitators about the potential clients. Moving first puts him ahead in the learning process. Thus, he develops an information advantage and he can capture rents in equilibrium despite being imitated. In this context, innovation can arise without patent protection. Consistently with this hypothesis, case studies of recent innovations in derivatives reveal that innovators keep private some details of their deals to preserve the asymmetry of information.
RESEARCH DESIGN:
A research design is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring the information needed. Research design can be exploratory research or descriptive research. For this project I have used descriptive research. A descriptive research design a fact finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It involves gathering data that describe events and then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the data.
SOURCES OF DATA
Sources of data are means from where information is collected for the study and analysis purpose. There are two sources of data collection, 1. Primary Data 2. Secondary Data. For this project I have used only secondary data. Secondary data are those data which are collected by the other person and which are used by the researcher for his present study. I have used the secondary data to understand the basic concept of derivatives from the reference book N.D. Vohra and B.R. Bagri.
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Commodities: Castor seed, Grain, Pepper, Potatoes, etc. Precious Metal : Gold, Silver Short Term Debt Securities : Treasury Bills Interest Rates Common shares/stock Stock Index Value : NSE Nifty Currency : Exchange Rate In financial terms, a derivative is a financial instrument - or more simply, an agreement between two people or two parties - that has a value determined by the price of something else (called the underlying). It is a financial contract with a value linked to the expected future price movements of the asset it is linked to - such as a share or a currency.
Referring to derivatives as assets would be a misconception, since a derivative is incapable of having value of its own. However, some more commonplace derivatives, such as swaps, futures, and options, which have a theoretical face value that can be calculated using formulas, such as Black-Scholes. The BlackScholes model is a mathematical description of financial markets and derivative investment instruments. The model develops partial differential equations whose solution, the BlackScholes formula, is widely used in the pricing of European-style options. Derivatives are generally used as an instrument to hedge risk, but can also be used for speculative purposes. For example, a European investor purchasing shares of an American company of an American exchange (using U.S. dollars to do so) would be exposed to exchange-rate risk while holding that stock. To hedge this risk, the investor could purchase currency futures to lock in a specified exchange rate for the future stock sale and currency conversion back into Euros.
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Derivatives are meant essentially to facilitate temporarily hedging of price risk of inventory holding or a financial/commercial transaction over a certain period. In practice, every derivative "contract" has a fixed expiration date, mostly in the range of 3 to 12 months from the date of commencement of the contract. In the market's language, they are "risk management tools". The use of forward/futures contracts as hedging techniques is a well-established practice in commercial and industrial operations.
DEFINATION OF FERIVATIVES
A derivative is a contract between a buyer and a seller entered into today regarding a transaction to be fulfilled at a future point in time. For example, the transfer of a certain amount of US dollars at a specified USD-EUR exchange rate at a future date.
Over the life of the contract, the value of the derivative fluctuates with the price of the so-called underlying of the contract in our example, the USD-EUR exchange rate. The life of a derivative contract, that is, the time between entering into the contract and the ultimate fulfillment or termination of the contract, can be very long in some cases more than ten years. Given the possible price fluctuations of the underlying and thus of the derivative contract itself, risk management is of particular importance. Derivative is a product whose value is derived from the value of one or more basic variables, called bases (underlying asset, index, r reference rate) in a contractual manner. These contracts are legally binding agreements, made on the trading screen of stock exchanges, to buy or sell an asset in future. The asset can be an interest, share, index, commodities or foreign exchange, etc. In the Indian Context the Securities Contracts (Regulations) Act, 1956 (SC(R) A) defines "derivative" to include:
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1. A security derived from a debt instrument, share, loan whether secured or unsecured, risk instrument or contract for differences or any other form of security.
