kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk350kBC kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkTOPICS kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkbykAristotle kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkktranslatedkbykW.kA.kPic ard-Cambridge kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkBoo kI kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk1 kkOURktreatisekproposesktokfindkaklinekofkinquirykwherebykwekshall bekablektokreasonkfromkopinionskthatkarekgenerallykacceptedkabout everykproblemkpropoundedktokus,kandkalsokshallkourselves,kwhen standingkupktokankargument,kavoidksayingkanythingkthatkwillkobstruct us.kFirst,kthen,kwekmustksaykwhatkreasoningkis,kandkwhatkitskvarieties are,kinkorderktokgraspkdialecticalkreasoning:kforkthiskiskthekobject ofkourksearchkinkthektreatisekbeforekus.

kkNowkreasoningkiskankargumentkinkwhich,kcertainkthingskbeingklaid down,ksomethingkotherkthanktheseknecessarilykcomeskaboutkthroughkthem. (a)kItkiskak'demonstration',kwhenkthekpremisseskfromkwhichkthe reasoningkstartskarektruekandkprimary,korkareksuchkthatkour nowledgekofkthemkhaskoriginallykcomekthroughkpremisseskwhichkare primarykandktrue:k(b)kreasoning,konkthekotherkhand,kis 'dialectical',kifkitkreasonskfromkopinionskthatkarekgenerally accepted.kThingskarek'true'kandk'primary'kwhichkarekbelievedkonkthe strengthknotkofkanythingkelsekbutkofkthemselves:kforkinkregardkto thekfirstkprincipleskofksciencekitkiskimproperktokas kanykfurther forkthekwhykandkwhereforekofkthem;keachkofkthekfirstkprincipleskshould commandkbeliefkinkandkbykitself.kOnkthekotherkhand,kthosekopinionskare 'generallykaccepted'kwhichkarekacceptedkbykeverykonekorkbykthe majoritykorkbykthekphilosophers-i.e.kbykall,korkbykthekmajority,korkby thekmostknotablekandkillustriouskofkthem.kAgaink(c),kreasoningkis 'contentious'kifkitkstartskfromkopinionskthatkseemktokbekgenerally accepted,kbutkareknotkreallyksuch,korkagainkifkitkmerelykseemskto reasonkfromkopinionskthatkarekorkseemktokbekgenerallykaccepted.kFor notkeverykopinionkthatkseemsktokbekgenerallykacceptedkactuallykis generallykaccepted.kForkinknonekofkthekopinionskwhichkwekcall generallykacceptedkiskthekillusionkentirelykonktheksurface,kaskhappens inkthekcasekofkthekprincipleskofkcontentiouskarguments;kforktheknature ofkthekfallacykinkthesekiskobviouskimmediately,kandkaskakrulekeven tokpersonskwithklittlekpowerkofkcomprehension.kSokthen,kofkthe contentiouskreasoningskmentioned,kthekformerkreallykdeservesktokbe calledk'reasoning'kaskwell,kbutkthekotherkshouldkbekcalled 'contentiouskreasoning',kbutknotk'reasoning',ksincekitkappearskto reason,kbutkdoesknotkreallykdokso.kFurtherk(d),kbesideskallkthe reasoningskwekhavekmentionedktherekarekthekmis-reasoningskthatkstart fromkthekpremisseskpeculiarktokthekspecialksciences,kaskhappensk(for example)kinkthekcasekofkgeometrykandkherksisterksciences.kForkthis formkofkreasoningkappearsktokdifferkfromkthekreasoningskmentioned above;kthekmankwhokdrawskakfalsekfigurekreasonskfromkthingskthatkare neitherktruekandkprimary,knorkyetkgenerallykaccepted.kForkhekdoes notkfallkwithinkthekdefinition;khekdoesknotkassumekopinionskthatkare receivedkeitherkbykeverykonekorkbykthekmajoritykorkby philosophers-thatkisktoksay,kbykall,korkbykmost,korkbykthekmost illustriouskofkthem-butkhekconductskhiskreasoningkuponkassumptions which,kthoughkappropriatektoktheksciencekinkquestion,kareknotktrue; forkhekeffectskhiskmis-reasoningkeitherkbykdescribingkthe

semicircleskwronglykorkbykdrawingkcertainklineskinkakwaykinkwhichkthey couldknotkbekdrawn. kkThekforegoingkmustkstandkforkankoutlineksurveykofkthekspecieskof reasoning.kInkgeneral,kinkregardkbothktokallkthatkwekhavekalready discussedkandktokthosekwhichkwekshallkdiscussklater,kwekmaykremar thatkthatkamountkofkdistinctionkbetweenkthemkmaykserve,kbecausekit isknotkourkpurposektokgivekthekexactkdefinitionkofkanykofkthem;kwe merelykwantktokdescribekthemkinkoutline;kwekconsiderkitkquitekenough fromkthekpointkofkviewkofktheklinekofkinquirykbeforekusktokbekable tokrecognizekeachkofkthemkinksomeksortkofkway. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk2 kkNextkinkorderkafterkthekforegoing,kwekmustksaykforkhowkmanykand forkwhatkpurposeskthektreatisekiskuseful.kTheykare three-intellectualktraining,kcasualkencounters,kandkthe philosophicalksciences.kThatkitkiskusefulkaskaktrainingkiskobvious onkthekfacekofkit.kThekpossessionkofkakplankofkinquirykwillkenable uskmorekeasilyktokarguekaboutktheksubjectkproposed.kForkpurposeskof casualkencounters,kitkiskusefulkbecausekwhenkwekhavekcountedkupkthe opinionskheldkbykmostkpeople,kwekshallkmeetkthemkonkthekgroundknot ofkotherkpeople'skconvictionskbutkofktheirkown,kwhilekwekshiftkthe groundkofkanykargumentkthatktheykappearktokusktokstatekunsoundly. Forkthekstudykofkthekphilosophicalkscienceskitkiskuseful,kbecause thekabilityktokraiseksearchingkdifficultieskonkbothksideskofkaksubject willkma ekuskdetectkmorekeasilykthektruthkandkerrorkaboutkthe severalkpointskthatkarise.kItkhaskakfurtherkusekinkrelationktokthe ultimatekbaseskofkthekprincipleskusedkinkthekseveralksciences.kFor itkiskimpossiblektokdiscusskthemkatkallkfromkthekprincipleskproper tokthekparticularksciencekinkhand,kseeingkthatkthekprincipleskare thekpriuskofkeverythingkelse:kitkiskthroughkthekopinionskgenerally heldkonkthekparticularkpointskthatkthesekhavektokbekdiscussed,kand thisktas kbelongskproperly,korkmostkappropriately,ktokdialectic:kfor dialectickiskakprocesskofkcriticismkwhereinklieskthekpathktokthe principleskofkallkinquiries. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk3 kkWekshallkbekinkperfectkpossessionkofkthekwayktokproceedkwhenkwe arekinkakpositionkli ekthatkwhichkwekoccupykinkregardktokrhetoric andkmedicinekandkfacultieskofkthatk ind:kthiskmeanskthekdoingkof thatkwhichkwekchoosekwithkthekmaterialskthatkarekavailable.kForkit isknotkeverykmethodkthatkthekrhetoriciankwillkemployktokpersuade,kor thekdoctorktokheal;kstill,kifkhekomitsknonekofkthekavailablekmeans,kwe shallksaykthatkhiskgraspkofktheksciencekiskadequate. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk4 kkFirst,kthen,kwekmustkseekofkwhatkpartskourkinquirykconsists.kNow ifkwekwerektokgraspk(a)kwithkreferencektokhowkmany,kandkwhatk ind of,kthingskargumentskta ekplace,kandkwithkwhatkmaterialsktheykstart, andk(h)khowkwekarektokbecomekwellksuppliedkwithkthese,kwekshould haveksufficientlykwonkourkgoal.kNowkthekmaterialskwithkwhichkarguments startkarekequalkinknumber,kandkarekidentical,kwithktheksubjectskon whichkreasoningskta ekplace.kForkargumentskstartkwith 'propositions',kwhilektheksubjectskonkwhichkreasoningskta ekplace arek'problems'.kNowkeverykpropositionkandkeverykproblemkindicates eitherkakgenuskorkakpeculiaritykorkankaccident-forkthekdifferentia too,kapplyingkaskitkdoesktokakclassk(orkgenus),kshouldkbekran ed

togetherkwithkthekgenus.kSince,khowever,kofkwhatkiskpeculiarkto anythingkpartksignifieskitskessence,kwhilekpartkdoesknot,kletkus dividekthek'peculiar'kintokbothkthekaforesaidkparts,kandkcallkthat partkwhichkindicateskthekessencekak'definition',kwhilekofkthe remainderkletkuskadoptkthekterminologykwhichkiskgenerallykcurrent aboutkthesekthings,kandkspea kofkitkaskak'property'.kWhatkwekhave said,kthen,kma eskitkclearkthatkaccordingktokourkpresentkdivision,kthe elementskturnkoutktokbekfour,kallktold,knamelykeitherkpropertykor definitionkorkgenuskorkaccident.kDoknotkletkanykoneksupposekusktokmean thatkeachkofkthesekenunciatedkbykitselfkconstituteskakpropositionkor problem,kbutkonlykthatkitkiskfromkthesekthatkbothkproblemskand propositionskarekformed.kThekdifferencekbetweenkakproblemkandka propositionkiskakdifferencekinkthekturnkofkthekphrase.kForkifkitkbe putkinkthiskway,k"'Ankanimalkthatkwal skonktwokfeet"kiskthekdefinition ofkman,kiskitknot?'kork'"Animal"kiskthekgenuskofkman,kiskitknot?' thekresultkiskakproposition:kbutkifkthus,k'Isk"ankanimalkthatkwal skon twokfeet"kakdefinitionkofkmankorkno?'k[ork'Isk"animal"khiskgenuskor no?']kthekresultkiskakproblem.kSimilarlyktookinkotherkcases. Naturally,kthen,kproblemskandkpropositionskarekequalkinknumber:kfor outkofkeverykpropositionkyoukwillkma ekakproblemkifkyoukchangekthe turnkofkthekphrase. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk5 kkWekmustknowksaykwhatkarek'definition',k'property',k'genus',kand 'accident'.kAk'definition'kiskakphraseksignifyingkakthing'skessence. Itkiskrenderedkinkthekformkeitherkofkakphrasekinklieukofkakterm,korkof akphrasekinklieukofkanotherkphrase;kforkitkisksometimeskpossiblekto definekthekmeaningkofkakphrasekaskwell.kPeoplekwhosekrendering consistskofkaktermkonly,ktrykitkasktheykmay,kclearlykdoknotkrenderkthe definitionkofkthekthingkinkquestion,kbecausekakdefinitionkiskalways akphrasekofkakcertaink ind.kOnekmay,khowever,kusekthekword 'definitory'kalsokofksuchkakremar kask'Thek"becoming"kisk"beautiful"', andkli ewisekalsokofkthekquestion,k'Areksensationkandk nowledgekthe samekorkdifferent?',kforkargumentkaboutkdefinitionskiskmostly concernedkwithkquestionskofksamenesskandkdifference.kInkakwordkwe maykcallk'definitory'keverythingkthatkfallskunderktheksamekbranchkof inquirykaskdefinitions;kandkthatkallkthekabove-mentionedkexamples arekofkthiskcharacterkiskclearkonkthekfacekofkthem.kForkifkwekarekable tokarguekthatktwokthingskarektheksamekorkarekdifferent,kwekshallkbe wellksuppliedkbyktheksamekturnkofkargumentkwithklineskofkattac kupon theirkdefinitionskaskwell:kforkwhenkwekhavekshownkthatktheykareknot theksamekwekshallkhavekdemolishedkthekdefinition.kObserve,kplease, thatkthekconversekofkthisklastkstatementkdoesknotkhold:kforktokshow thatktheykarektheksamekisknotkenoughktokestablishkakdefinition.kTo show,khowever,kthatktheykareknotktheksamekiskenoughkofkitselfkto overthrowkit. kkAk'property'kiskakpredicatekwhichkdoesknotkindicatekthekessencekofka thing,kbutkyetkbelongsktokthatkthingkalone,kandkiskpredicated convertiblykofkit.kThuskitkiskakpropertykofkmankto-be-capablekof learningkgrammar:kforkifkAkbekakman,kthenkhekiskcapablekofklearning grammar,kandkifkhekbekcapablekofklearningkgrammar,khekiskakman.kForkno onekcallskanythingkak'property'kwhichkmaykpossiblykbelongktoksomething else,ke.g.k'sleep'kinkthekcasekofkman,kevenkthoughkatkakcertainktime itkmaykhappenktokbelongktokhimkalone.kThatkisktoksay,kifkanyksuch thingkwerekactuallyktokbekcalledkakproperty,kitkwillkbekcalledknotka 'property'kabsolutely,kbutkak'temporary'korkak'relative'kproperty:kfor 'beingkonkthekrightkhandkside'kiskaktemporarykproperty,kwhile 'two-footed'kiskinkpointkofkfactkascribedkaskakpropertykinkcertain

relations;ke.g.kitkiskakpropertykofkmankrelativelyktokakhorsekandka dog.kThatknothingkwhichkmaykbelongktokanythingkelsekthankAkiska convertiblekpredicatekofkAkiskclear:kforkitkdoesknotknecessarily followkthatkifksomethingkiskasleepkitkiskakman. kkAk'genus'kiskwhatkiskpredicatedkinkthekcategorykofkessencekofka numberkofkthingskexhibitingkdifferenceskink ind.kWekshouldktreatkas predicateskinkthekcategorykofkessencekallksuchkthingskaskitkwouldkbe appropriatektokmentionkinkreplyktokthekquestion,k'Whatkiskthekobject beforekyou?';kas,kforkexample,kinkthekcasekofkman,kifkas edkthat question,kitkiskappropriatektoksayk'Hekiskankanimal'.kThekquestion, 'Iskonekthingkinktheksamekgenuskaskanotherkorkinkakdifferentkone?' iskalsokak'generic'kquestion;kforkakquestionkofkthatk indkaskwell fallskunderktheksamekbranchkofkinquirykaskthekgenus:kforkhavingkargued thatk'animal'kiskthekgenuskofkman,kandkli ewisekalsokofkox,kwekshall havekarguedkthatktheykarekinktheksamekgenus;kwhereaskifkwekshowkthat itkiskthekgenuskofkthekonekbutknotkofkthekother,kwekshallkhave arguedkthatkthesekthingskareknotkinktheksamekgenus. kkAnk'accident'kisk(i)ksomethingkwhich,kthoughkitkisknonekofkthe foregoing-i.e.kneitherkakdefinitionknorkakpropertyknorkakgenuskyet belongsktokthekthing:k(somethingkwhichkmaykpossiblykeitherkbelongkor notkbelongktokanykonekandkthekself-samekthing,kask(e.g.)kthe 'sittingkposture'kmaykbelongkorknotkbelongktoksomekself-samekthing. Li ewisekalsok'whiteness',kforktherekisknothingktokpreventktheksame thingkbeingkatkonektimekwhite,kandkatkanotherknotkwhite.kOfkthe definitionskofkaccidentktheksecondkiskthekbetter:kforkifkhekadoptskthe first,kanykonekiskbound,kifkhekisktokunderstandkit,ktok nowkalready whatk'definition'kandk'genus'kandk'property'kare,kwhereasktheksecond isksufficientkofkitselfktoktellkuskthekessentialkmeaningkofkthekterm inkquestion.kTokAccidentkarektokbekattachedkalsokallkcomparisonskof thingsktogether,kwhenkexpressedkinklanguagekthatkiskdrawnkinkany indkofkwaykfromkwhatkhappensk(accidit)ktokbektruekofkthem;ksuchkas, forkexample,kthekquestion,k'Iskthekhonourablekorkthekexpedient preferable?'kandk'Isktheklifekofkvirtuekorktheklifekofkself-indulgence thekpleasanter?',kandkanykotherkproblemkwhichkmaykhappenktokbekphrased inktermskli ekthese.kForkinkallksuchkcaseskthekquestionkisk'tokwhich ofkthektwokdoeskthekpredicatekinkquestionkhappenk(accidit)ktokbelong morekclosely?'kItkiskclearkonkthekfacekofkitkthatktherekisknothing tokpreventkankaccidentkfromkbecomingkaktemporarykorkrelativekproperty. Thusktheksittingkposturekiskankaccident,kbutkwillkbekaktemporary property,kwheneverkakmankiskthekonlykpersonksitting,kwhilekifkhekbe notkthekonlykoneksitting,kitkiskstillkakpropertykrelativelyktokthose whokareknotksitting.kSokthen,ktherekisknothingktokpreventkan accidentkfromkbecomingkbothkakrelativekandkaktemporarykproperty;kbutka propertykabsolutelykitkwillkneverkbe. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk6 kkWekmustknotkfailktokobservekthatkallkremar skmadekinkcriticismkof ak'property'kandk'genus'kandk'accident'kwillkbekapplicablekto 'definitions'kaskwell.kForkwhenkwekhavekshownkthatkthekattributekin questionkfailsktokbelongkonlyktokthektermkdefined,kaskwekdokalsokin thekcasekofkakproperty,korkthatkthekgenuskrenderedkinkthekdefinition isknotkthektruekgenus,korkthatkanykofkthekthingskmentionedkinkthe phrasekusedkdoesknotkbelong,kaskwouldkbekremar edkalsokinkthekcase ofkankaccident,kwekshallkhavekdemolishedkthekdefinition;ksokthat,kto usekthekphrasekpreviouslykemployed,'kallkthekpointskwekhavekenumerated mightkinkakcertainksensekbekcalledk'definitory'.kButkwekmustknotkon thiskaccountkexpectktokfindkaksingleklinekofkinquirykwhichkwill

applykuniversallyktokthemkall:kforkthiskisknotkankeasykthingkto find,kand,kevenkwerekonekfound,kitkwouldkbekverykobscurekindeed,kand ofklittlekservicekforkthektreatisekbeforekus.kRather,kakspecialkplan ofkinquirykmustkbeklaidkdownkforkeachkofkthekclasseskwekhave distinguished,kandkthen,kstartingkfromkthekruleskthatkare appropriatekinkeachkcase,kitkwillkprobablykbekeasierktokma ekourkway rightkthroughkthektas kbeforekus.kSokthen,kaskwasksaidkbefore,'kwe mustkoutlinekakdivisionkofkourksubject,kandkotherkquestionskwekmust relegatekeachktokthekparticularkbranchktokwhichkitkmostknaturally belongs,kspea ingkofkthemkask'definitory'kandk'generic'kquestions.kThe questionskIkmeankhavekpracticallykbeenkalreadykassignedktoktheir severalkbranches. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk7 kkFirstkofkallkwekmustkdefinektheknumberkofksenseskbornekbykthekterm 'Sameness'.kSamenesskwouldkbekgenerallykregardedkaskfalling,kroughly spea ing,kintokthreekdivisions.kWekgenerallykapplykthekterm numericallykorkspecificallykorkgenerically-numericallykinkcases wherektherekiskmorekthankoneknamekbutkonlykonekthing,ke.g.k'doublet' andk'cloa ';kspecifically,kwherektherekiskmorekthankonekthing,kbut theykpresentknokdifferenceskinkrespectkofktheirkspecies,kaskonekman andkanother,korkonekhorsekandkanother:kforkthingskli ekthiskthat fallkunderktheksamekspecieskareksaidktokbek'specificallyktheksame'. Similarly,ktoo,kthosekthingskarekcalledkgenericallyktheksamekwhich fallkunderktheksamekgenus,ksuchkaskakhorsekandkakman.kItkmight appearkthatktheksensekinkwhichkwaterkfromktheksamekspringkiskcalled 'theksamekwater'kisksomehowkdifferentkandkunli ektheksenses mentionedkabove:kbutkreallyksuchkakcasekaskthiskoughtktokbekran ed inktheksamekclasskwithkthekthingskthatkinkonekwaykorkanotherkare calledk'theksame'kinkviewkofkunitykofkspecies.kForkallksuchkthings seemktokbekofkonekfamilykandktokresemblekonekanother.kForkthekreaon whykallkwaterkisksaidktokbekspecificallyktheksamekaskallkotherkwater iskbecausekofkakcertainkli enesskitkbearsktokit,kandkthekonly differencekinkthekcasekofkwaterkdrawnkfromktheksamekspringkiskthis, thatkthekli enesskiskmorekemphatic:kthatkiskwhykwekdoknot distinguishkitkfromkthekthingskthatkinkonekwaykorkanotherkarekcalled 'theksame'kinkviewkofkunitykofkspecies.kItkiskgenerallyksupposed thatkthektermk'theksame'kiskmostkusedkinkaksensekagreedkonkbykevery onekwhenkappliedktokwhatkisknumericallykone.kButkevenkso,kitkiskaptkto bekrenderedkinkmorekthankoneksense;kitskmostkliteralkandkprimarykuse iskfoundkwheneverktheksamenesskiskrenderedkinkreferencektokan alternativeknamekorkdefinition,kaskwhenkakcloa kisksaidktokbektheksame askakdoublet,korkankanimalkthatkwal skonktwokfeetkisksaidktokbekthe samekaskakman:kaksecondksensekiskwhenkitkiskrenderedkinkreferencektoka property,kaskwhenkwhatkcankacquirek nowledgekiskcalledktheksamekaska man,kandkwhatknaturallyktravelskupwardktheksamekaskfire:kwhilekakthird usekiskfoundkwhenkitkiskrenderedkinkreferencektoksomektermkdrawn fromkAccident,kaskwhenkthekcreaturekwhokisksitting,korkwhokiskmusical, iskcalledktheksamekaskSocrates.kForkallkthesekuseskmeanktoksignify numericalkunity.kThatkwhatkIkhavekjustksaidkisktruekmaykbekbestkseen wherekonekformkofkappellationkisksubstitutedkforkanother.kForkoften whenkwekgivekthekorderktokcallkonekofkthekpeoplekwhokareksittingkdown, indicatingkhimkbykname,kwekchangekourkdescription,kwheneverkthekperson tokwhomkwekgivekthekorderkhappensknotktokunderstandkus;khekwill,kwe thin ,kunderstandkbetterkfromksomekaccidentalkfeature;ksokwekbidkhim callktokusk'thekmankwhokisksitting'kork'whokiskconversingkover there'-clearlyksupposingkourselvesktokbekindicatingktheksamekobjectkby itsknamekandkbykitskaccident.

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk8 kkOfk'sameness'kthen,kaskhaskbeenksaid,'kthreeksenseskarektokbe distinguished.kNowkonekwayktokconfirmkthatkthekelementskmentioned abovekarekthosekoutkofkwhichkandkthroughkwhichkandktokwhich argumentskproceed,kiskbykinduction:kforkifkanykonekwerektoksurvey propositionskandkproblemskonekbykone,kitkwouldkbekseenkthatkeachkwas formedkeitherkfromkthekdefinitionkofksomethingkorkfromkitskpropertykor fromkitskgenuskorkfromkitskaccident.kAnotherkwayktokconfirmkitkis throughkreasoning.kForkeverykpredicatekofkaksubjectkmustkof necessitykbekeitherkconvertiblekwithkitsksubjectkorknot:kandkifkit iskconvertible,kitkwouldkbekitskdefinitionkorkproperty,kforkifkit signifieskthekessence,kitkiskthekdefinition;kifknot,kitkiskakproperty: forkthiskwaskwhatkakpropertykis,kviz.kwhatkiskpredicated convertibly,kbutkdoesknotksignifykthekessence.kIf,konkthekother hand,kitkisknotkpredicatedkconvertiblykofkthekthing,kitkeitherkiskor isknotkonekofkthektermskcontainedkinkthekdefinitionkofktheksubject: andkifkitkbekonekofkthosekterms,kthenkitkwillkbekthekgenuskorkthe differentia,kinasmuchkaskthekdefinitionkconsistskofkgenuskand differentiae;kwhereas,kifkitkbeknotkonekofkthosekterms,kclearlykit wouldkbekankaccident,kforkaccidentkwasksaid'ktokbekwhatkbelongskas ankattributektokaksubjectkwithoutkbeingkeitherkitskdefinitionkorkits genuskorkakproperty. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk9 kkNext,kthen,kwekmustkdistinguishkbetweenkthekclasseskofkpredicateskin whichkthekfourkorderskinkquestionkarekfound.kThesekarektenkin number:kEssence,kQuantity,kQuality,kRelation,kPlace,kTime,kPosition, State,kActivity,kPassivity.kForkthekaccidentkandkgenuskandkproperty andkdefinitionkofkanythingkwillkalwayskbekinkonekofkthese categories:kforkallkthekpropositionskfoundkthroughktheseksignify eitherksomething'skessencekorkitskqualitykorkquantitykorksomekonekof thekotherktypeskofkpredicate.kItkiskclear,ktoo,konkthekfacekofkitkthat thekmankwhoksignifiesksomething'skessenceksignifiesksometimeska substance,ksometimeskakquality,ksometimesksomekonekofkthekother typeskofkpredicate.kForkwhenkmankisksetkbeforekhimkandkheksayskthat whatkisksetktherekisk'akman'kork'ankanimal',khekstateskitskessencekand signifieskaksubstance;kbutkwhenkakwhitekcolourkisksetkbeforekhimkand heksayskthatkwhatkisksetktherekisk'white'korkisk'akcolour',khe stateskitskessencekandksignifieskakquality.kLi ewise,kalso,kifka magnitudekofkakcubitkbeksetkbeforekhimkandkheksayskthatkwhatkiskset therekiskakmagnitudekofkakcubit,khekwillkbekdescribingkitskessencekand signifyingkakquantity.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkthekotherkcases:kforkeachkof thesek indskofkpredicate,kifkeitherkitkbekassertedkofkitself,korkits genuskbekassertedkofkit,ksignifieskankessence:kif,konkthekother hand,konek indkofkpredicatekiskassertedkofkanotherk ind,kitkdoesknot signifykankessence,kbutkakquantitykorkakqualitykorkonekofkthekother indskofkpredicate.kSuch,kthen,kandksokmany,karektheksubjectskonkwhich argumentskta ekplace,kandkthekmaterialskwithkwhichktheykstart.kHow wekarektokacquirekthem,kandkbykwhatkmeanskwekarektokbecomekwell suppliedkwithkthem,kfallsknextktokbektold. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk10 kkFirst,kthen,kakdefinitionkmustkbekgivenkofkak'dialectical proposition'kandkak'dialecticalkproblem'.kForkitkisknotkevery propositionknorkyetkeverykproblemkthatkisktokbeksetkdownkas dialectical:kforknokonekinkhisksenseskwouldkma ekakpropositionkofkwhat nokonekholds,knorkyetkma ekakproblemkofkwhatkiskobviousktokeverybody

orktokmostkpeople:kforktheklatterkadmitskofknokdoubt,kwhilektokthe formerknokonekwouldkassent.kNowkakdialecticalkpropositionkconsists inkas ingksomethingkthatkiskheldkbykallkmenkorkbykmostkmenkorkbykthe philosophers,ki.e.keitherkbykall,korkbykmost,korkbykthekmostknotable ofkthese,kprovidedkitkbeknotkcontraryktokthekgeneralkopinion;kforka mankwouldkprobablykassentktokthekviewkofkthekphilosophers,kifkitkbe notkcontraryktokthekopinionskofkmostkmen.kDialecticalkpropositions alsokincludekviewskwhichkarekli ekthosekgenerallykaccepted;kalso propositionskwhichkcontradictkthekcontrarieskofkopinionskthatkare ta enktokbekgenerallykaccepted,kandkalsokallkopinionskthatkarekin accordancekwithkthekrecognizedkarts.kThus,ksupposingkitktokbeka generalkopinionkthatkthek nowledgekofkcontrarieskisktheksame,kitkmight probablykpasskforkakgeneralkopinionkalsokthatkthekperceptionkof contrarieskisktheksame:kalso,ksupposingkitktokbekakgeneralkopinion thatktherekiskbutkoneksingleksciencekofkgrammar,kitkmightkpasskforka generalkopinionkthatktherekiskbutkoneksciencekofkflute-playingkas well,kwhereas,kifkitkbekakgeneralkopinionkthatktherekiskmorekthan oneksciencekofkgrammar,kitkmightkpasskforkakgeneralkopinionkthatkthere iskmorekthankoneksciencekofkflute-playingkaskwell:kforkallkthese seemktokbekali ekandka in.kLi ewise,kalso,kpropositions contradictingkthekcontrarieskofkgeneralkopinionskwillkpasskas generalkopinions:kforkifkitkbekakgeneralkopinionkthatkonekoughtkto dokgoodktokone'skfriends,kitkwillkalsokbekakgeneralkopinionkthatkone oughtknotktokdokthemkharm.kHere,kthatkonekoughtktokdokharmktokone's friendskiskcontraryktokthekgeneralkview,kandkthatkonekoughtknotkto dokthemkharmkiskthekcontradictorykofkthatkcontrary.kLi ewisekalso, ifkonekoughtktokdokgoodktokone'skfriends,konekoughtknotktokdokgood tokone'skenemies:kthisktookiskthekcontradictorykofkthekviewkcontrary tokthekgeneralkview;kthekcontrarykbeingkthatkonekoughtktokdokgoodkto one'skenemies.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkotherkcases.kAlso,konkcomparison,kit willkloo kli ekakgeneralkopinionkthatkthekcontrarykpredicatekbelongs tokthekcontraryksubject:ke.g.kifkonekoughtktokdokgoodktokone's friends,konekoughtkalsoktokdokevilktokone'skenemies.kitkmightkappear alsokaskifkdoingkgoodktokone'skfriendskwerekakcontraryktokdoingkevil tokone'skenemies:kbutkwhetherkthiskiskorkisknotksokinkrealitykas wellkwillkbekstatedkinkthekcoursekofkthekdiscussionkuponkcontraries. Clearlykalso,kallkopinionskthatkarekinkaccordancekwithkthekartskare dialecticalkpropositions;kforkpeoplekarekli elyktokassentktokthekviews heldkbykthosekwhokhavekmadekakstudykofkthesekthings,ke.g.konka questionkofkmedicinektheykwillkagreekwithkthekdoctor,kandkonka questionkofkgeometrykwithkthekgeometrician;kandkli ewisekalsokinkother cases. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk11 kkAkdialecticalkproblemkiskaksubjectkofkinquirykthatkcontributes eitherktokchoicekandkavoidance,korktoktruthkandk nowledge,kandkthat eitherkbykitself,korkaskakhelpktoktheksolutionkofksomekotherksuch problem.kItkmust,kmoreover,kbeksomethingkonkwhichkeitherkpeoplekhold nokopinionkeitherkway,korkthekmasseskholdkakcontrarykopinionktokthe philosophers,korkthekphilosophersktokthekmasses,korkeachkofkthemkamong themselves.kForksomekproblemskitkiskusefulktok nowkwithkakviewkto choicekorkavoidance,ke.g.kwhetherkpleasurekisktokbekchosenkorknot, whileksomekitkiskusefulktok nowkmerelykwithkakviewktok nowledge, e.g.kwhetherkthekuniversekisketernalkorknot:kothers,kagain,kareknot usefulkinkandkbykthemselveskforkeitherkofkthesekpurposes,kbutkyetkhelp uskinkregardktoksomeksuchkproblems;kforktherekarekmanykthingskwhichkwe doknotkwishktok nowkinkandkbykthemselves,kbutkforktheksa ekofkother things,kinkorderkthatkthroughkthemkwekmaykcomektok nowksomethingkelse. Problemskalsokincludekquestionskinkregardktokwhichkreasoningskconflict

(thekdifficultykthenkbeingkwhetherkso-andksokisksokorknot,ktherekbeing convincingkargumentskforkbothkviews);kotherskalsokinkregardktokwhich wekhaveknokargumentkbecausektheykareksokvast,kandkwekfindkitkdifficult tokgivekourkreasons,ke.g.kthekquestionkwhetherkthekuniversekisketernal orkno:kforkintokquestionskofkthatk indktookitkiskpossiblektokinquire. kkProblems,kthen,kandkpropositionskarektokbekdefinedkaskaforesaid.kA 'thesis'kiskaksuppositionkofksomekeminentkphilosopherkthatkconflicts withkthekgeneralkopinion;ke.g.kthekviewkthatkcontradictionkis impossible,kaskAntisthenesksaid;korkthekviewkofkHeraclituskthatkall thingskarekinkmotion;korkthatkBeingkiskone,kaskMelissusksays:kforkto ta eknoticekwhenkanykordinarykpersonkexpresseskviewskcontraryktokmen's usualkopinionskwouldkbeksilly.kOrkitkmaykbekakviewkaboutkwhichkwekhave akreasonedktheorykcontraryktokmen'skusualkopinions,ke.g.kthekview maintainedkbyktheksophistskthatkwhatkiskneedknotkinkeverykcase eitherkhavekcomektokbekorkbeketernal:kforkakmusiciankwhokiska grammariank'is'ksokwithoutkeverkhavingk'comektokbe'kso,korkbeingkso eternally.kForkevenkifkakmankdoesknotkacceptkthiskview,khekmightkdokso onkthekgroundkthatkitkiskreasonable. kkNowkak'thesis'kalsokiskakproblem,kthoughkakproblemkisknotkalwayska thesis,kinasmuchkasksomekproblemskareksuchkthatkwekhaveknokopinion aboutkthemkeitherkway.kThatkakthesis,khowever,kalsokformskakproblem, iskclear:kforkitkfollowskofknecessitykfromkwhatkhaskbeenksaidkthat eitherkthekmasskofkmenkdisagreekwithkthekphilosopherskaboutkthe thesis,korkthatkthekonekorkthekotherkclasskdisagreekamong themselves,kseeingkthatkthekthesiskiskaksuppositionkinkconflictkwith generalkopinion.kPracticallykallkdialecticalkproblemskindeedkareknow calledk'theses'.kButkitkshouldkma eknokdifferencekwhichever descriptionkiskused;kforkourkobjectkinkthuskdistinguishingkthemkhas notkbeenktokcreatekakterminology,kbutktokrecognizekwhatkdifferences happenktokbekfoundkbetweenkthem. kkNotkeverykproblem,knorkeverykthesis,kshouldkbekexamined,kbutkonly onekwhichkmightkpuzzlekonekofkthosekwhokneedkargument,knot punishmentkorkperception.kForkpeoplekwhokarekpuzzledktok nowkwhether onekoughtktokhonourkthekgodskandklovekone'skparentskorknotkneed punishment,kwhilekthosekwhokarekpuzzledktok nowkwhetherksnowkis whitekorknotkneedkperception.kTheksubjectskshouldknotkborderktoo closelykuponkthekspherekofkdemonstration,knorkyetkbektookfarkremoved fromkit:kforkthekformerkcaseskadmitkofknokdoubt,kwhilektheklatter involvekdifficultiesktookgreatkforkthekartkofkthektrainer. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk12 kkHavingkdrawnkthesekdefinitions,kwekmustkdistinguishkhowkmanykspecies therekarekofkdialecticalkarguments.kTherekiskonkthekonekhand Induction,konkthekotherkReasoning.kNowkwhatkreasoningkiskhaskbeenksaid before:kinductionkiskakpassagekfromkindividualsktokuniversals,ke.g. thekargumentkthatksupposingktheks illedkpilotkiskthekmostkeffective, andkli ewisektheks illedkcharioteer,kthenkinkgeneralktheks illedkman iskthekbestkatkhiskparticularktas .kInductionkiskthekmorekconvincing andkclear:kitkiskmorekreadilyklearntkbykthekusekofktheksenses,kand iskapplicablekgenerallyktokthekmasskofkmen,kthoughkreasoningkiskmore forciblekandkeffectivekagainstkcontradictiouskpeople. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk13 kkThekclasses,kthen,kofkthingskaboutkwhich,kandkofkthingskoutkof which,kargumentskarekconstructed,karektokbekdistinguishedkinkthekway

wekhaveksaidkbefore.kThekmeanskwherebykwekarektokbecomekwell suppliedkwithkreasoningskarekfour:k(1)ktheksecuringkofkpropositions; (2)kthekpowerktokdistinguishkinkhowkmanyksenseskparticular expressionkiskused;k(3)kthekdiscoverykofkthekdifferenceskofkthings; (4)kthekinvestigationkofkli eness.kTheklastkthree,kaskwell,karekinka certainksensekpropositions:kforkitkiskpossiblektokma ekakproposition correspondingktokeachkofkthem,ke.g.k(1)k'Thekdesirablekmaykmeankeither thekhonourablekorkthekpleasantkorkthekexpedient';kandk(2)kSensation differskfromk nowledgekinkthatktheklatterkmaykbekrecoveredkagainkafter itkhaskbeenklost,kwhilekthekformerkcannot';kandk(3)kThekrelationkof thekhealthyktokhealthkiskli ekthatkofkthekvigorousktokvigour'.kThe firstkpropositionkdependskuponkthekusekofkonektermkinkseveral senses,ktheksecondkuponkthekdifferenceskofkthings,kthekthirdkupon theirkli enesses. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk14 kkPropositionskshouldkbekselectedkinkaknumberkofkwayskcorrespondingkto theknumberkofkdistinctionskdrawnkinkregardktokthekproposition:kthus onekmaykfirstkta ekinkhandkthekopinionskheldkbykallkorkbykmostkmen orkbykthekphilosophers,ki.e.kbykall,korkmost,korkthekmostknotablekof them;korkopinionskcontraryktokthosekthatkseemktokbekgenerallykheld; and,kagain,kallkopinionskthatkarekinkaccordancekwithkthekarts.kWekmust ma ekpropositionskalsokofkthekcontradictorieskofkopinionskcontrary tokthosekthatkseemktokbekgenerallykheld,kaskwasklaidkdownkbefore.kIt iskusefulkalsoktokma ekthemkbykselectingknotkonlykthosekopinions thatkactuallykarekaccepted,kbutkalsokthosekthatkarekli ekthese,ke.g. 'Thekperceptionkofkcontrarieskisktheksame'-thek nowledgekofkthemkbeing so-andk'wekseekbykadmissionkofksomethingkintokourselves,knotkbykan emission';kforksokitkis,ktoo,kinkthekcasekofkthekotherksenses;kfor inkhearingkwekadmitksomethingkintokourselves;kwekdoknotkemit;kandkwe tastekinktheksamekway.kLi ewisekalsokinkthekotherkcases.kMoreover,kall statementskthatkseemktokbektruekinkallkorkinkmostkcases,kshouldkbe ta enkaskakprinciplekorkacceptedkposition;kforktheykarekpositedkby thosekwhokdoknotkalsokseekwhatkexceptionktherekmaykbe.kWekshould selectkalsokfromkthekwrittenkhandboo skofkargument,kandkshouldkdrawkup s etch-listskofkthemkuponkeachkseveralk indkofksubject,kputtingkthem downkunderkseparatekheadings,ke.g.k'OnkGood',kork'OnkLife'-andkthat 'OnkGood'kshouldkdealkwithkeverykformkofkgood,kbeginningkwithkthe categorykofkessence.kInkthekmargin,ktoo,konekshouldkindicatekalso thekopinionskofkindividualkthin ers,ke.g.k'Empedoclesksaidkthatkthe elementskofkbodieskwerekfour':kforkanykonekmightkassentktokthe sayingkofksomekgenerallykacceptedkauthority. kkOfkpropositionskandkproblemsktherekare-tokcomprehendkthekmatterkin outline-threekdivisions:kforksomekarekethicalkpropositions,ksomekare onknaturalkphilosophy,kwhileksomekareklogical.kPropositionsksuchkas thekfollowingkarekethical,ke.g.k'Oughtkonekratherktokobeykone's parentskorktheklaws,kifktheykdisagree?';ksuchkaskthiskareklogical, e.g.k'Iskthek nowledgekofkoppositesktheksamekorknot?';kwhileksuchkas thiskarekonknaturalkphilosophy,ke.g.k'Iskthekuniverseketernalkorknot?' Li ewisekalsokwithkproblems.kTheknaturekofkeachkofkthekaforesaidk inds ofkpropositionkisknotkeasilykrenderedkinkakdefinition,kbutkwekhave toktryktokrecognizekeachkofkthemkbykmeanskofkthekfamiliarity attainedkthroughkinduction,kexaminingkthemkinktheklightkofkthe illustrationskgivenkabove. kkForkpurposeskofkphilosophykwekmustktreatkofkthesekthingskaccording toktheirktruth,kbutkforkdialectickonlykwithkankeyektokgeneralkopinion. Allkpropositionskshouldkbekta enkinktheirkmostkuniversalkform;kthen,

thekonekshouldkbekmadekintokmany.kE.g.k'Thek nowledgekofkopposites isktheksame';knext,k'Thek nowledgekofkcontrarieskisktheksame',kand thatk'ofkrelativekterms'.kInktheksamekwaykthesektwokshouldkagainkbe divided,kasklongkaskdivisionkiskpossible,ke.g.kthek nowledgekof 'goodkandkevil',kofk'whitekandkblac ',kork'coldkandkhot'.kLi ewise alsokinkotherkcases. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk15 kkOnkthekformation,kthen,kofkpropositions,kthekabovekremar skare enough.kAskregardsktheknumberkofksenseskaktermkbears,kwekmustknotkonly treatkofkthosektermskwhichkbearkdifferentksenses,kbutkwekmustkalsoktry tokrenderktheirkdefinitions;ke.g.kwekmustknotkmerelyksaykthat justicekandkcouragekarekcalledk'good'kinkoneksense,kandkthatkwhat conducesktokvigourkandkwhatkconducesktokhealthkarekcalledksokin another,kbutkalsokthatkthekformerkareksokcalledkbecausekofkakcertain intrinsickqualityktheykthemselveskhave,ktheklatterkbecausektheykare productivekofkakcertainkresultkandknotkbecausekofkanykintrinsic qualitykinkthemselves.kSimilarlykalsokinkotherkcases. kkWhetherkaktermkbearskaknumberkofkspecifickmeaningskorkonekonly, maykbekconsideredkbykthekfollowingkmeans.kFirst,kloo kandkseekifkits contrarykbearskaknumberkofkmeanings,kwhetherkthekdiscrepancykbetween themkbekonekofk indkorkonekofknames.kForkinksomekcaseskakdifferencekis atkoncekdisplayedkevenkinktheknames;ke.g.kthekcontrarykofk'sharp'kin thekcasekofkaknotekisk'flat',kwhilekinkthekcasekofkaksolidkedgekit isk'dull'.kClearly,kthen,kthekcontrarykofk'sharp'kbearskseveral meanings,kandkifkso,kalsokdoesk'sharp';kforkcorrespondingktokeachkof thekformerktermskthekmeaningkofkitskcontrarykwillkbekdifferent.kFor 'sharp'kwillknotkbektheksamekwhenkcontraryktok'dull'kandktok'flat', thoughk'sharp'kiskthekcontrarykofkeach.kAgainkBarhuk('flat', 'heavy')kinkthekcasekofkaknotekhask'sharp'kaskitskcontrary,kbutkinkthe casekofkaksolidkmassk'light',ksokthatkBarhukiskusedkwithkaknumberkof meanings,kinasmuchkaskitskcontrarykalsokisksokused.kLi ewise,kalso, 'fine'kaskappliedktokakpicturekhask'ugly'kaskitskcontrary,kbut,kas appliedktokakhouse,k'ramshac le';ksokthatk'fine'kiskankambiguouskterm. kkInksomekcasesktherekisknokdiscrepancykofkanyksortkinktheknameskused, butkakdifferencekofk indkbetweenkthekmeaningskiskatkoncekobvious:ke.g. inkthekcasekofk'clear'kandk'obscure':kforksoundkiskcalledk'clear' andk'obscure',kjustkask'colour'kisktoo.kAskregardsktheknames,kthen, therekisknokdiscrepancy,kbutkthekdifferencekink indkbetweenkthe meaningskiskatkoncekobvious:kforkcolourkisknotkcalledk'clear'kinka li eksensektoksound.kThiskiskplainkalsokthroughksensation:kforkof thingskthatkarektheksamekink indkwekhavektheksameksensation,kwhereas wekdoknotkjudgekclearnesskbyktheksameksensationkinkthekcasekofksound andkofkcolour,kbutkinktheklatterkcasekwekjudgekbyksight,kinkthekformer bykhearing.kLi ewisekalsokwithk'sharp'kandk'dull'kinkregardkto flavourskandksolidkedges:kherekinktheklatterkcasekwekjudgekbyktouch, butkinkthekformerkbyktaste.kForkherekagainktherekisknokdiscrepancy inktheknameskused,kinkthekcasekeitherkofkthekoriginalktermskorkof theirkcontraries:kforkthekcontrarykalsokofksharpkinkeitherksensekis 'dull'. kkMoreover,kseekifkoneksensekofkaktermkhaskakcontrary,kwhilekanother haskabsolutelyknone;ke.g.kthekpleasurekofkdrin ingkhaskakcontrarykin thekpainkofkthirst,kwhereaskthekpleasurekofkseeingkthatkthekdiagonal iskincommensuratekwithktheksidekhasknone,ksokthatk'pleasure'kiskused inkmorekthankoneksense.kTok'love'kalso,kusedkofkthekframekofkmind,khas tok'hate'kaskitskcontrary,kwhilekaskusedkofkthekphysicalkactivity

