MAE 3241: AERODYNAMICS AND

FLIGHT MECHANICS
Compressible Flow Over Airfoils:
Linearized Subsonic Flow



Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department
Florida Institute of Technology

D. R. Kirk
2
WHAT ARE WE DOING NOW?
Goal: Examine and understand behavior of 2-D airfoils at Mach numbers in range
0.3 < M

< 1
Think of study of Chapter 11 (compressible regime) as an extension of Chapter 4
(incompressible regime)
Why do we care?
Most airplanes fly in Mach 0.7 0.85 range
Will continue to fly in this range for foreseeable future
Miscalculation of fuel future pricing of $0.01 can lead to $30M loss on
bottom line revenue American Airlines
Most useful answers / relations will be compressibility corrections:
2
0 ,
2
0 ,
2
0 ,
1
1
1

=
M
c
c
M
c
c
M
C
C
m
m
l
l
p
p
Example:
1. Find incompressible c
l,0
from data plot
NACA 23012, o = 8, c
l,0
~ 0.8
2. Correct for flight Mach number
M

= 0.65
c
l
= 1.05

Easy to do!
3
2 2
0 ,
1
5 . 0
1


=

=
M M
C
C
p
p
For M

< 0.3, ~ const

C
p
= C
p,0
= 0.5 = const
Effect of compressibility
(M

> 0.3) is to increase

absolute magnitude of C
p

and M

increases
Called: Prandtl-Glauert Rule
Prandtl-Glauert rule applies for 0.3 < M

< 0.7
(Why not M

= 0.99?)
PREVIEW: COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION
EFFECT OF M

ON C
P
Sound
Barrier ?
M

4
OTHER IMPLICATIONS
Subsonic Wing Sweep Area Rule
5
REVIEW
( ) 0 = V +
c
c
V
t

( )
0
0
0
0
2
= V
= V
V + V = V
V = = V
=
c
c
|

|

V
V V V
V V
t

Continuity Equation
True for all flows:
Steady or Unsteady,
Viscous or Inviscid,
Rotational or Irrotational
2-D Incompressible Flows
(Steady, Inviscid and Irrotational)
2-D Compressible Flows
(Steady, Inviscid and Irrotational)
( )
( ) 0
0
0
0
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
= V + V = V
V = = V
=
c
c
y
v
y
v
x
u
x
u V
V V V
V V
t

steady
irrotational
Laplaces Equation
(linear equation)
Does a similar expression exist for compressible flows?
Yes, but it is non-linear
6
STEP 1: VELOCITY POTENTIAL CONTINUITY
( )
0
0
0

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
= V = + =
y y x x y x
y y y x x x
y
v
y
v
x
u
x
u V
y
v
x
u
y x
j v i u V
| | | |

| |

|
|
| |
|

Flow is irrotational


x-component


y-component


Continuity for 2-D
compressible flow


Substitute velocity
into continuity equation

Grouping like terms
Expressions for d?
7
STEP 2: MOMENTUM + ENERGY
( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c c
c
c
c
=
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
=
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
+ = =
=
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2 2
y y y x x a y
y x y x x a x
y x
d
a
d
d a dp
y x
d dp
v u d V d dp
VdV dp
| | | |
| | | |
| |

| |

Eulers (Momentum) Equation

Substitute velocity potential



Flow is isentropic:
Change in pressure, dp, is related
to change in density, d, via a
2

Substitute into momentum equation


Changes in x-direction

Changes in y-direction
8
RESULT
Velocity Potential Equation: Nonlinear Equation
Compressible, Steady, Inviscid and Irrotational Flows
Note: This is one equation, with one unknown, |
a
0
(as well as T
0
, P
0
,
0
, h
0
) are known constants of the flow
0
2 1
1
1
1
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
=
c c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
c
c

y x y x a y y a x x a
| | | | | | |
0
2
= V |
Velocity Potential Equation: Linear Equation
Incompressible, Steady, Inviscid and Irrotational Flows
9
HOW DO WE USE THIS RESULTS?
Velocity potential equation is single PDE equation with one unknown, |
Equation represents a combination of:
1. Continuity Equation
2. Momentum Equation
3. Energy Equation
May be solved to obtain | for fluid flow field around any two-dimensional shape,
subject to boundary conditions at:
1. Infinity
2. Along surface of body (flow tangency)
Solution procedure (a
0
, T
0
, P
0
,
0
, h
0
are known quantities)
1. Obtain |
2. Calculate u and v
3. Calculate a
4. Calculate M
5. Calculate T, p, and from isentropic relations
y
v
x
u
c
c
=
c
c
=
|
|
( ) 1
0 0 0
2 0
2 2
2
2
2
0
2
2
1
1
2
1