2. A contract which derives its value from the prices, or index of prices, of underlying securities.
demand for the presses and since he had the rights to use them, he hired out them at high prices and made big money. Though Thales was not interested in making money, all he wanted was to prove that philosophers can make money if they do so desire. This is a primitive form of derivatives where Thales knew well in advance that his maximum loss will be the advance he paid while his profits depended on what he demand. Most future markets have evolved from the basic commodity market and agricultural futures were the foremost contracts that made their appearance long before financial futures. Agricultural futures are not unfamiliar contracts- in most parts of the world, money lenders used to compel most of their borrowers to sell their forthcoming crop at a price agreed upon at the time of taking the loan. The way these agreements are futures but their price were not determined at arms length distance nor the contract are liquid enough. Still they represent the forerunners to the relatively organized future that evolved subsequently in the 18th century in the US. though there are reports of future trading on Amsterdam bourse after its creation in 1611.
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3. To catalyze entrepreneurial activity 4. To increase the volume traded in markets because of participation of risk averse people in greater numbers 5. To increase savings and investment in the long run
IMPORTANCE OF DERIVATIVES
India's three-year old futures and options market is the on the verge of fast becoming a haven for retail investors. They are slowly emerging as instruments for mass investment, hedging and speculation. What is noteworthy is that notwithstanding stringent margins, a small set of scripts and surveillance and reporting requirements still the derivatives volume have surpassed cash market volumes within such a short time. Derivatives have a number of advantages such as hassle free settlement, lower transaction cost, flexibility in terms of various permutations and combinations of trading strategies etc.
Managing risk
There are several risks inherent in financial transactions. Derivatives allow you to manage these risks more efficiently by unbundling the risks and allowing either hedging or taking only one risk at a time. For example, If we buy a share of we take the following risks: Price risk that share may go up or down due to company specific reasons (unsystematic risk).
Price risk that share may go up or down due to reasons affecting the sentiments of the whole market (systematic risk).
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Liquidity risk, if our position is very large, that we may not be able to cover our position at the prevailing price (called impact cost).
Cash out-flow risk that we may not able to arrange the full settlement value at the time of delivery, resulting in default, auction and subsequent losses.
Once investor is long on share investor can hedge the systematic risk by going short on share Futures. On the other hand, if investors do not want to take unsystematic risk on anyone share, but wish to take only systematic risk - investor can go long on Index Futures, without buying any individual shares.
Speculation
Derivatives offer an opportunity to make unlimited money by way of speculation. Speculators are of two types. One type is of optimistic variety, and sees a rise in prices in future. He is known as 'bull'. The other type is a pessimist, and he sees a fall in prices, in future. He is known as 'bear'. They undertake 'futures' transactions with the intention of making gains through difference in contracted prices and future cash market price prices. If, in future, their expectations turn out to be true, they gain and if not they lose. Of course, they may limit their losses through options.
High leverage
Leverage opportunities are often expensive and complicated to implement for many investors in the cash market, or are simply not feasible. However, options and futures represent (highly) levered investments in the underlying cash instruments. They require only a small fraction of the investment in the underlying securities. The case is most obvious for futures, where there is essentially no initial investment except margin payments.
Arbitrage
Arbitrageurs profit from price differential existing in two markets by simultaneously operating in two different markets. Arbitrage can be done between two instruments when they are related to each other, but they are temporarily mispriced. For example, the futures price and spot price are related by the interest rate, time to maturity and corporate benefit, if any, in the interregnum. 18
Hedging mechanism
Derivatives provide an excellent mechanism to hedge the future price risk. Hedging is a mechanism to reduce price risk inherent in open positions. Derivatives are widely used for hedging. A hedge can help lock in existing profits. Its purpose is to reduce the volatility of a portfolio, by reducing the risk. Hedging is used to protect portfolio volatility due to market fluctuation during budget, elections and other political or corporate turmoil. The basic rule in hedging is that the risk of loss in portfolio is offset by the gains in the futures or options. Hence hedging is beneficial. Thus hedging helps to reduce risk by locking returns but does not maximize them rather it minimizes the loss arising out of adverse situations. One needs to keep in mind that hedging does not make money but removes unwanted risk by reducing the losses. They can also be important for, 1. Efficient Allocation of Risk 2. Lower Cost of Hedging 3. Liquidity 4. Risk Management
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Arbitrageurs are in business to take advantage of a discrepancy between prices in two different markets. If, for example, they see the futures price of an asset getting out of line with the cash price, they will take offsetting positions in the two markets to lock in a profit.
in the spot market. Therefore, these markets indicate what is likely to happen and thus assist in better price discovery.