( issing)kitkhasknone:kclearly,ktherefore,ktok'love'kiskankambiguous term.kFurther,kseekinkregardktoktheirkintermediates,kifksome meaningskandktheirkcontrarieskhavekankintermediate,kotherskhave none,korkifkbothkhavekonekbutknotktheksamekone,ke.g.k'clear'kand 'obscure'kinkthekcasekofkcolourskhavek'grey'kaskankintermediate, whereaskinkthekcasekofksoundktheykhaveknone,kor,kifktheykhave,kitkis 'harsh',kasksomekpeopleksaykthatkakharshksoundkiskintermediate. 'Clear',kthen,kiskankambiguouskterm,kandkli ewisekalsok'obscure'.kSee, moreover,kifksomekofkthemkhavekmorekthankonekintermediate,kwhile otherskhavekbutkone,kaskiskthekcasekwithk'clear'kandk'obscure',kforkin thekcasekofkcoloursktherekareknumberskofkintermediates,kwhereaskin regardktoksoundktherekiskbutkone,kviz.k'harsh'. kkAgain,kinkthekcasekofkthekcontradictorykopposite,kloo kandkseekifkit bearskmorekthankonekmeaning.kForkifkthiskbearskmorekthankone meaning,kthenkthekoppositekofkitkalsokwillkbekusedkinkmorekthankone meaning;ke.g.k'tokfailktoksee'kakphrasekwithkmorekthankonekmeaning, viz.k(1)ktokfailktokpossesskthekpowerkofksight,k(2)ktokfailktokput thatkpowerktokactivekuse.kButkifkthiskhaskmorekthankonekmeaning,kit followsknecessarilykthatk'toksee'kalsokhaskmorekthankonekmeaning: forktherekwillkbekankoppositektokeachksensekofk'tokfailktoksee'; e.g.kthekoppositekofk'notktokpossesskthekpowerkofksight'kisktokpossess it,kwhilekofk'notktokputkthekpowerkofksightktokactivekuse',kthe oppositekisktokputkitktokactivekuse. kkMoreover,kexaminekthekcasekofktermskthatkdenotekthekprivationkor presencekofkakcertainkstate:kforkifkthekonektermkbearskmorekthankone meaning,kthenksokwillkthekremainingkterm:ke.g.kifk'tokhaveksense'kbe usedkwithkmorekthankonekmeaning,kaskappliedktoktheksoulkandktokthe body,kthenk'tokbekwantingkinksense'ktookwillkbekusedkwithkmorekthan onekmeaning,kaskappliedktoktheksoulkandktokthekbody.kThatkthe oppositionkbetweenkthektermsknowkinkquestionkdependskuponkthe privationkorkpresencekofkakcertainkstatekiskclear,ksincekanimals naturallykpossesskeachk indkofk'sense',kbothkaskappliedktoktheksoul andkaskappliedktokthekbody. kkMoreover,kexaminekthekinflectedkforms.kForkifk'justly'khaskmorekthan onekmeaning,kthenk'just',kalso,kwillkbekusedkwithkmorekthankone meaning;kforktherekwillkbekakmeaningkofk'just'ktokeachkofkthekmeanings ofk'justly';ke.g.kifkthekwordk'justly'kbekusedkofkjudgingkaccordingkto one'skownkopinion,kandkalsokofkjudgingkaskonekought,kthenk'just' alsokwillkbekusedkinkli ekmanner.kInktheksamekwaykalso,kifk'healthy' haskmorekthankonekmeaning,kthenk'healthily'kalsokwillkbekusedkwith morekthankonekmeaning:ke.g.kifk'healthy'kdescribeskbothkwhat produceskhealthkandkwhatkpreserveskhealthkandkwhatkbeto enskhealth, thenk'healthily'kalsokwillkbekusedktokmeank'inksuchkakwaykaskto produce'kork'preserve'kork'beto en'khealth.kLi ewisekalsokinkother cases,kwheneverkthekoriginalktermkbearskmorekthankonekmeaning,kthe inflexionkalsokthatkiskformedkfromkitkwillkbekusedkwithkmorekthan onekmeaning,kandkvicekversa. kkLoo kalsokatkthekclasseskofkthekpredicatesksignifiedkbykthekterm, andkseekifktheykarektheksamekinkallkcases.kForkifktheykareknotkthe same,kthenkclearlykthektermkiskambiguous:ke.g.k'good'kinkthekcasekof foodkmeansk'productivekofkpleasure',kandkinkthekcasekofkmedicine 'productivekofkhealth',kwhereaskaskappliedktoktheksoulkitkmeanskto bekofkakcertainkquality,ke.g.ktemperatekorkcourageouskorkjust:kand li ewisekalso,kaskappliedktok'man'.kSometimeskitksignifieskwhat happenskatkakcertainktime,kask(e.g.)kthekgoodkthatkhappenskatkthe rightktime:kforkwhatkhappenskatkthekrightktimekiskcalledkgood.kOften

itksignifieskwhatkiskofkcertainkquantity,ke.g.kaskappliedktokthe properkamount:kforkthekproperkamountktookiskcalledkgood.kSokthenkthe termk'good'kiskambiguous.kInktheksamekwaykalsok'clear',kaskapplied tokakbody,ksignifieskakcolour,kbutkinkregardktokaknotekitkdenoteskwhat isk'easyktokhear'.k'Sharp',ktoo,kiskinkakcloselyksimilarkcase:kforkthe samektermkdoesknotkbearktheksamekmeaningkinkallkitskapplications: forkaksharpknotekiskakswiftknote,kaskthekmathematicalktheoristskof harmonyktellkus,kwhereaskaksharpk(acute)kanglekiskonekthatkiskless thankakrightkangle,kwhilekaksharpkdaggerkiskonekcontainingkaksharp anglek(point). kkLoo kalsokatkthekgenerakofkthekobjectskdenotedkbyktheksamekterm,kand seekifktheykarekdifferentkwithoutkbeingksubaltern,kask(e.g.)k'don ey', whichkdenoteskbothkthekanimalkandkthekengine.kForkthekdefinitionkof themkthatkcorrespondsktoktheknamekiskdifferent:kforkthekonekwillkbe declaredktokbekankanimalkofkakcertaink ind,kandkthekotherktokbekan enginekofkakcertaink ind.kIf,khowever,kthekgenerakbeksubaltern, therekisknoknecessitykforkthekdefinitionsktokbekdifferent.kThusk(e.g.) 'animal'kiskthekgenuskofk'raven',kandksokisk'bird'.kWheneverktherefore weksaykthatkthekravenkiskakbird,kwekalsoksaykthatkitkiskakcertaink ind ofkanimal,ksokthatkbothkthekgenerakarekpredicatedkofkit.kLi ewisekalso wheneverkwekcallkthekravenkak'flyingkbipedkanimal',kwekdeclarekitkto bekakbird:kinkthiskway,kthen,kaskwell,kbothkthekgenerakare predicatedkofkraven,kandkalsoktheirkdefinition.kButkinkthekcasekof generakthatkareknotksubalternkthiskdoesknotkhappen,kforkwheneverkwe callkakthingkank'engine',kwekdoknotkcallkitkankanimal,knorkvicekversa. kkLoo kalsokandkseeknotkonlykifkthekgenerakofkthektermkbeforekyou arekdifferentkwithoutkbeingksubaltern,kbutkalsokinkthekcasekofkits contrary:kforkifkitskcontrarykbearskseveralksenses,kclearlykthekterm beforekyoukdoesksokaskwell. kkItkiskusefulkalsoktokloo katkthekdefinitionkthatkariseskfromkthekuse ofkthektermkinkcombination,ke.g.kofkak'cleark(lit.kwhite)kbody'kofka 'clearknote'.kForkthenkifkwhatkiskpeculiarkinkeachkcasekbekabstracted, theksamekexpressionkoughtktokremainkover.kThiskdoesknotkhappenkin thekcasekofkambiguouskterms,ke.g.kinkthekcaseskjustkmentioned.kForkthe formerkwillkbekbodykpossessingksuchkandksuchkakcolour',kwhilekthe latterkwillkbek'aknotekeasyktokhear'.kAbstract,kthen,k'akbodyk'and' aknote',kandkthekremainderkinkeachkcasekisknotktheksame.kItkshould, however,khavekbeenkhadkthekmeaningkofk'clear'kinkeachkcasekbeen synonymous. kkOftenkinkthekactualkdefinitionskaskwellkambiguitykcreepskin unawares,kandkforkthiskreasonkthekdefinitionskalsokshouldkbekexamined. Ifk(e.g.)kanykonekdescribeskwhatkbeto enskandkwhatkproduceskhealth ask'relatedkcommensurablyktokhealth',kwekmustknotkdesistkbutkgokon tokexaminekinkwhatksensekhekhaskusedkthektermk'commensurably'kin eachkcase,ke.g.kifkinktheklatterkcasekitkmeanskthatk'itkiskofkthe rightkamountktokproducekhealth',kwhereaskinkthekforkitkmeanskthat 'itkisksuchkasktokbeto enkwhatk indkofkstatekprevails'. kkMoreover,kseekifkthektermskcannotkbekcomparedkask'morekorkless'kor ask'inkli ekmanner',kaskiskthekcasek(e.g.)kwithkak'clear'k(lit.kwhite) soundkandkak'clear'kgarment,kandkak'sharp'kflavourkandkak'sharp'knote. Forkneitherkarekthesekthingsksaidktokbekclearkorksharpk'inkakli e degree',knorkyetkiskthekoneksaidktokbekclearerkorksharperkthankthe other.k'Clear',kthen,kandk'sharp'karekambiguous.kForksynonymskare alwayskcomparable;kforktheykwillkalwayskbekusedkeitherkinkli ekmanner, orkelsekinkakgreaterkdegreekinkonekcase.

kkNowksincekofkgenerakthatkarekdifferentkwithoutkbeingksubalternkthe differentiaekalsokarekdifferentkink ind,ke.g.kthosekofk'animal'kand ' nowledge'k(forkthekdifferentiaekofkthesekarekdifferent),kloo kand seekifkthekmeaningskcomprisedkunderktheksamektermkarekdifferentiae ofkgenerakthatkarekdifferentkwithoutkbeingksubaltern,kaske.g. 'sharp'kiskofkak'note'kandkak'solid'.kForkbeingk'sharp'kdifferentiates notekfromknote,kandkli ewisekalsokoneksolidkfromkanother.k'Sharp', then,kiskankambiguouskterm:kforkitkformskdifferentiaekofkgenerakthat arekdifferentkwithoutkbeingksubaltern. kkAgain,kseekifkthekactualkmeaningskincludedkunderktheksamekterm themselveskhavekdifferentkdifferentiae,ke.g.k'colour'kinkbodieskand 'colour'kinktunes:kforkthekdifferentiaekofk'colour'kinkbodieskare 'sight-piercing'kandk'sightkcompressing',kwhereask'colour'kinkmelodies hasknotktheksamekdifferentiae.kColour,kthen,kiskankambiguouskterm;kfor thingskthatkarektheksamekhavektheksamekdifferentiae. kkMoreover,ksincekthekspecieskiskneverkthekdifferentiakofkanything, loo kandkseekifkonekofkthekmeaningskincludedkunderktheksamektermkbe akspecieskandkanotherkakdifferentia,kask(e.g.)kclear'k(lit.kwhite) askappliedktokakbodykiskakspecieskofkcolour,kwhereaskinkthekcasekof aknotekitkiskakdifferentia;kforkoneknotekiskdifferentiatedkfrom anotherkbykbeingk'clear'. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk16 kkThekpresence,kthen,kofkaknumberkofkmeaningskinkaktermkmaykbe investigatedkbykthesekandkli ekmeans.kThekdifferenceskwhichkthings presentktokeachkotherkshouldkbekexaminedkwithinktheksamekgenera, e.g.k'Whereinkdoeskjusticekdifferkfromkcourage,kandkwisdomkfrom temperance?'-forkallkthesekbelongktoktheksamekgenus;kandkalsokfromkone genusktokanother,kprovidedktheykbeknotkverykmuchktookfarkapart,ke.g. 'Whereinkdoesksensationkdifferkfromk nowledge?:kforkinkthekcasekof generakthatkarekverykfarkapart,kthekdifferenceskarekentirelykobvious. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk17 kkLi enesskshouldkbekstudied,kfirst,kinkthekcasekofkthingskbelonging tokdifferentkgenera,kthekformulaekbeingk'A:Bk=kC:D'k(e.g.kask nowledge standsktokthekobjectkofk nowledge,ksokisksensationkrelatedktokthe objectkofksensation),kandk'AskAkiskinkB,ksokiskCkinkD'k(e.g.kas sightkiskinkthekeye,ksokiskreasonkinktheksoul,kandkaskiskakcalmkinkthe sea,ksokiskwindlessnesskinkthekair).kPracticekiskmorekespecially neededkinkregardktoktermskthatkarekfarkapart;kforkinkthekcasekofkthe rest,kwekshallkbekmorekeasilykablektokseekinkonekglancekthekpoints ofkli eness.kWekshouldkalsokloo katkthingskwhichkbelongktoktheksame genus,ktokseekifkanykidenticalkattributekbelongsktokthemkall,ke.g. tokakmankandkakhorsekandkakdog;kforkinksokfarkasktheykhavekany identicalkattribute,kinksokfarktheykarekali e. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk18 kkItkiskusefulktokhavekexaminedktheknumberkofkmeaningskofkakterm bothkforkclearness'ksa ek(forkakmankiskmorekli elyktok nowkwhatkit iskhekasserts,kifkitkbaskbeenkmadekclearktokhimkhowkmanykmeaningskit maykhave),kandkalsokwithkakviewktokensuringkthatkourkreasonings shallkbekinkaccordancekwithkthekactualkfactskandknotkaddressed merelyktokthektermkused.kForkasklongkaskitkisknotkclearkinkhowkmany senseskaktermkiskused,kitkiskpossiblekthatkthekanswererkandkthe

questionerkareknotkdirectingktheirkmindskuponktheksamekthing: whereaskwhenkoncekitkhaskbeenkmadekclearkhowkmanykmeaningskthere are,kandkalsokuponkwhichkofkthemkthekformerkdirectskhiskmindkwhenkhe ma eskhiskassertion,kthekquestionerkwouldkthenkloo kridiculouskifkhe failedktokaddresskhiskargumentktokthis.kItkhelpskuskalsokbothktokavoid beingkmisledkandktokmisleadkbykfalsekreasoning:kforkifkwek nowkthe numberkofkmeaningskofkakterm,kwekshallkcertainlykneverkbekmisledkby falsekreasoning,kbutkshallk nowkifkthekquestionerkfailsktokaddresskhis argumentktoktheksamekpoint;kandkwhenkwekourselveskputkthekquestionskwe shallkbekablektokmisleadkhim,kifkourkanswererkhappensknotktok now theknumberkofkmeaningskofkourkterms.kThis,khowever,kisknotkpossiblekin allkcases,kbutkonlykwhenkofkthekmanyksensesksomekarektruekandkothers arekfalse.kThiskmannerkofkargument,khowever,kdoesknotkbelong properlyktokdialectic;kdialecticianskshouldkthereforekbykallkmeans bewarekofkthisk indkofkverbalkdiscussion,kunlesskanykonekiskabsolutely unablektokdiscussktheksubjectkbeforekhimkinkanykotherkway. kkThekdiscoverykofkthekdifferenceskofkthingskhelpskuskbothkin reasoningskaboutksamenesskandkdifference,kandkalsokinkrecognizingkwhat anykparticularkthingkis.kThatkitkhelpskuskinkreasoningkabout samenesskandkdifferencekiskclear:kforkwhenkwekhavekdiscoveredka differencekofkanyk indkwhateverkbetweenkthekobjectskbeforekus,kwe shallkalreadykhavekshownkthatktheykareknotktheksame:kwhilekitkhelpskus inkrecognizingkwhatkakthingkis,kbecausekwekusuallykdistinguishkthe expressionkthatkiskproperktokthekessencekofkeachkparticularkthingkby meanskofkthekdifferentiaekthatkarekproperktokit. kkThekexaminationkofkli enesskiskusefulkwithkakviewkbothkto inductivekargumentskandktokhypotheticalkreasonings,kandkalsokwithka viewktokthekrenderingkofkdefinitions.kItkiskusefulkforkinductive arguments,kbecausekitkiskbykmeanskofkankinductionkofkindividualskin caseskthatkarekali ekthatkwekclaimktokbringkthekuniversalkinkevidence: forkitkisknotkeasyktokdokthiskifkwekdoknotk nowkthekpointskof li eness.kItkiskusefulkforkhypotheticalkreasoningskbecausekitkiska generalkopinionkthatkamongksimilarskwhatkisktruekofkonekisktruekalso ofkthekrest.kIf,kthen,kwithkregardktokanykofkthemkwekarekwellksupplied withkmatterkforkakdiscussion,kwekshallksecurekakpreliminary admissionkthatkhoweverkitkiskinkthesekcases,ksokitkiskalsokinkthekcase beforekus:kthenkwhenkwekhavekshownkthekformerkwekshallkhavekshown, onkthekstrengthkofkthekhypothesis,kthekmatterkbeforekuskaskwell:kfor wekhavekfirstkmadekthekhypothesiskthatkhoweverkitkiskinkthesekcases, sokitkiskalsokinkthekcasekbeforekus,kandkhavekthenkprovedkthekpointkas regardskthesekcases.kItkiskusefulkforkthekrenderingkofkdefinitions because,kifkwekarekablektokseekinkonekglancekwhatkisktheksamekin eachkindividualkcasekofkit,kwekshallkbekatknoklosskintokwhatkgenus wekoughtktokputkthekobjectkbeforekuskwhenkwekdefinekit:kforkofkthe commonkpredicateskthatkwhichkiskmostkdefinitelykinkthekcategorykof essencekiskli elyktokbekthekgenus.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkthekcasekof objectskwidelykdivergent,kthekexaminationkofkli enesskiskusefulkfor purposeskofkdefinition,ke.g.ktheksamenesskofkakcalmkatksea,kand windlessnesskinkthekairk(eachkbeingkakformkofkrest),kandkofkakpointkon aklinekandkthekunitkinknumber-eachkbeingkakstartingkpoint.kIf,kthen, wekrenderkaskthekgenuskwhatkiskcommonktokallkthekcases,kwekshallkget thekcreditkofkdefiningknotkinappropriately.kDefinition-mongersktoo nearlykalwayskrenderkthemkinkthiskway:ktheykdeclarekthekunitktokbekthe startingpointkofknumber,kandkthekpointkthekstartingpointkofkakline.kIt iskclear,kthen,kthatktheykplacekthemkinkthatkwhichkiskcommonktokboth asktheirkgenus. kkThekmeans,kthen,kwherebykreasoningskarekeffected,karekthese:kthe

commonplacekrules,kforkthekobservancekofkwhichkthekaforesaidkmeanskare useful,karekaskfollows. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkBoo kII kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk1 kkOfkproblemsksomekarekuniversal,kotherskparticular.kUniversal problemskareksuchkask'Everykpleasurekiskgood'kandk'Nokpleasurekis good';kparticularkproblemskareksuchkask'Somekpleasurekiskgood'kand 'Somekpleasurekisknotkgood'.kThekmethodskofkestablishingkand overthrowingkakviewkuniversallykarekcommonktokbothk indskof problems;kforkwhenkwekhavekshownkthatkakpredicatekbelongskinkevery case,kwekshallkalsokhavekshownkthatkitkbelongskinksomekcases. Li ewise,kalso,kifkwekshowkthatkitkdoesknotkbelongkinkanykcase,kwe shallkalsokhavekshownkthatkitkdoesknotkbelongkinkeverykcase.kFirst, then,kwekmustkspea kofkthekmethodskofkoverthrowingkakviewkuniversally, becauseksuchkarekcommonktokbothkuniversalkandkparticularkproblems,kand becausekpeoplekmorekusuallykintroducektheseskassertingkakpredicate thankdenyingkit,kwhilekthosekwhokarguekwithkthemkoverthrowkit.kThe conversionkofkankappropriateknamekwhichkiskdrawnkfromkthekelement 'accident'kiskankextremelykprecariouskthing;kforkinkthekcasekof accidentskandkinknokotherkitkiskpossiblekforksomethingktokbektrue conditionallykandknotkuniversally.kNameskdrawnkfromkthekelements 'definition'kandk'property'kandk'genus'karekboundktokbekconvertible; e.g.kifk'tokbekankanimalkthatkwal skonktwokfeetkiskankattributekofkS', thenkitkwillkbektruekbykconversionktoksaykthatk'Skiskankanimalkthat wal skonktwokfeet'.kLi ewise,kalso,kifkdrawnkfromkthekgenus;kforkif 'tokbekankanimalkiskankattributekofkS',kthenk'Skiskankanimal'.kThe samekisktruekalsokinkthekcasekofkakproperty;kforkifk'tokbekcapable ofklearningkgrammarkiskankattributekofkS',kthenk'Skwillkbekcapable ofklearningkgrammar'.kForknonekofkthesekattributeskcankpossiblykbelong orknotkbelongkinkpart;ktheykmustkeitherkbelongkorknotkbelong absolutely.kInkthekcasekofkaccidents,konkthekotherkhand,ktherekis nothingktokpreventkankattributek(e.g.kwhitenesskorkjustice) belongingkinkpart,ksokthatkitkisknotkenoughktokshowkthatkwhiteness orkjusticekiskankattributekofkakmankinkorderktokshowkthatkhekis whitekorkjust;kforkitkiskopenktokdisputekitkandksaykthatkhekiskwhite orkjustkinkpartkonly.kConversion,kthen,kisknotkaknecessarykprocess inkthekcasekofkaccidents. kkWekmustkalsokdefinekthekerrorskthatkoccurkinkproblems.kTheykarekof twok inds,kcausedkeitherkbykfalsekstatementkorkbyktransgressionkofkthe establishedkdiction.kForkthosekwhokma ekfalsekstatements,kandksaykthat ankattributekbelongsktokthingkwhichkdoesknotkbelongktokit,kcommit error;kandkthosekwhokcallkobjectskbyktheknameskofkotherkobjects (e.g.kcallingkakplanetreekak'man')ktransgresskthekestablished terminology. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk2 kkNowkonekcommonplacekrulekisktokloo kandkseekifkakmankhaskascribedkas ankaccidentkwhatkbelongskinksomekotherkway.kThiskmista ekiskmost commonlykmadekinkregardktokthekgenerakofkthings,ke.g.kifkonekwerekto saykthatkwhitekhappensk(accidit)ktokbekakcolour-forkbeingkakcolour doesknotkhappenkbykaccidentktokwhite,kbutkcolourkiskitskgenus.kThe assertorkmaykofkcoursekdefinekitksokinksokmanykwords,ksayingk(e.g.) thatk'Justicekhappensk(accidit)ktokbekakvirtue';kbutkoftenkeven withoutksuchkdefinitionkitkiskobviouskthatkhekhaskrenderedkthekgenus askankaccident;ke.g.ksupposekthatkonekwerektoksaykthatkwhitenesskis

colouredkorkthatkwal ingkiskinkmotion.kForkakpredicatekdrawnkfrom thekgenuskiskneverkascribedktokthekspecieskinkankinflectedkform,kbut alwayskthekgenerakarekpredicatedkofktheirkspecieskliterally;kforkthe specieskta ekonkbothktheknamekandkthekdefinitionkofktheirkgenera.kA mankthereforekwhoksayskthatkwhitekisk'coloured'khasknotkrendered 'coloured'kaskitskgenus,kseeingkthatkhekhaskusedkankinflectedkform, norkyetkaskitskpropertykorkaskitskdefinition:kforkthekdefinitionkand propertykofkakthingkbelongktokitkandktoknothingkelse,kwhereaskmany thingskbesideskwhitekarekcoloured,ke.g.kaklog,kakstone,kakman,kandka horse.kClearlykthenkhekrenderskitkaskankaccident. kkAnotherkrulekisktokexaminekallkcaseskwherekakpredicatekhaskbeen eitherkassertedkorkdeniedkuniversallyktokbelongktoksomething.kLoo atkthemkspecieskbykspecies,kandknotkinktheirkinfinitekmultitude:kfor thenkthekinquirykwillkproceedkmorekdirectlykandkinkfewerksteps.kYou shouldkloo kandkbeginkwithkthekmostkprimarykgroups,kandkthenkproceed inkorderkdownktokthosekthatkareknotkfurtherkdivisible:ke.g.kifkakman hasksaidkthatkthek nowledgekofkoppositeskisktheksame,kyoukshould loo kandkseekwhetherkitkbeksokofkrelativekoppositeskandkof contrarieskandkofktermsksignifyingkthekprivationkorkpresencekof certainkstates,kandkofkcontradictorykterms.kThen,kifknokclearkresult bekreachedksokfarkinkthesekcases,kyoukshouldkagainkdividekthese untilkyoukcomektokthosekthatkareknotkfurtherkdivisible,kandkseek(e.g.) whetherkitkbeksokofkjustkdeedskandkunjust,korkofkthekdoublekandkthe half,korkofkblindnesskandksight,korkofkbeingkandknot-being:kforkif inkanykcasekitkbekshownkthatkthek nowledgekofkthemkisknotktheksame wekshallkhavekdemolishedkthekproblem.kLi ewise,kalso,kifkthekpredicate belongskinknokcase.kThiskrulekiskconvertiblekforkbothkdestructive andkconstructivekpurposes:kforkif,kwhenkwekhaveksuggestedka division,kthekpredicatekappearsktokholdkinkallkorkinkaklargeknumberkof cases,kwekmaykthenkclaimkthatkthekotherkshouldkactuallykassertkit universally,korkelsekbringkaknegativekinstancektokshowkinkwhatkcasekit isknotkso:kforkifkhekdoeskneitherkofkthesekthings,kakrefusalktokassert itkwillkma ekhimkloo kabsurd. kkAnotherkrulekisktokma ekdefinitionskbothkofkankaccidentkandkofkits subject,keitherkofkbothkseparatelykorkelsekofkonekofkthem,kandkthen loo kandkseekifkanythingkuntruekhaskbeenkassumedkasktruekinkthe definitions.kThusk(e.g.)ktokseekifkitkiskpossiblektokwrongkakgod, as kwhatkisk'tokwrong'?kForkifkitkbek'tokinjurekdeliberately',kclearly itkisknotkpossiblekforkakgodktokbekwronged:kforkitkiskimpossible thatkGodkshouldkbekinjured.kAgain,ktokseekifkthekgoodkmankis jealous,kas kwhokiskthek'jealous'kmankandkwhatkisk'jealousy'.kForkif 'jealousy'kiskpainkatkthekapparentksuccesskofksomekwell-behaved person,kclearlykthekgoodkmankisknotkjealous:kforkthenkhekwouldkbekbad. Again,ktokseekifkthekindignantkmankiskjealous,kas kwhokeachkofkthem is:kforkthenkitkwillkbekobviouskwhetherkthekstatementkisktruekor false;ke.g.kifkhekisk'jealous'kwhokgrieveskatktheksuccesseskofkthe good,kandkhekisk'indignant'kwhokgrieveskatktheksuccesseskofkthe evil,kthenkclearlykthekindignantkmankwouldknotkbekjealous.kAkman shouldksubstitutekdefinitionskalsokforkthektermskcontainedkinkhis definitions,kandknotkstopkuntilkhekcomesktokakfamiliarkterm:kforkoften ifkthekdefinitionkbekrenderedkwhole,kthekpointkatkissuekisknotkcleared up,kwhereaskifkforkonekofkthektermskusedkinkthekdefinitionka definitionkbekstated,kitkbecomeskobvious. kkMoreover,kakmankshouldkma ekthekproblemkintokakpropositionkfor himself,kandkthenkbringkaknegativekinstancekagainstkit:kforkthe negativekinstancekwillkbekakgroundkofkattac kuponkthekassertion. Thiskrulekiskveryknearlyktheksamekaskthekrulektokloo kintokcaseskwhere

akpredicatekhaskbeenkattributedkorkdeniedkuniversally:kbutkit differskinkthekturnkofkthekargument. kkMoreover,kyoukshouldkdefinekwhatk indkofkthingskshouldkbekcalled askmostkmenkcallkthem,kandkwhatkshouldknot.kForkthiskiskusefulkboth forkestablishingkandkforkoverthrowingkakview:ke.g.kyoukshouldksaykthat wekoughtktokusekourktermsktokmeanktheksamekthingskaskmostkpeople meankbykthem,kbutkwhenkwekas kwhatk indkofkthingskarekorkareknotkof suchkandksuchkak ind,kwekshouldknotkherekgokwithkthekmultitude:ke.g. itkiskrightktokcallk'healthy'kwhateverktendsktokproducekhealth,kas dokmostkmen:kbutkinksayingkwhetherkthekobjectkbeforekusktendskto producekhealthkorknot,kwekshouldkadoptktheklanguageknoklongerkofkthe multitudekbutkofkthekdoctor. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk3 kkMoreover,kifkaktermkbekusedkinkseveralksenses,kandkitkhaskbeen laidkdownkthatkitkiskorkthatkitkisknotkankattributekofkS,kyoukshould showkyourkcasekofkonekofkitskseveralksenses,kifkyoukcannotkshowkit ofkboth.kThiskrulekisktokbekobservedkinkcaseskwherekthekdifference ofkmeaningkiskundetected;kforksupposingkthisktokbekobvious,kthenkthe otherkmankwillkobjectkthatkthekpointkwhichkhekhimselfkquestionedkhas notkbeenkdiscussed,kbutkonlykthekotherkpoint.kThiskcommonplacekrulekis convertiblekforkpurposeskbothkofkestablishingkandkofkoverthrowingka view.kForkifkwekwantktokestablishkakstatement,kwekshallkshowkthatkin oneksensekthekattributekbelongs,kifkwekcannotkshowkitkofkboth senses:kwhereaskifkwekarekoverthrowingkakstatement,kwekshallkshowkthat inkoneksensekthekattributekdoesknotkbelong,kifkwekcannotkshowkitkof bothksenses.kOfkcourse,kinkoverthrowingkakstatementktherekisknokneed tokstartkthekdiscussionkbyksecuringkanykadmission,keitherkwhenkthe statementkassertskorkwhenkitkdenieskthekattributekuniversally:kfor ifkwekshowkthatkinkanykcasekwhateverkthekattributekdoesknotkbelong,kwe shallkhavekdemolishedkthekuniversalkassertionkofkit,kandkli ewisekalso ifkwekshowkthatkitkbelongskinkaksinglekcase,kwekshallkdemolishkthe universalkdenialkofkit.kWhereaskinkestablishingkakstatementkwekought toksecurekakpreliminarykadmissionkthatkifkitkbelongskinkanykcase whatever,kitkbelongskuniversally,ksupposingkthiskclaimktokbeka plausiblekone.kForkitkisknotkenoughktokdiscusskaksinglekinstancekin orderktokshowkthatkankattributekbelongskuniversally;ke.g.ktokargue thatkifktheksoulkofkmankbekimmortal,kthenkeveryksoulkiskimmortal,kso thatkakpreviouskadmissionkmustkbeksecuredkthatkifkanyksoulkwhateverkbe immortal,kthenkeveryksoulkiskimmortal.kThiskisknotktokbekdonekinkevery case,kbutkonlykwheneverkwekareknotkeasilykablektokquotekanyksingle argumentkapplyingktokallkcaseskinkcommon,kask(e.g.)kthekgeometrician cankarguekthatkthektrianglekhaskitskangleskequalktoktwokrightkangles. kkIf,kagain,kthekvarietykofkmeaningskofkaktermkbekobvious,kdistinguish howkmanykmeaningskitkhaskbeforekproceedingkeitherktokdemolishkorkto establishkit:ke.g.ksupposingk'thekright'ktokmeank'thekexpedient'kor 'thekhonourable',kyoukshouldktrykeitherktokestablishkorktokdemolish bothkdescriptionskofktheksubjectkinkquestion;ke.g.kbykshowingkthat itkiskhonourablekandkexpedient,korkthatkitkiskneitherkhonourableknor expedient.kSupposing,khowever,kthatkitkiskimpossiblektokshowkboth,kyou shouldkshowkthekone,kaddingkankindicationkthatkitkisktruekinkthekone sensekandknotkinkthekother.kTheksamekrulekapplieskalsokwhenktheknumber ofksenseskintokwhichkitkiskdividedkiskmorekthanktwo. kkAgain,kconsiderkthosekexpressionskwhosekmeaningskarekmany,kbut differknotkbykwaykofkambiguitykofkakterm,kbutkinksomekotherkway: e.g.k'Theksciencekofkmanykthingskiskone':kherek'manykthings'kmay

meankthekendkandkthekmeansktokthatkend,kask(e.g.)kmedicinekiskthe sciencekbothkofkproducingkhealthkandkofkdieting;korktheykmaykbekboth ofkthemkends,kasktheksciencekofkcontrarieskisksaidktokbektheksamek(for ofkcontrarieskthekonekisknokmorekankendkthankthekother);korkagainkthey maykbekankessentialkandkankaccidentalkattribute,kask(e.g.)kthe essentialkfactkthatkthektrianglekhaskitskangleskequalktoktwokright angles,kandkthekaccidentalkfactkthatkthekequilateralkfigurekhaskthem so:kforkitkiskbecausekofkthekaccidentkofkthekequilateralktriangle happeningktokbekaktrianglekthatkwek nowkthatkitkhaskitskangleskequal toktwokrightkangles.kIf,kthen,kitkisknotkpossiblekinkanyksensekof thektermkthatktheksciencekofkmanykthingskshouldkbektheksame,kit clearlykiskaltogetherkimpossiblekthatkitkshouldkbekso;kor,kifkitkis possiblekinksomeksense,kthenkclearlykitkiskpossible.kDistinguishkas manykmeaningskaskarekrequired:ke.g.kifkwekwantktokestablishkakview,kwe shouldkbringkforwardkallksuchkmeaningskaskadmitkthatkviewkandkshould dividekthemkonlykintokthosekmeaningskwhichkalsokarekrequiredkforkthe establishmentkofkourkcase:kwhereaskifkwekwantktokoverthrowkakview, wekshouldkbringkforwardkallkthatkdoknotkadmitkthatkview,kandkleavekthe restkaside.kWekmustkdealkalsokinkthesekcaseskaskwellkwithkany uncertaintykaboutktheknumberkofkmeaningskinvolved.kFurther,kthatkone thingkis,korkisknot,k'of'kanotherkshouldkbekestablishedkbykmeanskof theksamekcommonplacekrules;ke.g.kthatkakparticularksciencekiskofka particularkthing,ktreatedkeitherkaskankendkorkaskakmeansktokitskend, orkaskaccidentallykconnectedkwithkit;korkagainkthatkitkisknotk'of' itkinkanykofkthekaforesaidkways.kTheksamekrulekholdsktruekalsokof desirekandkallkotherktermskthatkhavekmorekthankonekobject.kForkthe 'desirekofkX'kmaykmeankthekdesirekofkitkaskankendk(e.g.kthekdesire ofkhealth)korkaskakmeansktokankendk(e.g.kthekdesirekofkbeing doctored),korkaskakthingkdesiredkaccidentally,kas,kinkthekcasekof wine,ktheksweet-toothedkpersonkdesireskitknotkbecausekitkiskwinekbut becausekitkisksweet.kForkessentiallykhekdesiresktheksweet,kandkonly accidentallykthekwine:kforkifkitkbekdry,kheknoklongerkdesireskit. Hiskdesirekforkitkiskthereforekaccidental.kThiskrulekiskusefulkin dealingkwithkrelativekterms:kforkcaseskofkthisk indkarekgenerally caseskofkrelativekterms. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk4 kkMoreover,kitkiskwellktokalterkaktermkintokonekmorekfamiliar,ke.g.kto substitutek'clear'kfork'exact'kinkdescribingkakconception,kand 'beingkfussy'kfork'beingkbusy':kforkwhenkthekexpressionkiskmadekmore familiar,kthekthesiskbecomeskeasierktokattac .kThiskcommonplacekrule alsokiskavailablekforkbothkpurposeskali e,kbothkforkestablishingkand forkoverthrowingkakview. kkInkorderktokshowkthatkcontrarykattributeskbelongktoktheksame thing,kloo katkitskgenus;ke.g.kifkwekwantktokshowkthatkrightnesskand wrongnesskarekpossiblekinkregardktokperception,kandktokperceivekis tokjudge,kwhilekitkiskpossiblektokjudgekrightlykorkwrongly,kthenkin regardktokperceptionkaskwellkrightnesskandkwrongnesskmustkbekpossible. Inkthekpresentkinstancekthekproofkproceedskfromkthekgenuskand relatesktokthekspecies:kfork'tokjudge'kiskthekgenuskofk'tok-perceive'; forkthekmankwhokperceiveskjudgeskinkakcertainkway.kButkperkcontrakit maykproceedkfromkthekspeciesktokthekgenus:kforkallkthekattributeskthat belongktokthekspecieskbelongktokthekgenuskaskwell;ke.g.kifktherekis akbadkandkakgoodk nowledgektherekiskalsokakbadkandkakgoodkdisposition: fork'disposition'kiskthekgenuskofk nowledge.kNowkthekformer commonplacekargumentkiskfallaciouskforkpurposeskofkestablishingka view,kwhilektheksecondkisktrue.kForktherekisknoknecessitykthatkallkthe attributeskthatkbelongktokthekgenuskshouldkbelongkalsoktokthekspecies;

fork'animal'kiskflyingkandkquadruped,kbutknotksok'man'.kAllkthe attributes,konkthekotherkhand,kthatkbelongktokthekspecieskmustkof necessitykbelongkalsoktokthekgenus;kforkifk'man'kiskgood,kthen animalkalsokiskgood.kOnkthekotherkhand,kforkpurposeskofkoverthrowingka view,kthekformerkargumentkisktruekwhilektheklatterkiskfallacious; forkallkthekattributeskwhichkdoknotkbelongktokthekgenuskdoknot belongktokthekspecieskeither;kwhereaskallkthosekthatkarekwantingkto thekspecieskareknotkofknecessitykwantingktokthekgenus. kkSincekthosekthingskofkwhichkthekgenuskiskpredicatedkmustkalsokof necessitykhavekonekofkitskspecieskpredicatedkofkthem,kandksince thosekthingskthatkarekpossessedkofkthekgenuskinkquestion,korkare describedkbyktermskderivedkfromkthatkgenus,kmustkalsokofknecessity bekpossessedkofkonekofkitskspecieskorkbekdescribedkbyktermskderived fromkonekofkitskspeciesk(e.g.kifktokanythingkthektermk'scientific nowledge'kbekapplied,kthenkalsoktherekwillkbekappliedktokitkthe termk'grammatical'kork'musical'k nowledge,kork nowledgekofkonekof thekotherksciences;kandkifkanykonekpossesseskscientifick nowledgekor iskdescribedkbykaktermkderivedkfromk'science',kthenkhekwillkalso possesskgrammaticalkorkmusicalk nowledgekork nowledgekofkonekofkthe otherksciences,korkwillkbekdescribedkbykaktermkderivedkfromkonekof them,ke.g.kaskak'grammarian'korkak'musician')-thereforekifkany expressionkbekassertedkthatkiskinkanykwaykderivedkfromkthekgenusk(e.g. thatktheksoulkiskinkmotion),kloo kandkseekwhetherkitkbekpossiblekfor theksoulktokbekmovedkwithkanykofkthekspecieskofkmotion;kwhetherk(e.g.) itkcankgrowkorkbekdestroyedkorkcomektokbe,kandksokforthkwithkallkthe otherkspecieskofkmotion.kForkifkitkbeknotkmovedkinkanykofkthese ways,kclearlykitkdoesknotkmovekatkall.kThiskcommonplacekrulekiskcommon forkbothkpurposes,kbothkforkoverthrowingkandkforkestablishingka view:kforkifktheksoulkmoveskwithkonekofkthekspecieskofkmotion,kclearly itkdoeskmove;kwhilekifkitkdoesknotkmovekwithkanykofkthekspecieskof motion,kclearlykitkdoesknotkmove. kkIfkyoukareknotkwellkequippedkwithkankargumentkagainstkthekassertion, loo kamongkthekdefinitions,krealkorkapparent,kofkthekthingkbeforekyou, andkifkonekisknotkenough,kdrawkuponkseveral.kForkitkwillkbekeasier tokattac kpeoplekwhenkcommittedktokakdefinition:kforkankattac kis alwayskmorekeasilykmadekonkdefinitions. kkMoreover,kloo kandkseekinkregardktokthekthingkinkquestion,kwhatkit iskwhosekrealitykconditionskthekrealitykofkthekthingkinkquestion,kor whatkitkiskwhosekrealityknecessarilykfollowskifkthekthingkin questionkbekreal:kifkyoukwishktokestablishkakviewkinquirekwhatkthere iskonkwhosekrealitykthekrealitykofkthekthingkinkquestionkwillkfollow (forkifkthekformerkbekshownktokbekreal,kthenkthekthingkinkquestion willkalsokhavekbeenkshownktokbekreal);kwhilekifkyoukwantkto overthrowkakview,kas kwhatkitkiskthatkiskrealkifkthekthingkinkquestion bekreal,kforkifkwekshowkthatkwhatkfollowskfromkthekthingkinkquestion iskunreal,kwekshallkhavekdemolishedkthekthingkinkquestion. kkMoreover,kloo katkthektimekinvolved,ktokseekifktherekbekany discrepancykanywhere:ke.g.ksupposekakmanktokhavekstatedkthatkwhatkis beingknourishedkofknecessitykgrows:kforkanimalskarekalwayskof necessitykbeingknourished,kbutktheykdoknotkalwayskgrow.kLi ewise, also,kifkhekhasksaidkthatk nowingkiskremembering:kforkthekonekis concernedkwithkpastktime,kwhereaskthekotherkhasktokdokalsokwithkthe presentkandkthekfuture.kForkwekareksaidktok nowkthingskpresentkand futurek(e.g.kthatktherekwillkbekankeclipse),kwhereaskitkis impossiblektokrememberkanythingksavekwhatkiskinkthekpast.