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

+ =
+
= =
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=

| |
T
T
p
p
M
T
T
a
v u
a
V
M
y x
a a
10
WHAT DOES THIS MEAN, WHAT DO WE DO NOW?
Linearity: PDEs are either linear or nonlinear
Linear PDEs: The dependent variable, |, and all its derivatives appear in a
linear fashion, for example they are not multiplied together or squared

No general analytical solution of compressible flow velocity potential is known
Resort to finite-difference numerical techniques

Can we explore this equation for a special set of circumstances where it may
simplify to a linear behavior (easy to solve)?
1. Slender bodies
2. Small angles of attack
Both are relevant for many airfoil applications and provide qualitative and
quantitative physical insight into subsonic, compressible flow behavior

Next steps:
Introduce perturbation theory (finite and small)
Linearize PDE subject to (1) and (2) and solve for |, u, v, etc.
11
HOW TO LINEARIZE: PERTURBATIONS
| |

+ =
=
+ =

x V
v v
u V u
y x y x
y y
x x
c c
c
=
c c
c
c
c
=
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
| |
| |
| |

2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
v
y
u
x

=
c
c
=
c
c
|
|
y y
x
V
x
c
c
=
c
c
c
c
+ =
c
c

| |
| |

12
INTRODUCE PERTURBATION VELOCITIES
( ) | | ( ) ( )
( )
2

1 2 1 2 1
0

0

2

2
2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
v u V a V a V a
y
u
v u V
y
v
v a
x
u
u V a
y x y x
V
y y
a
x x
V a
+ +
+

= +

= +

=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
=
c c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+




| | | | | | |
Perturbation velocity potential: same equation, still nonlinear


Re-write equation in terms of perturbation velocities:
Substitution from energy equation (see Equation 8.32, 8.4):
Combine these results
13
RESULT
Equation is still exact for irrotational, isentropic flow
Perturbations may be large or small in this representation
( )
( )
( )
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
c
c
(

+
+
+
+
c
c
(

+
+
+ +
=
c
c
+
c
c

x
v
y
u
V
u
V
v
M
y
v
V
u
V
v
V
u
M
x
u
V
v
V
u
V
u
M
y
v
x
u
M

1

2
1

2
1

1

2
1

2
1

1

1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

L
i
n
e
a
r

N
o
n
-
L
i
n
e
a
r

14
HOW TO LINEARIZE
Limit considerations to small perturbations:
Slender body
Small angle of attack
( )
( )
( )
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
c
c
(

+
+
+
+
c
c
(

+
+
+ +
=
c
c
+
c
c

x
v
y
u
V
u
V
v
M
y
v
V
u
V
v
V
u
M
x
u
V
v
V
u
V
u
M
y
v
x
u
M

1

2
1
2
1
1

2
1
2
1
1

1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
<<<<
<<


V
v
V
u
V
v
V
u
15
HOW TO LINEARIZE
Compare terms (coefficients of
like derivatives) across equal sign

Compare C and A:
If 0 M

0.8 or M

1.2
C << A
Neglect C
Compare D and B:
If M

5
D << B
Neglect D
Examine E
E ~ 0
Neglect E

Note that if M

> 5 (or so) terms

C, D and E may be large even if
perturbations are small
( )
( )
( )
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
c
c
(

+
+
+
+
c
c
(

+
+
+ +
=
c
c
+
c
c

x
v
y
u
V
u
V
v
M
y
v
V
u
V
v
V
u
M
x
u
V
v
V
u
V
u
M
y
v
x
u
M

1

2
1
2
1
1

2
1
2
1
1

1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

A
B
C
D
E
16
RESULT
After order of magnitude analysis, we have
following results

May also be written in terms of perturbation
velocity potential

Equation is a linear PDE and is rather easy to
solve (see slides 19-22 for technique)