Risk Transfer
By their very nature, the derivative instruments do not themselves involve risk. Rather, they merely redistribute the risk between the market participants. In this sense, the whole derivatives market may be compared to a gigantic insurance company providing means to hedge against adversities of unfavorable market movements in return for a premium, and providing means and opportunities to those who are prepared to take risks and make money in the process.
Market Completion
The existence of derivative instruments adds to the degree of completeness of the market. A complete market implies that the number of independent securities is equal tithe number of all possible future states of the economy. The derivative instruments of futures and options are the instruments that provide the investor the ability to hedge against possible odds in the economy. A market would be said to be complete if instruments may be created which can, solely or jointly, provide a cover against all the possible adverse outcomes. It is held that a complete market can be achieved only when, firstly, there is a consensus among all investors in the economy as to the number of odds, or states, that the economy can land up with, and, secondly, there should exists an 'efficient fund' on which simple options can be traded. Here an efficient fund implies a portfolio of basic securities that exist in the market with the property of having a unique return for every possible outcome, while a simple option is one whose payoff depends only on one underlying return.
The equity derivatives were almost usual in order for the risk and reward profile of equity investments to remain competitive with the fixed income offered by debt instruments such as bonds. Initially large institutional investors in Europe, Japan and the United States were the primary users, but today, however, even small investors have a direct means to manage equity risk. Equity derivative instruments allow investors to structure requirements in terms of market timing and risk-reward profile. Importantly, the use of derivatives has changed the nature of equity portfolio management. Traditional techniques such as fundamental and technical analysis, diversification strategies and asset allocation strategies now rank alongside the derivative risk management as means of achieving investment objectives.
intermediary. Products such as swaps, forward rate agreements, and exotic options are almost always traded in this way. The OTC derivative market is the largest market for derivatives, and is largely unregulated with respect to disclosure of information between the parties, since the OTC market is made up of banks and other highly sophisticated parties, such as hedge funds. Reporting of OTC amounts are difficult because trades can occur in private, without activity being visible on any exchange. Because OTC derivatives are not traded on an exchange, there is no central counter-party. Therefore, they are subject to counter-party risk, like an ordinary contract, since each counter-party relies on the other to perform. Exchange-traded derivative contracts (ETD) are those derivatives instruments that are traded via specialized derivatives exchanges or other exchanges. A derivatives exchange is a market where individuals trade standardized contracts that have been defined by the exchange. A derivatives exchange acts as an intermediary to all related transactions, and takes Initial margin from both sides of the trade to act as a guarantee. According to BIS, the combined turnover in the world's derivatives exchanges totaled USD 344 trillion during Q4 2005. Some types of derivative instruments also may trade on traditional exchanges. For instance, hybrid instruments such as convertible bonds and/or convertible preferred may be listed on stock or bond exchanges. Also, warrants (or "rights") may be listed on equity exchanges. Like other derivatives, these publicly traded derivatives provide investors access to risk/reward and volatility characteristics that, while related to an underlying commodity, nonetheless are distinctive.
FORWARD CONTRACTS
A forward contract is the simplest mode of a derivative transaction. It is an agreement to buy or sell an asset at a certain future time for a certain price. The essential idea of entering into a forward contract is to peg the price and thereby avoid the price risk. It is an agreement between a buyer and a seller in which the buyer has the right and obligation to buy a specified assets on a specified date and at a specified price. The seller is also under an obligation to perform as per the terms of the contract. One of the parties to the contract assumes a long position and agrees to buy the underlying asset on certain specified future date for a certain specified price. The other party 24
assumes a short position and agrees to sell on the same asset on the same date for same specified price.
Each contract is custom designed, and hence is unique in terms of contract size, expiration date and the asset type and quality.