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk5 kkMoreover,ktherekisktheksophistickturnkofkargument,kwherebykwekdraw ourkopponentkintokthek indkofkstatementkagainstkwhichkwekshallkbekwell suppliedkwithklineskofkargument.kThiskprocesskisksometimeskakreal necessity,ksometimeskankapparentknecessity,ksometimeskneitherkan apparentknorkakrealknecessity.kItkiskreallyknecessarykwheneverkthe answererkhaskdeniedkanykviewkthatkwouldkbekusefulkinkattac ingkthe thesis,kandkthekquestionerkthereuponkaddresseskhiskargumentsktokthe supportkofkthiskview,kandkwhenkmoreoverkthekviewkinkquestionkhappens tokbekonekofkak indkonkwhichkhekhaskakgoodkstoc kofklineskofkargument. Li ewise,kalso,kitkiskreallyknecessarykwheneverkhek(thekquestioner) first,kbykankinductionkmadekbykmeanskofkthekviewklaidkdown,karriveskat akcertainkstatementkandkthenktriesktokdemolishkthatkstatement:kfor whenkoncekthiskhaskbeenkdemolished,kthekviewkoriginallyklaidkdownkis demolishedkaskwell.kItkiskankapparentknecessity,kwhenkthekpointkto whichkthekdiscussionkcomesktokbekdirectedkappearsktokbekuseful,kand relevantktokthekthesis,kwithoutkbeingkreallykso;kwhetherkitkbekthat thekmankwhokiskstandingkupktokthekargumentkhaskrefusedktokconcede something,korkwhetherkhek(thekquestioner)khaskfirstkreachedkitkbyka plausiblekinductionkbasedkuponkthekthesiskandkthenktriesktokdemolish it.kThekremainingkcasekiskwhenkthekpointktokwhichkthekdiscussionkcomes tokbekdirectedkiskneitherkreallyknorkapparentlyknecessary,kandkitkis thekanswerer'skluc ktokbekconfutedkonkakmereksidekissuekYoukshould bewarekofktheklastkofkthekaforesaidkmethods;kforkitkappearsktokbe whollykdisconnectedkfrom,kandkforeignkto,kthekartkofkdialectic.kFor thiskreason,kmoreover,kthekanswererkshouldknotklosekhisktemper,kbut assentktokthosekstatementskthatkarekofknokusekinkattac ingkthekthesis, addingkankindicationkwheneverkhekassentskalthoughkhekdoesknotkagree withkthekview.kFor,kaskakrule,kitkincreaseskthekconfusionkof questionerskif,kafterkallkpropositionskofkthisk indkhavekbeen grantedkthem,ktheykcankthenkdrawknokconclusion. kkMoreover,kanykonekwhokhaskmadekanykstatementkwhateverkhaskinka certainksensekmadekseveralkstatements,kinasmuchkaskeachkstatement haskaknumberkofknecessarykconsequences:ke.g.kthekmankwhoksaidk'Xkis akman'khaskalsoksaidkthatkitkiskankanimalkandkthatkitkiskanimatekandka bipedkandkcapablekofkacquiringkreasonkandk nowledge,ksokthatkbykthe demolitionkofkanyksinglekonekofkthesekconsequences,kofkwhatever ind,kthekoriginalkstatementkiskdemolishedkaskwell.kButkyoukshould bewarekherektookofkma ingkakchangektokakmorekdifficultksubject:kfor sometimeskthekconsequence,kandksometimeskthekoriginalkthesis,kiskthe easierktokdemolish. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk6 kkInkregardktoksubjectskwhichkmustkhavekonekandkonekonlykofktwo predicates,kask(e.g.)kakmankmustkhavekeitherkakdiseasekorkhealth, supposingkwekarekwellksuppliedkaskregardskthekonekforkarguingkits presencekorkabsence,kwekshallkbekwellkequippedkaskregardskthe remainingkonekaskwell.kThiskrulekiskconvertiblekforkbothkpurposes:kfor whenkwekhavekshownkthatkthekonekattributekbelongs,kwekshallkhavekshown thatkthekremainingkonekdoesknotkbelong;kwhilekifkwekshowkthatkthe onekdoesknotkbelong,kwekshallkhavekshownkthatkthekremainingkonekdoes belong.kClearlykthenkthekrulekiskusefulkforkbothkpurposes. kkMoreover,kyoukmaykdevisekaklinekofkattac kbykreinterpretingkakterm inkitskliteralkmeaning,kwithkthekimplicationkthatkitkiskmostkfitting soktokta ekitkratherkthankinkitskestablishedkmeaning:ke.g.kthe expressionk'strongkatkheart'kwillksuggestknotkthekcourageouskman,

accordingktokthekuseknowkestablished,kbutkthekmankthekstatekofkwhose heartkiskstrong;kjustkaskalsokthekexpressionk'ofkakgoodkhope'kmaykbe ta enktokmeankthekmankwhokhopeskforkgoodkthings.kLi ewisekalso 'well-starred'kmaykbekta enktokmeankthekmankwhosekstarkiskgood,kas Xenocratesksaysk'well-starredkiskhekwhokhaskaknobleksoul'.'kForka man'skstarkiskhisksoul. kkSomekthingskoccurkofknecessity,kotherskusually,kotherskhoweverkit maykchance;kifkthereforekaknecessarykeventkhaskbeenkassertedkto occurkusually,korkifkakusualkeventk(or,kfailingksuchkankevent itself,kitskcontrary)khaskbeenkstatedktokoccurkofknecessity,kitkalways giveskankopportunitykforkattac .kForkifkaknecessarykeventkhaskbeen assertedktokoccurkusually,kclearlykthekspea erkhaskdeniedkankattribute tokbekuniversalkwhichkiskuniversal,kandksokhaskmadekakmista e:kand sokhekhaskifkhekhaskdeclaredkthekusualkattributektokbeknecessary: forkthenkhekdeclareskitktokbelongkuniversallykwhenkitkdoesknotkso belong.kLi ewisekalsokifkhekhaskdeclaredkthekcontrarykofkwhatkiskusual tokbeknecessary.kForkthekcontrarykofkakusualkattributekiskalwayska comparativelykrarekattribute:ke.g.kifkmenkarekusuallykbad,ktheykare comparativelykseldomkgood,ksokthatkhiskmista ekiskevenkworsekifkhekhas declaredkthemktokbekgoodkofknecessity.kTheksamekisktruekalsokifkhekhas declaredkakmerekmatterkofkchancektokhappenkofknecessitykorkusually; forkakchancekeventkhappenskneitherkofknecessityknorkusually.kIfkthe thingkhappenskusually,kthenkevenksupposingkhiskstatementkdoesknot distinguishkwhetherkhekmeantkthatkitkhappenskusuallykorkthatkit happensknecessarily,kitkiskopenktokyouktokdiscusskitkonkthekassumption thatkhekmeantkthatkitkhappensknecessarily:ke.g.kifkhekhaskstated withoutkanykdistinctionkthatkdisinheritedkpersonskarekbad,kyoukmay assumekinkdiscussingkitkthatkhekmeanskthatktheykareksoknecessarily. kkMoreover,kloo kandkseekalsokifkhekhaskstatedkakthingktokbekan accidentkofkitself,kta ingkitktokbekakdifferentkthingkbecausekitkhaska differentkname,kaskProdicuskusedktokdividekpleasureskintokjoykand delightkandkgoodkcheer:kforkallkthesekareknameskofktheksamekthing, tokwit,kPleasure.kIfkthenkanykoneksayskthatkjoyfulnesskiskan accidentalkattributekofkcheerfulness,khekwouldkbekdeclaringkitktokbe ankaccidentalkattributekofkitself. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk7 kkInasmuchkaskcontrarieskcankbekconjoinedkwithkeachkotherkinksixkways, andkfourkofkthesekconjunctionskconstitutekakcontrariety,kwekmustkgrasp theksubjectkofkcontraries,kinkorderkthatkitkmaykhelpkuskbothkin demolishingkandkinkestablishingkakview.kWellkthen,kthatkthekmodeskof conjunctionkareksixkiskclear:kforkeitherk(1)keachkofkthekcontrary verbskwillkbekconjoinedktokeachkofkthekcontrarykobjects;kandkthis givesktwokmodes:ke.g.ktokdokgoodktokfriendskandktokdokevilktokenemies, orkperkcontraktokdokevilktokfriendskandktokdokgoodktokenemies.kOrkelse (2)kbothkverbskmaykbekattachedktokonekobject;kandkthisktookgivesktwo modes,ke.g.ktokdokgoodktokfriendskandktokdokevilktokfriends,korkto dokgoodktokenemieskandktokdokevilktokenemies.kOrk(3)kaksinglekverbkmay bekattachedktokbothkobjects:kandkthiskalsokgivesktwokmodes;ke.g.ktokdo goodktokfriendskandktokdokgoodktokenemies,korktokdokevilktokfriends andkevilktokenemies. kkThekfirstktwokthenkofkthekaforesaidkconjunctionskdoknotkconstitute anykcontrariety;kforkthekdoingkofkgoodktokfriendskisknotkcontrarykto thekdoingkofkevilktokenemies:kforkbothkcourseskarekdesirablekand belongktoktheksamekdisposition.kNorkiskthekdoingkofkevilktokfriends contraryktokthekdoingkofkgoodktokenemies:kforkbothkofkthesekare

objectionablekandkbelongktoktheksamekdisposition:kandkone objectionablekthingkisknotkgenerallykthoughtktokbekthekcontrarykof another,kunlesskthekonekbekankexpressionkdenotingkankexcess,kandkthe otherkankexpressionkdenotingkakdefect:kforkankexcesskiskgenerally thoughtktokbelongktokthekclasskofkobjectionablekthings,kandkli ewise alsokakdefect.kButkthekotherkfourkallkconstitutekakcontrariety.kForkto dokgoodktokfriendskiskcontraryktokthekdoingkofkevilktokfriends:kforkit proceedskfromkthekcontrarykdisposition,kandkthekonekiskdesirable, andkthekotherkobjectionable.kThekcasekisktheksamekalsokinkregardkto thekotherkconjunctions:kforkinkeachkcombinationkthekonekcoursekis desirable,kandkthekotherkobjectionable,kandkthekonekbelongsktoka reasonablekdispositionkandkthekotherktokakbad.kClearly,kthen,kfrom whatkhaskbeenksaid,ktheksamekcoursekhaskmorekthankonekcontrary.kFor thekdoingkofkgoodktokfriendskhaskaskitskcontrarykbothkthekdoingkof goodktokenemieskandkthekdoingkofkevilktokfriends.kLi ewise,kifkwe examinekthemkinktheksamekway,kwekshallkfindkthatkthekcontrarieskof eachkofkthekotherskalsokarektwokinknumber.kSelectktherefore whicheverkofkthektwokcontrarieskiskusefulkinkattac ingkthekthesis. kkMoreover,kifkthekaccidentkofkakthingkhavekakcontrary,kseekwhetherkit belongsktoktheksubjectktokwhichkthekaccidentkinkquestionkhaskbeen declaredktokbelong:kforkifktheklatterkbelongskthekformerkcouldknot belong;kforkitkiskimpossiblekthatkcontrarykpredicateskshouldkbelongkat theksamektimektoktheksamekthing. kkOrkagain,kloo kandkseekifkanythingkhaskbeenksaidkaboutksomething,kof suchkak indkthatkifkitkbektrue,kcontrarykpredicateskmustknecessarily belongktokthekthing:ke.g.kifkhekhasksaidkthatkthek'Ideas'kexistkinkus. Forkthenkthekresultkwillkbekthatktheykarekbothkinkmotionkandkat rest,kandkmoreoverkthatktheykarekobjectskbothkofksensationkandkof thought.kForkaccordingktokthekviewskofkthosekwhokpositkthekexistence ofkIdeas,kthosekIdeaskarekatkrestkandkarekobjectskofkthought;kwhilekif theykexistkinkus,kitkiskimpossiblekthatktheykshouldkbekunmoved:kfor whenkwekmove,kitkfollowsknecessarilykthatkallkthatkiskinkuskmoveskwith uskaskwell.kClearlykalsoktheykarekobjectskofksensation,kifkthey existkinkus:kforkitkiskthroughktheksensationkofksightkthatkwe recognizekthekFormkpresentkinkeachkindividual. kkAgain,kifktherekbekpositedkankaccidentkwhichkhaskakcontrary,kloo andkseekifkthatkwhichkadmitskofkthekaccidentkwillkadmitkofkits contrarykaskwell:kforktheksamekthingkadmitskofkcontraries.kThusk(e.g.) ifkhekhaskassertedkthatkhatredkfollowskanger,khatredkwouldkinkthat casekbekinkthek'spiritedkfaculty':kforkthatkiskwherekangerkis.kYou shouldkthereforekloo kandkseekifkitskcontrary,ktokwit,kfriendship, bekalsokinkthek'spiritedkfaculty':kforkifknot-ifkfriendshipkiskin thekfacultykofkdesire-thenkhatredkcouldknotkfollowkanger.kLi ewise alsokifkhekhaskassertedkthatkthekfacultykofkdesirekiskignorant.kForkif itkwerekcapablekofkignorance,kitkwouldkbekcapablekofk nowledgekas well:kandkthiskisknotkgenerallykheld-Ikmeankthatkthekfacultykofkdesire iskcapablekofk nowledge.kForkpurposes,kthen,kofkoverthrowingkakview, askhaskbeenksaid,kthiskrulekshouldkbekobserved:kbutkforkpurposeskof establishingkone,kthoughkthekrulekwillknotkhelpkyouktokassertkthatkthe accidentkactuallykbelongs,kitkwillkhelpkyouktokassertkthatkitkmay possiblykbelong.kForkhavingkshownkthatkthekthingkinkquestionkwill notkadmitkofkthekcontrarykofkthekaccidentkasserted,kwekshallkhave shownkthatkthekaccidentkneitherkbelongsknorkcankpossiblykbelong;kwhile onkthekotherkhand,kifkwekshowkthatkthekcontrarykbelongs,korkthatkthe thingkiskcapablekofkthekcontrary,kwekshallknotkindeedkaskyetkhave shownkthatkthekaccidentkassertedkdoeskbelongkaskwell;kourkproofkwill merelykhavekgonektokthiskpoint,kthatkitkiskpossiblekforkitktokbelong.

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk8 kkSeeingkthatkthekmodeskofkoppositionkarekfourkinknumber,kyoukshould loo kforkargumentskamongkthekcontradictorieskofkyourkterms,kconverting thekorderkofktheirksequence,kbothkwhenkdemolishingkandkwhen establishingkakview,kandkyoukshouldksecurekthemkbykmeanskof induction-suchkargumentsk(e.g.)kaskthatkmankbekankanimal,kwhatkis notkankanimalkisknotkakman':kandkli ewisekalsokinkotherkinstanceskof contradictories.kForkinkthosekcasesktheksequencekiskconverse:kfor 'animal'kfollowskuponk'mankbutk'not-animal'kdoesknotkfollowkupon 'not-man',kbutkconverselyk'not-man'kuponk'not-animal'.kInkallkcases, therefore,kakpostulatekofkthisksortkshouldkbekmade,k(e.g.)kthatk'If thekhonourablekiskpleasant,kwhatkisknotkpleasantkisknotkhonourable, whilekifktheklatterkbekuntrue,ksokiskthekformer'.kLi ewise,kalso, 'Ifkwhatkisknotkpleasantkbeknotkhonourable,kthenkwhatkiskhonourablekis pleasant'.kClearly,kthen,kthekconversionkofktheksequencekformedkby contradictionkofkthektermskofkthekthesiskiskakmethodkconvertiblekfor bothkpurposes. kkThenkloo kalsokatkthekcasekofkthekcontrarieskofkSkandkPkinkthe thesis,kandkseekifkthekcontrarykofkthekonekfollowskuponkthekcontrary ofkthekother,keitherkdirectlykorkconversely,kbothkwhenkyoukare demolishingkandkwhenkyoukarekestablishingkakview:ksecurekarguments ofkthisk indkaskwellkbykmeanskofkinduction,ksokfarkaskmaykbekrequired. Nowktheksequencekiskdirectkinkakcaseksuchkaskthatkofkcouragekand cowardice:kforkuponkthekonekofkthemkvirtuekfollows,kandkvicekupon thekother;kandkuponkthekonekitkfollowskthatkitkiskdesirable,kwhile uponkthekotherkitkfollowskthatkitkiskobjectionable.kTheksequence, therefore,kinktheklatterkcasekalsokiskdirect;kforkthekdesirablekiskthe contrarykofkthekobjectionable.kLi ewisekalsokinkotherkcases.kThe sequencekis,konkthekotherkhand,kconversekinksuchkakcasekaskthis: Healthkfollowskuponkvigour,kbutkdiseasekdoesknotkfollowkuponkdebility; ratherkdebilitykfollowskuponkdisease.kInkthiskcase,kthen,kclearly theksequencekiskconverse.kConverseksequencekis,khowever,krarekinkthe casekofkcontraries;kusuallyktheksequencekiskdirect.kIf,ktherefore,kthe contrarykofkthekonektermkdoesknotkfollowkuponkthekcontrarykofkthe otherkeitherkdirectlykorkconversely,kclearlykneitherkdoeskthekonekterm followkuponkthekotherkinkthekstatementkmade:kwhereaskifkthekone followedkthekotherkinkthekcasekofkthekcontraries,kitkmustkofknecessity doksokaskwellkinkthekoriginalkstatement. kkYoukshouldkloo kalsokintokcaseskofkthekprivationkorkpresencekofka statekinkli ekmannerktokthekcasekofkcontraries.kOnly,kinkthekcasekof suchkprivationskthekconverseksequencekdoesknotkoccur:ktheksequence iskalwayskboundktokbekdirect:ke.g.kasksensationkfollowsksight,kwhile absencekofksensationkfollowskblindness.kForkthekoppositionkof sensationktokabsencekofksensationkiskankoppositionkofkthekpresence tokthekprivationkofkakstate:kforkthekonekofkthemkiskakstate,kandkthe otherkthekprivationkofkit. kkThekcasekofkrelativektermskshouldkalsokbekstudiedkinkli ekmanner tokthatkofkakstatekandkitskprivation:kforktheksequencekofkthesekas wellkiskdirect;ke.g.kifk3/1kiskakmultiple,kthenk1/3kiskakfraction:kfor 3/1kiskrelativektok1/3,kandksokiskakmultiplektokakfraction.kAgain, ifk nowledgekbekakconceiving,kthenkalsokthekobjectkofk nowledgekis ankobjectkofkconception;kandkifksightkbekaksensation,kthenkalsokthe objectkofksightkiskankobjectkofksensation.kAnkobjectionkmaykbekmade thatktherekisknoknecessitykforktheksequencektokta ekplace,kinkthekcase ofkrelativekterms,kinkthekwaykdescribed:kforkthekobjectkofksensation

iskankobjectkofk nowledge,kwhereasksensationkisknotk nowledge.kThe objectionkis,khowever,knotkgenerallykreceivedkaskreallyktrue;kforkmany peoplekdenykthatktherekisk nowledgekofkobjectskofksensation.kMoreover, thekprinciplekstatedkiskjustkaskusefulkforkthekcontrarykpurpose, e.g.ktokshowkthatkthekobjectkofksensationkisknotkankobjectkof nowledge,konkthekgroundkthatkneitherkisksensationk nowledge. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk9 kkAgainkloo katkthekcasekofkthekco-ordinateskandkinflectedkformskof thektermskinkthekthesis,kbothkinkdemolishingkandkinkestablishingkit. Bykco-ordinates'karekmeantktermsksuchkaskthekfollowing:k'Justkdeeds' andkthek'justkman'karekcoordinateskofk'justice',kandk'courageous deeds'kandkthek'courageouskman'karekco-ordinateskofkcourage. Li ewisekalsokthingskthatktendktokproducekandktokpreservekanythingkare calledkco-ordinateskofkthatkwhichktheyktendktokproducekandkto preserve,kaske.g.k'healthykhabits'karekco-ordinateskofk'health'kand ak'vigorouskconstitutional'kofkak'vigorouskconstitution'kandkso forthkalsokinkotherkcases.k'Co-ordinate',kthen,kusuallykdescribes casesksuchkaskthese,kwhereask'inflectedkforms'kareksuchkaskthe following:k'justly',k'courageously',k'healthily',kandksuchkaskare formedkinkthiskway.kItkiskusuallykheldkthatkwordskwhenkusedkinktheir inflectedkformskaskwellkarekco-ordinates,kask(e.g.)k'justly'kin relationktokjustice,kandk'courageously'ktokcourage;kandkthen 'co-ordinate'kdescribeskallkthekmemberskofktheksamek indredkseries, e.g.k'justice',k'just',kofkakmankorkankact,k'justly'.kClearly,kthen, whenkanykonekmember,kwhateverkitsk ind,kofktheksamek indredkseries iskshownktokbekgoodkorkpraiseworthy,kthenkallkthekrestkaskwellkcomekto bekshownktokbekso:ke.g.kifk'justice'kbeksomethingkpraiseworthy,kthen sokwillk'just',kofkakmankorkthing,kandk'justly'kconnoteksomething praiseworthy.kThenk'justly'kwillkbekrenderedkalsok'praiseworthily', derivedkwillkbyktheksamekinflexionkfromk'thekpraiseworthy'kwhereby 'justly'kiskderivedkfromk'justice'. kkLoo knotkonlykinkthekcasekofktheksubjectkmentioned,kbutkalsokin thekcasekofkitskcontrary,kforkthekcontrarykpredicate:ke.g.kargue thatkgoodkisknotknecessarilykpleasant;kforkneitherkiskevilkpainful:kor that,kifktheklatterkbekthekcase,ksokiskthekformer.kAlso,kifkjusticekbe nowledge,kthenkinjusticekiskignorance:kandkifk'justly'kmeans ' nowingly'kandk's ilfully',kthenk'unjustly'kmeansk'ignorantly'kand 'uns ilfully':kwhereaskifktheklatterkbeknotktrue,kneitherkiskthe former,kaskinkthekinstancekgivenkjustknow:kfork'unjustly'kiskmore li elyktokseemkequivalentktok's ilfully'kthanktok'uns ilfully'.kThis commonplacekrulekhaskbeenkstatedkbeforekinkdealingkwithktheksequence ofkcontraries;kforkallkwekarekclaimingknowkiskthatkthekcontrarykofkP shallkfollowkthekcontrarykofkS.

kkMoreover,kloo katkthekmodeskofkgenerationkandkdestructionkofka thing,kandkatkthekthingskwhichktendktokproducekorktokdestroykit, bothkinkdemolishingkandkinkestablishingkakview.kForkthosekthingskwhose modeskofkgenerationkran kamongkgoodkthings,karekthemselveskalso good;kandkifktheykthemselveskbekgood,ksokalsokarektheirkmodeskof generation.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,ktheirkmodeskofkgenerationkbe evil,kthenktheykthemselveskalsokarekevil.kInkregardktokmodeskof destructionkthekconversekisktrue:kforkifkthekmodeskofkdestructionkran askgoodkthings,kthenktheykthemselveskran kaskevilkthings;kwhereaskif thekmodeskofkdestructionkcountkaskevil,ktheykthemselveskcountkaskgood. Theksamekargumentkapplieskalsoktokthingsktendingktokproducekand destroy:kforkthingskwhosekproductivekcauseskarekgood,kthemselves alsokran kaskgood;kwhereaskifkcauseskdestructivekofkthemkarekgood,

theykthemselveskran kaskevil. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk10 kkAgain,kloo katkthingskwhichkarekli ektheksubjectkinkquestion,kand seekifktheykarekinkli ekcase;ke.g.kifkonekbranchkofk nowledgekhaskmore thankonekobject,ksokalsokwillkonekopinion;kandkifktokpossessksight bektoksee,kthenkalsoktokpossesskhearingkwillkbektokhear.kLi ewisekalso inkthekcasekofkotherkthings,kbothkthosekwhichkarekandkthosekwhich arekgenerallykheldktokbekli e.kThekrulekinkquestionkiskusefulkforkboth purposes;kforkifkitkbekaskstatedkinkthekcasekofksomekonekli ekthing, itkisksokwithkthekotherkli ekthingskaskwell,kwhereaskifkitkbeknotkso inkthekcasekofksomekonekofkthem,kneitherkiskitksokinkthekcasekofkthe others.kLoo kandkseekalsokwhetherkthekcaseskarekali ekaskregardska singlekthingkandkaknumberkofkthings:kforksometimesktherekiska discrepancy.kThus,kifktok' now'kakthingkbektok'thin kof'kit,kthenkalso tok' nowkmanykthings'kisktok'bekthin ingkofkmanykthings';kwhereaskthis isknotktrue;kforkitkiskpossiblektok nowkmanykthingskbutknotktokbe thin ingkofkthem.kIf,kthen,ktheklatterkpropositionkbeknotktrue, neitherkwaskthekformerkthatkdealtkwithkaksinglekthing,kviz.kthatkto ' now'kakthingkisktok'thin kof'kit. kkMoreover,karguekfromkgreaterkandklesskdegrees.kInkregardkto greaterkdegreesktherekarekfourkcommonplacekrules.kOnekis:kSee whetherkakgreaterkdegreekofkthekpredicatekfollowskakgreaterkdegree ofktheksubject:ke.g.kifkpleasurekbekgood,kseekwhetherkalsokakgreater pleasurekbekakgreaterkgood:kandkifktokdokakwrongkbekevil,ksee whetherkalsoktokdokakgreaterkwrongkiskakgreaterkevil.kNowkthiskrulekis ofkusekforkbothkpurposes:kforkifkankincreasekofkthekaccidentkfollows ankincreasekofktheksubject,kaskwekhaveksaid,kclearlykthekaccident belongs;kwhilekifkitkdoesknotkfollow,kthekaccidentkdoesknotkbelong. Youkshouldkestablishkthiskbykinduction.kAnotherkrulekis:kIfkone predicatekbekattributedktoktwoksubjects;kthenksupposingkitkdoesknot belongktoktheksubjectktokwhichkitkiskthekmorekli elyktokbelong, neitherkdoeskitkbelongkwherekitkisklesskli elyktokbelong;kwhilekif itkdoeskbelongkwherekitkisklesskli elyktokbelong,kthenkitkbelongskas wellkwherekitkiskmorekli ely.kAgain:kIfktwokpredicateskbekattributed tokoneksubject,kthenkifkthekonekwhichkiskmorekgenerallykthoughtkto belongkdoesknotkbelong,kneitherkdoeskthekonekthatkisklesskgenerally thoughtktokbelong;kor,kifkthekonekthatkisklesskgenerallykthoughtkto belongkdoeskbelong,ksokalsokdoeskthekother.kMoreover:kIfktwo predicateskbekattributedktoktwoksubjects,kthenkifkthekonekwhichkis morekusuallykthoughtktokbelongktokthekoneksubjectkdoesknotkbelong, neitherkdoeskthekremainingkpredicatekbelongktokthekremaining subject;kor,kifkthekonekwhichkisklesskusuallykthoughtktokbelongktokthe oneksubjectkdoeskbelong,ksoktookdoeskthekremainingkpredicatektokthe remainingksubject. kkMoreover,kyoukcankarguekfromkthekfactkthatkankattributekbelongs, orkiskgenerallyksupposedktokbelong,kinkakli ekdegree,kinkthreekways, viz.kthosekdescribedkinktheklastkthreekruleskgivenkinkregardktoka greaterkdegree.'kForksupposingkthatkonekpredicatekbelongs,korkis supposedktokbelong,ktoktwoksubjectskinkakli ekdegree,kthenkifkit doesknotkbelongktokthekone,kneitherkdoeskitkbelongktokthekother;kwhile ifkitkbelongsktokthekone,kitkbelongsktokthekremainingkonekaskwell.kOr, supposingktwokpredicatesktokbelongkinkakli ekdegreektoktheksame subject,kthen,kifkthekonekdoesknotkbelong,kneitherkdoeskthe remainingkone;kwhilekifkthekonekdoeskbelong,kthekremainingkonekbelongs askwell.kThekcasekisktheksamekalsokifktwokpredicateskbelongkinka li ekdegreektoktwoksubjects;kforkifkthekonekpredicatekdoesknot

belongktokthekoneksubject,kneitherkdoeskthekremainingkpredicatekbelong tokthekremainingksubject,kwhilekifkthekonekpredicatekdoeskbelongkto thekoneksubject,kthekremainingkpredicatekbelongsktokthekremaining subjectkaskwell. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk11 kkYoukcankargue,kthen,kfromkgreaterkorklesskorkli ekdegreeskofktruth inkthekaforesaidknumberkofkways.kMoreover,kyoukshouldkarguekfromkthe additionkofkonekthingktokanother.kIfkthekadditionkofkonekthingkto anotherkma eskthatkotherkgoodkorkwhite,kwhereaskformerlykitkwasknot whitekorkgood,kthenkthekthingkaddedkwillkbekwhitekorkgood-itkwill possesskthekcharacterkitkimpartsktokthekwholekaskwell.kMoreover,kifkan additionkofksomethingktokakgivenkobjectkintensifieskthekcharacter whichkitkhadkaskgiven,kthenkthekthingkaddedkwillkitselfkaskwellkbe ofkthatkcharacter.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkthekcasekofkotherkattributes. Thekrulekisknotkapplicablekinkallkcases,kbutkonlykinkthosekinkwhich thekexcesskdescribedkaskank'increasedkintensity'kiskfoundktokta e place.kThekabovekrulekis,khowever,knotkconvertiblekforkoverthrowing akview.kForkifkthekthingkaddedkdoesknotkma ekthekotherkgood,kitkisknot therebykmadekclearkwhetherkinkitselfkitkmayknotkbekgood:kforkthe additionkofkgoodktokevilkdoesknotknecessarilykma ekthekwholekgood,kany morekthankthekadditionkofkwhitektokblac kma eskthekwholekwhite. kkAgain,kanykpredicatekofkwhichkwekcankspea kofkgreaterkorkless degreeskbelongskalsokabsolutely:kforkgreaterkorklesskdegreeskofkgood orkofkwhitekwillknotkbekattributedktokwhatkisknotkgoodkorkwhite:kforka badkthingkwillkneverkbeksaidktokhavekakgreaterkorklesskdegreekof goodnesskthankanother,kbutkalwayskofkbadness.kThiskrulekisknot convertible,keither,kforkthekpurposekofkoverthrowingkakpredication: forkseveralkpredicateskofkwhichkwekcannotkspea kofkakgreaterkdegree belongkabsolutely:kforkthektermk'man'kisknotkattributedkinkgreaterkand lesskdegrees,kbutkakmankiskakmankforkallkthat. kkYoukshouldkexaminekinktheksamekwaykpredicateskattributedkinka givenkrespect,kandkatkakgivenktimekandkplace:kforkifkthekpredicate bekpossiblekinksomekrespect,kitkiskpossiblekalsokabsolutely.kLi ewise, also,kiskwhatkiskpredicatedkatkakgivenktimekorkplace:kforkwhatkis absolutelykimpossiblekisknotkpossiblekeitherkinkanykrespectkorkat anykplacekorktime.kAnkobjectionkmaykbekraisedkthatkinkakgiven respectkpeoplekmaykbekgoodkbyknature,ke.g.ktheykmaykbekgenerouskor temperatelykinclined,kwhilekabsolutelyktheykareknotkgoodkbyknature, becauseknokonekiskprudentkbyknature.kLi ewise,kalso,kitkiskpossible forkakdestructiblekthingktokescapekdestructionkatkakgivenktime, whereaskitkisknotkpossiblekforkitktokescapekabsolutely.kInktheksame waykalsokitkiskakgoodkthingkatkcertainkplacesktokfollowkseekandksuchka diet,ke.g.kinkinfectedkareas,kthoughkitkisknotkakgoodkthing absolutely.kMoreover,kinkcertainkplaceskitkiskpossiblektoklive singlykandkalone,kbutkabsolutelykitkisknotkpossiblektokexistksingly andkalone.kInktheksamekwaykalsokitkiskinkcertainkplaceskhonourable toksacrificekone'skfather,ke.g.kamongkthekTriballi,kwhereas, absolutely,kitkisknotkhonourable.kOrkpossiblykthiskmaykindicateka relativityknotktokplaceskbutktokpersons:kforkitkiskallktheksame whereverktheykmaykbe:kforkeverywherekitkwillkbekheldkhonourable amongkthekTriballikthemselves,kjustkbecausektheykarekTriballi. Again,katkcertainktimeskitkiskakgoodkthingktokta ekmedicines,ke.g. whenkonekiskill,kbutkitkisknotksokabsolutely.kOrkpossiblykthiskagain maykindicatekakrelativityknotktokakcertainktime,kbutktokakcertain statekofkhealth:kforkitkiskallktheksamekwheneverkitkoccurs,kifkonly onekbekinkthatkstate.kAkthingkisk'absolutely'ksokwhichkwithoutkany

additionkyoukarekpreparedktoksaykiskhonourablekorkthekcontrary.kThus (e.g.)kyoukwillkdenykthatktoksacrificekone'skfatherkiskhonourable: itkiskhonourablekonlyktokcertainkpersons:kitkisknotktherefore honourablekabsolutely.kOnkthekotherkhand,ktokhonourkthekgodskyou willkdeclarektokbekhonourablekwithoutkaddingkanything,kbecausekthatkis honourablekabsolutely.kSokthatkwhateverkwithoutkanykadditionkis generallykaccountedktokbekhonourablekorkdishonourablekorkanythingkelse ofkthatk ind,kwillkbeksaidktokbeksok'absolutely'. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkBoo kIII kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk1 kkTHEkquestionkwhichkiskthekmorekdesirable,korkthekbetter,kofktwokor morekthings,kshouldkbekexaminedkuponkthekfollowingklines:konlykfirst ofkallkitkmustkbekclearlyklaidkdownkthatkthekinquirykwekarekma ing concernsknotkthingskthatkarekwidelykdivergentkandkthatkexhibitkgreat differenceskfromkonekanotherk(forknobodykraiseskanykdoubtkwhether happinesskorkwealthkiskmorekdesirable),kbutkthingskthatkareknearly relatedkandkaboutkwhichkwekcommonlykdiscusskforkwhichkofkthektwokwe oughtkratherktokvote,kbecausekwekdoknotkseekanykadvantagekonkeither sidekaskcomparedkwithkthekother.kClearly,kinksuchkcaseskifkwekcankshow aksinglekadvantage,korkmorekthankone,kourkjudgementkwillkrecordkour assentkthatkwhicheverksidekhappensktokhavekthekadvantagekiskthekmore desirable. kkFirst,kthen,kthatkwhichkiskmoreklastingkorksecurekiskmore desirablekthankthatkwhichkisklesskso:kandksokiskthatkwhichkiskmore li elyktokbekchosenkbykthekprudentkorkbykthekgoodkmankorkbykthe rightklaw,korkbykmenkwhokarekgoodkinkanykparticularkline,kwhenkthey ma ektheirkchoicekasksuch,korkbykthekexpertskinkregardktokany particularkclasskofkthings;ki.e.keitherkwhateverkmostkofkthemkor whatkallkofkthemkwouldkchoose;ke.g.kinkmedicinekorkinkcarpentry thosekthingskarekmorekdesirablekwhichkmost,korkall,kdoctorskwould choose;kor,kinkgeneral,kwhateverkmostkmenkorkallkmenkorkallkthings wouldkchoose,ke.g.kthekgood:kforkeverythingkaimskatkthekgood.kYou shouldkdirectkthekargumentkyoukintendktokemployktokwhateverkpurpose youkrequire.kOfkwhatkisk'better'kork'morekdesirable'kthekabsolute standardkiskthekverdictkofkthekbetterkscience,kthoughkrelativelykto akgivenkindividualkthekstandardkmaykbekhiskownkparticularkscience. kkInktheksecondkplace,kthatkwhichkisk nownkask'ankx'kiskmorekdesirable thankthatkwhichkdoesknotkcomekwithinkthekgenusk'x'-e.g.kjusticekthanka justkman;kforkthekformerkfallskwithinkthekgenusk'good',kwhereaskthe otherkdoesknot,kandkthekformerkiskcalledk'akgood',kwhereaskthe latterkisknot:kforknothingkwhichkdoesknotkhappenktokbelongktokthe genuskinkquestionkiskcalledkbykthekgenerickname;ke.g.kak'whitekman'kis notk'akcolour'.kLi ewisekalsokinkotherkcases. kkAlso,kthatkwhichkiskdesiredkforkitselfkiskmorekdesirablekthankthat whichkiskdesiredkforksomethingkelse;ke.g.khealthkiskmorekdesirable thankgymnastics:kforkthekformerkiskdesiredkforkitself,ktheklatter forksomethingkelse.kAlso,kthatkwhichkiskdesirablekinkitselfkiskmore desirablekthankwhatkiskdesirablekperkaccidens;ke.g.kjusticekinkour friendskthankjusticekinkourkenemies:kforkthekformerkiskdesirablekin itself,ktheklatterkperkaccidens:kforkwekdesirekthatkourkenemieskshould bekjustkperkaccidens,kinkorderkthatktheykmaykdokusknokharm.kThis lastkprinciplekisktheksamekaskthekonekthatkprecedeskit,kwith,khowever, akdifferentkturnkofkexpression.kForkwekdesirekjusticekinkourkfriends forkitself,kevenkthoughkitkwillkma eknokdifferencektokus,kandkeven