Recall:
Equation is no longer exact
Valid for small perturbations:
Slender bodies
Small angles of attack
Subsonic and Supersonic Mach numbers
Keeping in mind these assumptions
equation is good approximation
( )
( ) 0

1
0

1
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
c
c

=
c
c
+
c
c

y x
M
y
v
x
u
M
| |
17
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
constant

constant

0
= =
c
c
=
= =
c
c
=
= =
|
|
|
|
y
v
x
u
v u
u
|
u
u
tan

tan

tan

=
c
c
=
~
+
=
V
y
V v
V
v
u V
v
1. Perturbations go to zero at infinity






2. Flow tangency
Solution must satisfy same boundary conditions as in Chapter 4
18
IMPLICATION: PRESSURE COEFFICIENT, C
P
( )
( )
( )

=
+
=
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= + = +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

V
u
C
V
v u
V
u
C
V
v u
V
u
M
p
p
T
T
p
p
c
V
T
c
V
T
p
p
M
C
V
p p
q
p p
C
P
P
p p
P
P
2
2
2
2
1
1
,
2 2
1
2
2
2
2 2
1
2
2 2
2
1 2 2
2
2

Definition of pressure coefficient

C
P
in terms of Mach number (more useful
compressible form)

Introduce energy equation (7.5) and
isentropic relations (7.2.5)

Write V in terms of perturbation velocities
Substitute into expression for p/p

and
insert into definition of C
P


Linearize equation
Linearized form of pressure coefficient, valid for small perturbations
19
HOW DO WE SOLVE EQUATION (11.4)
Note behavior of sign of leading term for subsonic
and supersonic flows



Equation is almost Laplaces equation, if we could
get rid of | coefficient


Strategy
Coordinate transformation
Transform into new space governed by and q


In transformed space, new velocity potential may
be written
( )
( ) ( ) y x
y
x
y x
M
y x
M
,

,
0

1
0

1
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
| | q |
| q

| |
|
|
| |
=
=
=
=
c
c
+
c
c

=
c
c
+
c
c

20
TRANSFORMED VARIABLES (1/2)
Definition of new variables (determining
a useful transformation is done by trail
and error, experience)

Perform chain rule to express in terms of
transformed variables




q
|
q
|
|
|

|
|
| |
|
q q
q
q
|

| |
q
q
|

| |
| q

c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
=
=

1

, 0 , 0 , 1


y
x
y x y x
y y y
x x x
y
x
( ) ( ) y x,

, | | q | =
21
TRANSFORMED VARIABLES (2/2)
Differentiate with respect to x a second time

Differentiate with respect to y a second time




Substitute in results and arrive at a Laplace equation
for transformed variables
Recall that Laplaces equation governs behavior of
incompressible flows

0

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
q
|

|
q
|
|
|

|
|
|
y
x
Shape of airfoil is same in transformed space as in physical space

Transformation relates compressible flow over an airfoil in (x, y) space to
incompressible flow in (, q) space over same airfoil
22
2
0 ,
2
0 ,
2
0 ,
0 ,
1
1
1
2 1
1 2 1 2

2 2

=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
= =
M
c
c
M
c
c
M
C
C
C
C
V
u
C
V x V x V V
u
C
m
m
l
l
P
P
P
P
P
P
|
|

|
|
|
|
|
FINAL RESULTS
Insert transformation results into linearized C
P




Prandtl-Glauert rule: If we know the incompressible
pressure distribution over an airfoil, the compressible
pressure distribution over the same airfoil may be
obtained

Lift and moment coefficients are integrals of pressure
distribution (inviscid flows only)

|
Perturbation velocity potential for incompressible
flow in transformed space
23
OBTAINING LIFT COEFFICIENT FROM C
P
( )
2
0 ,
0
, ,
1
1

=
~
}
M
c
c
dx C C
c
c
l
l
c
upper p lower p l
24
IMPROVED COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTIONS
0 ,
2
2 2
2
0 ,
0 ,
2
2
2
0 ,
2
0 ,
1 2
2
1
1
1
2
1 1
1
1
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
C
M
M M
M
C
C
C
M
M
M
C
C
M
C
C

|
.
|

\
|

+
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=

Prandtl-Glauret
Shortest expression
Tends to under-predict
experimental results

Account for some of nonlinear
aspects of flow field
Two other formulas which show
excellent agreement

1. Karman-Tsien
Most widely used

2. Laitone
Most recent