The contract is generally not available in public domain on the expiration date, the
If the party wishes to reverse the contract, it has to compulsorily go to the same counterparty, which often results in high prices being charged.
FUTURE CONTRACTS
Futures contracts designed to solve the problems that exist in forward markets. Futures contracts are standardized contracts between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a certain time in futures at certain price. A future are also a kind of a forward which represent obligation on the part of the buyer and seller but the term and condition of the contract are specified by the exchange where they are actually traded. 25
They are entered into through exchange, traded on exchange and clearing corporation/house provides the settlement guarantee for trades. Hence, futures markets are more liquid with centralization of trading. DITINCTION BETWEEN FUTURE AN FORWARD FUTURE Trade on an organized exchange Standardized contract terms More liquid Requires margin payments Follows daily settlement FORWARD Not traded Customized contract items Less liquid No margin payment Settlement happens at the end of period
Futures terminology
Spot price: The price at which an asset trades in the spot market Futures price: The price at which the future contract trades in the futures market. Contract cycle: The period over which a contract trades. The index futures contracts on the NSE have one-month, two-months and three months expiry cycles which expire on the last Thursday of the month. Thus, a January contracts expires on the last Thursday of January. On the Friday, following the last Thursday of every month, a new contract having three-month expiry is introduced for trading. Expiry date: It is the date specified in the futures contract. This is last day on which the contract will be traded, at the end f which it will cease to exist. Contract size: The amount of asset has to be delivered under one contract. For instance, the contract size on NSEs futures market is 50 Nifty. Cost of carry: The relationship between futures prices and spot prices can be summarized in terms of what is known as the cost of carry. This measures the storage cost plus the interest that is paid to finance the asset less the income earned on the asset. Margins Initial margin: The amount that must be deposited in the margin account at the time a futures contracts first entered into is known as initial margin. 26
Marking-to-market: In the futures market, at the end of each trading day, the margin account is adjusted to reflect the investors gain or loss depending upon the futures closing price. This is called marking-to-market. Maintenance margin: This is somewhat lower than the initial margin. This is set to ensure that the balance in the margin account never becomes negative. If the balance in the margin account falls below the maintenance margin, the investors receives a margin call and is expected to top up the margin account to the initial margin level before trading commences on the next day. Tick Size: It is the minimum price difference between two quotes of similar nature. Open interest: Total outstanding long or short positions in the market at any specific point in time. As total long positions for market would be equal to total short positions, for calculation of open Interest, only one side of the contracts is counted. Physical delivery: Open position at the expiry of the contract is settled through delivery of the underlying. In futures market, delivery is low.
OPTION CONTRACTS
Option contracts are fundamentally different from forwards and futures contract. An option gives the holder of the option the right to do something. An option is a contract, which gives rights, but not the obligation, to exercise on the counter-party i.e. right but not obligations. Options are contracts that give the owner the right, but not the obligation, to buy (in the case of a call option) or sell (in the case of a put option) an asset. The price at which the sale takes place is known as the strike price, and is specified at the time the parties enter into the option. The option contract also specifies a maturity date. In the case of a, the owner has the right to require the sale to take place on (but not before) the maturity date; in the case of an American option, the owner can require the sale to take place at any time up to the maturity 27
date. If the owner of the contract exercises this right, the counter-party has the obligation to carry out the transaction.
Option terminologies
Types of Options On the basis Of Exchange Index options: Index options have the index as the underlying. Some options are European while others are American. Like index futures contracts, index options are also cash settled. Stock options: Stock options are the options on individual stocks. Options currently trade on over 1000 stocks listed on NSE. A contract gives the holder the right to buy or sell shares at the specified price Participants in Options Contract Buyer of option: The buyer of an option is the one who pays an option premium and buys the right but not the obligation to exercise his option on the seller/writer. Writer of option: The writer of an option is one who receives the option premium and is thereby obliged to sell/buy the asset if the buyer exercises on him. There are two basic types of options: Call option: A call option gives the holder right but not obligation to buy a given quantity of the underlying asset, at a given price on or before future date.