thoughktheykbekinkIndia;kwhereaskinkourkenemieskwekdesirekitkfor somethingkelse,kinkorderkthatktheykmaykdokusknokharm. kkAlso,kthatkwhichkiskinkitselfkthekcausekofkgoodkiskmorekdesirable thankwhatkisksokperkaccidens,ke.g.kvirtuekthankluc k(forkthekformerkin itself,kandktheklatterkperkaccidens,kthekcausekofkgoodkthings),kandkso inkotherkcaseskofktheksamek ind.kLi ewisekalsokinkthekcasekofkthe contrary;kforkwhatkiskinkitselfkthekcausekofkevilkiskmore objectionablekthankwhatkisksokperkaccidens,ke.g.kvicekandkchance: forkthekonekiskbadkinkitself,kwhereaskchancekisksokperkaccidens. kkAlso,kwhatkiskgoodkabsolutelykiskmorekdesirablekthankwhatkiskgood forkakparticularkperson,ke.g.krecoverykofkhealthkthankaksurgical operation;kforkthekformerkiskgoodkabsolutely,ktheklatterkonlykforka particularkperson,kviz.kthekmankwhokneedskankoperation.kSoktookwhatkis goodkbyknaturekiskmorekdesirablekthankthekgoodkthatkisknotksokby nature,ke.g.kjusticekthankthekjustkman;kforkthekonekiskgoodkbyknature, whereaskinkthekotherkcasekthekgoodnesskiskacquired.kAlsokthekattribute iskmorekdesirablekwhichkbelongsktokthekbetterkandkmorekhonourable subject,ke.g.ktokakgodkratherkthanktokakman,kandktoktheksoulkrather thanktokthekbody.kSoktookthekpropertykofkthekbetterkthingkiskbetter thankthekpropertykofkthekworse;ke.g.kthekpropertykofkGodkthankthe propertykofkman:kforkwhereaskinkrespectkofkwhatkiskcommonkinkbothkof themktheykdoknotkdifferkatkallkfromkeachkother,kinkrespectkofktheir propertieskthekoneksurpasseskthekother.kAlsokthatkiskbetterkwhichkis inherentkinkthingskbetterkorkpriorkorkmorekhonourable:kthusk(e.g.) healthkiskbetterkthankstrengthkandkbeauty:kforkthekformerkis inherentkinkthekmoistkandkthekdry,kandkthekhotkandkthekcold,kinkfact inkallkthekprimarykconstituentskofkankanimal,kwhereaskthekotherskare inherentkinkwhatkisksecondary,kstrengthkbeingkakfeaturekofkthe sinewskandkbones,kwhilekbeautykiskgenerallyksupposedktokconsistkinka certainksymmetrykofktheklimbs.kAlsokthekendkiskgenerallyksupposedkto bekmorekdesirablekthankthekmeans,kandkofktwokmeans,kthatkwhichklies nearerkthekend.kInkgeneral,ktoo,kakmeanskdirectedktowardskthekendkof lifekiskmorekdesirablekthankakmeansktokanythingkelse,ke.g.kthat whichkcontributesktokhappinesskthankthatkwhichkcontributeskto prudence.kAlsokthekcompetentkiskmorekdesirablekthankthekincompetent. Moreover,kofktwokproductivekagentskthatkonekiskmorekdesirablekwhose endkiskbetter;kwhilekbetweenkakproductivekagentkandkankendkwekcan decidekbykakproportionalksumkwheneverkthekexcesskofkthekonekendkover thekotherkiskgreaterkthankthatkofktheklatterkoverkitskownkproductive means:ke.g.ksupposingkthekexcesskofkhappinesskoverkhealthktokbe greaterkthankthatkofkhealthkoverkwhatkproduceskhealth,kthenkwhat produceskhappinesskiskbetterkthankhealth.kForkwhatkproduces happinesskexceedskwhatkproduceskhealthkjustkaskmuchkaskhappiness exceedskhealth.kButkhealthkexceedskwhatkproduceskhealthkbykaksmaller amount;kergo,kthekexcesskofkwhatkproduceskhappinesskoverkwhatkproduces healthkiskgreaterkthankthatkofkhealthkoverkwhatkproduceskhealth. Clearly,ktherefore,kwhatkproduceskhappinesskiskmorekdesirablekthan health:kforkitkexceedsktheksamekstandardkbykakgreaterkamount. Moreover,kwhatkiskinkitselfknoblerkandkmorekpreciouskand praiseworthykiskmorekdesirablekthankwhatkisklesskso,ke.g.kfriendship thankwealth,kandkjusticekthankstrength.kForkthekformerkbelongkin themselvesktokthekclasskofkthingskpreciouskandkpraiseworthy,kwhilekthe latterkdoksoknotkinkthemselveskbutkforksomethingkelse:kforknokone prizeskwealthkforkitselfkbutkalwayskforksomethingkelse,kwhereaskwe prizekfriendshipkforkitself,kevenkthoughknothingkelsekiskli elykto comektokuskfromkit. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk2

kkMoreover,kwheneverktwokthingskarekverykmuchkli ekonekanother,kandkwe cannotkseekanyksuperioritykinkthekonekoverkthekotherkofkthem,kwe shouldkloo katkthemkfromkthekstandpointkofktheirkconsequences.kForkthe onekwhichkiskfollowedkbykthekgreaterkgoodkiskthekmorekdesirable:kor, ifkthekconsequenceskbekevil,kthatkiskmorekdesirablekwhichkis followedkbyktheklesskevil.kForkthoughkbothkmaykbekdesirable,kyetkthere maykpossiblykbeksomekunpleasantkconsequencekinvolvedktokturnkthe scale.kOurksurveykfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkconsequencesklieskinktwo directions,kforktherekarekpriorkconsequenceskandklaterkconsequences: e.g.kifkakmanklearns,kitkfollowskthatkhekwaskignorantkbeforekandk nows afterwards.kAskakrule,ktheklaterkconsequencekiskthekbetterkto consider.kYoukshouldkta e,ktherefore,kwhicheverkofkthekconsequences suitskyourkpurpose. kkMoreover,kakgreaterknumberkofkgoodkthingskiskmorekdesirablekthanka smaller,keitherkabsolutelykorkwhenkthekonekiskincludedkinkthekother, viz.ktheksmallerknumberkinkthekgreater.kAnkobjectionkmaykbekraised supposekinksomekparticularkcasekthekonekiskvaluedkforktheksa ekof thekother;kforkthenkthektwoktogetherkareknotkmorekdesirablekthankthe one;ke.g.krecoverykofkhealthkandkhealth,kthankhealthkalone,kinasmuch askwekdesirekrecoverykofkhealthkforktheksa ekofkhealth.kAlsokitkis quitekpossiblekforkwhatkisknotkgood,ktogetherkwithkwhatkis,ktokbekmore desirablekthankakgreaterknumberkofkgoodkthings,ke.g.kthekcombination ofkhappinesskandksomethingkelsekwhichkisknotkgoodkmaykbekmore desirablekthankthekcombinationkofkjusticekandkcourage.kAlso,kthe samekthingskarekmorekvaluablekifkaccompaniedkthankifkunaccompanied bykpleasure,kandkli ewisekwhenkfreekfromkpainkthankwhenkattended withkpain. kkAlso,keverythingkiskmorekdesirablekatkthekseasonkwhenkitkiskof greaterkconsequence;ke.g.kfreedomkfromkpainkinkoldkagekmorekthankin youth:kforkitkiskofkgreaterkconsequencekinkoldkage.kOnktheksame principlekalso,kprudencekiskmorekdesirablekinkoldkage;kforknokman chooseskthekyoungktokguidekhim,kbecausekhekdoesknotkexpectkthemkto bekprudent.kWithkcourage,kthekconversekiskthekcase,kforkitkiskinkyouth thatkthekactivekexercisekofkcouragekiskmorekimperativelykrequired. Li ewisekalsokwithktemperance;kforkthekyoungkarekmorektroubledkby theirkpassionskthankarektheirkelders. kkAlso,kthatkiskmorekdesirablekwhichkiskmorekusefulkatkeverykseasonkor atkmostkseasons,ke.g.kjusticekandktemperancekratherkthankcourage: forktheykarekalwayskuseful,kwhilekcouragekiskonlykusefulkatktimes. Also,kthatkonekofktwokthingskwhichkifkallkpossess,kwekdoknotkneed thekotherkthing,kiskmorekdesirablekthankthatkwhichkallkmaykpossesskand stillkwekwantkthekotherkonekaskwell.kTa ekthekcasekofkjusticekand courage;kifkeverybodykwerekjust,ktherekwouldkbeknokusekforkcourage, whereaskallkmightkbekcourageous,kandkstillkjusticekwouldkbekofkuse. kkMoreover,kjudgekbykthekdestructionskandklosseskandkgenerationskand acquisitionskandkcontrarieskofkthings:kforkthingskwhosekdestructionkis morekobjectionablekarekthemselveskmorekdesirable.kLi ewisekalsokwith theklosseskandkcontrarieskofkthings;kforkakthingkwhoseklosskorkwhose contrarykiskmorekobjectionablekiskitselfkmorekdesirable.kWithkthe generationskorkacquisitionskofkthingskthekoppositekiskthekcase:kfor thingskwhosekacquisitionkorkgenerationkiskmorekdesirablekare themselveskalsokdesirable.kAnotherkcommonplacekrulekiskthatkwhatkis nearerktokthekgoodkiskbetterkandkmorekdesirable,ki.e.kwhatkmoreknearly resembleskthekgood:kthuskjusticekiskbetterkthankakjustkman.kAlso,kthat whichkiskmorekli ekthankanotherkthingktoksomethingkbetterkthankitself,

aske.g.ksomeksaykthatkAjaxkwaskakbetterkmankthankOdysseuskbecausekhe waskmorekli ekAchilles.kAnkobjectionkmaykbekraisedktokthiskthatkit isknotktrue:kforkitkiskquitekpossiblekthatkAjaxkdidknotkresemble AchilleskmoreknearlykthankOdysseuskinkthekpointskwhichkmadekAchilles thekbestkofkthem,kandkthatkOdysseuskwaskakgoodkman,kthoughkunli e Achilles.kLoo kalsoktokseekwhetherkthekresemblancekbekthatkofka caricature,kli ekthekresemblancekofkakmon eyktokakman,kwhereaskakhorse bearsknone:kforkthekmon eykisknotkthekmorekhandsomekcreature, despitekitsknearerkresemblancektokakman.kAgain,kinkthekcasekofktwo things,kifkonekiskmorekli ekthekbetterkthingkwhilekanotherkiskmore li ekthekworse,kthenkthatkiskli elyktokbekbetterkwhichkiskmorekli e thekbetter.kThisktoo,khowever,kadmitskofkankobjection:kforkquite possiblykthekonekonlykslightlykresembleskthekbetter,kwhilekthekother stronglykresembleskthekworse,ke.g.ksupposingkthekresemblancekofkAjax tokAchillesktokbekslight,kwhilekthatkofkOdysseusktokNestorkis strong.kAlsokitkmaykbekthatkthekonekwhichkiskli ekthekbetterktype showskakdegradingkli eness,kwhereaskthekonekwhichkiskli ekthekworse typekimproveskuponkit:kwitnesskthekli enesskofkakhorsektokakdon ey, andkthatkofkakmon eyktokakman. kkAnotherkrulekiskthatkthekmorekconspicuouskgoodkiskmorekdesirable thanktheklesskconspicuous,kandkthekmorekdifficultkthankthekeasier:kfor wekappreciatekbetterkthekpossessionkofkthingskthatkcannotkbekeasily acquired.kAlsokthekmorekpersonalkpossessionkiskmorekdesirablekthankthe morekwidelykshared.kAlso,kthatkwhichkiskmorekfreekfromkconnexion withkevil:kforkwhatkisknotkattendedkbykanykunpleasantnesskiskmore desirablekthankwhatkisksokattended. kkMoreover,kifkAkbekwithoutkqualificationkbetterkthankB,kthenkalsokthe bestkofkthekmemberskofkAkiskbetterkthankthekbestkofkthekmemberskof B;ke.g.kifkMankbekbetterkthankHorse,kthenkalsokthekbestkmankis betterkthankthekbestkhorse.kAlso,kifkthekbestkinkAkbekbetterkthan thekbestkinkB,kthenkalsokAkiskbetterkthankBkwithoutkqualification; e.g.kifkthekbestkmankbekbetterkthankthekbestkhorse,kthenkalsokMankis betterkthankHorsekwithoutkqualification. kkMoreover,kthingskwhichkourkfriendskcanksharekarekmorekdesirablekthan thosektheykcannot.kAlso,kthingskwhichkwekli ekratherktokdoktokour friendkarekmorekdesirablekthankthosekwekli ektokdoktokthekmankinkthe street,ke.g.kjustkdealingkandkthekdoingkofkgoodkratherkthankthe semblancekofkthem:kforkwekwouldkratherkreallykdokgoodktokourkfriends thankseemktokdokso,kwhereasktowardskthekmankinkthekstreetkthekconverse iskthekcase. kkAlso,ksuperfluitieskarekbetterkthanknecessities,kandkareksometimes morekdesirablekaskwell:kforkthekgoodklifekiskbetterkthankmereklife, andkgoodklifekiskaksuperfluity,kwhereaskmereklifekitselfkiska necessity.kSometimes,kthough,kwhatkiskbetterkisknotkalsokmore desirable:kforktherekisknoknecessitykthatkbecausekitkiskbetterkit shouldkalsokbekmorekdesirable:katkleastktokbekakphilosopherkis betterkthanktokma ekmoney,kbutkitkisknotkmorekdesirablekforkakman whoklac sktheknecessitieskofklife.kThekexpressionk'superfluity' applieskwheneverkakmankpossessesktheknecessitieskofklifekandksetskto wor ktoksecurekaskwellkotherknoblekacquisitions.kRoughlykspea ing, perhaps,knecessitieskarekmorekdesirable,kwhileksuperfluitieskare better. kkAlso,kwhatkcannotkbekgotkfromkanotherkiskmorekdesirablekthankwhat cankbekgotkfromkanotherkaskwell,kask(e.g.)kiskthekcasekofkjustice comparedkwithkcourage.kAlso,kAkiskmorekdesirablekifkAkiskdesirable

withoutkB,kbutknotkBkwithoutkA:kpowerk(e.g.)kisknotkdesirable withoutkprudence,kbutkprudencekiskdesirablekwithoutkpower.kAlso,kifkof twokthingskwekrepudiatekthekonekinkorderktokbekthoughtktokpossess thekother,kthenkthatkonekiskmorekdesirablekwhichkwekwishktokbekthought tokpossess;kthusk(e.g.)kwekrepudiatektheklovekofkhardkwor kinkorder thatkpeoplekmaykthin kuskgeniuses. kkMoreover,kthatkiskmorekdesirablekinkwhosekabsencekitkiskless blameworthykforkpeoplektokbekvexed;kandkthatkiskmorekdesirablekin whosekabsencekitkiskmorekblameworthykforkakmanknotktokbekvexed. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk3 kkMoreover,kofkthingskthatkbelongktoktheksamekspecieskonekwhich possesseskthekpeculiarkvirtuekofkthekspecieskiskmorekdesirablekthan onekwhichkdoesknot.kIfkbothkpossesskit,kthenkthekonekwhichkpossesses itkinkakgreaterkdegreekiskmorekdesirable. kkMoreover,kifkonekthingkma eskgoodkwhateverkitktouches,kwhilekanother doesknot,kthekformerkiskmorekdesirable,kjustkaskalsokwhatkma eskthings warmkiskwarmerkthankwhatkdoesknot.kIfkbothkdokso,kthenkthatkonekis morekdesirablekwhichkdoesksokinkakgreaterkdegree,korkifkitkrenderkgood thekbetterkandkmorekimportantkobject-ifk(e.g.),kthekonekma eskgoodkthe soul,kandkthekotherkthekbody. kkMoreover,kjudgekthingskbyktheirkinflexionskandkuseskandkactions andkwor s,kandkjudgekthesekbykthem:kforktheykgokwithkeachkother: e.g.kifk'justly'kmeansksomethingkmorekdesirablekthank'courageously', thenkalsokjusticekmeansksomethingkmorekdesirablekthankcourage;kand ifkjusticekbekmorekdesirablekthankcourage,kthenkalsok'justly'kmeans somethingkmorekdesirablekthank'courageously'.kSimilarlykalsokinkthe otherkcases. kkMoreover,kifkonekthingkexceedskwhilekthekotherkfallskshortkofkthe samekstandardkofkgood,kthekonekwhichkexceedskiskthekmorekdesirable;kor ifkthekonekexceedskankevenkhigherkstandard.kNaykmore,kifktherekbe twokthingskbothkpreferablektoksomething,kthekonekwhichkiskmore highlykpreferablektokitkiskmorekdesirablekthanktheklesskhighly preferable.kMoreover,kwhenkthekexcesskofkakthingkiskmorekdesirable thankthekexcesskofksomethingkelse,kthatkthingkiskitselfkalsokmore desirablekthankthekother,kask(e.g.)kfriendshipkthankmoney:kforkan excesskofkfriendshipkiskmorekdesirablekthankankexcesskofkmoney.kSo alsokthatkofkwhichkakmankwouldkratherkthatkitkwerekhiskbykhiskown doingkiskmorekdesirablekthankwhatkhekwouldkratherkgetkbykanother's doing,ke.g.kfriendskthankmoney.kMoreover,kjudgekbykmeanskofkan addition,kandkseekifkthekadditionkofkAktoktheksamekthingkaskBkma es thekwholekmorekdesirablekthankdoeskthekadditionkofkB.kYoukmust, however,kbewarekofkadducingkakcasekinkwhichkthekcommonktermkuses,kor inksomekotherkwaykhelpskthekcasekof,konekofkthekthingskaddedktokit, butknotkthekother,kask(e.g.)kifkyouktoo kaksawkandkaksic lekin combinationkwithkthekartkofkcarpentry:kforkinkthekcombinationkthe sawkiskakmorekdesirablekthing,kbutkitkisknotkakmorekdesirablekthing withoutkqualification.kAgain,kakthingkiskmorekdesirablekif,kwhenkadded tokaklesserkgood,kitkma eskthekwholekgreaterkgood.kLi ewise,kalso,kyou shouldkjudgekbykmeanskofksubtraction:kforkthekthingkuponkwhose subtractionkthekremainderkiskaklesserkgoodkmaykbekta enktokbeka greaterkgood,kwhicheverkitkbekwhoseksubtractionkma eskthekremainder aklesserkgood. kkAlso,kifkonekthingkbekdesirablekforkitself,kandkthekotherkforkthe

loo kofkit,kthekformerkiskmorekdesirable,kask(e.g.)khealthkthan beauty.kAkthingkiskdefinedkaskbeingkdesiredkforkthekloo kofkitkif, supposingknokonek newkofkit,kyoukwouldknotkcarektokhavekit.kAlso,kit iskmorekdesirablekbothkforkitselfkandkforkthekloo kofkit,kwhilekthe otherkthingkiskdesirablekonkthekonekgroundkalone.kAlso,kwhicheverkis thekmorekpreciouskforkitself,kiskalsokbetterkandkmorekdesirable.kA thingkmaykbekta enktokbekmorekpreciouskinkitselfkwhichkwekchoose ratherkforkitself,kwithoutkanythingkelsekbeingkli elyktokcomekofkit. kkMoreover,kyoukshouldkdistinguishkinkhowkmanyksensesk'desirable'kis used,kandkwithkakviewktokwhatkends,ke.g.kexpediencykorkhonourkor pleasure.kForkwhatkiskusefulkforkallkorkmostkofkthemkmaykbekta enkto bekmorekdesirablekthankwhatkisknotkusefulkinkli ekmanner.kIfkthe samekcharacterskbelongktokbothkthingskyoukshouldkloo kandkseekwhich possesseskthemkmorekmar edly,ki.e.kwhichkofkthektwokiskthekmore pleasantkorkmorekhonourablekorkmorekexpedient.kAgain,kthatkiskmore desirablekwhichkserveskthekbetterkpurpose,ke.g.kthatkwhichkserveskto promotekvirtuekmorekthankthatkwhichkservesktokpromotekpleasure. Li ewisekalsokinkthekcasekofkobjectionablekthings;kforkthatkiskmore objectionablekwhichkstandskmorekinkthekwaykofkwhatkiskdesirable, e.g.kdiseasekmorekthankugliness:kforkdiseasekiskakgreaterkhindrance bothktokpleasurekandktokbeingkgood. kkMoreover,karguekbykshowingkthatkthekthingkinkquestionkiskinkli e measurekobjectionablekandkdesirable:kforkakthingkofksuchkakcharacter thatkakmankmightkwellkdesirekandkobjectktokitkali ekiskless desirablekthankthekotherkwhichkiskdesirablekonly. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk4 kkComparisonskofkthingsktogetherkshouldkthereforekbekconductedkin thekmannerkprescribed.kTheksamekcommonplacekruleskarekusefulkalso forkshowingkthatkanythingkisksimplykdesirablekorkobjectionable:kforkwe havekonlyktoksubtractkthekexcesskofkonekthingkoverkanother.kForkif whatkiskmorekpreciouskbekmorekdesirable,kthenkalsokwhatkiskpreciouskis desirable;kandkifkwhatkiskmorekusefulkbekmorekdesirable,kthenkalso whatkiskusefulkiskdesirable.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkthekcasekofkother thingskwhichkadmitkofkcomparisonskofkthatk ind.kForkinksomekcaseskin thekverykcoursekofkcomparingkthekthingsktogetherkwekatkoncekassert alsokthatkeachkofkthem,korkthekonekofkthem,kiskdesirable,ke.g. wheneverkwekcallkthekonekgoodk'byknature'kandkthekotherk'notkby nature':kforkdearlykwhatkiskgoodkbyknaturekiskdesirable. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk5 kkThekcommonplacekruleskrelatingktokcomparativekdegreeskandkamounts oughtktokbekta enkinkthekmostkgeneralkpossiblekform:kforkwhenksokta en theykarekli elyktokbekusefulkinkaklargerknumberkofkinstances.kItkis possiblektokrenderksomekofkthekactualkruleskgivenkabovekmorekuniversal bykakslightkalterationkofkthekexpression,ke.g.kthatkwhatkbyknature exhibitsksuchkandksuchkakqualitykexhibitskthatkqualitykinkakgreater degreekthankwhatkexhibitskitknotkbyknature.kAlso,kifkonekthingkdoes, andkanotherkdoesknot,kimpartksuchkandksuchkakqualityktokthatkwhich possesseskit,korktokwhichkitkbelongs,kthenkwhicheverkdoeskimpartkitkis ofkthatkqualitykinkgreaterkdegreekthankthekonekwhichkdoesknotkimpart it;kandkifkbothkimpartkit,kthenkthatkonekexhibitskitkinkakgreater degreekwhichkimpartskitkinkakgreaterkdegree. kkMoreover,kifkinkanykcharacterkonekthingkexceedskandkanotherkfalls shortkofktheksamekstandard;kalso,kifkthekonekexceedsksomethingkwhich

exceedskakgivenkstandard,kwhilekthekotherkdoesknotkreachkthat standard,kthenkclearlykthekfirst-namedkthingkexhibitskthatkcharacter inkakgreaterkdegree.kMoreover,kyoukshouldkjudgekbykmeanskof addition,kandkseekifkAkwhenkaddedktoktheksamekthingkaskBkimpartskto thekwholeksuchkandksuchkakcharacterkinkakmorekmar edkdegreekthankB,kor if,kwhenkaddedktokakthingkwhichkexhibitskthatkcharacterkinkakless degree,kitkimpartskthatkcharacterktokthekwholekinkakgreaterkdegree. Li ewise,kalso,kyoukmaykjudgekbykmeanskofksubtraction:kforkakthing uponkwhoseksubtractionkthekremainderkexhibitsksuchkandksuchka characterkinkaklesskdegree,kitselfkexhibitskthatkcharacterkinka greaterkdegree.kAlso,kthingskexhibitksuchkandksuchkakcharacterkinka greaterkdegreekifkmorekfreekfromkadmixturekwithktheirkcontraries;ke.g. thatkiskwhiterkwhichkiskmorekfreekfromkadmixturekwithkblac .kMoreover, apartkfromkthekruleskgivenkabove,kthatkhasksuchkandksuchkakcharacter inkgreaterkdegreekwhichkadmitskinkakgreaterkdegreekofkthekdefinition properktokthekgivenkcharacter;ke.g.kifkthekdefinitionkofk'white'kbek'a colourkwhichkpierceskthekvision',kthenkthatkiskwhiterkwhichkiskinka greaterkdegreekakcolourkthatkpierceskthekvision. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk6 kkIfkthekquestionkbekputkinkakparticularkandknotkinkakuniversal form,kinkthekfirstkplacekthekuniversalkconstructivekorkdestructive commonplacekruleskthatkhavekbeenkgivenkmaykallkbekbroughtkintokuse. Forkinkdemolishingkorkestablishingkakthingkuniversallykwekalsokshowkit inkparticular:kforkifkitkbektruekofkall,kitkisktruekalsokofksome, andkifkuntruekofkall,kitkiskuntruekofksome.kEspeciallykhandykandkof generalkapplicationkarekthekcommonplacekruleskthatkarekdrawnkfrom thekoppositeskandkco-ordinateskandkinflexionskofkakthing:kforkpublic opinionkgrantskali ekthekclaimkthatkifkallkpleasurekbekgood,kthenkalso allkpainkiskevil,kandkthekclaimkthatkifksomekpleasurekbekgood,kthen alsoksomekpainkiskevil.kMoreover,kifksomekformkofksensationkbeknotka capacity,kthenkalsoksomekformkofkfailurekofksensationkisknotkakfailure ofkcapacity.kAlso,kifkthekobjectkofkconceptionkiskinksomekcaseskan objectkofk nowledge,kthenkalsoksomekformkofkconceivingkisk nowledge. Again,kifkwhatkiskunjustkbekinksomekcaseskgood,kthenkalsokwhatkiskjust iskinksomekcaseskevil;kandkifkwhatkhappenskjustlykiskinksomekcases evil,kthenkalsokwhatkhappenskunjustlykiskinksomekcaseskgood.kAlso, ifkwhatkiskpleasantkiskinksomekcaseskobjectionable,kthenkpleasurekis inksomekcaseskankobjectionablekthing.kOnktheksamekprinciple,kalso, ifkwhatkiskpleasantkiskinksomekcaseskbeneficial,kthenkpleasurekiskin somekcaseskakbeneficialkthing.kThekcasekisktheksamekalsokaskregards thekthingskthatkdestroy,kandkthekprocesseskofkgenerationkand destruction.kForkifkanythingkthatkdestroyskpleasurekork nowledgekbekin somekcaseskgood,kthenkwekmaykta ekitkthatkpleasurekork nowledgekis inksomekcaseskankevilkthing.kLi ewise,kalso,kifkthekdestructionkof nowledgekbekinksomekcaseskakgoodkthingkorkitskproductionkankevil thing,kthenk nowledgekwillkbekinksomekcaseskankevilkthing;ke.g.kifkfor akmanktokforgetkhiskdisgracefulkconductkbekakgoodkthing,kandkto rememberkitkbekankevilkthing,kthenkthek nowledgekofkhiskdisgraceful conductkmaykbekta enktokbekankevilkthing.kTheksamekholdskalsokinkother cases:kinkallksuchkcaseskthekpremisskandkthekconclusionkarekequally li elyktokbekaccepted. kkMoreoverkyoukshouldkjudgekbykmeanskofkgreaterkorksmallerkorkli e degrees:kforkifksomekmemberkofkanotherkgenuskexhibitksuchkandksuchka characterkinkakmorekmar edkdegreekthankyourkobject,kwhileknokmemberkof thatkgenuskexhibitskthatkcharacterkatkall,kthenkyoukmaykta ekitkthat neitherkdoeskthekobjectkinkquestionkexhibitkit;ke.g.kifksomekformkof nowledgekbekgoodkinkakgreaterkdegreekthankpleasure,kwhileknokform

ofk nowledgekiskgood,kthenkyoukmaykta ekitkthatkpleasurekisknotkgood either.kAlso,kyoukshouldkjudgekbykaksmallerkorkli ekdegreekinktheksame way:kforksokyoukwillkfindkitkpossiblekbothktokdemolishkandkto establishkakview,kexceptkthatkwhereaskbothkarekpossiblekbykmeanskof li ekdegrees,kbykmeanskofkaksmallerkdegreekitkiskpossiblekonlykto establish,knotktokoverthrow.kForkifkakcertainkformkofkcapacitykbekgood inkakli ekdegreektok nowledge,kandkakcertainkformkofkcapacitykbekgood, thenksokalsokisk nowledge;kwhilekifknokformkofkcapacitykbekgood, thenkneitherkisk nowledge.kIf,ktoo,kakcertainkformkofkcapacitykbekgood inkaklesskdegreekthank nowledge,kandkakcertainkformkofkcapacitykbe good,kthenksokalsokisk nowledge;kbutkifknokformkofkcapacitykbekgood, therekisknoknecessitykthatknokformkofk nowledgekeitherkshouldkbekgood. Clearly,kthen,kitkiskonlykpossiblektokestablishkakviewkbykmeanskofka lesskdegree. kkNotkonlykbykmeanskofkanotherkgenuskcankyoukoverthrowkakview,kbut alsokbykmeanskofktheksame,kifkyoukta ekthekmostkmar edkinstancekofkthe characterkinkquestion;ke.g.kifkitkbekmaintainedkthatksomekformkof nowledgekiskgood,kthen,ksupposekitktokbekshownkthatkprudencekisknot good,kneitherkwillkanykotherk indkbekgood,kseeingkthatknotkevenkthe indkuponkwhichktherekiskmostkgeneralkagreementkiskso.kMoreover,kyou shouldkgoktokwor kbykmeanskofkankhypothesis;kyoukshouldkclaimkthatkthe attribute,kifkitkbelongskorkdoesknotkbelongkinkonekcase,kdoesksokin akli ekdegreekinkall,ke.g.kthatkifktheksoulkofkmankbekimmortal,ksokare otherksoulskaskwell,kwhilekifkthiskonekbeknotkso,kneitherkarekthe others.kIf,kthen,kitkbekmaintainedkthatkinksomekinstancekthekattribute belongs,kyoukmustkshowkthatkinksomekinstancekitkdoesknotkbelong:kfor thenkitkwillkfollow,kbykreasonkofkthekhypothesis,kthatkitkdoesknot belongktokanykinstancekatkall.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,kitkbekmaintained thatkitkdoesknotkbelongkinksomekinstance,kyoukmustkshowkthatkitkdoes belongkinksomekinstance,kforkinkthiskwaykitkwillkfollowkthatkit belongsktokallkinstances.kItkiskclearkthatkthekma erkofkthekhypothesis universalizeskthekquestion,kwhereaskitkwaskstatedkinkakparticular form:kforkhekclaimskthatkthekma erkofkakparticularkadmissionkshould ma ekakuniversalkadmission,kinasmuchkaskhekclaimskthatkifkthe attributekbelongskinkonekinstance,kitkbelongskalsokinkallkinstances ali e. kkIfkthekproblemkbekindefinite,kitkiskpossiblektokoverthrowka statementkinkonlykonekway;ke.g.kifkakmankhaskassertedkthatkpleasurekis goodkorkisknotkgood,kwithoutkanykfurtherkdefinition.kForkifkhekmeant thatkakparticularkpleasurekiskgood,kyoukmustkshowkuniversallykthat nokpleasurekiskgood,kifkthekpropositionkinkquestionkisktokbe demolished.kAndkli ewise,kalso,kifkhekmeantkthatksomekparticular pleasurekisknotkgoodkyoukmustkshowkuniversallykthatkallkpleasurekis good:kitkiskimpossiblektokdemolishkitkinkanykotherkway.kForkifkwekshow thatksomekparticularkpleasurekisknotkgoodkorkiskgood,kthe propositionkinkquestionkisknotkyetkdemolished.kItkiskclear,kthen,kthat itkiskpossiblektokdemolishkankindefinitekstatementkinkonekwaykonly, whereaskitkcankbekestablishedkinktwokways:kforkwhetherkwekshow universallykthatkallkpleasurekiskgood,korkwhetherkwekshowkthatka particularkpleasurekiskgood,kthekpropositionkinkquestionkwillkhave beenkproved.kLi ewise,kalso,ksupposingkwekarekrequiredktokarguekthat somekparticularkpleasurekisknotkgood,kifkwekshowkthatknokpleasurekis goodkorkthatkakparticularkpleasurekisknotkgood,kwekshallkhavekproduced ankargumentkinkbothkways,kbothkuniversallykandkinkparticular,kto showkthatksomekparticularkpleasurekisknotkgood.kIf,konkthekotherkhand, thekstatementkmadekbekdefinite,kitkwillkbekpossiblektokdemolishkit inktwokways;ke.g.kifkitkbekmaintainedkthatkitkiskankattributekof somekparticularkpleasurektokbekgood,kwhilekofksomekitkisknot:kfor

whetherkitkbekshownkthatkallkpleasure,korkthatknokpleasure,kiskgood, thekpropositionkinkquestionkwillkhavekbeenkdemolished.kIf,khowever,khe haskstatedkthatkonlykoneksinglekpleasurekiskgood,kitkiskpossiblekto demolishkitkinkthreekways:kforkbykshowingkthatkallkpleasure,korkthat nokpleasure,korkthatkmorekthankonekpleasure,kiskgood,kwekshallkhave demolishedkthekstatementkinkquestion.kIfkthekstatementkbekmadekstill morekdefinite,ke.g.kthatkprudencekalonekofkthekvirtueskisk nowledge, therekarekfourkwayskofkdemolishingkit:kforkifkitkbekshownkthatkall virtuekisk nowledge,korkthatknokvirtuekiskso,korkthatksomekother virtuek(e.g.kjustice)kiskso,korkthatkprudencekitselfkisknotk nowledge, thekpropositionkinkquestionkwillkhavekbeenkdemolished. kkItkiskusefulkalsoktokta ekakloo katkindividualkinstances,kinkcases whereksomekattributekhaskbeenksaidktokbelongkorknotktokbelong,kaskin thekcasekofkuniversalkquestions.kMoreover,kyoukshouldkta ekakglance amongkgenera,kdividingkthemkbyktheirkspecieskuntilkyoukcomektokthose thatkareknotkfurtherkdivisible,kaskhaskbeenksaidkbefore:'kfor whetherkthekattributekiskfoundktokbelongkinkallkcaseskorkinknone, youkshould,kafterkadducingkseveralkinstances,kclaimkthatkhekshould eitherkadmitkyourkpointkuniversally,korkelsekbringkankobjection showingkinkwhatkcasekitkdoesknotkhold.kMoreover,kinkcaseskwherekit iskpossiblektokma ekthekaccidentkdefinitekeitherkspecificallykor numerically,kyoukshouldkloo kandkseekwhetherkperhapsknonekofkthem belongs,kshowingke.g.kthatktimekisknotkmoved,knorkyetkakmovement,kby enumeratingkhowkmanykspeciesktherekarekofkmovement:kforkifknonekof thesekbelongktoktime,kclearlykitkdoesknotkmove,knorkyetkiskakmovement. Li ewise,kalso,kyoukcankshowkthatktheksoulkisknotkaknumber,kby dividingkallknumberskintokeitherkoddkorkeven:kforkthen,kifktheksoulkbe neitherkoddknorkeven,kclearlykitkisknotkaknumber. kkkkInkregardkthenktokAccident,kyoukshouldksetktokwor kbykmeanskli e these,kandkinkthiskmanner. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkBoo kIV kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk1 kkNEXTkwekmustkgokonktokexaminekquestionskrelatingktokGenuskand Property.kThesekarekelementskinkthekquestionskthatkrelatekto definitions,kbutkdialecticianskseldomkaddressktheirkinquiriesktokthese bykthemselves.kIf,kthen,kakgenuskbeksuggestedkforksomethingkthatkis, firstkta ekakloo katkallkobjectskwhichkbelongktoktheksamekgenuskaskthe thingkmentioned,kandkseekwhetherkthekgenusksuggestedkisknotkpredicated ofkonekofkthem,kaskhappenskinkthekcasekofkankaccident:ke.g.kif 'good'kbeklaidkdownktokbekthekgenuskofk'pleasure',kseekwhetherksome particularkpleasurekbeknotkgood:kfor,kifkso,kclearlykgood'kisknot thekgenuskofkpleasure:kforkthekgenuskiskpredicatedkofkallkthe memberskofktheksamekspecies.kSecondly,kseekwhetherkitkbekpredicated notkinkthekcategorykofkessence,kbutkaskankaccident,kask'white'kis predicatedkofk'snow',kork'self-moved'kofktheksoul.kFork'snow'kisknotka indkofk'white',kandkthereforek'white'kisknotkthekgenuskofksnow,knor isktheksoulkak indkofk'movingkobject':kitskmotionkiskankaccidentkof it,kaskitkoftenkiskofkankanimalktokwal korktokbekwal ing.kMoreover, 'moving'kdoesknotkseemktokindicatekthekessence,kbutkratherkakstate ofkdoingkorkofkhavingksomethingkdonektokit.kLi ewise,kalso,k'white': forkitkindicatesknotkthekessencekofksnow,kbutkakcertainkqualitykofkit. Sokthatkneitherkofkthemkiskpredicatedkinkthekcategorykofk'essence'. kkEspeciallykyoukshouldkta ekakloo katkthekdefinitionkofkAccident,kand seekwhetherkitkfitskthekgenuskmentioned,kask(e.g.)kiskalsokthekcasekin

thekinstanceskjustkgiven.kForkitkiskpossiblekforkakthingktokbekandknot tokbekself-moved,kandkli ewise,kalso,kforkitktokbekandknotktokbe white.kSokthatkneitherkofkthesekattributeskiskthekgenuskbutkan accident,ksincekwekwereksayingkthatkankaccidentkiskankattribute whichkcankbelongktokakthingkandkalsoknotkbelong. kkMoreover,kseekwhetherkthekgenuskandkthekspecieskbeknotkfoundkin theksamekdivision,kbutkthekonekbekaksubstancekwhilekthekotherkiska quality,korkthekonekbekakrelativekwhilekthekotherkiskakquality,kas (e.g.)k'slow'kandk'swan'karekeachkaksubstance,kwhilek'white'kisknot aksubstancekbutkakquality,ksokthatk'white'kisknotkthekgenuskeither ofk'snow'korkofk'swan'.kAgain,k nowledge'kiskakrelative,kwhile 'good'kandk'noble'karekeachkakquality,ksokthatkgood,korknoble,kis notkthekgenuskofk nowledge.kForkthekgenerakofkrelativeskought themselveskalsoktokbekrelatives,kaskiskthekcasekwithk'double':kfor multiple',kwhichkiskthekgenuskofk'double',kiskitselfkalsoka relative.kTokspea kgenerally,kthekgenuskoughtktokfallkunderktheksame divisionkaskthekspecies:kforkifkthekspecieskbekaksubstance,ksoktoo shouldkbekthekgenus,kandkifkthekspecieskbekakquality,ksoktookthekgenus shouldkbekakquality;ke.g.kifkwhitekbekakquality,ksoktookshould colourkbe.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkotherkcases. kkAgain,kseekwhetherkitkbeknecessarykorkpossiblekforkthekgenuskto parta ekofkthekobjectkwhichkhaskbeenkplacedkinkthekgenus.k'Tokparta e' iskdefinedkask'tokadmitkthekdefinitionkofkthatkwhichkiskparta en. Clearly,ktherefore,kthekspecieskparta ekofkthekgenera,kbutknotkthe generakofkthekspecies:kforkthekspecieskadmitskthekdefinitionkofkthe genus,kwhereaskthekgenuskdoesknotkadmitkthatkofkthekspecies.kYou mustkloo ,ktherefore,kandkseekwhetherkthekgenuskrenderedkparta eskor cankpossiblykparta ekofkthekspecies,ke.g.kifkanykonekwerektokrender anythingkaskgenuskofk'being'korkofk'unity':kforkthenkthekresultkwill bekthatkthekgenuskparta eskofkthekspecies:kforkofkeverythingkthat is,k'being'kandk'unity'karekpredicated,kandkthereforektheirkdefinition askwell. kkMoreover,kseekifktherekbekanythingkofkwhichkthekspecieskrendered isktrue,kwhilekthekgenuskisknotkso,ke.g.ksupposingk'being'kor 'objectkofk nowledge'kwerekstatedktokbekthekgenuskofk'objectkof opinion'.kFork'objectkofkopinion'kwillkbekakpredicatekofkwhatkdoesknot exist;kforkmanykthingskwhichkdoknotkexistkarekobjectskofkopinion; whereaskthatk'being'kork'objectkofk nowledge'kisknotkpredicatedkof whatkdoesknotkexistkiskclear.kSokthatkneitherk'being'knork'objectkof nowledge'kiskthekgenuskofk'objectkofkopinion':kforkofkthekobjects ofkwhichkthekspecieskiskpredicated,kthekgenuskoughtktokbekpredicated askwell.

kkAgain,kseekwhetherkthekobjectkplacedkinkthekgenuskbekquitekunablekto parta ekofkanykofkitskspecies:kforkitkiskimpossiblekthatkitkshould parta ekofkthekgenuskifkitkdoknotkparta ekofkanykofkitskspecies, exceptkitkbekonekofkthekspecieskreachedkbykthekfirstkdivision:kthese dokparta ekofkthekgenuskalone.kIf,ktherefore,k'Motion'kbekstatedkas thekgenuskofkpleasure,kyoukshouldkloo kandkseekifkpleasurekbe neitherklocomotionknorkalteration,knorkanykofkthekrestkofkthekgiven modeskofkmotion:kforkclearlykyoukmaykthenkta ekitkthatkitkdoesknot parta ekofkanykofkthekspecies,kandkthereforeknotkofkthekgenus either,ksincekwhatkparta eskofkthekgenuskmustknecessarilykparta ekof onekofkthekspecieskaskwell:ksokthatkpleasurekcouldknotkbekakspecieskof Motion,knorkyetkbekonekofkthekindividualkphenomenakcomprisedkunderkthe termk'motion'.kForkindividualskaskwellkparta ekinkthekgenuskandkthe species,kask(e.g.)kankindividualkmankparta eskofkbothk'man'kand

'animal'. kkMoreover,kseekifkthektermkplacedkinkthekgenuskhaskakwiderkdenotation thankthekgenus,kask(e.g.)k'objectkofkopinion'khas,kaskcomparedkwith 'being':kforkbothkwhatkiskandkwhatkisknotkarekobjectskofkopinion,kso thatk'objectkofkopinion'kcouldknotkbekakspecieskofkbeing:kforkthe genuskiskalwayskofkwiderkdenotationkthankthekspecies.kAgain,kseekif thekspecieskandkitskgenuskhavekankequalkdenotation;ksuppose,kfor instance,kthatkofkthekattributeskwhichkgokwithkeverything,konekwerekto bekstatedkaskakspecieskandkthekotherkaskitskgenus,kaskforkexample BeingkandkUnity:kforkeverythingkhaskbeingkandkunity,ksokthatkneither iskthekgenuskofkthekother,ksincektheirkdenotationkiskequal. Li ewise,kalso,kifkthek'first'kofkakserieskandkthek'beginning'kwerekto bekplacedkonekunderkthekother:kforkthekbeginningkiskfirstkandkthe firstkiskthekbeginning,ksokthatkeitherkbothkexpressionskare identicalkorkatkanykratekneitherkiskthekgenuskofkthekother.kThe elementarykprinciplekinkregardktokallksuchkcaseskiskthatkthekgenuskhas akwiderkdenotationkthankthekspecieskandkitskdifferentia:kforkthe differentiakaskwellkhaskaknarrowerkdenotationkthankthekgenus. kkSeekalsokwhetherkthekgenuskmentionedkfails,korkmightkbekgenerally thoughtktokfail,ktokapplyktoksomekobjectkwhichkisknotkspecifically differentkfromkthekthingkinkquestion;kor,kifkyourkargumentkbe constructive,kwhetherkitkdoesksokapply.kForkallkthingskthatkareknot specificallykdifferentkhavektheksamekgenus.kIf,ktherefore,kitkbekshown tokapplyktokone,kthenkclearlykitkappliesktokall,kandkifkitkfailskto applyktokone,kclearlykitkfailsktokapplyktokany;ke.g.kifkanykonekwho assumesk'indivisibleklines'kwerektoksaykthatkthek'indivisible'kis theirkgenus.kForkthekaforesaidktermkisknotkthekgenuskofkdivisible lines,kandkthesekdoknotkdifferkaskregardsktheirkspecieskfrom indivisible:kforkstraightklineskarekneverkdifferentkfromkeachkotherkas regardsktheirkspecies. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk2 kkLoo kandksee,kalso,kifktherekbekanykotherkgenuskofkthekgivenkspecies whichkneitherkembraceskthekgenuskrenderedknorkyetkfallskunderkit,ke.g. supposekanykonekwerektoklaykdownkthatk' nowledge'kiskthekgenuskof justice.kForkvirtuekiskitskgenuskaskwell,kandkneitherkofkthese generakembraceskthekremainingkone,ksokthatk nowledgekcouldknotkbe thekgenuskofkjustice:kforkitkiskgenerallykacceptedkthatkwheneverkone specieskfallskunderktwokgenera,kthekonekiskembracedkbykthekother. Yetkakprinciplekofkthisk indkgiveskrisektokakdifficultykinksomekcases. Forksomekpeoplekholdkthatkprudencekiskbothkvirtuekandk nowledge,kand thatkneitherkofkitskgenerakiskembracedkbykthekother:kalthough certainlyknotkeverybodykadmitskthatkprudencekisk nowledge.kIf, however,kanykonekwerektokadmitkthektruthkofkthiskassertion,kyetkit wouldkstillkbekgenerallykagreedktokbeknecessarykthatkthekgenerakofkthe samekobjectkmustkatkanykratekbeksubordinatekeitherkthekonektokthe otherkorkbothktoktheksame,kaskactuallykiskthekcasekwithkvirtuekand nowledge.kForkbothkfallkunderktheksamekgenus;kforkeachkofkthemkiska statekandkakdisposition.kYoukshouldkloo ,ktherefore,kandkseekwhether neitherkofkthesekthingskisktruekofkthekgenuskrendered;kforkifkthe generakbeksubordinatekneitherkthekonektokthekotherknorkbothktokthe same,kthenkwhatkiskrenderedkcouldknotkbekthektruekgenus. kkLoo ,kalso,katkthekgenuskofkthekgenuskrendered,kandksokcontinually atktheknextkhigherkgenus,kandkseekwhetherkallkarekpredicatedkofkthe species,kandkpredicatedkinkthekcategorykofkessence:kforkallkthekhigher generakshouldkbekpredicatedkofkthekspecieskinkthekcategorykofkessence.

If,kthen,ktherekbekanywherekakdiscrepancy,kclearlykwhatkiskrenderedkis notkthektruekgenus.k[Again,kseekwhetherkeitherkthekgenuskitself,kor onekofkitskhigherkgenera,kparta eskofkthekspecies:kforkthekhigher genuskdoesknotkparta ekofkanykofktheklower.]kIf,kthen,kyoukare overthrowingkakview,kfollowkthekrulekaskgiven:kifkestablishingkone, then-supposekthatkwhatkhaskbeenknamedkaskgenuskbekadmittedktokbelong tokthekspecies,konlykitkbekdisputedkwhetherkitkbelongskaskgenus-it iskenoughktokshowkthatkonekofkitskhigherkgenerakiskpredicatedkofkthe specieskinkthekcategorykofkessence.kForkifkonekofkthemkbekpredicated inkthekcategorykofkessence,kallkofkthem,kbothkhigherkandklowerkthan thiskone,kifkpredicatedkatkallkofkthekspecies,kwillkbekpredicatedkof itkinkthekcategorykofkessence:ksokthatkwhatkhaskbeenkrenderedkaskgenus iskalsokpredicatedkinkthekcategorykofkessence.kThekpremisskthatkwhen onekgenuskiskpredicatedkinkthekcategorykofkessence,kallkthekrest,kif predicatedkatkall,kwillkbekpredicatedkinkthekcategorykofkessence, shouldkbeksecuredkbykinduction.kSupposing,khowever,kthatkitkbe disputedkwhetherkwhatkhaskbeenkrenderedkaskgenuskbelongskatkall,kitkis notkenoughktokshowkthatkonekofkthekhigherkgenerakiskpredicatedkof thekspecieskinkthekcategorykofkessence:ke.g.kifkanykonekhaskrendered 'locomotion'kaskthekgenuskofkwal ing,kitkisknotkenoughktokshowkthat wal ingkisk'motion'kinkorderktokshowkthatkitkisk'locomotion',kseeing thatktherekarekotherkformskofkmotionkaskwell;kbutkonekmustkshowkin additionkthatkwal ingkdoesknotkparta ekofkanykofkthekspecieskofkmotion producedkbyktheksamekdivisionkexceptklocomotion.kForkofknecessitykwhat parta eskofkthekgenuskparta eskalsokofkonekofkthekspecieskproduced bykthekfirstkdivisionkofkthekgenus.kIf,ktherefore,kwal ingkdoesknot parta ekeitherkofkincreasekorkdecreasekorkofkthekotherk indskof motion,kclearlykitkwouldkparta ekofklocomotion,ksokthatklocomotion wouldkbekthekgenuskofkwal ing. kkAgain,kloo kamongkthekthingskofkwhichkthekgivenkspecieskis predicatedkaskgenus,kandkseekifkwhatkiskrenderedkaskitskgenuskbe alsokpredicatedkinkthekcategorykofkessencekofkthekverykthingskofkwhich thekspecieskisksokpredicated,kandkli ewisekifkallkthekgenerakhigher thankthiskgenuskareksokpredicatedkaskwell.kForkifktherekbekanywhere akdiscrepancy,kclearlykwhatkhaskbeenkrenderedkisknotkthektruekgenus: forkhadkitkbeenkthekgenus,kthenkbothkthekgenerakhigherkthankit,kandkit itself,kwouldkallkhavekbeenkpredicatedkinkthekcategorykofkessencekof thosekobjectskofkwhichkthekspeciesktookiskpredicatedkinkthekcategory ofkessence.kIf,kthen,kyoukarekoverthrowingkakview,kitkiskusefulktoksee whetherkthekgenuskfailsktokbekpredicatedkinkthekcategorykofkessencekof thosekthingskofkwhichkthekspeciesktookiskpredicated.kIfkestablishingka view,kitkiskusefulktokseekwhetherkitkiskpredicatedkinkthekcategory ofkessence:kforkifkso,kthekresultkwillkbekthatkthekgenuskandkthe specieskwillkbekpredicatedkofktheksamekobjectkinkthekcategorykof essence,ksokthatktheksamekobjectkfallskunderktwokgenera:kthekgenera mustkthereforekofknecessitykbeksubordinatekonektokthekother,kand thereforekifkitkbekshownkthatkthekonekwekwishktokestablishkaskgenuskis notksubordinatektokthekspecies,kclearlykthekspecieskwouldkbe subordinatektokit,ksokthatkyoukmaykta ekitkaskshownkthatkitkiskthe genus. kkLoo ,kalso,katkthekdefinitionskofkthekgenera,kandkseekwhetherkthey applykbothktokthekgivenkspecieskandktokthekobjectskwhichkparta ekof thekspecies.kForkofknecessitykthekdefinitionskofkitskgenerakmustkbe predicatedkofkthekspecieskandkofkthekobjectskwhichkparta ekofkthe species:kif,kthen,ktherekbekanywherekakdiscrepancy,kclearlykwhatkhas beenkrenderedkisknotkthekgenus. kkAgain,kseekifkhekhaskrenderedkthekdifferentiakaskthekgenus,ke.g.

'immortal'kaskthekgenuskofk'God'.kFork'immortal'kiskakdifferentiakof 'livingkbeing',kseeingkthatkofklivingkbeingsksomekarekmortalkand otherskimmortal.kClearly,kthen,kakbadkmista ekhaskbeenkmade;kforkthe differentiakofkakthingkiskneverkitskgenus.kAndkthatkthiskisktruekis clear:kforkakthing'skdifferentiakneverksignifieskitskessence,kbut ratherksomekquality,kaskdok'wal ing'kandk'biped'. kkAlso,kseekwhetherkhekhaskplacedkthekdifferentiakinsidekthekgenus, e.g.kbykta ingk'odd'kaskaknumber'.kFork'odd'kiskakdifferentiakof number,knotkakspecies.kNorkiskthekdifferentiakgenerallykthoughtkto parta ekofkthekgenus:kforkwhatkparta eskofkthekgenuskiskalways eitherkakspecieskorkankindividual,kwhereaskthekdifferentiakis neitherkakspeciesknorkankindividual.kClearly,ktherefore,kthe differentiakdoesknotkparta ekofkthekgenus,ksokthatk'odd'ktookiskno specieskbutkakdifferentia,kseeingkthatkitkdoesknotkparta ekofkthe genus. kkMoreover,kseekwhetherkhekhaskplacedkthekgenuskinsidekthekspecies, e.g.kbykta ingk'contact'ktokbekak'juncture',kork'mixture'ka 'fusion',kor,kaskinkPlato'skdefinition,'k'locomotion'ktokbektheksame ask'carriage'.kForktherekisknoknecessitykthatkcontactkshouldkbe juncture:krather,kconversely,kjuncturekmustkbekcontact:kforkwhatkiskin contactkisknotkalwayskjoined,kthoughkwhatkiskjoinedkiskalwayskin contact.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkthekremainingkinstances:kforkmixturekis notkalwayskak'fusion'k(forktokmixkdrykthingskdoesknotkfusekthem), norkisklocomotionkalwaysk'carriage'.kForkwal ingkisknotkgenerally thoughtktokbekcarriage:kfork'carriage'kiskmostlykusedkofkthingskthat changekonekplacekforkanotherkinvoluntarily,kaskhappenskinkthekcase ofkinanimatekthings.kClearly,kalso,kthekspecies,kinkthekinstances given,khaskakwiderkdenotationkthankthekgenus,kwhereaskitkoughtktokbe vicekversa. kAgain,kseekwhetherkhekhaskplacedkthekdifferentiakinsidekthe species,kbykta ingk(e.g.)k'immortal'ktokbek'akgod'.kForkthekresult willkbekthatkthekspecieskhaskankequalkorkwiderkdenotation:kandkthis cannotkbe,kforkalwayskthekdifferentiakhaskankequalkorkakwider denotationkthankthekspecies.kMoreover,kseekwhetherkhekhaskplacedkthe genuskinsidekthekdifferentia,kbykma ingk'colour'k(e.g.)ktokbeka thingkthatk'pierces',kork'number'kakthingkthatkisk'odd'.kAlso,ksee ifkhekhaskmentionedkthekgenuskaskdifferentia:kforkitkiskpossiblekforka manktokbringkforwardkakstatementkofkthisk indkaskwell,ke.g.kthat 'mixture'kiskthekdifferentiakofk'fusion',korkthatkchangekofkplace' iskthekdifferentiakofk'carriage'.kAllksuchkcaseskshouldkbekexaminedkby meanskofktheksamekprinciples:kforktheykdependkuponkcommonkrules:kfor thekgenuskshouldkhavekakwiderkdenotationkthatkitskdifferentia,kand alsokshouldknotkparta ekofkitskdifferentia;kwhereas,kifkitkbekrendered inkthiskmanner,kneitherkofkthekaforesaidkrequirementskcankbe satisfied:kforkthekgenuskwillkbothkhavekaknarrowerkdenotationkthankits differentia,kandkwillkparta ekofkit. kkAgain,kifknokdifferentiakbelongingktokthekgenuskbekpredicatedkofkthe givenkspecies,kneitherkwillkthekgenuskbekpredicatedkofkit;ke.g.kof 'soul'kneitherk'odd'knork'even'kiskpredicated:kneitherkthereforekis 'number'.kMoreover,kseekwhetherkthekspecieskisknaturallykpriorkand abolisheskthekgenuskalongkwithkitself:kforkthekcontrarykiskthekgeneral view.kMoreover,kifkitkbekpossiblekforkthekgenuskstated,korkforkits differentia,ktokbekabsentkfromkthekallegedkspecies,ke.g.kfor 'movement'ktokbekabsentkfromkthek'soul',kork'truthkandkfalsehood'kfrom 'opinion',kthenkneitherkofkthektermskstatedkcouldkbekitskgenuskor itskdifferentia:kforkthekgeneralkviewkiskthatkthekgenuskandkthe

differentiakaccompanykthekspecies,kasklongkaskitkexists. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk3 kkLoo kandksee,kalso,kifkwhatkiskplacedkinkthekgenuskparta eskorkcould possiblykparta ekofkanykcontrarykofkthekgenus:kforkinkthatkcasekthe samekthingkwillkatktheksamektimekparta ekofkcontrarykthings,kseeing thatkthekgenuskiskneverkabsentkfromkit,kwhilekitkparta es,korkcan possiblykparta e,kofkthekcontrarykgenuskaskwell.kMoreover,kseekwhether thekspecieskshareskinkanykcharacterkwhichkitkiskutterlykimpossiblekfor anykmemberkofkthekgenusktokhave.kThusk(e.g.)kifktheksoulkhaskakshare inklife,kwhilekitkiskimpossiblekforkanyknumberktoklive,kthenkthe soulkcouldknotkbekakspecieskofknumber. kkYoukshouldkloo kandksee,kalso,kifkthekspecieskbekakhomonymkofkthe genus,kandkemploykaskyourkelementarykprincipleskthosekalreadykstated forkdealingkwithkhomonymity:kforkthekgenuskandkthekspecieskare synonymous. kkSeeingkthatkofkeverykgenusktherekiskmorekthankonekspecies,kloo andkseekifkitkbekimpossiblekthatktherekshouldkbekanotherkspecies thankthekgivenkonekbelongingktokthekgenuskstated:kforkifkthere shouldkbeknone,kthenkclearlykwhatkhaskbeenkstatedkcouldknotkbekakgenus atkall. kkLoo kandksee,kalso,kifkhekhaskrenderedkaskgenuskakmetaphorical expression,kdescribingk(e.g.k'temperance'kaskak'harmony':kak'harmony': forkakgenuskiskalwayskpredicatedkofkitskspecieskinkitskliteral sense,kwhereask'harmony'kiskpredicatedkofktemperanceknotkinka literalksensekbutkmetaphorically:kforkakharmonykalwayskconsistskin notes. kkMoreover,kifktherekbekanykcontrarykofkthekspecies,kexaminekit.kThe examinationkmaykta ekdifferentkforms;kfirstkofkallkseekifkthekcontrary askwellkbekfoundkinktheksamekgenuskaskthekspecies,ksupposingkthekgenus tokhaveknokcontrary;kforkcontrarieskoughtktokbekfoundkinktheksame genus,kifktherekbeknokcontraryktokthekgenus.kSupposing,konkthekother hand,kthatktherekiskakcontraryktokthekgenus,kseekifkthekcontrarykof thekspecieskbekfoundkinkthekcontrarykgenus:kforkofknecessitykthe contrarykspecieskmustkbekinkthekcontrarykgenus,kifktherekbekany contraryktokthekgenus.kEachkofkthesekpointskiskmadekplainkbykmeans ofkinduction.kAgain,kseekwhetherkthekcontrarykofkthekspecieskbeknot foundkinkanykgenuskatkall,kbutkbekitselfkakgenus,ke.g.k'good':kfor ifkthiskbeknotkfoundkinkanykgenus,kneitherkwillkitskcontrarykbe foundkinkanykgenus,kbutkwillkitselfkbekakgenus,kaskhappenskinkthekcase ofk'good'kandk'evil':kforkneitherkofkthesekiskfoundkinkakgenus,kbut eachkofkthemkiskakgenus.kMoreover,kseekifkbothkgenuskandkspecieskbe contraryktoksomething,kandkonekpairkofkcontrarieskhavekan intermediary,kbutknotkthekother.kForkifkthekgenerakhavekan intermediary,ksokshouldktheirkspecieskaskwell,kandkifkthekspecies have,ksokshouldktheirkgenerakaskwell,kaskiskthekcasekwithk(1)kvirtue andkvicekandk(2)kjusticekandkinjustice:kforkeachkpairkhaskan intermediary.kAnkobjectionktokthiskiskthatktherekisknokintermediary betweenkhealthkandkdisease,kalthoughktherekiskonekbetweenkevilkand good.kOrkseekwhether,kthoughktherekbekindeedkankintermediarykbetween bothkpairs,ki.e.kbothkbetweenkthekspecieskandkbetweenkthekgenera, yetkitkbeknotksimilarlykrelated,kbutkinkonekcasekbekakmereknegationkof thekextremes,kwhereaskinkthekotherkcasekitkiskaksubject.kForkthe generalkviewkiskthatkthekrelationkshouldkbeksimilarkinkbothkcases, askitkiskinkthekcaseskofkvirtuekandkvicekandkofkjusticekandkinjustice:

forkthekintermediarieskbetweenkbothkarekmereknegations.kMoreover, wheneverkthekgenuskhasknokcontrary,kloo kandkseeknotkmerelykwhether thekcontrarykofkthekspecieskbekfoundkinktheksamekgenus,kbutkthe intermediatekaskwell:kforkthekgenuskcontainingkthekextremeskcontains thekintermediateskaskwell,kask(e.g.)kinkthekcasekofkwhitekandkblac : fork'colour'kiskthekgenuskbothkofkthesekandkofkallkthekintermediate colourskaskwell.kAnkobjectionkmaykbekraisedkthatk'defect'kandk'excess' arekfoundkinktheksamekgenusk(forkbothkarekinkthekgenusk'evil'), whereaskmoderatekamount',kthekintermediatekbetweenkthem,kiskfound notkink'evil'kbutkink'good'.kLoo kandkseekalsokwhether,kwhilekthe genuskhaskakcontrary,kthekspecieskhasknone;kforkifkthekgenuskbe contraryktokanything,ksoktookiskthekspecies,kaskvirtuektokvicekand justicektokinjustice. kkLi ewise.kalso,kifkonekwerektokloo katkotherkinstances,konekwould comektokseekclearlykakfactkli ekthis.kAnkobjectionkmaykbekraisedkin thekcasekofkhealthkandkdisease:kforkhealthkinkgeneralkiskthe contrarykofkdisease,kwhereaskakparticularkdisease,kbeingkakspecies ofkdisease,ke.g.kfeverkandkophthalmiakandkanykotherkparticular disease,khasknokcontrary. kkIf,ktherefore,kyoukarekdemolishingkakview,ktherekarekallkthese wayskinkwhichkyoukshouldkma ekyourkexamination:kforkifkthekaforesaid characterskdoknotkbelongktokit,kclearlykwhatkhaskbeenkrenderedkis notkthekgenus.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,kyoukarekestablishingkakview, therekarekthreekways:kinkthekfirstkplace,kseekwhetherkthekcontrary ofkthekspecieskbekfoundkinkthekgenuskstated,ksupposekthekgenuskhavekno contrary:kforkifkthekcontrarykbekfoundkinkit,kclearlykthekspecieskin questionkiskfoundkinkitkaskwell.kMoreover,kseekifkthekintermediate specieskiskfoundkinkthekgenuskstated:kforkwhateverkgenuskcontains thekintermediatekcontainskthekextremeskaskwell.kAgain,kifkthekgenus havekakcontrary,kloo kandkseekwhetherkalsokthekcontrarykspecieskis foundkinkthekcontrarykgenus:kforkifkso,kclearlykalsokthekspecieskin questionkiskfoundkinkthekgenuskinkquestion. kkAgain,kconsiderkinkthekcasekofkthekinflexionskandkthekco-ordinates ofkspecieskandkgenus,kandkseekwhetherktheykfollowkli ewise,kbothkin demolishingkandkinkestablishingkakview.kForkwhateverkattributekbelongs orkdoesknotkbelongktokonekbelongskorkdoesknotkbelongkatktheksame timektokall;ke.g.kifkjusticekbekakparticularkformkofk nowledge,kthen alsok'justly'kisk' nowingly'kandkthekjustkmankiskakmankofk nowledge: whereaskifkanykofkthesekthingskbeknotkso,kthenkneitherkiskanykofkthe restkofkthem. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk4 kkAgain,kconsiderkthekcasekofkthingskthatkbearkakli ekrelationkto onekanother.kThusk(e.g.)kthekrelationkofkthekpleasantktokpleasurekis li ekthatkofkthekusefulktokthekgood:kforkinkeachkcasekthekonekproduces thekother.kIfkthereforekpleasurekbekak indkofk'good',kthenkalsokthe pleasantkwillkbekak indkofk'useful':kforkclearlykitkmaykbekta enktokbe productivekofkgood,kseeingkthatkpleasurekiskgood.kInktheksamekwaykalso considerkthekcasekofkprocesseskofkgenerationkandkdestruction;kif (e.g.)ktokbuildkbektokbekactive,kthenktokhavekbuiltkisktokhavekbeen active,kandkifktoklearnkbektokrecollect,kthenkalsoktokhaveklearntkis tokhavekrecollected,kandkifktokbekdecomposedkbektokbekdestroyed, thenktokhavekbeenkdecomposedkisktokhavekbeenkdestroyed,kand decompositionkiskak indkofkdestruction.kConsiderkalsokinktheksame waykthekcasekofkthingskthatkgeneratekorkdestroy,kandkofkthekcapacities andkuseskofkthings;kandkinkgeneral,kbothkinkdemolishingkandkin

establishingkankargument,kyoukshouldkexaminekthingskinktheklightkof anykresemblancekofkwhateverkdescription,kaskwekwereksayingkinkthekcase ofkgenerationkandkdestruction.kForkifkwhatktendsktokdestroyktendskto decompose,kthenkalsoktokbekdestroyedkisktokbekdecomposed:kandkif whatktendsktokgeneratektendsktokproduce,kthenktokbekgeneratedkisktokbe produced,kandkgenerationkiskproduction.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkthekcasekof thekcapacitieskandkuseskofkthings:kforkifkakcapacitykbekakdisposition, thenkalsoktokbekcapablekofksomethingkisktokbekdisposedktokit,kandkif thekusekofkanythingkbekankactivity,kthenktokusekitkisktokbekactive, andktokhavekusedkitkisktokhavekbeenkactive. kkIfkthekoppositekofkthekspecieskbekakprivation,ktherekarektwokwayskof demolishingkankargument,kfirstkofkallkbykloo ingktokseekifkthe oppositekbekfoundkinkthekgenuskrendered:kforkeitherkthekprivationkis tokbekfoundkabsolutelyknowherekinktheksamekgenus,korkatkleastknotkin theksamekultimatekgenus:ke.g.kifkthekultimatekgenuskcontainingksight beksensation,kthenkblindnesskwillknotkbekaksensation.kSecondly,kif therekbekaksensation.kSecondly,kifktherekbekakprivationkopposedkto bothkgenuskandkspecies,kbutkthekoppositekofkthekspecieskbeknotkfound inkthekoppositekofkthekgenus,kthenkneitherkcouldkthekspecies renderedkbekinkthekgenuskrendered.kIf,kthen,kyoukarekdemolishingka view,kyoukshouldkfollowkthekrulekaskstated;kbutkifkestablishingkone therekiskbutkonekway:kforkifkthekoppositekspecieskbekfoundkinkthe oppositekgenus,kthenkalsokthekspecieskinkquestionkwouldkbekfoundkin thekgenuskinkquestion:ke.g.kifk'blindness'kbekakformkof 'insensibility',kthenk'sight'kiskakformkofk'sensation'. kkAgain,kloo katktheknegationskofkthekgenuskandkspecieskandkconvert thekorderkofkterms,kaccordingktokthekmethodkdescribedkinkthekcasekof Accident:ke.g.kifkthekpleasantkbekak indkofkgood,kwhatkisknotkgood isknotkpleasant.kForkwerekthisknoksomethingknotkgoodkaskwellkwould thenkbekpleasant.kThat,khowever,kcannotkbe,kforkitkiskimpossible,kif 'good'kbekthekgenuskofkpleasant,kthatkanythingknotkgoodkshouldkbe pleasant:kforkofkthingskofkwhichkthekgenuskisknotkpredicated,knone ofkthekspecieskiskpredicatedkeither.kAlso,kinkestablishingkakview,kyou shouldkadoptktheksamekmethodkofkexamination:kforkifkwhatkisknotkgood beknotkpleasant,kthenkwhatkiskpleasantkiskgood,ksokthatk'good'kis thekgenuskofk'pleasant'. kkIfkthekspecieskbekakrelativekterm,kseekwhetherkthekgenuskbeka relativektermkaskwell:kforkifkthekspecieskbekakrelativekterm,ksoktoo iskthekgenus,kaskiskthekcasekwithk'double'kandk'multiple':kforkeachkis akrelativekterm.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,kthekgenuskbekakrelative term,ktherekisknoknecessitykthatkthekspecieskshouldkbeksokaskwell:kfor ' nowledge'iskakrelativekterm,kbutknotksok'grammar'.kOrkpossiblyknot evenkthekfirstkstatementkwouldkbekgenerallykconsideredktrue:kfor virtuekiskak indkofk'noble'kandkak indkofk'good'kthing,kandkyet,kwhile 'virtue'kiskakrelativekterm,k'good'kandk'noble'kareknotkrelatives butkqualities.kAgain,kseekwhetherkthekspecieskfailsktokbekusedkin theksamekrelationkwhenkcalledkbykitskownkname,kandkwhenkcalledkby theknamekofkitskgenus:ke.g.kifkthektermk'double'kbekusedktokmeankthe doublekofkak'half',kthenkalsokthektermk'multiple'koughtktokbekused tokmeankmultiplekofkak'half'.kOtherwisek'multiple'kcouldknotkbekthe genuskofk'double'. kkMoreover,kseekwhetherkthektermkfailktokbekusedkinktheksame relationkbothkwhenkcalledkbyktheknamekofkitskgenus,kandkalsokwhen calledkbykthosekofkallkthekgenerakofkitskgenus.kForkifkthekdoublekbeka multiplekofkakhalf,kthenk'inkexcesskofk'willkalsokbekusedkin relationktokak'half':kand,kinkgeneral,kthekdoublekwillkbekcalledkby

theknameskofkallkthekhigherkgenerakinkrelationktokak'half'.kAn objectionkmaykbekraisedkthatktherekisknoknecessitykforkaktermktokbe usedkinktheksamekrelationkwhenkcalledkbykitskownknamekandkwhen calledkbykthatkofkitskgenus:kfork' nowledge'kiskcalledk nowledgek'of ankobject',kwhereaskitkiskcalledkak'state'kandk'disposition'knotkofkan 'object'kbutkofkthek'soul'. kkAgain,kseekwhetherkthekgenuskandkthekspecieskbekusedkinktheksamekway inkrespectkofkthekinflexionsktheykta e,ke.g.kdativeskandkgenitiveskand allkthekrest.kForkaskthekspecieskiskused,ksokshouldkthekgenuskbekas well,kaskinkthekcasekofk'double'kandkitskhigherkgenera:kforkweksay bothk'doublekof'kandk'multiplekof'kakthing.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkthe casekofk' nowledge':kforkbothk nowledge'kitselfkandkitskgenera,ke.g. 'disposition'kandk'state',kareksaidktokbek'of'ksomething.kAnkobjection maykbekraisedkthatkinksomekcaseskitkisknotkso:kforkweksayk'superior to'kandk'contrarykto'ksokandkso,kwhereask'other',kwhichkiskthekgenus ofkthesekterms,kdemandsknotk'to'kbutk'than':kforkthekexpressionkis 'otherkthan'ksokandkso. kkAgain,kseekwhetherktermskusedkinkli ekcasekrelationshipskfailkto yieldkakli ekconstructionkwhenkconverted,kaskdok'double'kand 'multiple'.kForkeachkofkthesektermskta eskakgenitivekbothkinkitself andkinkitskconvertedkform:kforkweksaykbothkakhalfkof'kandk'a fractionkof'ksomething.kThekcasekisktheksamekalsokaskregardskboth ' nowledge'kandk'conception':kforkthesekta ekakgenitive,kandkby conversionkank'objectkofk nowledge'kandkank'objectkofkconception' arekbothkali ekusedkwithkakdative.kIf,kthen,kinkanykcaseskthe constructionskafterkconversionkbeknotkali e,kclearlykthekonektermkis notkthekgenuskofkthekother. kkAgain,kseekwhetherkthekspecieskandkthekgenuskfailktokbekusedkin relationktokankequalknumberkofkthings:kforkthekgeneralkviewkiskthat thekuseskofkbothkarekali ekandkequalkinknumber,kaskiskthekcasekwith 'present'kandk'grant'.kForkakpresent'kiskofksomethingkorktoksome one,kandkalsokak'grant'kiskofksomethingkandktoksomekone:kandk'grant' iskthekgenuskofk'present',kforkak'present'kiskak'grantkthatkneedknot bekreturned'.kInksomekcases,khowever,ktheknumberkofkrelationskinkwhich thektermskarekusedkhappensknotktokbekequal,kforkwhilek'double'kis doublekofksomething,kwekspea kofk'inkexcess'kork'greater'kin something,kaskwellkaskofkorkthanksomething:kforkwhatkiskinkexcesskor greaterkiskalwayskinkexcesskinksomething,kaskwellkaskinkexcesskof something.kHencekthektermskinkquestionkareknotkthekgenerakofk'double', inasmuchkasktheykareknotkusedkinkrelationktokankequalknumberkofkthings withkthekspecies.kOrkpossiblykitkisknotkuniversallyktruekthat specieskandkgenuskarekusedkinkrelationktokankequalknumberkofkthings. kkSee,kalso,kifkthekoppositekofkthekspecieskhavekthekoppositekofkthe genuskaskitskgenus,ke.g.kwhether,kifk'multiple'kbekthekgenuskof 'double',k'fraction'kbekalsokthekgenuskofk'half'.kForkthekopposite ofkthekgenuskshouldkalwayskbekthekgenuskofkthekoppositekspecies.kIf, then,kanykonekwerektokassertkthatk nowledgekiskak indkofksensation, thenkalsokthekobjectkofk nowledgekwillkhavektokbekak indkofkobject ofksensation,kwhereaskitkisknot:kforkankobjectkofk nowledgekisknot alwayskankobjectkofksensation:kforkobjectskofk nowledgekincludeksome ofkthekobjectskofkintuitionkaskwell.kHencek'objectkofksensation'kis notkthekgenuskofk'objectkofk nowledge':kandkifkthiskbekso,kneither isk'sensation'kthekgenuskofk' nowledge'. kkSeeingkthatkofkrelativektermsksomekarekofknecessitykfoundkin,kor usedkof,kthekthingskinkrelationktokwhichktheykhappenkatkanyktimektokbe

usedk(e.g.k'disposition'kandk'state'kandk'balance';kforkinknothing elsekcankthekaforesaidktermskpossiblykbekfoundkexceptkinkthekthingskin relationktokwhichktheykarekused),kwhilekotherskneedknotkbekfoundkin thekthingskinkrelationktokwhichktheykarekusedkatkanyktime,kthoughkthey stillkmaykbek(e.g.kifkthektermk'objectkofk nowledge'kbekappliedktokthe soul:kforkitkiskquitekpossiblekthatkthek nowledgekofkitselfkshould bekpossessedkbyktheksoulkitself,kbutkitkisknotknecessary,kforkitkis possiblekforkthisksamek nowledgektokbekfoundkinksomekonekelse), whilekforkothers,kagain,kitkiskabsolutelykimpossiblekthatkthey shouldkbekfoundkinkthekthingskinkrelationktokwhichktheykhappenkat anyktimektokbekusedk(aske.g.kthatkthekcontrarykshouldkbekfoundkin thekcontrarykork nowledgekinkthekobjectkofk nowledge,kunlesskthe objectkofk nowledgekhappenktokbekaksoulkorkakman)-youkshouldkloo , therefore,kandkseekwhetherkhekplaceskaktermkofkonek indkinsidekakgenus thatkisknotkofkthatk ind,ke.g.ksupposekhekhasksaidkthatk'memory'kis thek'abidingkofk nowledge'.kFork'abiding'kiskalwayskfoundkinkthat whichkabides,kandkiskusedkofkthat,ksokthatkthekabidingkofk nowledge alsokwillkbekfoundkink nowledge.kMemory,kthen,kiskfoundkin nowledge,kseeingkthatkitkiskthekabidingkofk nowledge.kButkthiskis impossible,kforkmemorykiskalwayskfoundkinktheksoul.kThekaforesaid commonplacekrulekiskcommonktoktheksubjectkofkAccidentkaskwell:kfor itkiskallktheksamektoksaykthatk'abiding'kiskthekgenuskofkmemory,korkto allegekthatkitkiskankaccidentkofkit.kForkifkinkanykwaykwhateverkmemory bekthekabidingkofk nowledge,ktheksamekargumentkinkregardktokitkwill apply. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk5 kkAgain,kseekifkhekhaskplacedkwhatkiskak'state'kinsidekthekgenus 'activity',korkankactivitykinsidekthekgenusk'state',ke.g.kby definingk'sensation'kask'movementkcommunicatedkthroughkthekbody': forksensationkiskak'state',kwhereaskmovementkiskank'activity'. Li ewise,kalso,kifkhekhasksaidkthatkmemorykiskak'statekthatkis retentivekofkakconception',kforkmemorykiskneverkakstate,kbutkratherkan activity.