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Put options: Put option gives the holder the right but not the obligation to sell a given quantity of underlying asset at a given price on or before a given future date. Option price/premium: Option price is the price which the option buyer pays to the option seller. It is also referred to as the option premium. Expiration date: The date specified in the option contract is known as the expiration date, the exercise date, the strike date or the maturity. Strike price: The price specified in the options contract is known as the strike price or the exercise price. Types of options on the Basis of Clearing American options: American options are the options that can be exercised at any time up to the expiration date. Most exchange traded options are American. Options on the individual securities available at NSE are American type of option. European options: European options are options that can be exercised only on the expiration date itself. European options are easier to analyze than American options, and properties of American options are frequently deduced from those of its European counterpart. S&P CNX IT options at NSE are European type of option. Time Money of Option at the Inception In-the-time money option: An in-the-money (ITM) option is an option that would lead to positive cash flow to the holder if it were exercised immediately. A Call option is said to be in-the-money when the current price stands at a level higher than the strike price (i.e. spot price > strike price). If the Spot price is much higher than the strike price, a Call is said to be deep in-the-money option. In the case of a Put, the put is in-the-money if the Spot price is below the strike price (i.e. spot price < Strike price). 29
At-the-money-option (ATM) - At-the money option is an option that would lead to zero cash flow if it were exercised immediately. An option on the index is said to be "at-themoney" when the current price equals the strike price (i.e. Spot price = strike price). Out-of-the-money-option (OTM) - An out-of- the-money Option is an option that would lead to negative cash flow if it were exercised immediately. A Call option is out-of-the-money when the current price stands at a level which is less than the strike price (i.e. spot price < strike price). If the current price is much lower than the strike price the call is said to be deep out-of-the money. In case of a Put, the put is out of the money OTM if current price is higher than strike price ((i.e. spot price > strike price).
SWAP CONTRACT
A swap is contract between two parties to deliver one sum of money against
another sum of money at periodic interval. The most basic form of swap is an interest rate swap where two parties agree to exchange interest payment for a certain period of time. The most familiar interest rate swap is fixed or floating rate swap. In this swap one of the counter parties agrees to make fixed rate payment to the other and vice versa. These two payments are known as the legs or sides of swap. Swap payments are made generally semi annually and the maturity on generic swap range from 3 to 5 years. There are three content of swap contract: Currency swap in which two currency are periodically exchanged. An important thing in that there is an exchange of principle in the currency swap on the origination date and at maturity at the same pre-determined exchange rate. Equity swap are similar to interest rate swap contract. There are two counterparties who exchange regular cash flows based on some agreed term to maturity. Equity swap market 30
is substantially smaller than IRS or currency swap even in major markets like New York and Landon. Commodity swap requires the counterparties to exchange a cash flow based upon a fixed price and quantity of a particular commodity for a cash flow based upon the same quantity and market price of that commodity.
Swap Terminology:
Counterparties: One party pays fixed rate interest payment to another party who pays variable rate payment to the first party. Fixed rate payer: The party who pays fixed interest and receive variable is known as fixed rate payer. Floating rate payer: The other party who pays variable and receive fixed is known as floating rate payer. Trade date: Trade date is the day the party agree to commit to the swap. Effective date: It is the date when interest commence to accrue. Settlement or payment date: It is when interest payments are made (6 months after the effective date). Maturity date: It is last payment date on which swap principle is paid.
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Bull Spread using Calls: Buy in-the-money (ITM) call option and sell another out-of-the-money (OTM)call option with the same underlying security and expiry. The lower strike price would be ITM while the call with the higher strike price is OTM. The net effect of the strategy is to be the cost and breakeven. The investor makes a profit only when the stock price/ index rise. If the stock price falls to the lower (bought) strike, the investor makes the maximum loss (cost of the trade) and if the stock price rise to the higher (sold) strike, the investor makes the maximum profit. Bull spread using puts: Sell put option and cover the downside of a put sold by buying a lower strike put, which acts as insurance of the put sold. The lower strike put purchased is the future OTM, than the higher strike put sold, so that the investors receives a net credit, because the put purchased (future OTM) is cheaper than the put sold.