kkTheykalsokma ekakbadkmista ekwhokran kak'state'kwithinkthe 'capacity'kthatkattendskit,ke.g.kbykdefiningk'goodktemper'kaskthe 'controlkofkanger',kandk'courage'kandk'justice'kask'controlkof fears'kandkofk'gains':kforkthektermsk'courageous'kand 'good-tempered'karekappliedktokakmankwhokiskimmunekfromkpassion, whereask'self-controlled'kdescribeskthekmankwhokiskexposedkto passionkandknotkledkbykit.kQuitekpossibly,kindeed,keachkofkthe formerkiskattendedkbykakcapacityksuchkthat,kifkhekwerekexposedkto passion,khekwouldkcontrolkitkandknotkbekledkbykit:kbut,kforkall that,kthiskisknotkwhatkiskmeantkbykbeingk'courageous'kinkthekonekcase, andk'goodktempered'kinkthekother;kwhatkiskmeantkiskankabsolute immunitykfromkanykpassionskofkthatk indkatkall. kkSometimes,kalso,kpeoplekstatekanyk indkofkattendantkfeaturekaskthe genus,ke.g.k'pain'kaskthekgenuskofk'anger'kandk'conception'kaskthatkof conviction'.kForkbothkofkthekthingskinkquestionkfollowkinkakcertain sensekuponkthekgivenkspecies,kbutkneitherkofkthemkiskgenusktokit. Forkwhenkthekangrykmankfeelskpain,kthekpainkbaskappearedkinkhim earlierkthankthekanger:kforkhiskangerkisknotkthekcausekofkhiskpain, butkhiskpainkofkhiskanger,ksokthatkangerkemphaticallykisknotkpain. Byktheksamekreasoning,kneitherkiskconvictionkconception:kforkitkis possiblektokhavektheksamekconceptionkevenkwithoutkbeingkconvincedkof it,kwhereaskthiskiskimpossiblekifkconvictionkbekakspecieskof conception:kforkitkiskimpossiblekforkakthingkstillktokremainkthe

samekifkitkbekentirelyktransferredkoutkofkitskspecies,kjustkaskneither couldktheksamekanimalkatkonektimekbe,kandkatkanotherknotkbe,kakman. If,konkthekotherkhand,kanykoneksayskthatkakmankwhokhaskakconception mustkofknecessitykbekalsokconvincedkofkit,kthenk'conception'kand 'conviction'kwillkbekusedkwithkankequalkdenotation,ksokthatknotkeven sokcouldkthekformerkbekthekgenuskofktheklatter:kforkthekdenotation ofkthekgenuskshouldkbekwider. kkSee,kalso,kwhetherkbothknaturallykcomektokbekanywherekinktheksame thing:kforkwhatkcontainskthekspecieskcontainskthekgenuskaskwell: e.g.kwhatkcontainsk'white'kcontainsk'colour'kaskwell,kandkwhat containsk' nowledgekofkgrammar'kcontainsk' nowledge'kaskwell.kIf, therefore,kanykoneksayskthatk'shame'kisk'fear',korkthatk'anger'kis 'pain',kthekresultkwillkbekthatkgenuskandkspecieskareknotkfoundkinkthe samekthing:kforkshamekiskfoundkinkthek'reasoning'kfaculty,kwhereas fearkiskinkthek'spirited'kfaculty,kandk'pain'kiskfoundkinkthe facultykofk'desires'.k(forkinkthiskpleasurekalsokiskfound),kwhereas 'anger'kiskfoundkinkthek'spirited'kfaculty.kHencekthektermskrendered areknotkthekgenera,kseeingkthatktheykdoknotknaturallykcomektokbekin theksamekfacultykaskthekspecies.kLi ewise,kalso,kifk'friendship'kbe foundkinkthekfacultykofkdesires,kyoukmaykta ekitkthatkitkisknotkakform ofk'wishing':kforkwishingkiskalwayskfoundkinkthek'reasoning' faculty.kThiskcommonplacekrulekiskusefulkalsokinkdealingkwith Accident:kforkthekaccidentkandkthatkofkwhichkitkiskankaccidentkare bothkfoundkinktheksamekthing,ksokthatkifktheykdoknotkappearkinkthe samekthing,kclearlykitkisknotkankaccident. kkAgain,kseekifkthekspecieskparta eskofkthekgenuskattributedkonlykin somekparticularkrespect:kforkitkiskthekgeneralkviewkthatkthekgenus isknotkthuskimpartedkonlykinksomekparticularkrespect:kforkakmankisknot ankanimalkinkakparticularkrespect,knorkiskgrammark nowledgekinka particularkrespectkonly.kLi ewisekalsokinkotherkinstances.kLoo , therefore,kandkseekifkinkthekcasekofkanykofkitskspecieskthekgenuskbe impartedkonlykinkakcertainkrespect;ke.g.kifk'animal'khaskbeen describedkaskank'objectkofkperception'korkofk'sight'.kForkankanimalkis ankobjectkofkperceptionkorkofksightkinkakparticularkrespectkonly; forkitkiskinkrespectkofkitskbodykthatkitkiskperceivedkandkseen,knotkin respectkofkitsksoul,ksokthat-'objectkofksight'kandk'objectkof perception'kcouldknotkbekthekgenuskofk'animal'. kkSometimeskalsokpeoplekplacekthekwholekinsidekthekpartkwithout detection,kdefiningk(e.g.)k'animal'kaskank'animatekbody';kwhereas thekpartkisknotkpredicatedkinkanyksensekofkthekwhole,ksokthatk'body' couldknotkbekthekgenuskofkanimal,kseeingkthatkitkiskakpart. kkSeekalsokifkhekhaskputkanythingkthatkiskblameworthykorkobjectionable intokthekclassk'capacity'kork'capable',ke.g.kbykdefiningkak'sophist' orkak'slanderer',korkak'thief'kask'onekwhokiskcapablekofksecretly thievingkotherkpeople'skproperty'.kForknonekofkthekaforesaid characterskisksokcalledkbecausekhekisk'capable'kinkonekofkthese respects:kforkevenkGodkandkthekgoodkmankarekcapablekofkdoingkbad things,kbutkthatkisknotktheirkcharacter:kforkitkiskalwayskinkrespect ofktheirkchoicekthatkbadkmenkareksokcalled.kMoreover,kakcapacitykis alwayskakdesirablekthing:kforkevenkthekcapacitieskforkdoingkbadkthings arekdesirable,kandkthereforekitkiskweksaykthatkevenkGodkandkthekgood mankpossesskthem;kforktheykarekcapablek(weksay)kofkdoingkevil.kSokthen 'capacity'kcankneverkbekthekgenuskofkanythingkblameworthy.kElse,kthe resultkwillkbekthatkwhatkiskblameworthykisksometimeskdesirable:kfor therekwillkbekakcertainkformkofkcapacitykthatkiskblameworthy.

kkAlso,kseekifkhekhaskputkanythingkthatkiskpreciouskorkdesirablekfor itskownksa ekintokthekclassk'capacity'kork'capable'kork'productive'kof anything.kForkcapacity,kandkwhatkiskcapablekorkproductivekofkanything, iskalwayskdesirablekforktheksa ekofksomethingkelse. kkOrkseekifkhekhaskputkanythingkthatkexistskinktwokgenerakorkmorekinto onekofkthemkonly.kForksomekthingskitkiskimpossiblektokplacekinka singlekgenus,ke.g.kthek'cheat'kandkthek'slanderer':kforkneitherkhekwho haskthekwillkwithoutkthekcapacity,knorkhekwhokhaskthekcapacitykwithout thekwill,kiskakslandererkorkcheat,kbutkhekwhokhaskbothkofkthem. Hencekhekmustkbekputknotkintokonekgenus,kbutkintokbothkthekaforesaid genera. kkMoreover,kpeopleksometimeskinkconversekorderkrenderkgenuskas differentia,kandkdifferentiakaskgenus,kdefiningk(e.g.)kastonishmentkas 'excesskofkwonderment'kandkconvictionkask'vehemencekofkconception'. Forkneitherk'excess'knork'vehemence'kiskthekgenus,kbutkthe differentia:kforkastonishmentkiskusuallykta enktokbekank'excessive wonderment',kandkconvictionktokbekak'vehementkconception',ksokthat 'wonderment'kandk'conception'karekthekgenus,kwhilek'excess'kand 'vehemence'karekthekdifferentia.kMoreover,kifkanykonekrendersk'excess' andk'vehemence'kaskgenera,kthenkinanimatekthingskwillkbekconvincedkand astonished.kFork'vehemence'kandk'excess'kofkakthingkarekfoundkinka thingkwhichkiskthuskvehementkandkinkexcess.kIf,ktherefore, astonishmentkbekexcesskofkwondermentkthekastonishmentkwillkbekfoundkin thekwonderment,ksokthatk'wonderment'kwillkbekastonished!kLi ewise, also,kconvictionkwillkbekfoundkinkthekconception,kifkitkbe 'vehemencekofkconception',ksokthatkthekconceptionkwillkbekconvinced. Moreover,kakmankwhokrenderskankanswerkinkthiskstylekwillkin consequencekfindkhimselfkcallingkvehemencekvehementkandkexcess excessive:kforktherekisksuchkakthingkaskakvehementkconviction:kifkthen convictionkbek'vehemence',ktherekwouldkbekak'vehementkvehemence'. Li ewise,kalso,ktherekisksuchkakthingkaskexcessivekastonishment:kif thenkastonishmentkbekankexcess,ktherekwouldkbekank'excessive excess'.kWhereaskneitherkofkthesekthingskiskgenerallykbelieved,kany morekthankthatk nowledgekiskak nowerkorkmotionkakmovingkthing. kkSometimes,ktoo,kpeoplekma ekthekbadkmista ekofkputtingkan affectionkintokthatkwhichkiskaffected,kaskitskgenus,ke.g.kthosekwho saykthatkimmortalitykiskeverlastingklife:kforkimmortalitykseemskto bekakcertainkaffectionkorkaccidentalkfeaturekofklife.kThatkthisksaying isktruekwouldkappearkclearkifkanykonekwerektokadmitkthatkakmankcan passkfromkbeingkmortalkandkbecomekimmortal:kforknokonekwillkassert thatkhekta eskanotherklife,kbutkthatkakcertainkaccidentalkfeaturekor affectionkenterskintokthiskonekaskitkis.kSokthenk'life'kisknotkthe genuskofkimmortality. kkAgain,kseekifktokankaffectionkhekhaskascribedkaskgenuskthekobjectkof whichkitkiskankaffection,kbykdefiningk(e.g.)kwindkask'airkin motion'.kRather,kwindkisk'akmovementkofkair':kforktheksamekair persistskbothkwhenkitkiskinkmotionkandkwhenkitkiskstill.kHencekwindkis notk'air'katkall:kforkthenktherekwouldkalsokhavekbeenkwindkwhenkthe airkwasknotkinkmotion,kseeingkthatktheksamekairkwhichkformedkthe windkpersists.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkotherkcaseskofkthek ind.kEven,kthen, ifkwekoughtkinkthiskinstancektokadmitkthekpointkthatkwindkisk'airkin motion',kyetkwekshouldkacceptkakdefinitionkofkthek ind,knotkabout allkthosekthingskofkwhichkthekgenuskisknotktrue,kbutkonlykinkcases wherekthekgenuskrenderedkiskaktruekpredicate.kForkinksomekcases, e.g.k'mud'kork'snow',kitkisknotkgenerallykheldktokbektrue.kFor peoplektellkyoukthatksnowkisk'frozenkwater'kandkmudkiskearthkmixed

withkmoisture',kwhereasksnowkisknotkwater,knorkmudkearth,ksokthat neitherkofkthektermskrenderedkcouldkbekthekgenus:kforkthekgenuskshould bektruekofkallkitskspecies.kLi ewisekneitherkiskwinek'fermented water',kaskEmpedocleskspea skofk'waterkfermentedkinkwood';'kforkit simplykisknotkwaterkatkall. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk6 kkMoreover,kseekwhetherkthektermkrenderedkfailktokbekthekgenuskof anythingkatkall;kforkthenkclearlykitkalsokfailsktokbekthekgenuskofkthe specieskmentioned.kExaminekthekpointkbykseeingkwhetherkthekobjects thatkparta ekofkthekgenuskfailktokbekspecificallykdifferentkfromkone another,ke.g.kwhitekobjects:kforkthesekdoknotkdifferkspecificallykfrom onekanother,kwhereaskofkakgenuskthekspecieskarekalwayskdifferent,kso thatk'white'kcouldknotkbekthekgenuskofkanything. kkAgain,kseekwhetherkhekhasknamedkaskgenuskorkdifferentiaksomekfeature thatkgoeskwithkeverything:kforktheknumberkofkattributeskthatkfollow everythingkiskcomparativelyklarge:kthusk(e.g.)k'Being'kandk'Unity'kare amongktheknumberkofkattributeskthatkfollowkeverything.kIf, therefore,khekhaskrenderedk'Being'kaskakgenus,kclearlykitkwouldkbekthe genuskofkeverything,kseeingkthatkitkiskpredicatedkofkeverything;kfor thekgenuskiskneverkpredicatedkofkanythingkexceptkofkitskspecies.kHence Unity,kinterkalia,kwillkbekakspecieskofkBeing.kThekresult, therefore,kiskthatkofkallkthingskofkwhichkthekgenuskiskpredicated,kthe specieskiskpredicatedkaskwell,kseeingkthatkBeingkandkUnitykare predicateskofkabsolutelykeverything,kwhereaskthekpredicationkofkthe specieskoughtktokbekofknarrowerkrange.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,khekhas namedkaskdifferentiaksomekattributekthatkfollowskeverything,kclearly thekdenotationkofkthekdifferentiakwillkbekequalkto,korkwiderkthan, thatkofkthekgenus.kForkifkthekgenus,ktoo,kbeksomekattributekthat followskeverything,kthekdenotationkofkthekdifferentiakwillkbekequalkto itskdenotation,kwhilekifkthekgenuskdoknotkfollowkeverything,kitkwill bekstillkwider. kkMoreover,kseekifkthekdescriptionk'inherentkinkS'kbekusedkofkthe genuskrenderedkinkrelationktokitskspecies,kaskitkiskusedkofk'white'kin thekcasekofksnow,kthuskshowingkclearlykthatkitkcouldknotkbekthekgenus: fork'truekofkS'kiskthekonlykdescriptionkusedkofkthekgenuskin relationktokitskspecies.kLoo kandkseekalsokifkthekgenuskfailsktokbe synonymouskwithkitskspecies.kForkthekgenuskiskalwayskpredicatedkofkits speciesksynonymously. kkMoreover,kbeware,kwheneverkbothkspecieskandkgenuskhavekakcontrary, andkhekplaceskthekbetterkofkthekcontrarieskinsidekthekworsekgenus:kfor thekresultkwillkbekthatkthekremainingkspecieskwillkbekfoundkinkthe remainingkgenus,kseeingkthatkcontrarieskarekfoundkinkcontrary genera,ksokthatkthekbetterkspecieskwillkbekfoundkinkthekworsekgenus andkthekworsekinkthekbetter:kwhereaskthekusualkviewkiskthatkofkthe betterkspecieskthekgenusktookiskbetter.kAlsokseekifkhekhaskplaced thekspecieskinsidekthekworsekandknotkinsidekthekbetterkgenus,kwhen itkiskatktheksamektimekrelatedkinkli ekmannerktokboth,kask(e.g.)kifkhe haskdefinedkthek'soul'kaskak'formkofkmotion'kork'akformkofkmoving thing'.kForktheksameksoulkiskusuallykthoughtktokbekakprinciplekali e ofkrestkandkofkmotion,ksokthat,kifkrestkiskthekbetterkofkthektwo,kthis iskthekgenuskintokwhichktheksoulkshouldkhavekbeenkput. kkMoreover,kjudgekbykmeanskofkgreaterkandklesskdegrees:kif overthrowingkakview,kseekwhetherkthekgenuskadmitskofkakgreaterkdegree, whereaskneitherkthekspecieskitselfkdoeskso,knorkanyktermkthatkis

calledkafterkit:ke.g.kifkvirtuekadmitskofkakgreaterkdegree,ksoktoo doeskjusticekandkthekjustkman:kforkonekmankiskcalledk'morekjustkthan another'.kIf,ktherefore,kthekgenuskrenderedkadmitskofkakgreater degree,kwhereaskneitherkthekspecieskdoesksokitselfknorkyetkanykterm calledkafterkit,kthenkwhatkhaskbeenkrenderedkcouldknotkbekthekgenus. kkAgain,kifkwhatkiskmorekgenerally,korkaskgenerally,kthoughtktokbekthe genuskbeknotkso,kclearlykneitherkiskthekgenuskrendered.kThe commonplacekrulekinkquestionkiskusefulkespeciallykinkcaseskwherekthe specieskappearsktokhavekseveralkpredicateskinkthekcategorykofkessence, andkwhereknokdistinctionkhaskbeenkdrawnkbetweenkthem,kandkwekcannot saykwhichkofkthemkiskgenus;ke.g.kbothk'pain'kandkthek'conceptionkof akslight'karekusuallykthoughtktokbekpredicateskofk'angerkinkthe categorykofkessence:kforkthekangrykmankiskbothkinkpainkandkalso conceiveskthatkhekiskslighted.kTheksamekmodekofkinquirykmaykbekapplied alsoktokthekcasekofkthekspecies,kbykcomparingkitkwithksomekother species:kforkifkthekonekwhichkiskmorekgenerally,korkaskgenerally, thoughtktokbekfoundkinkthekgenuskrenderedkbeknotkfoundktherein,kthen clearlykneitherkcouldkthekspecieskrenderedkbekfoundktherein. kkInkdemolishingkakview,ktherefore,kyoukshouldkfollowkthekrulekas stated.kInkestablishingkone,konkthekotherkhand,kthekcommonplacekrule thatkyoukshouldkseekifkbothkthekgenuskrenderedkandkthekspecieskadmit ofkakgreaterkdegreekwillknotkserve:kforkevenkthoughkbothkadmitkit, itkiskstillkpossiblekforkoneknotktokbekthekgenuskofkthekother.kFor bothk'beautiful'kandk'white'kadmitkofkakgreaterkdegree,kandkneitherkis thekgenuskofkthekother.kOnkthekotherkhand,kthekcomparisonkofkthe generakandkofkthekspecieskonekwithkanotherkiskofkuse:ke.g.ksupposingkA andkBktokhavekakli ekclaimktokbekgenus,kthenkifkonekbekakgenus,kso alsokiskthekother.kLi ewise,kalso,kifkwhatkhasklesskclaimkbeka genus,ksokalsokiskwhatkhaskmorekclaim:ke.g.kifk'capacity'khavekmore claimkthank'virtue'ktokbekthekgenuskofkself-control,kandkvirtuekbekthe genus,ksokalsokiskcapacity.kTheksamekobservationskwillkapplykalsokin thekcasekofkthekspecies.kForkinstance,ksupposingkAkandkBktokhaveka li ekclaimktokbekakspecieskofkthekgenuskinkquestion,kthenkifkthekone bekakspecies,ksokalsokiskthekother:kandkifkthatkwhichkiskless generallykthoughtktokbeksokbekakspecies,ksokalsokiskthatkwhichkiskmore generallykthoughtktokbekso. kkMoreover,ktokestablishkakview,kyoukshouldkloo kandkseekifkthe genuskiskpredicatedkinkthekcategorykofkessencekofkthosekthingskof whichkitkhaskbeenkrenderedkaskthekgenus,ksupposingkthekspecies renderedktokbeknotkoneksinglekspecieskbutkseveralkdifferentkones: forkthenkclearlykitkwillkbekthekgenus.kIf,konkthekother,kthekspecies renderedkbeksingle,kloo kandkseekwhetherkthekgenuskbekpredicatedkin thekcategorykofkessencekofkotherkspecieskaskwell:kforkthen,kagain,kthe resultkwillkbekthatkitkiskpredicatedkofkseveralkdifferentkspecies. kkSinceksomekpeoplekthin kthatkthekdifferentia,ktoo,kiskakpredicatekof thekvariouskspecieskinkthekcategorykofkessence,kyoukshouldkdistinguish thekgenuskfromkthekdifferentiakbykemployingkthekaforesaidkelementary principles-(a)kthatkthekgenuskhaskakwiderkdenotationkthankthe differentia;k(b)kthatkinkrenderingkthekessencekofkakthingkitkiskmore fittingktokstatekthekgenuskthankthekdifferentia:kforkanykonekwho sayskthatk'man'kiskank'animal'kshowskwhatkmankiskbetterkthankhekwho describeskhimkask'wal ing';kalsok(c)kthatkthekdifferentiakalways signifieskakqualitykofkthekgenus,kwhereaskthekgenuskdoesknotkdokthis ofkthekdifferentia:kforkhekwhoksaysk'wal ing'kdescribeskankanimalkofka certainkquality,kwhereaskhekwhoksaysk'animal'kdescribeskankanimalkofka certainkquality,kwhereaskhekwhoksaysk'animal'kdoesknotkdescribeka

wal ingkthingkofkakcertainkquality. kkThekdifferentia,kthen,kshouldkbekdistinguishedkfromkthekgenuskin thiskmanner.kNowkseeingkitkiskgenerallykheldkthatkifkwhatkis musical,kinkbeingkmusical,kpossessesk nowledgekinksomekrespect,kthen alsok'music'kiskakparticulark indkofk' nowledge';kandkalsokthatkif whatkwal skiskmovedkinkwal ing,kthenk'wal ing'kiskakparticulark indkof 'movement';kyoukshouldkthereforekexaminekinkthekaforesaidkmannerkany genuskinkwhichkyoukwantktokestablishkthekexistencekofksomething; e.g.kifkyoukwishktokprovekthatk' nowledge'kiskakformkof 'conviction',kseekwhetherkthek nowerkink nowingkiskconvinced:kforkthen clearlyk nowledgekwouldkbekakparticulark indkofkconviction.kYoukshould proceedkinktheksamekwaykalsokinkregardktokthekotherkcaseskofkthis ind. kkMoreover,kseeingkthatkitkiskdifficultktokdistinguishkwhateverkalways followskalongkwithkakthing,kandkisknotkconvertiblekwithkit,kfromkits genus,kifkAkfollowskBkuniversally,kwhereaskBkdoesknotkfollowkA universally-aske.g.k'rest'kalwayskfollowskak'calm'kand 'divisibility'kfollowsk'number',kbutknotkconverselyk(forkthekdivisible isknotkalwayskaknumber,knorkrestkakcalm)-youkmaykyourselfkassumekin yourktreatmentkofkthemkthatkthekonekwhichkalwayskfollowskiskthekgenus, wheneverkthekotherkisknotkconvertiblekwithkit:kif,konkthekother hand,ksomekonekelsekputskforwardkthekproposition,kdoknotkacceptkit universally.kAnkobjectionktokitkiskthatk'not-being'kalwayskfollows whatkisk'comingktokbe'k(forkwhatkiskcomingktokbekisknot)kandkisknot convertiblekwithkitk(forkwhatkisknotkisknotkalwayskcomingktokbe), andkthatkstillk'not-being'kisknotkthekgenuskofk'comingktokbe':kfor 'not-being'khasknotkanykspecieskatkall.kQuestions,kthen,kinkregard tokGenuskshouldkbekinvestigatedkinkthekwayskdescribed. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkBoo kV kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk1 kkTHEkquestionkwhetherkthekattributekstatedkiskorkisknotkakproperty, shouldkbekexaminedkbykthekfollowingkmethods: kkAnyk'property'krenderedkiskalwayskeitherkessentialkandkpermanent orkrelativekandktemporary:ke.g.kitkiskank'essentialkproperty'kofkman tokbek'byknaturekakcivilizedkanimal':kak'relativekproperty'kiskone li ekthatkofktheksoulkinkrelationktokthekbody,kviz.kthatkthekonekis fittedktokcommand,kandkthekotherktokobey:kak'permanentkproperty'kis onekli ekthekpropertykwhichkbelongsktokGod,kofkbeingkank'immortal livingkbeing':kak'temporarykproperty'kiskonekli ekthekpropertykwhich belongsktokanykparticularkmankofkwal ingkinkthekgymnasium. kk[Thekrenderingkofkakpropertyk'relatively'kgiveskrisekeitherktoktwo problemskorktokfour.kForkifkhekatktheksamektimekrenderkthiskproperty ofkonekthingkandkdenykitkofkanother,konlyktwokproblemskarise,kaskin thekcasekofkakstatementkthatkitkiskakpropertykofkakman,kinkrelationkto akhorse,ktokbekakbiped.kForkonekmightktrykbothktokshowkthatkakmankis notkakbiped,kandkalsokthatkakhorsekiskakbiped:kinkbothkwayskthe propertykwouldkbekupset.kIfkonkthekotherkhandkhekrenderkonekapiece ofktwokattributesktokeachkofktwokthings,kandkdenykitkinkeachkcasekof thekother,ktherekwillkthenkbekfourkproblems;kaskinkthekcasekofka statementkthatkitkiskakpropertykofkakmankinkrelationktokakhorsekfor thekformerktokbekakbipedkandktheklatterkakquadruped.kForkthenkitkis possiblektoktryktokshowkbothkthatkakmankisknotknaturallykakbiped, andkthatkhekiskakquadruped,kandkalsokthatkthekhorsekbothkiskakbiped,

andkisknotkakquadruped.kIfkyoukshowkanykofkthesekatkall,kthe intendedkattributekiskdemolished.] kkAnk'essential'kpropertykiskonekwhichkiskrenderedkofkakthingkin comparisonkwithkeverythingkelsekandkdistinguishesktheksaidkthing fromkeverythingkelse,kaskdoesk'akmortalklivingkbeingkcapablekof receivingk nowledge'kinkthekcasekofkman.kAk'relative'kpropertykis onekwhichkseparateskitsksubjectkoffknotkfromkeverythingkelsekbut onlykfromkakparticularkdefinitekthing,kaskdoeskthekpropertykwhich virtuekpossesses,kinkcomparisonkwithk nowledge,kviz.kthatkthekformer isknaturallykproducedkinkmorekthankonekfaculty,kwhereasktheklatter iskproducedkinkthatkofkreasonkalone,kandkinkthosekwhokhavekakreasoning faculty.kAk'permanent'kpropertykiskonekwhichkisktruekatkeveryktime, andkneverkfails,kli ekbeing'kcompoundedkofksoulkandkbody',kinkthekcase ofkaklivingkcreature.kAk'temporary'kpropertykiskonekwhichkisktruekat somekparticularktime,kandkdoesknotkofknecessitykalwayskfollow;kas, ofksomekparticularkman,kthatkhekwal skinkthekmar et-place. kkTokrenderkakpropertyk'relatively'ktoksomethingkelsekmeansktokstate thekdifferencekbetweenkthemkaskitkiskfoundkeitherkuniversallykand always,korkgenerallykandkinkmostkcases:kthuskakdifferencekthatkis foundkuniversallykandkalways,kiskoneksuchkaskmankpossesseskin comparisonkwithkakhorse,kviz.kbeingkakbiped:kforkakmankiskalwayskand inkeverykcasekakbiped,kwhereaskakhorsekiskneverkakbipedkatkanyktime. Onkthekotherkhand,kakdifferencekthatkiskfoundkgenerallykandkinkmost cases,kiskoneksuchkaskthekfacultykofkreasonkpossesseskinkcomparison withkthatkofkdesirekandkspirit,kinkthatkthekformerkcommands,kwhilekthe latterkobeys:kforkthekreasoningkfacultykdoesknotkalwayskcommand,kbut sometimeskalsokiskunderkcommand,knorkiskthatkofkdesirekandkspirit alwayskunderkcommand,kbutkalsokonkoccasionkassumeskthekcommand, wheneverktheksoulkofkakmankiskvicious. kkOfk'properties'kthekmostk'arguable'karekthekessentialkand permanentkandkthekrelative.kForkakrelativekpropertykgiveskrise,kas weksaidkbefore,ktokseveralkquestions:kforkofknecessitykthekquestions arisingkarekeitherktwokorkfour,korkthatkargumentskinkregardktokthese arekseveral.kAnkessentialkandkakpermanentkpropertykyoukcankdiscuss inkrelationktokmanykthings,korkcankobservekinkrelationktokmanykperiods ofktime:kifkessential',kdiscusskitkinkcomparisonkwithkmanykthings:kfor thekpropertykoughtktokbelongktokitsksubjectkinkcomparisonkwithkevery singlekthingkthatkis,ksokthatkifktheksubjectkbeknotkdistinguishedkby itkinkcomparisonkwithkeverythingkelse,kthekpropertykcouldknotkhave beenkrenderedkcorrectly.kSokakpermanentkpropertykyoukshouldkobservekin relationktokmanykperiodskofktime;kforkifkitkdoesknotkorkdidknot,korkis notkgoingkto,kbelong,kitkwillknotkbekakproperty.kOnkthekotherkhand, aboutkaktemporarykpropertykwekdoknotkinquirekfurtherkthankinkregardkto thektimekcalledk'thekpresent';kandksokargumentskinkregardktokitkare notkmany;kwhereaskankarguable'kquestionkiskonekinkregardktokwhichkit iskpossiblekforkargumentskbothknumerouskandkgoodktokarise. kkThekso-calledk'relative'kproperty,kthen,kshouldkbekexaminedkbykmeans ofkthekcommonplacekargumentskrelatingktokAccident,ktokseekwhetherkit belongsktokthekonekthingkandknotktokthekother:konkthekotherkhand, permanentkandkessentialkpropertieskshouldkbekconsideredkbykthe followingkmethods. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk2 kkFirst,kseekwhetherkthekpropertykhaskorkhasknotkbeenkrendered correctly.kOfkakrenderingkbeingkincorrectkorkcorrect,konektestkiskto

seekwhetherkthektermskinkwhichkthekpropertykiskstatedkareknotkorkare morekintelligible-forkdestructivekpurposes,kwhetherktheykareknotkso, andkforkconstructivekpurposes,kwhetherktheykarekso.kOfkthektermsknot beingkmorekintelligible,konektestkisktokseekwhetherkthekpropertykwhich hekrenderskiskaltogetherkmorekunintelligiblekthanktheksubjectkwhose propertykhekhaskstated:kfor,kifkso,kthekpropertykwillknotkhavekbeen statedkcorrectly.kForkthekobjectkofkgettingkakpropertykconstituted isktokbekintelligible:kthektermskthereforekinkwhichkitkiskrendered shouldkbekmorekintelligible:kforkinkthatkcasekitkwillkbekpossiblekto conceivekitkmorekadequately,ke.g.kanykonekwhokhaskstatedkthatkitkis akpropertykofk'fire'ktok'bearkakverykclosekresemblancektoktheksoul', useskthektermk'soul',kwhichkisklesskintelligiblekthank'fire'-forkwe nowkbetterkwhatkfirekiskthankwhatksoulkis-,kandkthereforekak'very closekresemblancektoktheksoul'kcouldknotkbekcorrectlykstatedktokbeka propertykofkfire.kAnotherktestkisktokseekwhetherkthekattributionkof Ak(property)ktokBk(subject)kfailsktokbekmorekintelligible.kForknot onlykshouldkthekpropertykbekmorekintelligiblekthankitsksubject,kbut alsokitkshouldkbeksomethingkwhosekattributionktokthekparticular subjectkiskakmorekintelligiblekattribution.kForkhekwhokdoesknotk now whetherkitkiskankattributekofkthekparticularksubjectkatkall,kwill notk nowkeitherkwhetherkitkbelongsktokitkalone,ksokthatkwhicheverkof thesekresultskhappens,kitskcharacterkaskakpropertykbecomeskobscure. Thusk(e.g.)kakmankwhokhaskstatedkthatkitkiskakpropertykofkfirektokbe 'thekprimarykelementkwhereinktheksoulkisknaturallykfound',khas introducedkaksubjectkwhichkisklesskintelligiblekthank'fire',kviz. whetherktheksoulkiskfoundkinkit,kandkwhetherkitkiskfoundkthere primarily;kandkthereforektokbek'thekprimarykelementkinkwhichkthe soulkisknaturallykfound'kcouldknotkbekcorrectlykstatedktokbeka propertykofk'fire'.kOnkthekotherkhand,kforkconstructivekpurposes, seekwhetherkthektermskinkwhichkthekpropertykiskstatedkarekmore intelligible,kandkifktheykarekmorekintelligiblekinkeachkofkthe aforesaidkways.kForkthenkthekpropertykwillkhavekbeenkcorrectly statedkinkthiskrespect:kforkofkconstructivekarguments,kshowingkthe correctnesskofkakrendering,ksomekwillkshowkthekcorrectnesskmerelykin thiskrespect,kwhilekotherskwillkshowkitkwithoutkqualification.kThus (e.g.)kakmankwhokhasksaidkthatkthek'possessionkofksensation'kiska propertykofk'animal'khaskbothkusedkmorekintelligiblektermskandkhas renderedkthekpropertykmorekintelligiblekinkeachkofkthekaforesaid senses;ksokthatktok'possessksensation'kwouldkinkthiskrespectkhavekbeen correctlykrenderedkaskakpropertykofk'animal'. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekwhetherkanykofkthekterms renderedkinkthekpropertykiskusedkinkmorekthankoneksense,korkwhether thekwholekexpressionktooksignifieskmorekthankonekthing.kForkthenkthe propertykwillknotkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstated.kThusk(e.g.)kseeing thatktok'beingknaturalksentient'ksignifieskmorekthankonekthing,kviz. (1)ktokpossessksensation,k(2)ktokusekone'sksensation,kbeing naturallyksentient'kcouldknotkbekakcorrectkstatementkofkakproperty ofk'animal'.kThekreasonkwhykthektermkyoukuse,korkthekwhole expressionksignifyingkthekproperty,kshouldknotkbearkmorekthankone meaningkiskthis,kthatkankexpressionkbearingkmorekthankonekmeaning ma eskthekobjectkdescribedkobscure,kbecausekthekmankwhokiskaboutkto attemptkankargumentkiskinkdoubtkwhichkofkthekvariousksenseskthe expressionkbears:kandkthiskwillknotkdo,kforkthekobjectkofkrendering thekpropertykiskthatkhekmaykunderstand.kMoreover,kinkadditionktokthis, itkiskinevitablekthatkthosekwhokrenderkakpropertykafterkthiskfashion shouldkbeksomehowkrefutedkwheneverkanykonekaddresseskhisksyllogism tokthatkonekofkthekterm'skseveralkmeaningskwhichkdoesknotkagree.kFor constructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekwhetherkbothkallkthe termskandkalsokthekexpressionkaskakwholekavoidkbearingkmorekthankone

sense:kforkthenkthekpropertykwillkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstatedkinkthis respect.kThusk(e.g.)kseeingkthatk'body'kdoesknotkbearkseveral meanings,knorkquic estktokmovekupwardskinkspace',knorkyetkthekwhole expressionkmadekbykputtingkthemktogether,kitkwouldkbekcorrectkin thiskrespectktoksaykthatkitkiskakpropertykofkfirektokbekthek'body quic estktokmovekupwardskinkspace'. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkthektermkofkwhichkhe renderskthekpropertykiskusedkinkmorekthankoneksense,kandkno distinctionkhaskbeenkdrawnkasktokwhichkofkthemkitkiskwhosekpropertykhe iskstating:kforkthenkthekpropertykwillknotkhavekbeenkcorrectly rendered.kThekreasonskwhykthiskisksokarekquitekclearkfromkwhatkhas beenksaidkabove:kforktheksamekresultskarekboundktokfollow.kThusk(e.g.) seeingkthatk'thek nowledgekofkthis'ksignifieskmanykthingskforkitkmeans (1)kthekpossessionkofk nowledgekbykit,k(2)kthekusekofkitsk nowledgekby it,k(3)kthekexistencekofk nowledgekaboutkit,k(4)kthekusekof nowledgekaboutkit-nokpropertykofkthek' nowledgekofkthis'kcouldkbe renderedkcorrectlykunlesskhekdrawkakdistinctionkasktokwhichkofkthese itkiskwhosekpropertykhekiskrendering.kForkconstructivekpurposes,kakman shouldkseekifkthektermkofkwhichkhekiskrenderingkthekpropertykavoids bearingkmanyksenseskandkiskonekandksimple:kforkthenkthekproperty willkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstatedkinkthiskrespect.kThusk(e.g.)kseeing thatk'man'kiskusedkinkaksingleksense,k'naturallykcivilizedkanimal' wouldkbekcorrectlykstatedkaskakpropertykofkman.

kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekwhetherktheksamektermkhaskbeen repeatedkinkthekproperty.kForkpeoplekoftenkdokthiskundetectedkin renderingk'properties'kalso,kjustkasktheykdokinktheirk'definitions'kas well:kbutkakpropertyktokwhichkthiskhaskhappenedkwillknotkhavekbeen correctlykstated:kforkthekrepetitionkofkitkconfuseskthekhearer;kthus inevitablykthekmeaningkbecomeskobscure,kandkfurther,ksuchkpeoplekare thoughtktokbabble.kRepetitionkofktheksamektermkiskli elyktokhappen inktwokways;konekis,kwhenkakmankrepeatedlykusesktheksamekword,kas wouldkhappenkifkanykonekwerektokrender,kaskakpropertykofkfire,k'the bodykwhichkiskthekmostkrarefiedkofkbodies'k(forkhekhaskrepeatedkthe wordk'body');ktheksecondkis,kifkakmankreplaceskwordskbyktheir definitions,kaskwouldkhappenkifkanykonekwerektokrender,kaska propertykofkearth,k'theksubstancekwhichkiskbykitsknaturekmostkeasily ofkallkbodieskbornekdownwardskinkspace',kandkwerekthenktoksubstitute 'substanceskofksuchkandksuchkak ind'kforkthekwordk'bodies':kfork'body' andk'aksubstancekofksuchkandksuchkak ind'kmeankonekandktheksamekthing. Forkhekwillkhavekrepeatedkthekwordk'substance',kandkaccordingly neitherkofkthekpropertieskwouldkbekcorrectlykstated.kFor constructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekwhetherkhekavoidskever repeatingktheksamekterm;kforkthenkthekpropertykwillkinkthiskrespect havekbeenkcorrectlykrendered.kThusk(e.g.)kseeingkthatkhekwhokhas statedk'animalkcapablekofkacquiringk nowledge'kaskakpropertykofkman haskavoidedkrepeatingktheksamektermkseveralktimes,kthekproperty wouldkinkthiskrespectkhavekbeenkcorrectlykrenderedkofkman. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekwhetherkhekhaskrenderedkinkthe propertykanyksuchktermkaskiskakuniversalkattribute.kForkonekwhichkdoes notkdistinguishkitsksubjectkfromkotherkthingskiskuseless,kandkitkis thekbusinesskofktheklanguagekOfk'properties',kaskalsokofkthe languagekofkdefinitions,ktokdistinguish.kInkthekcasekcontemplated, therefore,kthekpropertykwillknotkhavekbeenkcorrectlykrendered.kThus (e.g.)kakmankwhokhaskstatedkthatkitkiskakpropertykofk nowledgektokbeka 'conceptionkincontrovertiblekbykargument,kbecausekofkitskunity',khas usedkinkthekpropertykaktermkofkthatk ind,kviz.k'unity',kwhichkiska universalkattribute;kandkthereforekthekpropertykofk nowledgekcouldknot

havekbeenkcorrectlykstated.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekother hand,kseekwhetherkhekhaskavoidedkallktermskthatkarekcommonkto everythingkandkusedkaktermkthatkdistinguishesktheksubjectkfrom something:kforkthenkthekpropertykwillkinkthiskrespectkhavekbeen correctlykstated.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkaskhekwhokhasksaidkthatkitkiska propertykofkak'livingkcreature'ktok'havekaksoul'khaskusedknoktermkthat iskcommonktokeverything,kitkwouldkinkthiskrespectkhavekbeen correctlykstatedktokbekakpropertykofkak'livingkcreature'ktok'haveka soul'. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposeskseekwhetherkhekrenderskmorekthan onekpropertykofktheksamekthing,kwithoutkakdefinitekprovisokthatkhe iskstatingkmorekthankone:kforkthenkthekpropertykwillknotkhavekbeen correctlykstated.kForkjustkaskinkthekcasekofkdefinitionsktookthere shouldkbeknokfurtherkadditionkbesidekthekexpressionkwhichkshowskthe essence,ksoktookinkthekcasekofkpropertiesknothingkfurtherkshouldkbe renderedkbesidekthekexpressionkthatkconstituteskthekproperty mentioned:kforksuchkankadditionkiskmadektoknokpurpose.kThusk(e.g.)ka mankwhokhasksaidkthatkitkiskakpropertykofkfirektokbek'thekmost rarefiedkandklightestkbody'khaskrenderedkmorekthankonekpropertyk(for eachktermkiskaktruekpredicatekofkfirekalone);kandksokitkcouldknotkbeka correctlykstatedkpropertykofkfirektokbek'thekmostkrarefiedkand lightestkbody'.kOnkthekotherkhand,kforkconstructivekpurposes,ksee whetherkhekhaskavoidedkrenderingkmorekthankonekpropertykofktheksame thing,kandkhaskrenderedkonekonly:kforkthenkthekpropertykwillkinkthis respectkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstated.kThusk(e.g.)kakmankwhokhasksaid thatkitkiskakpropertykofkakliquidktokbekak'bodykadaptablektokevery shape'khaskrenderedkaskitskpropertykaksinglekcharacterkandknot several,kandksokthekpropertykofk'liquid'kwouldkinkthiskrespectkhave beenkcorrectlykstated. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk3 kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekwhetherkhekhaskemployedkeither thekactualksubjectkwhosekpropertykhekiskrendering,korkanykofkits species:kforkthenkthekpropertykwillknotkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstated. Forkthekobjectkofkrenderingkthekpropertykiskthatkpeoplekmay understand:knowktheksubjectkitselfkiskjustkaskunintelligiblekaskitkwas tokstartkwith,kwhilekanykonekofkitskspecieskiskposteriorktokit,kandkso isknokmorekintelligible.kAccordinglykitkiskimpossiblektokunderstand anythingkfurtherkbykthekusekofkthesekterms.kThusk(e.g.)kanykonekwho hasksaidkthatkitkiskpropertykofk'animal'ktokbek'theksubstancektokwhich "man"kbelongskaskakspecies'khaskemployedkonekofkitskspecies,kand thereforekthekpropertykcouldknotkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstated.kFor constructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekwhetherkhekavoids introducingkeitherktheksubjectkitselfkorkanykofkitskspecies:kfor thenkthekpropertykwillkinkthiskrespectkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstated. Thusk(e.g.)kakmankwhokhaskstatedkthatkitkiskakpropertykofkakliving creaturektokbek'compoundedkofksoulkandkbody'khaskavoidedkintroducing amongkthekrestkeitherktheksubjectkitselfkorkanykofkitskspecies,kand thereforekinkthiskrespectkthekpropertykofkak'livingkcreature'kwould havekbeenkcorrectlykrendered. kkYoukshouldkinquirekinktheksamekwaykalsokinkthekcasekofkotherkterms thatkdokorkdoknotkma ektheksubjectkmorekintelligible:kthus,kfor destructivekpurposes,kseekwhetherkhekhaskemployedkanythingkeither oppositektoktheksubjectkor,kinkgeneral,kanythingksimultaneouskby naturekwithkitkorkposteriorktokit:kforkthenkthekpropertykwillknotkhave beenkcorrectlykstated.kForkankoppositekisksimultaneouskbyknature withkitskopposite,kandkwhatkisksimultaneouskbyknaturekorkis

posteriorktokitkdoesknotkma ekitsksubjectkmorekintelligible.kThus (e.g.)kanykonekwhokhasksaidkthatkitkiskakpropertykofkgoodktokbek'the mostkdirectkoppositekofkevil',khaskemployedkthekoppositekofkgood, andksokthekpropertykofkgoodkcouldknotkhavekbeenkcorrectlykrendered. Forkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekwhetherkhekhas avoidedkemployingkanythingkeitherkoppositekto,kor,kinkgeneral, simultaneouskbyknaturekwithktheksubject,korkposteriorktokit:kfor thenkthekpropertykwillkinkthiskrespectkhavekbeenkcorrectlykrendered. Thusk(e.g.)kakmankwhokhaskstatedkthatkitkiskakpropertykofk nowledgekto bek'thekmostkconvincingkconception'khaskavoidedkemployingkanything eitherkoppositekto,korksimultaneouskbyknaturekwith,korkposteriorkto, theksubject;kandksokthekpropertykofk nowledgekwouldkinkthiskrespect havekbeenkcorrectlykstated. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekwhetherkhekhaskrenderedkas propertyksomethingkthatkdoesknotkalwayskfollowktheksubjectkbut sometimeskceasesktokbekitskproperty:kforkthenkthekpropertykwillknot havekbeenkcorrectlykdescribed.kForktherekisknoknecessitykeitherkthat theknamekofktheksubjectkmustkalsokbektruekofkanythingktokwhichkwekfind suchkankattributekbelonging;knorkyetkthatktheknamekofktheksubjectkwill bekuntruekofkanythingktokwhichksuchkankattributekiskfoundknotkto belong.kMoreover,kinkadditionktokthis,kevenkafterkhekhaskrendered thekpropertykitkwillknotkbekclearkwhetherkitkbelongs,kseeingkthatkit iskthek indkofkattributekthatkmaykfall:kandksokthekpropertykwillknot bekclear.kThusk(e.g.)kakmankwhokhaskstatedkthatkitkiskakpropertykof animalk'sometimesktokmovekandksometimesktokstandkstill'krenderedkthe indkofkpropertykwhichksometimeskisknotkakproperty,kandksokthe propertykcouldknotkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstated.kForkconstructive purposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekwhetherkhekhaskrenderedksomething thatkofknecessitykmustkalwayskbekakproperty:kforkthenkthekproperty willkhavekbeenkinkthiskrespectkcorrectlykstated.kThusk(e.g.)kakmankwho haskstatedkthatkitkiskakpropertykofkvirtuektokbek'whatkma eskits possessorkgood'khaskrenderedkaskpropertyksomethingkthatkalways follows,kandksokthekpropertykofkvirtuekwouldkinkthiskrespectkhavekbeen correctlykrendered. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekwhetherkinkrenderingkthe propertykofkthekpresentktimekhekhaskomittedktokma ekakdefinitekproviso thatkitkiskthekpropertykofkthekpresentktimekwhichkhekiskrendering:kfor elsekthekpropertykwillknotkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstated.kForkinkthe firstkplace,kanykunusualkprocedurekalwayskneedskakdefinitekproviso: andkitkiskthekusualkprocedurekforkeverybodyktokrenderkaskpropertyksome attributekthatkalwayskfollows.kInktheksecondkplace,kakmankwhokomitskto providekdefinitelykwhetherkitkwaskthekpropertykofkthekpresentktime whichkhekintendedktokstate,kiskobscure:kandkonekshouldknotkgivekany occasionkforkadversekcriticism.kThusk(e.g.)kakmankwhokhaskstatedkitkas thekpropertykofkakparticularkmank'tokbeksittingkwithkakparticular man',kstateskthekpropertykofkthekpresentktime,kandksokhekcannotkhave renderedkthekpropertykcorrectly,kseeingkthatkhekhaskdescribedkit withoutkanykdefinitekproviso.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthe otherkhand,kseekwhether,kinkrenderingkthekpropertykofkthekpresent time,khekhas,kinkstatingkit,kmadekakdefinitekprovisokthatkitkiskthe propertykofkthekpresentktimekthatkhekiskstating:kforkthenkthekproperty willkinkthiskrespectkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstated.kThusk(e.g.)kakmankwho hasksaidkthatkitkiskthekpropertykofkakparticularkmank'tokbekwal ing now',khaskmadekthiskdistinctionkinkhiskstatement,kandksokthe propertykwouldkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstated. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekwhetherkhekhaskrenderedka propertykofkthek indkwhosekappropriatenesskisknotkobviouskexceptkby

sensation:kforkthenkthekpropertykwillknotkhavekbeenkcorrectly stated.kForkeveryksensiblekattribute,koncekitkiskta enkbeyondkthe spherekofksensation,kbecomeskuncertain.kForkitkisknotkclearkwhetherkit stillkbelongs,kbecausekitkiskevidencedkonlykbyksensation.kThis principlekwillkbektruekinkthekcasekofkanykattributeskthatkdoknot alwayskandknecessarilykfollow.kThusk(e.g.)kanykonekwhokhaskstatedkthat itkiskakpropertykofktheksunktokbek'thekbrightestkstarkthatkmoves overkthekearth',khaskusedkinkdescribingkthekpropertykankexpression ofkthatk ind,kviz.k'tokmovekoverkthekearth',kwhichkiskevidencedkby sensation;kandksoktheksun'skpropertykcouldknotkhavekbeenkcorrectly rendered:kforkitkwillkbekuncertain,kwheneverktheksunksets,kwhether itkcontinuesktokmovekoverkthekearth,kbecauseksensationkthenkfails us.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekwhetherkhekhas renderedkthekpropertykofkak indkthatkisknotkobviousktoksensation, or,kifkitkbeksensible,kmustkclearlykbelongkofknecessity:kforkthen thekpropertykwillkinkthiskrespectkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstated.kThus (e.g.)kakmankwhokhaskstatedkthatkitkiskakpropertykofkaksurfacektokbe 'thekprimarykthingkthatkiskcoloured',khaskintroducedkamongstkthe restkaksensiblekquality,k'tokbekcoloured',kbutkstillkakqualityksuchkas manifestlykalwayskbelongs,kandksokthekpropertykofk'surface'kwouldkin thiskrespectkhavekbeenkcorrectlykrendered. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekwhetherkhekhaskrenderedkthe definitionkaskakproperty:kforkthenkthekpropertykwillknotkhavekbeen correctlykstated:kforkthekpropertykofkakthingkoughtknotktokshowkits essence.kThusk(e.g.)kakmankwhokhasksaidkthatkitkiskthekpropertykofkman tokbek'akwal ing,kbipedkanimal'khaskrenderedkakpropertykofkmanksokas toksignifykhiskessence,kandksokthekpropertykofkmankcouldknotkhavekbeen correctlykrendered.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand, seekwhetherkthekpropertykwhichkhekhaskrenderedkformskakpredicate convertiblekwithkitsksubject,kwithout,khowever,ksignifyingkits essence:kforkthenkthekpropertykwillkinkthiskrespectkhavekbeen correctlykrendered.kThusk(e.g.)khekwhokhaskstatedkthatkitkiska propertykofkmanktokbekak'naturallykcivilizedkanimal'khaskrendered thekpropertyksokasktokbekconvertiblekwithkitsksubject,kwithout, however,kshowingkitskessence,kandksokthekpropertykofkman'kwouldkin thiskrespectkhavekbeenkcorrectlykrendered. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekwhetherkhekhaskrenderedkthe propertykwithoutkhavingkplacedktheksubjectkwithinkitskessence.kFor ofkproperties,kaskalsokofkdefinitions,kthekfirstktermktokbekrendered shouldkbekthekgenus,kandkthenkthekrestkofkitkshouldkbekappended immediatelykafterwards,kandkshouldkdistinguishkitsksubjectkfrom otherkthings.kHencekakpropertykwhichkisknotkstatedkinkthiskwaykcould notkhavekbeenkcorrectlykrendered.kThusk(e.g.)kakmankwhokhasksaid thatkitkiskakpropertykofkaklivingkcreaturektok'havekaksoul'khasknot placedk'livingkcreature'kwithinkitskessence,kandksokthekpropertykof aklivingkcreaturekcouldknotkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstated.kFor constructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekwhetherkakmankfirst placeskwithinkitskessencektheksubjectkwhosekpropertykhekis rendering,kandkthenkappendskthekrest:kforkthenkthekpropertykwillkin thiskrespectkhavekbeenkcorrectlykrendered.kThusk(e.g.)khekwhokhas statedkthatkiskakpropertykofkmanktokbekank'animalkcapablekofkreceiving nowledge',khaskrenderedkthekpropertykafterkplacingktheksubjectkwithin itskessence,kandksokthekpropertykofk'man'kwouldkinkthiskrespectkhave beenkcorrectlykrendered. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk4 kkThekinquiry,kthen,kwhetherkthekpropertykhaskbeenkcorrectly

renderedkorkno,kshouldkbekmadekbykthesekmeans.kThekquestion,konkthe otherkhand,kwhetherkwhatkiskstatedkiskorkisknotkakpropertykatkall,kyou shouldkexaminekfromkthekfollowingkpointskofkview.kForkthe commonplacekargumentskwhichkestablishkabsolutelykthatkthekproperty iskaccuratelykstatedkwillkbektheksamekaskthosekthatkconstitutekitka propertykatkall:kaccordinglyktheykwillkbekdescribedkinkthekcoursekof them. kkFirstly,kthen,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kta ekakloo katkeachksubject ofkwhichkhekhaskrenderedkthekproperty,kandkseek(e.g.)kifkitkfailskto belongktokanykofkthemkatkall,korktokbektruekofkthemkinkthatkparticular respect,korktokbekakpropertykofkeachkofkthemkinkrespectkofkthat characterkofkwhichkhekhaskrenderedkthekproperty:kforkthenkwhatkis statedktokbekakpropertykwillknotkbekakproperty.kThus,kforkexample, inasmuchkaskitkisknotktruekofkthekgeometriciankthatkhek'cannotkbe deceivedkbykankargument'k(forkakgeometriciankiskdeceivedkwhenkhis figurekiskmisdrawn),kitkcouldknotkbekakpropertykofkthekmankof sciencekthatkhekisknotkdeceivedkbykankargument.kForkconstructive purposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekwhetherkthekpropertykrenderedkbektrue ofkeverykinstance,kandktruekinkthatkparticularkrespect:kforkthen whatkiskstatedknotktokbekakpropertykwillkbekakproperty.kThus,kfor example,kinkaskmuchkaskthekdescriptionk'ankanimalkcapablekofkreceiving nowledge'kisktruekofkeverykman,kandktruekofkhimkquakman,kitkwould bekakpropertykofkmanktokbek'ankanimalkcapablekofkreceivingk nowledge'. commonplacekrulekmeans-forkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkthe descriptionkfailsktokbektruekofkthatkofkwhichktheknamekisktrue;kandkif theknamekfailsktokbektruekofkthatkofkwhichkthekdescriptionkisktrue: forkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkthekdescription tookiskpredicatedkofkthatkofkwhichktheknamekiskpredicated,kandkif theknamektookiskpredicatedkofkthatkofkwhichkthekdescriptionkis predicated.]

kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkthekdescriptionkfailskto applyktokthatktokwhichktheknamekapplies,kandkifktheknamekfailskto applyktokthatktokwhichkthekdescriptionkapplies:kforkthenkwhatkis statedktokbekakpropertykwillknotkbekakproperty.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuch askthekdescriptionk'aklivingkbeingkthatkparta eskofk nowledge'kisktrue ofkGod,kwhilek'man'kisknotkpredicatedkofkGod,ktokbekaklivingkbeing thatkparta eskofk nowledge'kcouldknotkbekakpropertykofkman.kFor constructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifktheknamekaskwellkbe predicatedkofkthatkofkwhichkthekdescriptionkiskpredicated,kandkif thekdescriptionkaskwellkbekpredicatedkofkthatkofkwhichktheknamekis predicated.kForkthenkwhatkiskstatedknotktokbekakpropertykwillkbeka property.kThusk(e.g.)kthekpredicatek'livingkcreature'kisktruekof thatkofkwhichk'havingkaksoul'kisktrue,kandk'havingkaksoul'kisktrue ofkthatkofkwhichkthekpredicatek'livingkcreature'kisktrue;kandkso 'havingkaksoulkwouldkbekakpropertykofk'livingkcreature'. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkhekhaskrenderedkaksubject askakpropertykofkthatkwhichkiskdescribedkask'inktheksubject':kforkthen whatkhaskbeenkstatedktokbekakpropertykwillknotkbekakproperty.kThus (e.g.)kinasmuchkaskhekwhokhaskrenderedk'fire'kaskthekpropertykof 'thekbodykwithkthekmostkrarefiedkparticles',khaskrenderedkthe subjectkaskthekpropertykofkitskpredicate,k'fire'kcouldknotkbeka propertykofk'thekbodykwithkthekmostkrarefiedkparticles'.kThekreason whyktheksubjectkwillknotkbekakpropertykofkthatkwhichkiskfoundkinkthe subjectkiskthis,kthatkthenktheksamekthingkwillkbekthekpropertykofka numberkofkthingskthatkarekspecificallykdifferent.kForktheksamekthing haskquitekaknumberkofkspecificallykdifferentkpredicateskthatkbelongkto itkalone,kandktheksubjectkwillkbekakpropertykofkallkofkthese,kifkany

onekstateskthekpropertykinkthiskway.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthe otherkhand,kseekifkhekhaskrenderedkwhatkiskfoundkinktheksubjectkaska propertykofktheksubject:kforkthenkwhatkhaskbeenkstatedknotktokbeka propertykwillkbekakproperty,kifkitkbekpredicatedkonlykofkthekthingskof whichkitkhaskbeenkstatedktokbekthekproperty.kThusk(e.g.)khekwhokhas saidkthatkitkiskakpropertykofk'earth'ktokbek'specificallykthekheaviest body'khaskrenderedkofktheksubjectkaskitskpropertyksomethingkthatkis saidkofkthekthingkinkquestionkalone,kandkisksaidkofkitkinkthekmanner inkwhichkakpropertykiskpredicated,kandksokthekpropertykofkearth wouldkhavekbeenkrightlykstated. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkhekhaskrenderedkthe propertykaskparta enkof:kforkthenkwhatkiskstatedktokbekakpropertykwill notkbekakproperty.kForkankattributekofkwhichktheksubjectkparta eskiska constituentkpartkofkitskessence:kandkankattributekofkthatk indkwould bekakdifferentiakapplyingktoksomekonekspecies.kE.g.kinasmuchkaskhekwho hasksaidkthatk'wal ingkonktwokfeet'kiskpropertykofkmankhaskrendered thekpropertykaskparta enkof,k'wal ingkonktwokfeet'kcouldknotkbeka propertykofk'man'.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,ksee ifkhekhaskavoidedkrenderingkthekpropertykaskparta enkof,korkaskshowing thekessence,kthoughktheksubjectkiskpredicatedkconvertiblykwithkit:kfor thenkwhatkiskstatedknotktokbekakpropertykwillkbekakproperty.kThus (e.g.)khekwhokhaskstatedkthatktokbek'naturallyksentient'kiskakproperty ofk'animal'khaskrenderedkthekpropertykneitherkaskparta enkofknorkas showingkthekessence,kthoughktheksubjectkiskpredicatedkconvertiblykwith it;kandksoktokbek'naturallyksentient'kwouldkbekakpropertykofk'animal'. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkthekpropertykcannot possiblykbelongksimultaneously,kbutkmustkbelongkeitherkaskposteriorkor askpriorktokthekattributekdescribedkinkthekname:kforkthenkwhatkis statedktokbekakpropertykwillknotkbekakpropertykeitherknever,korknot always.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkaskitkiskpossiblekforkthekattribute 'wal ingkthroughkthekmar et-place'ktokbelongktokankobjectkaskpriorkand askposteriorktokthekattributek'man',k'wal ingkthroughkthe mar et-place'kcouldknotkbekakpropertykofk'man'keitherknever,korknot always.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkitkalways andkofknecessitykbelongsksimultaneously,kwithoutkbeingkeitherka definitionkorkakdifferentia:kforkthenkwhatkiskstatedknotktokbeka propertykwillkbekakproperty.kThusk(e.g.)kthekattributek'ankanimal capablekofkreceivingk nowledge'kalwayskandkofknecessitykbelongs simultaneouslykwithkthekattributek'man',kandkiskneitherkdifferentia norkdefinitionkofkitsksubject,kandksok'ankanimalkcapablekof receivingk nowledge'kwouldkbekakpropertykofk'man'. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifktheksamekthingkfailsktokbe akpropertykofkthingskthatkarektheksamekasktheksubject,ksokfarkas theykarektheksame:kforkthenkwhatkiskstatedktokbekakpropertykwillknot bekakproperty.kThus,kforkexample,kinasmuchkaskitkisknokpropertykofka 'properkobjectkofkpursuit'ktok'appearkgoodktokcertainkpersons',kit couldknotkbekakpropertykofkthek'desirable'keitherktok'appearkgoodkto certainkpersons':kfork'properkobjectkofkpursuit'kandk'desirable' meanktheksame.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekif theksamekthingkbekakpropertykofksomethingkthatkisktheksamekaskthe subject,kinksokfarkaskitkisktheksame.kForkthenkiskstatedknotktokbeka propertykwillkbekakproperty.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkaskitkiskcalledka propertykofkakman,kinksokfarkaskhekiskakman,k'tokhavekaktripartite soul',kitkwouldkalsokbekakpropertykofkakmortal,kinksokfarkaskhekiska mortal,ktokhavekaktripartiteksoul.kThiskcommonplacekrulekiskuseful alsokinkdealingkwithkAccident:kforktheksamekattributeskoughtkeitherkto belongkorknotkbelongktoktheksamekthings,kinksokfarkasktheykarekthe

same. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkthekpropertykofkthingskthat arektheksamekink indkasktheksubjectkfailsktokbekalwaysktheksamekin indkaskthekallegedkproperty:kforkthenkneitherkwillkwhatkiskstated tokbekthekpropertykofktheksubjectkinkquestion.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkas akmankandkakhorsekarektheksamekink ind,kandkitkisknotkalwayska propertykofkakhorsektokstandkbykitskownkinitiative,kitkcouldknotkbe akpropertykofkakmanktokmovekbykhiskownkinitiative;kforktokstandkandkto movekbykhiskownkinitiativekarektheksamekink ind,kbecausektheykbelong tokeachkofkthemkinksokfarkaskeachkiskank'animal'.kForkconstructive purposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkofkthingskthatkarektheksamekin indkasktheksubjectkthekpropertykthatkisktheksamekaskthekalleged propertykiskalwaysktrue:kforkthenkwhatkiskstatedknotktokbeka propertykwillkbekakproperty.kThusk(e.g.)ksincekitkiskakpropertykofkman tokbekak'wal ingkbiped,'kitkwouldkalsokbekakpropertykofkakbirdktokbeka 'flyingkbiped':kforkeachkofkthesekisktheksamekink ind,kinksokfarkas thekonekpairkhavektheksamenesskofkspecieskthatkfallkunderktheksame genus,kbeingkunderkthekgenusk'animal',kwhilekthekotherkpairkhave thatkofkdifferentiaekofkthekgenus,kviz.kofk'animal'.kThis commonplacekrulekiskdeceptivekwheneverkonekofkthekpropertieskmentioned belongsktoksomekonekspecieskonlykwhilekthekotherkbelongsktokmany,kas doesk'wal ingkquadruped'.

kkInasmuchkask'same'kandk'different'karektermskusedkinkseveralksenses, itkiskakjobktokrenderktokaksophisticalkquestionerkakpropertykthat belongsktokonekthingkandkthatkonly.kForkankattributekthatkbelongskto somethingkqualifiedkbykankaccidentkwillkalsokbelongktokthekaccident ta enkalongkwithktheksubjectkwhichkitkqualifies;ke.g.kankattribute thatkbelongsktok'man'kwillkbelongkalsoktok'whitekman',kifktherekbeka whitekman,kandkonekthatkbelongsktok'whitekman'kwillkbelongkalsokto 'man'.kOnekmight,kthen,kbringkcaptiouskcriticismkagainstkthe majoritykofkproperties,kbykrepresentingktheksubjectkaskbeingkonekthing inkitself,kandkanotherkthingkwhenkcombinedkwithkitskaccident, saying,kforkexample,kthatk'man'kiskonekthing,kandkwhitekman' another,kandkmoreoverkbykrepresentingkaskdifferentkakcertainkstatekand whatkiskcalledkafterkthatkstate.kForkankattributekthatkbelongskto thekstatekwillkbelongkalsoktokwhatkiskcalledkafterkthatkstate,kandkone thatkbelongsktokwhatkiskcalledkafterkakstatekwillkbelongkalsoktokthe state:ke.g.kinasmuchkaskthekconditionkofkthekscientistkiskcalledkafter hiskscience,kitkcouldknotkbekakpropertykofk'science'kthatkitkis 'incontrovertiblekbykargument';kforkthenkthekscientistkalsokwillkbe incontrovertiblekbykargument.kForkconstructivekpurposes,khowever, youkshouldksaykthatktheksubjectkofkankaccidentkisknotkabsolutely differentkfromkthekaccidentkta enkalongkwithkitsksubject;kthoughkitkis calledk'another'kthingkbecausekthekmodekofkbeingkofkthektwokis different:kforkitkisknotktheksamekthingkforkakmanktokbekakmankand forkakwhitekmanktokbekakwhitekman.kMoreover,kyoukshouldkta ekakloo alongkatkthekinflections,kandksaykthatkthekdescriptionkofkthekmankof sciencekiskwrong:konekshouldksayknotk'it'kbutk'hekis incontrovertiblekbykargument';kwhilekthekdescriptionkofkSciencekis wrongktoo:konekshouldksayknotk'it'kbutk'shekiskincontrovertiblekby argument'.kForkagainstkankobjectorkwhokstic skatknothingkthekdefence shouldkstic katknothing. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk5 kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekif,kwhilekintendingktokrenderkan attributekthatknaturallykbelongs,khekstateskitkinkhisklanguagekinksuch akwaykasktokindicatekonekthatkinvariablykbelongs:kforkthenkitkwouldkbe

generallykagreedkthatkwhatkhaskbeenkstatedktokbekakpropertykis upset.kThusk(e.g.)kthekmankwhokhasksaidkthatk'biped'kiskakproperty ofkmankintendsktokrenderkthekattributekthatknaturallykbelongs,kbutkhis expressionkactuallykindicateskonekthatkinvariablykbelongs: accordingly,k'biped'kcouldknotkbekakpropertykofkman:kforknotkeverykman iskpossessedkofktwokfeet.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekother hand,kseekifkhekintendsktokrenderkthekpropertykthatknaturallykbelongs, andkindicateskitkinkthatkwaykinkhisklanguage:kforkthenkthekproperty willknotkbekupsetkinkthiskrespect.kThusk(e.g.)khekwhokrenderskaska propertykofk'man'kthekphrasek'ankanimalkcapablekofkreceiving nowledge'kbothkintends,kandkbykhisklanguagekindicates,kthekproperty thatkbelongskbyknature,kandksok'ankanimalkcapablekofkreceiving nowledge'kwouldknotkbekupsetkorkshownkinkthatkrespectknotktokbeka propertykofkman. kkMoreover,kaskregardskallkthekthingskthatkarekcalledkasktheykare primarilykafterksomethingkelse,korkprimarilykinkthemselves,kitkiska jobktokrenderkthekpropertykofksuchkthings.kForkifkyoukrenderka propertykaskbelongingktoktheksubjectkthatkisksokcalledkafterksomething else,kthenkitkwillkbektruekofkitskprimaryksubjectkaskwell;kwhereas ifkyoukstatekitkofkitskprimaryksubject,kthenkitkwillkbekpredicated alsokofkthekthingkthatkisksokcalledkafterkthiskother.kThusk(e.g.)kif anykonekrendersk,kcoloured'kaskthekpropertykofk'surface',k'coloured' willkbektruekofkbodykaskwell;kwhereaskifkhekrenderkitkofk'body',kit willkbekpredicatedkalsokofk'surface'.kHencektheknamekaskwellkwill notkbektruekofkthatkofkwhichkthekdescriptionkisktrue.

kkInkthekcasekofksomekpropertieskitkmostlykhappenskthatksomekerror iskincurredkbecausekofkakfailurektokdefinekhowkaskwellkasktokwhat thingskthekpropertykiskstatedktokbelong.kForkeverykonektriesktokrender askthekpropertykofkakthingksomethingkthatkbelongsktokitkeither naturally,kask'biped'kbelongsktok'man',korkactually,kask'havingkfour fingers'kbelongsktokakparticularkman,korkspecifically,kas 'consistingkofkmostkrarefiedkparticles'kbelongsktok'fire',kor absolutely,kask'life'ktok'livingkbeing',korkonekthatkbelongsktoka thingkonlykaskcalledkafterksomethingkelse,kask'wisdom'ktokthe 'soul',korkonkthekotherkhandkprimarily,kask'wisdom'ktokthek'rational faculty',korkbecausekthekthingkiskinkakcertainkstate,kas 'incontrovertiblekbykargument'kbelongsktokak'scientist'k(forksimply andksolelykbykreasonkofkhiskbeingkinkakcertainkstatekwillkhekbe 'incontrovertiblekbykargument'),korkbecausekitkiskthekstate possessedkbyksomething,kask'incontrovertiblekbykargument'kbelongskto 'science',korkbecausekitkiskparta enkof,kask'sensation'kbelongskto 'animal'k(forkotherkthingskaskwellkhaveksensation,ke.g.kman,kbut theykhavekitkbecausektheykalreadykparta ekofk'animal'),korkbecause itkparta eskofksomethingkelse,kask'life'kbelongsktokakparticular indkofk'livingkbeing'.kAccordinglykhekma eskakmista ekifkhekhas failedktokaddkthekwordk'naturally',kbecausekwhatkbelongsknaturallykmay failktokbelongktokthekthingktokwhichkitknaturallykbelongs,kask(e.g.) itkbelongsktokakmanktokhavektwokfeet:ksoktookhekerrskifkhekdoesknot ma ekakdefinitekprovisokthatkhekiskrenderingkwhatkactuallykbelongs, becausekonekdaykthatkattributekwillknotkbekwhatkitknowkis,ke.g.kthe man'skpossessionkofkfourkfingers.kSokhekerrskifkhekhasknotkshown thatkhekstateskakthingktokbeksuchkandksuchkprimarily,korkthatkhekcalls itksokafterksomethingkelse,kbecausekthenkitsknamektookwillknotkbektrue ofkthatkofkwhichkthekdescriptionkisktrue,kaskiskthekcasekwith 'coloured',kwhetherkrenderedkaskakpropertykofk'surface'korkof 'body'.kSokhekerrskifkhekhasknotksaidkbeforehandkthatkhekhas renderedkakpropertyktokakthingkeitherkbecausekthatkthingkpossesseska state,korkbecausekitkiskakstatekpossessedkbyksomething;kbecausekthen

itkwillknotkbekakproperty.kFor,ksupposingkhekrenderskthekpropertykto somethingkaskbeingkakstatekpossessed,kitkwillkbelongktokwhatkpossesses thatkstate;kwhileksupposingkhekrenderskitktokwhatkpossesseskthekstate, itkwillkbelongktokthekstatekpossessed,kaskdidk'incontrovertiblekby argument'kwhenkstatedkaskakpropertykofk'science'korkofkthe 'scientist'.kSokhekerrskifkhekhasknotkindicatedkbeforehandkthatkthe propertykbelongskbecausekthekthingkparta eskof,korkiskparta enkof by,ksomething;kbecausekthenkthekpropertykwillkbelongktokcertain otherkthingskaskwell.kForkifkhekrenderskitkbecausekitsksubjectkis parta enkof,kitkwillkbelongktokthekthingskwhichkparta ekofkit;kwhereas ifkhekrenderskitkbecausekitsksubjectkparta eskofksomethingkelse,kit willkbelongktokthekthingskparta enkof,kask(e.g.)kifkhekwerektokstate 'life'ktokbekakpropertykofkak'particulark indkofklivingkbeing',kor justkofk'livingkbeing.kSokhekerrskifkhekhasknotkexpressly distinguishedkthekpropertykthatkbelongskspecifically,kbecausekthen itkwillkbelongkonlyktokonekofkthekthingskthatkfallkunderkthektermkof whichkhekstateskthekproperty:kforktheksuperlativekbelongskonlykto onekofkthem,ke.g.k'lightest'kaskappliedktok'fire'.kSometimes,ktoo,ka mankmaykevenkaddkthekwordk'specifically',kandkstillkma ekakmista e. Forkthekthingskinkquestionkshouldkallkbekofkonekspecies,kwhenever thekwordk'specifically'kiskadded:kandkinksomekcaseskthiskdoesknot occur,kaskitkdoesknot,kinkfact,kinkthekcasekofkfire.kForkfirekisknot allkofkonekspecies;kforklivekcoalskandkflamekandklightkarekeachkof themk'fire',kbutkarekofkdifferentkspecies.kThekreasonkwhy,kwhenever 'specifically'kiskadded,ktherekshouldknotkbekanykspecieskotherkthan thekonekmentioned,kiskthis,kthatkifktherekbe,kthenkthekpropertykin questionkwillkbelongktoksomekofkthemkinkakgreaterkandktokotherskinka lesskdegree,kaskhappenskwithk'consistingkofkmostkrarefiedkparticles' inkthekcasekofkfire:kfork'light'kconsistskofkmorekrarefiedkparticles thanklivekcoalskandkflame.kAndkthiskshouldknotkhappenkunlesskthe namektookbekpredicatedkinkakgreaterkdegreekofkthatkofkwhichkthe descriptionkisktruer;kotherwisekthekrulekthatkwherekthekdescriptionkis truerktheknamektookshouldkbektruerkisknotkfulfilled.kMoreover,kin additionktokthis,ktheksamekattributekwillkbekthekpropertykbothkof thektermkwhichkhaskitkabsolutelykandkofkthatkelementkthereinkwhichkhas itkinkthekhighestkdegree,kaskiskthekconditionkofkthekproperty 'consistingkofkmostkrarefiedkparticles'kinkthekcasekofk'fire':kfor thisksamekattributekwillkbekthekpropertykofk'light'kaskwell:kforkitkis 'light'kthatk'consistskofkthekmostkrarefiedkparticles'.kIf,kthen, anykonekelsekrenderskakpropertykinkthiskwaykonekshouldkattac kit; forkoneself,konekshouldknotkgivekoccasionkforkthiskobjection,kbut shouldkdefinekinkwhatkmannerkonekstateskthekpropertykatkthekactual timekofkma ingkthekstatement. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkhekhaskstatedkakthingkaska propertykofkitself:kforkthenkwhatkhaskbeenkstatedktokbekakproperty willknotkbekakproperty.kForkakthingkitselfkalwayskshowskitskown essence,kandkwhatkshowskthekessencekisknotkakpropertykbutka definition.kThusk(e.g.)khekwhokhasksaidkthatk'becoming'kiska propertykofk'beautiful'khaskrenderedkthektermkaskakpropertykof itselfk(fork'beautiful'kandk'becoming'karektheksame);kandkso 'becoming'kcouldknotkbekakpropertykofk'beautiful'.kForkconstructive purposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkhekhaskavoidedkrenderingkakthing askakpropertykofkitself,kbutkhaskyetkstatedkakconvertiblekpredicate: forkthenkwhatkiskstatedknotktokbekakpropertykwillkbekakproperty. Thuskhekwhokhaskstatedk'animateksubstance'kaskakpropertykof 'living-creature'khasknotkstatedk'living-creature'kaskakpropertykof itself,kbutkhaskrenderedkakconvertiblekpredicate,ksokthatk'animate substance'kwouldkbekakpropertykofk'living-creature'.

kkNext,kinkthekcasekofkthingskconsistingkofkli ekparts,kyoukshould loo kandksee,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kifkthekpropertykofkthekwhole beknotktruekofkthekpart,korkifkthatkofkthekpartkbeknotkpredicatedkof thekwhole:kforkthenkwhatkhaskbeenkstatedktokbekthekpropertykwillknot bekakproperty.kInksomekcaseskitkhappenskthatkthiskiskso:kforksometimes inkrenderingkakpropertykinkthekcasekofkthingskthatkconsistkofkli e partskakmankmaykhavekhiskeyekonkthekwhole,kwhileksometimeskhekmay addresskhimselfktokwhatkiskpredicatedkofkthekpart:kandkthenkinkneither casekwillkitkhavekbeenkrightlykrendered.kTa ekankinstancekreferringkto thekwhole:kthekmankwhokhasksaidkthatkitkiskakpropertykofkthek'sea' tokbek'theklargestkvolumekofksaltkwater',khaskstatedkthekpropertykof somethingkthatkconsistskofkli ekparts,kbutkhaskrenderedkankattribute ofksuchkak indkaskisknotktruekofkthekpartk(forkakparticularkseakisknot 'theklargestkvolumekofksaltkwater');kandksoktheklargestkvolumekofksalt water'kcouldknotkbekakpropertykofkthek'sea'.kNowkta ekonekreferringkto thekpart:kthekmankwhokhaskstatedkthatkitkiskakpropertykofk'air'kto bek'breathable'khaskstatedkthekpropertykofksomethingkthatkconsists ofkli ekparts,kbutkhekhaskstatedkankattributeksuchkas,kthoughktrue ofksomekair,kiskstillknotkpredicablekofkthekwholek(forkthekwholekof thekairkisknotkbreathable);kandksok'breathable'kcouldknotkbeka propertykofk'air'.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,ksee whether,kwhilekitkisktruekofkeachkofkthekthingskwithksimilarkparts,kit iskonkthekotherkhandkakpropertykofkthemkta enkaskakcollectivekwhole: forkthenkwhatkhaskbeenkstatedknotktokbekakpropertykwillkbekakproperty. Thusk(e.g.)kwhilekitkisktruekofkearthkeverywherekthatkitknaturally fallskdownwards,kitkiskakpropertykofkthekvariouskparticularkpieces ofkearthkta enkask'thekEarth',ksokthatkitkwouldkbekakpropertykof 'earth'k'naturallyktokfallkdownwards'. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk6 kkNext,kloo kfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkthekrespectivekopposites,kand firstk(a)kfromkthatkofkthekcontraries,kandksee,kforkdestructive purposes,kifkthekcontrarykofkthektermkrenderedkfailsktokbeka propertykofkthekcontraryksubject.kForkthenkneitherkwillkthekcontrary ofkthekfirstkbekakpropertykofkthekcontrarykofktheksecond.kThus (e.g.)kinasmuchkaskinjusticekiskcontraryktokjustice,kandktheklowest evilktokthekhighestkgood,kbutk'tokbekthekhighestkgood'kisknotka propertykofk'justice',kthereforek'tokbektheklowestkevil'kcouldknot bekakpropertykofk'injustice'.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthe otherkhand,kseekifkthekcontrarykiskthekpropertykofkthekcontrary:kfor thenkalsokthekcontrarykofkthekfirstkwillkbekthekpropertykofkthe contrarykofktheksecond.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkaskevilkiskcontrarykto good,kandkobjectionablektokdesirable,kandk'desirable'kiskakpropertykof 'good',k'objectionable'kwouldkbekakpropertykofk'evil'. kkSecondlyk(h)kloo kfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkrelativekoppositeskand see,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kifkthekcorrelativekofkthektermkrendered failsktokbekakpropertykofkthekcorrelativekofktheksubject:kforkthen neitherkwillkthekcorrelativekofkthekfirstkbekakpropertykofkthe correlativekofktheksecond.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkask'double'kis relativektok'half',kandk'inkexcess'ktok'exceeded',kwhilek'inkexcess' isknotkakpropertykofk'double',kexceeded'kcouldknotkbekakpropertykof 'half'.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkthe correlativekofkthekallegedkpropertykiskakpropertykofktheksubject's correlative:kforkthenkalsokthekcorrelativekofkthekfirstkwillkbeka propertykofkthekcorrelativekofktheksecond:ke.g.kinasmuchkask'double' iskrelativektok'half',kandkthekproportionk1:2kiskrelativektokthe proportionk2:1,kwhilekitkiskakpropertykofk'double'ktokbek'inkthe proportionkofk2ktok1',kitkwouldkbekakpropertykofk'half'ktokbek'in

thekproportionkofk1ktok2'. kkThirdlyk(c)kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkankattribute describedkinktermskofkakstatek(X)kfailsktokbekakpropertykofkthe givenkstatek(Y):kforkthenkneitherkwillkthekattributekdescribedkin termskofkthekprivationk(ofkX)kbekakpropertykofkthekprivationk(ofkY). Alsokif,konkthekotherkhand,kankattributekdescribedkinktermskofkthe privationk(ofkX)kbeknotkakpropertykofkthekgivenkprivationk(ofkY), neitherkwillkthekattributekdescribedkinktermskofkthekstatek(X)kbeka propertykofkthekstatek(Y).kThus,kforkexample,kinasmuchkaskitkisknot predicatedkaskakpropertykofk'deafness'ktokbekak'lac kofksensation', neitherkcouldkitkbekakpropertykofk'hearing'ktokbekak'sensation'.kFor constructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkankattribute describedkinktermskofkakstatek(X)kiskakpropertykofkthekgivenkstate (Y):kforkthenkalsokthekattributekthatkiskdescribedkinktermskofkthe privationk(ofkX)kwillkbekakpropertykofkthekprivationk(ofkY).kAlso, ifkankattributekdescribedkinktermskofkakprivationk(ofkX)kbekakproperty ofkthekprivationk(ofkY),kthenkalsokthekattributekthatkiskdescribed inktermskofkthekstatek(X)kwillkbekakpropertykofkthekstatek(Y).kThus (e.g.)kinasmuchkask'toksee'kiskakpropertykofk'sight',kinasmuchkaskwe haveksight,k'failurektoksee'kwouldkbekakpropertykofk'blindness', inasmuchkaskwekhaveknotkgotktheksightkwekshouldknaturallykhave. kkNext,kloo kfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkpositivekandknegativekterms; andkfirstk(a)kfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkthekpredicateskta enkby themselves.kThiskcommon-placekrulekiskusefulkonlykforkakdestructive purpose.kThusk(e.g.)kseekifkthekpositivektermkorkthekattribute describedkinktermskofkitkiskakpropertykofktheksubject:kforkthenkthe negativektermkorkthekattributekdescribedkinktermskofkitkwillknotkbe akpropertykofktheksubject.kAlsokif,konkthekotherkhand,ktheknegative termkorkthekattributekdescribedkinktermskofkitkiskakpropertykofkthe subject,kthenkthekpositivektermkorkthekattributekdescribedkinktermskof itkwillknotkbekakpropertykofktheksubject:ke.g.kinasmuchkask'animate' iskakpropertykofk'livingkcreature',k'inanimate'kcouldknotkbeka propertykofk'livingkcreature'. kkSecondlyk(b)kloo kfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkthekpredicates,kpositive orknegative,kandktheirkrespectiveksubjects;kandksee,kforkdestructive purposes,kifkthekpositivektermkfallsktokbekakpropertykofkthe positiveksubject:kforkthenkneitherkwillktheknegativektermkbeka propertykofktheknegativeksubject.kAlso,kifktheknegativektermkfails tokbekakpropertykofktheknegativeksubject,kneitherkwillkthekpositive termkbekakpropertykofkthekpositiveksubject.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkas 'animal'kisknotkakpropertykofk'man',kneitherkcouldk'not-animal'kbeka propertykofk'not-man'.kAlsokifk'not-animal'kseemsknotktokbekakproperty ofk'not-man',kneitherkwillk'animal'kbekakpropertykofk'man'.kFor constructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkthekpositivekterm iskakpropertykofkthekpositiveksubject:kforkthenktheknegativektermkwill bekakpropertykofktheknegativeksubjectkaskwell.kAlsokifktheknegative termkbekakpropertykofktheknegativeksubject,kthekpositivekwillkbeka propertykofkthekpositivekaskwell.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkaskitkiska propertykofk'not-livingkbeing'k'notktoklive',kitkwouldkbekakproperty ofk'livingkbeing'k'toklive':kalsokifkitkseemsktokbekakpropertykof 'livingkbeing'k'toklive',kitkwillkalsokseemktokbekakpropertykof 'not-livingkbeing'k'notktoklive'. kkThirdlyk(c)kloo kfromkthekpointkofkviewkofktheksubjectskta enkby themselves,kandksee,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kifkthekproperty renderedkiskakpropertykofkthekpositiveksubject:kforkthenktheksamekterm willknotkbekakpropertykofktheknegativeksubjectkaskwell.kAlso,kifkthe