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Buy OTM call option and simultaneously sell ITM call option on the same underlying. This strategy can be done with both OTM call with the call purchased being higher OTM strike than the call sold. If underlying falls both calls will expire worthless and the investor retains the net lower strike plus the net credit. As long as the underlying remains below that level, the investor makes a profit. Otherwise he could make a loss. The maximum loss is the difference in strike less the net credit received. Bear put spread: Buy an (ITM) put option and sell an OTM (lower) put option on the same stock with the same expiration date. This strategy creates a net debit for the investor. The investor makes the money only when the price of underlying falls. The bought put caps the investors downside. If the underlying price closes below the out-of-the-money (lower) put option strike price on the expiration date, then the investor gets maximum profits. If the stock price increases above the in-the-money (higher) put option strike price at the expiration date, then the investor has a maximum loss potential of the net debit.
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which way is not clear. However, market will not stay where it is. I this sense, a volatile view 34
is opposite of the neutral view. Volatile view is usually based on various situations which might warrant heavy movement. For example, during budget time, a favorable proposal might impact the price favorably, or the price could fall significantly. An expected foreign collaboration could see the price rise, and if it were not to happen, the price could fall. While a positive development might result in a price rise, a negative development might dampen the prices. Decision on hue lawsuit could significantly impact prices any which direction.
Long straddle:
Buy a call as well as put on the same underlying for the same maturity and strike price. If the price of the underlying increases, the call is exercised while the put expire worthless and if the price of the underlying decreases, the put is exercised, the call expires worthless. Either way if there is volatility to cover the cost of the trade, profits are to be made. The straddle has two break even points viz. the strike price plus both Premia and the strike price minus both Premia.
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Long strangle:
A strangle is a slight modification to the straddle to make it cheaper to execute. Buy simultaneously a slight OTM put and a slight out-of-the-money OTM call of the same underlying and expiration date. A strangle is a slightly safer strategy in the sense that one buy a 35
call and a put but at different strike prices rather than one single strike price, as in the case of a straddle. Straddle the investor is directional neutral, but is looking for an increased volatility in the stock / index and the prices moving significantly in the either direction. The lower cost however implies a wider break even and you would make profit only if the scrip moves up or down by a wider margin. As with a straddle, the strategy has a limited downside (i.e. the call and the put premium) and unlimited upside potential. [PAY OF PROFILE FOR LONG STRANGLE]
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or that the movement is not likely to be significant. short straddle: It is the opposite of the long straddle and is adopted when it is expected that the market will remain range bound. Sell a call and a put on the same underlying for the same maturity and strike price. Investors get net income. If the underlying does not move much in the either direction, the investor retains the premium as neither the call nor the put will be exercised. However, in case the underlying moves in either direction, up or down significantly, the investors losses can be significant. This makes it a risky strategy and so it should be adopted very carefully. If the underlying value stays close to the strike price on expiry of the contracts, maximum gain, which is the premium received is made.
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Short strangle:
A short strangle is a slight modification to the short straddle. It tries to improve the profitability of the trade for the seller of the option by widening the breakeven points so that there is a much greater movement required in the underlying stock/ index, for the call and the put option to be worth exercising. Simultaneously sell a slight OTM put and a slight OTM call of the same underlying stock and expiration date. The net credit received by the seller is less as 37
compared to a short straddle, but the breakeven points are also widened. The underlying has to move significantly for the call and put to be worth exercising. If the underlying does not show much of a movement, the seller of the strangle gets to keep the premium. [PAY OFF PROFILE FOR SHORT STRANGLE]
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As a seller of the option with a neutral view, investor should sell strangles rather than straddles_ this is a relatively lower risk lower return strategy. As a buyer of volatility, one would rather buy straddle most of the time (rather than strangles) as it gives profit faster than strangles. Although there is outward flow of premia to buy a straddle, yet if that is reasonable then one would actively pursue this strategy.
ACCOUNTING OF DERIVATIVES
accounting of equity index and equity stock futures & options contracts from the view point of parties who enter into such future contract as buyers or sellers. For other parties involved in the trading process like brokers, trading members, clearing members and clearing corporations, a trade in equity index futures is similar to trade in, say shares, and does not pose any peculiar accounting problems. Clearing corporation/house: Clearing corporation/house means the clearing
corporation/house approved by SEBI for clearing and settlement of trades on the derivatives exchange/segment. All the clearing and settlement for the trades that happen on the NSEs market is done through NSCCL. Clearing member: Clearing member means a member of clearing corporation and includes all categories of clearing members as may be admitted as such but the clearing corporation to the derivative segment
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Contract month: Contract month means the month in which the exchange/clearing corporation rules require a contract to be fully be finally settled. Daily settlement price: Daily settlement prices is the closing prices of the equity index future contract for the day or such other as may be decided by the clearing house from time to time. Final settlement price: The final settlement price is the closing of equity index futures contract in the last trading day of the contract or such other price as may be specified by the clearing corporation, from time to time. Long position: Long position is an equity index futures contract means outstanding purchase obligations in respect of the index futures contract at any point of time. Open position: Open position means the total number of equity index futures contract that have not yet been offset and closed by an opposite position. Settlement date: Settlement date means the date on which the outstanding obligations in an equity index futures contract are required to be settled as provided in the Bye-Laws of the Derivative exchange/segment. Short position: Short position in an equity index futures contract means outstanding in respect of any equity index futures contract at any point of time. Trading member: Trading member means a Member of the Derivative exchange/segment and registered with SEBI.
It may be mentioned that at the time when contract is entered into for purchase/sale of equity index futures, no entry is passed for recording the contract because no payment is made at the time except for the initial margin. At the balance sheet date, the balance in the Initial margin equity index futures account should be shown separately under the head current assets.
In cases where instead of paying initial margin in cash, the client provides bank guarantee or lodges securities with the member, a disclosure should be made in the notes to the financial statements of the client.
Sometimes the client may deposit a lump sum amount with broker/trading member in respect of mark-to-market margin money instead of receiving/paying mark-to-market margin money on the daily basis. The amount so paid is in the nature of a deposit and should be debited to appropriate account. Say, Deposit for mark-to-market margin money account. The amount of mark-to-market margin received/paid from such account should be credited/debited to mark-to-market margin money equity index futures account with a corresponding debit/credit to Deposit for mark-to-market margin money account. Deposit Made To Margin Account Deposit made to margin a/c To bank/cash a/c Dr. Amount --------------------Amount ---------------------
Payment Made In Case Of deposit Of Margin Made Mark to market margin a/c Dr. To deposit to mark to market margin a/c
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At the year-end, balance in the Deposit for mark-to-market margin money account should be shown as deposit under the head current assets.
When a client defaults in making payment in respected of a daily settlement, the contract is closed out. The amount not paid by the Client is adjusted against the initial margin. In the books of client, the amount so adjusted should be debited to mark-to-market equity index futures account with corresponding credit to initial margin equity index futures account. Adjustment Of Mark-To-Market Margin In Default Mark to market margin a/c Dr. To initial margin a/c Amount ---------------------
The amount of initial margin on the contract, in excess of the amount adjusted against the mark-to-market margin not paid, will be released. The accounting treatment in this regard will be the same as explained above. In case, the amount t be paid on daily settlement exceeds the initial margin the excess is a liability and should be shown as such under the head current liabilities and provisions, if it continues to exist on the balance sheet date. The amount of profit or loss on the contract so closed out should be calculated and recognized in the profit and loss account in the manner dealt with above. Disclosure Requirements The amount of bank guarantee and book value as also the market value of securities lodged should be disclosed in respect of contracts having open positions at the year end, where initial margin money has been paid by way of bank guarantee and/or lodging of securities. Total number of contracts entered and gross number of units of equity futures traded (separately for buy/sell) should be disclosed in respect of each series of index futures. The number of equity index futures contracts having open position, number of units of equity index futures pertaining to those contracts and the daily settlement price as of the balance sheet date should be disclosed separately for long and short positions, of each series of equity index futures. 43
FUTURE CONTRACTS Profit & Loss Account of the .for the year ending.
Ref No. Expense Dr. Ref No. Income Cr.
To M-2-M margin A/c (Loss) Provision for anticipated Loss - Loss incurred
Deposit margin:
to
Mark-to-market
Opening Balance - M-2-M margin Paid = Closing Balance Loans & Advances: 44
Net Amount Paid to the broker Disclosure: Note: Initial paid in form of Bank Guarantee and Lodge securities.
In the balance sheet, such account should be shown separately under the head current assets.
deposit of margin account. At the end of the year the balance in this account would be shown as deposit under current assets.
Deposit Made By Seller For Avoiding Daily Margin Requirement Deposit To Equity Index/Stock Option a/c Dr. To Bank/Cash a/c
Amount ---------------------
As soon as an option gets exercised, margin paid towards such option would be released by the exchange, which should be credited to equity index option margin account or equity stock option margin account, as the case may be, and the bank account will be debited.
Release of Initial Margins Paid By Buyer Equity index/stock option margin a/c To Initial margin- equity index/stock option a/c
Dr.
Amount ---------------------
OPTION CONTRACTS
Profit & Loss Account of the .. For the year ending Ref Expense Dr. Income Cr. No. No. From Buyers Viewpoint Ref To equity index/premium a/c (loss) To provision for loss- equity option ___ From Sellers Viewpoint To equity index/premium a/c (loss) To provision for loss- equity option To equity index/premium a/c (loss) ___ ___ By Equity index/premium a/c (profit) ____ By Equity index/premium a/c (profit)
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FINDINGS
The result of the study explores a good understanding of different strategies in derivatives. These strategies are effectively used for hedging loss or gaining risk-free returns by arbitrage and provide good knowledge of when to use these strategies in most effective way according to different market situation. The study shows how strategy works according to fundamental changes. The understanding of payoff patterns of futures and options has contributed to knowledge of implementation of strategies. The second part of study revealed importance of accounting in derivatives. It consists of all the accounting entry made at each stage for all actions in futures and options contract. Each transaction is accounted with its complete effects from inception to financial year end. It also provides information of reports generation for all the elements of transactions from view point of client. Finally, it recognizes the basic strategies and their usage in real stock market where besides price, various factors also have influence. Thus in outline, project report establishes knowledge of different strategies and accounting standards of derivatives.
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CONCLUSION
The Indian Capital Market has undergone qualitative changes in the last decade due to phenomenal growth of derivatives. Derivatives are used for variety of purposes, but most important are hedging and arbitrage. This study attempts to simplify the concept of these basis strategies with the knowledge of market condition and payoff strategies so that investor can make out opportunities for reducing the loss and gain fair returns. To make accounting records, there is need of knowledge of all the elements and terminologies used in derivatives contracts such as participants, margins, payoff and their full effects to clients book. The understanding patterns of all future and options payoffs help in their accounting procedures. The pricing & accounting of the derivatives thus provides client with skills of profit generation in stock market. Thus, study provides significant knowledge of trading strategies and accounting procedures in derivatives.
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SUGGESTIONS
There should be the rapid development of derivatives products in financial as well as commodity market all over the world but with some consciousness. The main developments may be like this: Introducing more innovative types of risk hedging contracts. Increasing the scope of current derivatives products in emerging markets so as to
include more individual stocks as well as all types of indices. Introducing adequate risk management and internal monitoring techniques to curb
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Financial derivatives by S.S.S. Kumar, Eastern Economy Edition, 2007 by Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi. Financial derivatives by Keith Redhead, Eastern Economy Edition, 1997 by Prentice-Hall Europe. Futures and options by N.D. Vohra and B.R. Bagri, Second Edition, 2003 Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi. www.njfundz.com www.nseindia.com www.mbaguys.net/project-reports/?prefixid=finance www.isda.org/educat/faqs.html
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