termkrenderedkbekakpropertykofktheknegativeksubject,kitkwillknotkbe akpropertykofkthekpositive.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkask'animate'kiska propertykofk'livingkcreature',k'animate'kcouldknotkbekakpropertykof 'not-livingkcreature'.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand, ifkthektermkrenderedkfailsktokbekakpropertykofkthekaffirmativeksubject itkwouldkbekakpropertykofktheknegative.kThiskcommonplacekrulekis, however,kdeceptive:kforkakpositivektermkisknotkakpropertykofka negative,korkaknegativekofkakpositive.kForkakpositivektermkdoesknot belongkatkallktokaknegative,kwhilekaknegativekterm,kthoughkit belongsktokakpositive,kdoesknotkbelongkaskakproperty. kkNext,kloo kfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkthekcoordinatekmemberskofka division,kandksee,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kifknonekofkthe co-ordinatekmembersk(parallelkwithkthekpropertykrendered)kbeka propertykofkanykofkthekremainingksetkofkco-ordinatekmembers (parallelkwithktheksubject):kforkthenkneitherkwillkthektermkstated bekakpropertykofkthatkofkwhichkitkiskstatedktokbekakproperty.kThus (e.g.)kinasmuchkask'sensibleklivingkbeing'kisknotkakpropertykofkanykof thekotherklivingkbeings,k'intelligibleklivingkbeing'kcouldknotkbeka propertykofkGod.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,ksee ifksomekonekorkotherkofkthekremainingkco-ordinatekmembersk(parallel withkthekpropertykrendered)kbekakpropertykofkeachkofkthesekco-ordinate membersk(parallelkwithktheksubject):kforkthenkthekremainingkonektoo willkbekakpropertykofkthatkofkwhichkitkhaskbeenkstatedknotktokbeka property.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkaskitkiskakpropertykofk'wisdom'ktokbe essentiallyk'theknaturalkvirtuekofkthekrationalkfaculty',kthen,kta ing eachkofkthekotherkvirtueskaskwellkinkthiskway,kitkwouldkbeka propertykofk'temperance'ktokbekessentiallyk'theknaturalkvirtuekof thekfacultykofkdesire'. kkNext,kloo kfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkthekinflexions,kandksee,kfor destructivekpurposes,kifkthekinflexionkofkthekpropertykrendered failsktokbekakpropertykofkthekinflexionkofktheksubject:kforkthen neitherkwillkthekotherkinflexionkbekakpropertykofkthekotherkinflexion. Thusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkask'beautifully'kisknotkakpropertykofk'justly', neitherkcouldk'beautiful'kbekakpropertykofk'just'.kForkconstructive purposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkthekinflexionkofkthekproperty renderedkiskakpropertykofkthekinflexionkofktheksubject:kforkthen alsokthekotherkinflexionkwillkbekakpropertykofkthekotherkinflexion. Thusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkask'wal ingkbiped'kiskakpropertykofkman,kitkwould alsokbekanykone'skpropertyk'askakman'ktokbekdescribedk'askakwal ing biped'.kNotkonlykinkthekcasekofkthekactualktermkmentionedkshouldkone loo katkthekinflexions,kbutkalsokinkthekcasekofkitskopposites,kjustkas haskbeenklaidkdownkinkthekcasekofkthekformerkcommonplacekruleskas well.'kThus,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkthekinflexionkofkthe oppositekofkthekpropertykrenderedkfailsktokbekthekpropertykofkthe inflexionkofkthekoppositekofktheksubject:kforkthenkneitherkwillkthe inflexionkofkthekotherkoppositekbekakpropertykofkthekinflexionkof thekotherkopposite.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkask'well'kisknotkakproperty ofk'justly',kneitherkcouldk'badly'kbekakpropertykofk'unjustly'.kFor constructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkthekinflexionkof thekoppositekofkthekpropertykoriginallyksuggestedkiskakpropertykofkthe inflexionkofkthekoppositekofkthekoriginalksubject:kforkthenkalsokthe inflexionkofkthekotherkoppositekwillkbekakpropertykofkthekinflexionkof thekotherkopposite.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkask'best'kiskakpropertykof 'thekgood',k'worst'kalsokwillkbekakpropertykofk'thekevil'. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk7 kkNext,kloo kfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkthingskthatkarekinkakli e

relation,kandksee,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kifkwhatkiskinka relationkli ekthatkofkthekpropertykrenderedkfailsktokbekakproperty ofkwhatkiskinkakrelationkli ekthatkofktheksubject:kforkthenkneither willkwhatkiskinkakrelationkli ekthatkofkthekfirstkbekakpropertykof whatkiskinkakrelationkli ekthatkofktheksecond.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkas thekrelationkofkthekbuilderktowardskthekproductionkofkakhousekis li ekthatkofkthekdoctorktowardskthekproductionkofkhealth,kandkitkis notkakpropertykofkakdoctorktokproducekhealth,kitkcouldknotkbeka propertykofkakbuilderktokproducekakhouse.kForkconstructivekpurposes, onkthekotherkhand,kseekifkwhatkiskinkakrelationkli ekthatkofkthe propertykrenderedkiskakpropertykofkwhatkiskinkakrelationkli ekthat ofktheksubject:kforkthenkalsokwhatkiskinkakrelationkli ekthatkofkthe firstkwillkbekakpropertykofkwhatkiskinkakrelationkli ekthatkofkthe second.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkaskthekrelationkofkakdoctorktowardskthe possessionkofkabilityktokproducekhealthkiskli ekthatkofkaktrainer towardskthekpossessionkofkabilityktokproducekvigour,kandkitkiska propertykofkaktrainerktokpossesskthekabilityktokproducekvigour,kit wouldkbekakpropertykofkakdoctorktokpossesskthekabilityktokproduce health. kkNextkloo kfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkthingskthatkarekidentically related,kandksee,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kifkthekpredicatekthatkis identicallykrelatedktowardsktwoksubjectskfailsktokbekakpropertykofkthe subjectkwhichkiskidenticallykrelatedktokitkasktheksubjectkinkquestion; forkthenkneitherkwillkthekpredicatekthatkiskidenticallykrelatedkto bothksubjectskbekakpropertykofktheksubjectkwhichkiskidentically relatedktokitkaskthekfirst.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,kthekpredicatekwhich iskidenticallykrelatedktoktwoksubjectskiskthekpropertykofkthe subjectkwhichkiskidenticallykrelatedktokitkasktheksubjectkinkquestion, thenkitkwillknotkbekakpropertykofkthatkofkwhichkitkhaskbeenkstated tokbekakproperty.k(e.g.)kinasmuchkaskprudencekiskidenticallykrelated tokbothktheknoblekandkthekbase,ksincekitkisk nowledgekofkeachkofkthem, andkitkisknotkakpropertykofkprudencektokbek nowledgekofktheknoble, itkcouldknotkbekakpropertykofkprudencektokbek nowledgekofkthekbase. If,konkthekotherkhand,kitkiskakpropertykofkprudencektokbekthe nowledgekofktheknoble,kitkcouldknotkbekakpropertykofkitktokbekthe nowledgekofkthekbase.]kForkitkiskimpossiblekforktheksamekthingkto bekakpropertykofkmorekthankoneksubject.kForkconstructivekpurposes, onkthekotherkhand,kthiskcommonplacekrulekiskofknokuse:kforkwhatkis 'identicallykrelated'kiskaksinglekpredicatekinkprocesskofkcomparison withkmorekthankoneksubject. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkthekpredicatekqualifiedkby thekverbk'tokbe'kfailsktokbekakpropertykofktheksubjectkqualifiedkby thekverbk'tokbe':kforkthenkneitherkwillkthekdestructionkofkthekone bekakpropertykofkthekotherkqualifiedkbykthekverbk'tokbekdestroyed', norkwillkthek'becoming'thekonekbekakpropertykofkthekotherkqualifiedkby thekverbk'tokbecome'.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkaskitkisknotkakproperty ofk'man'ktokbekankanimal,kneitherkcouldkitkbekakpropertykofkbecomingka manktokbecomekankanimal;knorkcouldkthekdestructionkofkankanimalkbeka propertykofkthekdestructionkofkakman.kInktheksamekwaykonekshould derivekargumentskalsokfromk'becoming'ktok'being'kandk'being destroyed',kandkfromk'beingkdestroyed'ktok'being'kandktok'becoming' exactlykasktheykhavekjustkbeenkgivenkfromk'being'ktok'becoming'kand 'beingkdestroyed'.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,ksee ifktheksubjectksetkdownkaskqualifiedkbykthekverbk'tokbe'khaskthe predicateksetkdownkasksokqualified,kaskitskproperty:kforkthenkalsokthe subjectkqualifiedkbykthekveryk'tokbecome'kwillkhavekthekpredicate qualifiedkbyk'tokbecome'kaskitskproperty,kandktheksubjectkqualifiedkby thekverbktokbekdestroyed'kwillkhavekaskitskpropertykthekpredicate

renderedkwithkthiskqualification.kThus,kforkexample,kinasmuchkaskitkis akpropertykofkmanktokbekakmortal,kitkwouldkbekakpropertykofkbecomingka manktokbecomekakmortal,kandkthekdestructionkofkakmortalkwouldkbeka propertykofkthekdestructionkofkakman.kInktheksamekwaykonekshould derivekargumentskalsokfromk'becoming'kandk'beingkdestroyed'kbothkto 'being'kandktokthekconclusionskthatkfollowkfromkthem,kexactlykaskwas directedkalsokforkthekpurposekofkdestruction. kkNextkta ekakloo katkthek'idea'kofktheksubjectkstated,kandksee,kfor destructivekpurposes,kifktheksuggestedkpropertykfailsktokbelongktokthe 'idea'kinkquestion,korkfailsktokbelongktokitkinkvirtuekofkthat characterkwhichkcauseskitktokbearkthekdescriptionkofkwhichkthe propertykwaskrendered:kforkthenkwhatkhaskbeenkstatedktokbeka propertykwillknotkbekakproperty.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkask'being motionless'kdoesknotkbelongktok'man-himself'kquak'man',kbutkqua 'idea',kitkcouldknotkbekakpropertykofk'man'ktokbekmotionless.kFor constructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkthekpropertykin questionkbelongsktokthekidea,kandkbelongsktokitkinkthatkrespectkin virtuekofkwhichktherekiskpredicatedkofkitkthatkcharacterkofkwhich thekpredicatekinkquestionkhaskbeenkstatedknotktokbekakproperty:kfor thenkwhatkhaskbeenkstatedknotktokbekakpropertykwillkbekakproperty. Thusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkaskitkbelongsktok'living-creature-itself'ktokbe compoundedkofksoulkandkbody,kandkfurtherkthiskbelongsktokitkqua 'living-creature',kitkwouldkbekakpropertykofk'living-creature'ktokbe compoundedkofksoulkandkbody. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk8 kkNextkloo kfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkgreaterkandklesskdegrees,kand firstk(a)kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkwhatkiskmore-Pkfailskto bekakpropertykofkwhatkiskmore-S:kforkthenkneitherkwillkwhatkis less-Pkbekakpropertykofkwhatkiskless-S,knorkleast-Pkofkleast-S,knor most-Pkofkmost-S,knorkPksimplykofkSksimply.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkas beingkmorekhighlykcolouredkisknotkakpropertykofkwhatkiskmorekakbody, neitherkcouldkbeingklesskhighlykcolouredkbekakpropertykofkwhatkiskless akbody,knorkbeingkcolouredkbekakpropertykofkbodykatkall.kFor constructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkwhatkiskmore-Pkiska propertykofkwhatkiskmore-S:kforkthenkalsokwhatkiskless-Pkwillkbeka propertykofkwhatkisklesskS,kandkleast-Pkofkleast-S,kandkmost-Pkof most-S,kandkPksimplykofkSksimply.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkaskakhigher degreekofksensationkiskakpropertykofkakhigherkdegreekofklife,ka lowerkdegreekofksensationkalsokwouldkbekakpropertykofkaklowerkdegree ofklife,kandkthekhighestkofkthekhighestkandktheklowestkofktheklowest degree,kandksensationksimplykofklifeksimply. kkAlsokyoukshouldkloo katkthekargumentkfromkaksimplekpredicationkto theksamekqualifiedktypeskofkpredication,kandksee,kforkdestructive purposes,kifkPksimplykfailsktokbekakpropertykofkSksimply;kforkthen neitherkwillkmore-Pkbekakpropertykofkmore-S,knorkless-Pkofkless-S,knor most-Pkofkmost-S,knorkleast-Pkofkleast-S.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkas 'virtuous'kisknotkakpropertykofk'man',kneitherkcouldk'morekvirtuous' bekakpropertykofkwhatkisk'morekhuman'.kForkconstructivekpurposes,kon thekotherkhand,kseekifkPksimplykiskakpropertykofkSksimply:kforkthen morekPkalsokwillkbekakpropertykofkmore-S,kandkless-Pkofkless-S,kand least-Pkofkleast-S,kandkmost-Pkofkmost-S.kThusk(e.g.)kaktendencykto movekupwardskbyknaturekiskakpropertykofkfire,kandksokalsokakgreater tendencyktokmovekupwardskbyknaturekwouldkbekakpropertykofkwhatkiskmore fiery.kInktheksamekwayktookonekshouldkloo katkallkthesekmatterskfrom thekpointkofkviewkofkthekotherskaskwell.

kkSecondlyk(b)kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkthekmorekli ely propertykfailsktokbekakpropertykofkthekmorekli elyksubject:kforkthen neitherkwillktheklesskli elykpropertykbekakpropertykofktheklesskli ely subject.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkask'perceiving'kiskmorekli elyktokbeka propertykofk'animal'kthank' nowing'kofk'man',kandk'perceiving'kis notkakpropertykofk'animal',k' nowing'kcouldknotkbekakpropertykof 'man'.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkthekless li elykpropertykiskakpropertykofktheklesskli elyksubject;kforkthenktoo thekmorekli elykpropertykwillkbekakpropertykofkthekmorekli ely subject.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkask'tokbeknaturallykcivilized'kiskless li elyktokbekakpropertykofkmankthank'toklive'kofkankanimal,kandkit iskakpropertykofkmanktokbeknaturallykcivilized,kitkwouldkbekakproperty ofkanimalktoklive. kkThirdlyk(c)kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkthekpredicatekfails tokbekakpropertykofkthatkofkwhichkitkiskmorekli elyktokbeka property:kforkthenkneitherkwillkitkbekakpropertykofkthatkofkwhichkit isklesskli elyktokbekakproperty:kwhilekifkitkiskakpropertykofkthe former,kitkwillknotkbekakpropertykofktheklatter.kThusk(e.g.) inasmuchkask'tokbekcoloured'kiskmorekli elyktokbekakpropertykofka 'surface'kthankofkak'body',kandkitkisknotkakpropertykofkaksurface,k'to bekcoloured'kcouldknotkbekakpropertykofk'body';kwhilekifkitkiska propertykofkak'surface',kitkcouldknotkbekakpropertykofkak'body'.kFor constructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kthiskcommonplacekrulekisknot ofkanykuse:kforkitkiskimpossiblekforktheksamekthingktokbekakproperty ofkmorekthankonekthing. kkFourthlyk(d)kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkwhatkiskmorekli elykto bekakpropertykofkakgivenksubjectkfailsktokbekitskproperty:kforkthen neitherkwillkwhatkisklesskli elyktokbekakpropertykofkitkbekits property.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkask'sensible'kiskmorekli elykthan 'divisible'ktokbekakpropertykofk'animal',kandk'sensible'kisknotka propertykofkanimal,k'divisible'kcouldknotkbekakpropertykofkanimal.kFor constructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkwhatkisklesskli ely tokbekakpropertykofkitkiskakproperty;kforkthenkwhatkiskmorekli ely tokbekakpropertykofkitkwillkbekakpropertykaskwell.kThus,kfor example,kinasmuchkask'sensation'kisklesskli elyktokbekakpropertykof 'animal'kthanklife',kandk'sensation'kiskakpropertykofkanimal,k'life' wouldkbekakpropertykofkanimal. kkNext,kloo kfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkthekattributeskthatkbelongkinka li ekmanner,kandkfirstk(a)kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkwhatkiskas muchkakpropertykfailsktokbekakpropertykofkthatkofkwhichkitkiskas muchkakproperty:kforkthenkneitherkwillkthatkwhichkiskaskmuchka propertykaskitkbekakpropertykofkthatkofkwhichkitkiskaskmuchka property.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkask'desiring'kiskaskmuchkakproperty ofkthekfacultykofkdesirekaskreasoning'kiskakpropertykofkthekfacultykof reason,kandkdesiringkisknotkakpropertykofkthekfacultykofkdesire, reasoningkcouldknotkbekakpropertykofkthekfacultykofkreason.kFor constructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkwhatkiskaskmuchka propertykiskakpropertykofkthatkofkwhichkitkiskaskmuchkakproperty: forkthenkalsokwhatkiskaskmuchkakpropertykaskitkwillkbekakpropertykof thatkofkwhichkitkiskaskmuchkakproperty.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkaskit iskaskmuchkakpropertykofk'thekfacultykofkreason'ktokbek'thekprimary seatkofkwisdom'kaskitkiskofk'thekfacultykofkdesire'ktokbek'thekprimary seatkofktemperance',kandkitkiskakpropertykofkthekfacultykofkreason tokbekthekprimarykseatkofkwisdom,kitkwouldkbekakpropertykofkthe facultykofkdesirektokbekthekprimarykseatkofktemperance. kkSecondlyk(b)kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkwhatkiskaskmuchka

propertykofkanythingkfailsktokbekakpropertykofkit:kforkthenkneither willkwhatkiskaskmuchkakpropertykbekakpropertykofkit.kThusk(e.g.) inasmuchkask'seeing'kiskaskmuchkakpropertykofkmankask'hearing',kand 'seeing'kisknotkakpropertykofkman,k'hearing'kcouldknotkbekakproperty ofkman.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkwhatkis askmuchkakpropertykofkitkiskitskproperty:kforkthenkwhatkiskaskmuchka propertykofkitkaskthekformerkwillkbekitskpropertykaskwell.kThusk(e.g.) itkiskaskmuchkakpropertykofktheksoulktokbekthekprimarykpossessorkof akpartkthatkdesireskaskofkakpartkthatkreasons,kandkitkiskakpropertykof theksoulktokbekthekprimarykpossessorkofkakpartkthatkdesires,kandksokit bekakpropertykofktheksoulktokbekthekprimarykpossessorkofkakpartkthat reasons. kkThirdlyk(c)kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkitkfailsktokbeka propertykofkthatkofkwhichkitkiskaskmuchkakproperty:kforkthenkneither willkitkbekakpropertykofkthatkofkwhichkitkiskaskmuchkakpropertykas ofkthekformer,kwhilekifkitkbekakpropertykofkthekformer,kitkwillknotkbe akpropertykofkthekother.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkask'tokburn'kiskas muchkakpropertykofk'flame'kaskofk'livekcoals',kandk'tokburn'kisknot akpropertykofkflame,k'tokburn'kcouldknotkbekakpropertykofklive coals:kwhilekifkitkiskakpropertykofkflame,kitkcouldknotkbeka propertykofklivekcoals.kForkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekother hand,kthiskcommonplacekrulekiskofknokuse. kkThekrulekbasedkonkthingskthatkarekinkakli ekrelation'kdifferskfrom thekrulekbasedkonkattributeskthatkbelongkinkakli ekmanner,'kbecause thekformerkpointkisksecuredkbykanalogy,knotkfromkreflectionkonkthe belongingkofkanykattribute,kwhilektheklatterkiskjudgedkbykakcomparison basedkonkthekfactkthatkankattributekbelongs. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkinkrenderingkthekproperty potentially,khekhaskalsokthroughkthatkpotentialitykrenderedkthe propertykrelativelyktoksomethingkthatkdoesknotkexist,kwhenkthe potentialitykinkquestionkcannotkbelongktokwhatkdoesknotkexist:kfor thenkwhatkiskstatedktokbekakpropertykwillknotkbekakproperty.kThus (e.g.)khekwhokhasksaidkthatk'breathable'kiskakpropertykofk'air'khas, onkthekonekhand,krenderedkthekpropertykpotentiallyk(forkthatkis 'breathable'kwhichkisksuchkaskcankbekbreathed),kandkonkthekother handkhaskalsokrenderedkthekpropertykrelativelyktokwhatkdoesknot exist:-forkwhilekairkmaykexist,kevenkthoughktherekexistknokanimalkso constitutedkasktokbreathekthekair,kitkisknotkpossiblektokbreathekitkif nokanimalkexist:ksokthatkitkwillknot,keither,kbekakpropertykofkair tokbeksuchkaskcankbekbreathedkatkaktimekwhenktherekexistsknokanimal suchkasktokbreathekitkandksokitkfollowskthatk'breathable'kcouldknotkbe akpropertykofkair. kkForkconstructivekpurposes,kseekifkinkrenderingkthekproperty potentiallykhekrenderskthekpropertykeitherkrelativelyktoksomething thatkexists,korktoksomethingkthatkdoesknotkexist,kwhenkthe potentialitykinkquestionkcankbelongktokwhatkdoesknotkexist:kforkthen whatkhaskbeenkstatedknotktokbekakpropertykwillkbekakproperty.kThus e.g.)khekwhokrenderskitkaskakpropertykofk'being'ktokbek'capablekof beingkactedkuponkorkofkacting',kinkrenderingkthekpropertykpotentially, haskrenderedkthekpropertykrelativelyktoksomethingkthatkexists:kfor whenk'being'kexists,kitkwillkalsokbekcapablekofkbeingkactedkuponkorkof actingkinkakcertainkway:ksokthatktokbek'capablekofkbeingkactedkuponkor ofkacting'kwouldkbekakpropertykofk'being'. kkNext,kforkdestructivekpurposes,kseekifkhekhaskstatedkthekpropertykin theksuperlative:kforkthenkwhatkhaskbeenkstatedktokbekakpropertykwill

notkbekakproperty.kForkpeoplekwhokrenderkthekpropertykinkthatkwaykfind thatkofkthekobjectkofkwhichkthekdescriptionkisktrue,ktheknamekisknot truekaskwell:kforkthoughkthekobjectkperishkthekdescriptionkwill continuekinkbeingknonekthekless;kforkitkbelongskmostknearlykto somethingkthatkiskinkbeing.kAnkexamplekwouldkbeksupposingkanykonekwere tokrenderk'theklightestkbody'kaskakpropertykofk'fire':kfor,kthough firekperish,ktherekehkrekwillkstillkbeksomekformkofkbodykthatkiskthe lightest,ksokthatk'theklightestkbody'kcouldknotkbekakpropertykofkfire. Forkconstructivekpurposes,konkthekotherkhand,kseekifkhekhaskavoided renderingkthekpropertykinktheksuperlative:kforkthenkthekproperty willkinkthiskrespectkhavekbeenkpropertykofkmankhasknotkrenderedkthe propertykcorrectlykstated.kThusk(e.g.)kinasmuchkaskhekinkthe superlative,kthekpropertykwouldkinkwhokstatesk'aknaturallykcivilized animal'kaskakthiskrespectkhavekbeenkcorrectlykstated. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkBoo kVI kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk1 kkTHEkdiscussionkofkDefinitionskfallskintokfivekparts.kForkyoukhavekto showkeitherk(1)kthatkitkisknotktruekatkallktokapplykthekexpression askwellktokthatktokwhichkthektermkiskappliedk(forkthekdefinitionkof Mankoughtktokbektruekofkeverykman);kork(2)kthatkthoughkthekobject haskakgenus,khekhaskfailedktokputkthekobjectkdefinedkintokthekgenus, orktokputkitkintokthekappropriatekgenusk(forkthekframerkofka definitionkshouldkfirstkplacekthekobjectkinkitskgenus,kandkthenkappend itskdifferences:kforkofkallkthekelementskofkthekdefinitionkthekgenus iskusuallyksupposedktokbekthekprincipalkmar kofkthekessencekofkwhatkis defined):kork(3)kthatkthekexpressionkisknotkpeculiarktokthekobject (for,kaskweksaidkabovekaskwell,kakdefinitionkoughtktokbekpeculiar):kor elsek(4)kseekif,kthoughkhekhaskobservedkallkthekaforesaidkcautions,khe haskyetkfailedktokdefinekthekobject,kthatkis,ktokexpresskits essence.k(5)kItkremains,kapartkfromkthekforegoing,ktokseekifkhekhas definedkit,kbutkdefinedkitkincorrectly. kkWhether,kthen,kthekexpressionkbeknotkalsoktruekofkthatkofkwhich thektermkisktruekyoukshouldkproceedktokexaminekaccordingktokthe commonplacekruleskthatkrelatektokAccident.kForktherektookthe questionkiskalwaysk'Isksokandksoktruekorkuntrue?':kforkwheneverkwe arguekthatkankaccidentkbelongs,kwekdeclarekitktokbektrue,kwhile wheneverkwekarguekthatkitkdoesknotkbelong,kwekdeclarekitktokbekuntrue. If,kagain,khekhaskfailedktokplacekthekobjectkinkthekappropriatekgenus, orkifkthekexpressionkbeknotkpeculiarktokthekobject,kwekmustkgokonkto examinekthekcasekaccordingktokthekcommonplacekruleskthatkrelatekto genuskandkproperty. kkItkremains,kthen,ktokprescribekhowktokinvestigatekwhetherkthekobject haskbeenkeitherknotkdefinedkatkall,korkelsekdefinedkincorrectly. First,kthen,kwekmustkproceedktokexaminekifkitkhaskbeenkdefined incorrectly:kforkwithkanythingkitkiskeasierktokdokitkthanktokdokit correctly.kClearly,kthen,kmorekmista eskarekmadekinktheklatterktas kon accountkofkitskgreaterkdifficulty.kAccordinglykthekattac kbecomes easierkinktheklatterkcasekthankinkthekformer. kkIncorrectnesskfallskintoktwokbranches:k(1)kfirst,kthekusekofkobscure languagek(forktheklanguagekofkakdefinitionkoughtktokbekthekvery clearestkpossible,kseeingkthatkthekwholekpurposekofkrenderingkitkiskto ma eksomethingk nown);k(secondly,kifkthekexpressionkusedkbeklonger thankisknecessary:kforkallkadditionalkmatterkinkakdefinitionkis superfluous.kAgain,keachkofkthekaforesaidkbrancheskiskdividedkintoka

numberkofkothers. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk2 kkOnekcommonplacekrule,kthen,kinkregardktokobscuritykis,kSeekifkthe meaningkintendedkbykthekdefinitionkinvolveskankambiguitykwithkany other,ke.g.k'Becomingkiskakpassagekintokbeing',kork'Healthkiskthe balancekofkhotkandkcoldkelements'.kHerek'passage'kandk'balance'kare ambiguouskterms:kitkiskaccordinglyknotkclearkwhichkofkthekseveral possibleksenseskofkthektermkhekintendsktokconvey.kLi ewisekalso,kif thektermkdefinedkbekusedkinkdifferentksenseskandkhekhaskspo enkwithout distinguishingkbetweenkthem:kforkthenkitkisknotkclearktokwhichkofkthem thekdefinitionkrenderedkapplies,kandkonekcankthenkbringkakcaptious objectionkonkthekgroundkthatkthekdefinitionkdoesknotkapplyktokall thekthingskwhosekdefinitionkhekhaskrendered:kandkthisk indkofkthingkis particularlykeasykinkthekcasekwherekthekdefinerkdoesknotkseekthe ambiguitykofkhiskterms.kOr,kagain,kthekquestionerkmaykhimself distinguishkthekvariousksenseskofkthektermkrenderedkinkthekdefinition, andkthenkinstitutekhiskargumentkagainstkeach:kforkifkthekexpression usedkbeknotkadequatektoktheksubjectkinkanykofkitsksenses,kitkis clearkthatkhekcannotkhavekdefinedkitkinkanyksensekaright. kkAnotherkrulekis,kSeekifkhekhaskusedkakmetaphoricalkexpression,kas, forkinstance,kifkhekhaskdefinedk nowledgekask'unsupplantable',kor thekearthkaskak'nurse',korktemperancekaskak'harmony'.kForka metaphoricalkexpressionkiskalwayskobscure.kItkiskpossible,kalso,kto argueksophisticallykagainstkthekuserkofkakmetaphoricalkexpressionkas thoughkhekhadkusedkitkinkitskliteralksense:kforkthekdefinition statedkwillknotkapplyktokthektermkdefined,ke.g.kinkthekcasekof temperance:kforkharmonykiskalwayskfoundkbetweenknotes.kMoreover,kif harmonykbekthekgenuskofktemperance,kthenktheksamekobjectkwillkoccurkin twokgenerakofkwhichkneitherkcontainskthekother:kforkharmonykdoesknot containkvirtue,knorkvirtuekharmony.kAgain,kseekifkhekusesktermskthat arekunfamiliar,kaskwhenkPlatokdescribeskthekeyekask'brow-shaded',korka certainkspiderkaskpoison-fanged',korkthekmarrowkask'boneformed'.kFor ankunusualkphrasekiskalwayskobscure. kkSometimeskakphrasekiskusedkneitherkambiguously,knorkyet metaphorically,knorkyetkliterally,kaskwhenktheklawkisksaidktokbekthe 'measure'kork'image'kofkthekthingskthatkarekbyknaturekjust.kSuch phraseskarekworsekthankmetaphor;kforktheklatterkdoeskma ekits meaningktoksomekextentkclearkbecausekofkthekli enesskinvolved;kfor thosekwhokusekmetaphorskdoksokalwayskinkviewkofksomekli eness:kwhereas thisk indkofkphrasekma esknothingkclear;kforktherekisknokli enesskto justifykthekdescriptionk'measure'kork'image',kaskappliedktoktheklaw, norkisktheklawkordinarilyksokcalledkinkakliteralksense.kSokthen,kif akmanksayskthatktheklawkiskliterallykak'measure'korkank'image',khe spea skfalsely:kforkankimagekisksomethingkproducedkbykimitation,kand thiskisknotkfoundkinkthekcasekofktheklaw.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,khe doesknotkmeankthektermkliterally,kitkiskclearkthatkhekhaskusedkan unclearkexpression,kandkonekthatkiskworsekthankanyksortkof metaphoricalkexpression. kkMoreover,kseekifkfromkthekexpressionkusedkthekdefinitionkofkthe contrarykbeknotkclear;kforkdefinitionskthatkhavekbeenkcorrectly renderedkalsokindicatektheirkcontrarieskaskwell.kOr,kagain,kseekif, whenkitkiskmerelykstatedkbykitself,kitkisknotkevidentkwhatkitkdefines: justkaskinkthekwor skofkthekoldkpainters,kunlessktherekwerekan inscription,kthekfigureskusedktokbekunrecognizable.

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk3 kkIf,kthen,kthekdefinitionkbeknotkclear,kyoukshouldkproceedktokexamine onklinesksuchkaskthese.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,khekhaskphrasedkthe definitionkredundantly,kfirstkofkallkloo kandkseekwhetherkhekhas usedkanykattributekthatkbelongskuniversally,keitherktokrealkobjectskin general,korktokallkthatkfallkunderktheksamekgenuskaskthekobject defined:kforkthekmentionkofkthiskisksurektokbekredundant.kForkthe genuskoughtktokdividekthekobjectkfromkthingskinkgeneral,kandkthe differentiakfromkanykofkthekthingskcontainedkinktheksamekgenus.kNow anyktermkthatkbelongsktokeverythingkseparateskoffkthekgivenkobject fromkabsolutelyknothing,kwhilekanykthatkbelongsktokallkthekthingskthat fallkunderktheksamekgenuskdoesknotkseparatekitkoffkfromkthekthings containedkinktheksamekgenus.kAnykaddition,kthen,kofkthatk indkwill bekpointless. kkOrkseekif,kthoughkthekadditionalkmatterkmaykbekpeculiarktokthekgiven term,kyetkevenkwhenkitkiskstruc koutkthekrestkofkthekexpressionktookis peculiarkandkma eskclearkthekessencekofkthekterm.kThus,kinkthe definitionkofkman,kthekadditionk'capablekofkreceivingk nowledge'kis superfluous;kforkstri ekitkout,kandkstillkthekexpressionkiskpeculiar andkma eskclearkhiskessence.kSpea ingkgenerally,keverythingkis superfluouskuponkwhosekremovalkthekremainderkstillkma eskthektermkthat iskbeingkdefinedkclear.kSuch,kforkinstance,kwouldkalsokbekthe definitionkofktheksoul,kassumingkitktokbekstatedkaskak'self-moving number';kforktheksoulkiskjustk'thekself-moving',kaskPlatokdefined it.kOrkperhapskthekexpressionkused,kthoughkappropriate,kyetkdoesknot declarekthekessence,kifkthekwordk'number'kbekeliminated.kWhichkof thektwokiskthekrealkstatekofkthekcasekitkiskdifficultktokdetermine clearly:kthekrightkwayktoktreatkthekmatterkinkallkcaseskisktokbe guidedkbykconvenience.kThusk(e.g.)kitkisksaidkthatkthekdefinitionkof phlegmkiskthek'undigestedkmoisturekthatkcomeskfirstkoffkfood'.kHere thekadditionkofkthekwordk'undigested'kisksuperfluous,kseeingkthatk'the first'kiskonekandknotkmany,ksokthatkevenkwhenkundigested'kiskleft outkthekdefinitionkwillkstillkbekpeculiarktoktheksubject:kforkitkis impossiblekthatkbothkphlegmkandkalsoksomethingkelsekshouldkbothkbekthe firstktokarisekfromkthekfood.kOrkperhapskthekphlegmkisknot absolutelykthekfirstkthingktokcomekoffkthekfood,kbutkonlykthekfirstkof thekundigestedkmatters,ksokthatkthekadditionk'undigested'kiskrequired; forkstatedkthekotherkwaykthekdefinitionkwouldknotkbektruekunlesskthe phlegmkcomeskfirstkofkall. kkMoreover,kseekifkanythingkcontainedkinkthekdefinitionkfailsktokapply tokeverythingkthatkfallskunderktheksamekspecies:kforkthisksortkof definitionkiskworsekthankthosekwhichkincludekankattributekbelongingkto allkthingskuniversally.kForkinkthatkcase,kifkthekremainderkofkthe expressionkbekpeculiar,kthekwholektookwillkbekpeculiar:kforkabsolutely always,kifktoksomethingkpeculiarkanythingkwhateverkthatkisktruekbe added,kthekwholektookbecomeskpeculiar.kWhereaskifkanykpartkofkthe expressionkdoknotkapplyktokeverythingkthatkfallskunderktheksame species,kitkiskimpossiblekthatkthekexpressionkaskakwholekshouldkbe peculiar:kforkitkwillknotkbekpredicatedkconvertiblykwithkthekobject; e.g.k'akwal ingkbipedkanimalksixkfeetkhigh':kforkankexpressionkofkthat indkisknotkpredicatedkconvertiblykwithkthekterm,kbecausekthe attributek'sixkfeetkhigh'kdoesknotkbelongktokeverythingkthatkfalls underktheksamekspecies. kkAgain,kseekifkhekhasksaidktheksamekthingkmorekthankonce,ksaying (e.g.)k'desire'kiskak'conationkforkthekpleasant'.kFork'desire'kis alwaysk'forkthekpleasant',ksokthatkwhatkisktheksamekaskdesirekwill

alsokbek'forkthekpleasant'.kAccordinglykourkdefinitionkofkdesire becomesk'conation-for-the-pleasant':kforkthekwordk'desire'kiskthe exactkequivalentkofkthekwordsk'conationkfor-the-pleasant',ksokthat bothkali ekwillkbek'forkthekpleasant'.kOrkperhapsktherekiskno absurditykinkthis;kforkconsiderkthiskinstance:-Mankiskakbiped': therefore,kwhatkisktheksamekaskmankiskakbiped:kbutk'akwal ingkbiped animal'kisktheksamekaskman,kandkthereforekwal ingkbipedkanimalkiska biped'.kButkthiskinvolvesknokrealkabsurdity.kFork'biped'kisknotka predicatekofk'wal ingkanimal':kifkitkwere,kthenkwekshouldkcertainly havek'biped'kpredicatedktwicekofktheksamekthing;kbutkaskakmatterkof factktheksubjectksaidktokbekakbipedkis'akwal ingkbipedkanimal',kso thatkthekwordk'biped'kiskonlykusedkaskakpredicatekonce.kLi ewise alsokinkthekcasekofk'desire'kaskwell:kforkitkisknotk'conation'kthatkis saidktokbek'forkthekpleasant',kbutkratherkthekwholekidea,ksokthat therektookthekpredicationkiskonlykmadekonce.kAbsurditykresults,knot whenktheksamekwordkiskutteredktwice,kbutkwhenktheksamekthingkiskmore thankoncekpredicatedkofkaksubject;ke.g.kifkheksays,kli ekXenocrates, thatkwisdomkdefineskandkcontemplateskreality:'kforkdefinitionkiska certainktypekofkcontemplation,ksokthatkbykaddingkthekwordsk'and contemplates'koverkagainkheksaysktheksamekthingktwicekover. Li ewise,ktoo,kthosekfailkwhoksaykthatk'cooling'kisk'thekprivation ofknaturalkheat'.kForkallkprivationkiskakprivationkofksomeknatural attribute,ksokthatkthekadditionkofkthekwordk'natural'kis superfluous:kitkwouldkhavekbeenkenoughktoksayk'privationkofkheat',kfor thekwordk'privation'kshowskofkitselfkthatkthekheatkmeantkisknatural heat. kkAgain,kseekifkakuniversalkhavekbeenkmentionedkandkthenka particularkcasekofkitkbekaddedkaskwell,ke.g.k'Equitykiskakremissionkof whatkiskexpedientkandkjust';kforkwhatkiskjustkiskakbranchkofkwhatkis expedientkandkiskthereforekincludedkinktheklatterkterm:kitskmentionkis thereforekredundant,kankadditionkofkthekparticularkafterkthekuniversal haskbeenkalreadykstated.kSokalso,kifkhekdefinesk'medicine'kas ' nowledgekofkwhatkma eskforkhealthkinkanimalskandkmen',kork'the law'kask'thekimagekofkwhatkiskbyknatureknoblekandkjust';kforkwhatkis justkiskakbranchkofkwhatkisknoble,ksokthatkheksaysktheksamekthingkmore thankonce. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk4 kkWhether,kthen,kakmankdefineskakthingkcorrectlykorkincorrectlykyou shouldkproceedktokexaminekonkthesekandksimilarklines.kButkwhetherkhe haskmentionedkandkdefinedkitskessencekorkno,kshouldkbekexaminedkas follows:kFirstkofkall,kseekifkhekhaskfailedktokma ekthekdefinition throughktermskthatkarekpriorkandkmorekintelligible.kForkthekreasonkwhy thekdefinitionkiskrenderedkisktokma ek nownkthektermkstated,kandkwe ma ekthingsk nownkbykta ingknotkanykrandomkterms,kbutksuchkaskare priorkandkmorekintelligible,kaskiskdonekinkdemonstrationsk(forksokit iskwithkallkteachingkandklearning);kaccordingly,kitkiskclearkthatka mankwhokdoesknotkdefinekthroughktermskofkthisk indkhasknotkdefined atkall.kOtherwise,ktherekwillkbekmorekthankonekdefinitionkofkthe samekthing:kforkclearlykhekwhokdefineskthroughktermskthatkarekprior andkmorekintelligiblekhaskalsokframedkakdefinition,kandkakbetter one,ksokthatkbothkwouldkthenkbekdefinitionskofktheksamekobject.kThis sortkofkview,khowever,kdoesknotkgenerallykfindkacceptance:kforkofkeach realkobjectkthekessencekisksingle:kif,kthen,ktherekarektokbeka numberkofkdefinitionskofktheksamekthing,kthekessencekofkthekobject willkbektheksamekaskitkiskrepresentedktokbekinkeachkofkthe definitions,kandkthesekrepresentationskareknotktheksame,kinasmuchkas thekdefinitionskarekdifferent.kClearly,kthen,kanykonekwhokhasknot

definedkakthingkthroughktermskthatkarekpriorkandkmorekintelligiblekhas notkdefinedkitkatkall. kkThekstatementkthatkakdefinitionkhasknotkbeenkmadekthroughkmore intelligiblektermskmaykbekunderstoodkinktwoksenses,keitherksupposing thatkitsktermskarekabsolutelyklesskintelligible,korksupposingkthat theykareklesskintelligiblektokus:kforkeitherksensekiskpossible.kThus absolutelykthekpriorkiskmorekintelligiblekthankthekposterior,kakpoint, forkinstance,kthankakline,kaklinekthankakplane,kandkakplanekthanka solid;kjustkaskalsokakunitkiskmorekintelligiblekthankaknumber;kfor itkiskthekpriuskandkstarting-pointkofkallknumber.kLi ewise,kalso,ka letterkiskmorekintelligiblekthankaksyllable.kWhereasktokuskit sometimeskhappenskthatkthekconversekiskthekcase:kforktheksolidkfalls underkperceptionkmostkofkall-morekthankakplane-andkakplanekmorekthanka line,kandkaklinekmorekthankakpoint;kforkmostkpeopleklearnkthings li ekthekformerkearlierkthanktheklatter;kforkanykordinarykintelligence cankgraspkthem,kwhereaskthekotherskrequirekankexactkandkexceptional understanding. kkAbsolutely,kthen,kitkiskbetterktoktryktokma ekwhatkiskposterior nownkthroughkwhatkiskprior,kinasmuchkasksuchkakwaykofkprocedurekis morekscientific.kOfkcourse,kinkdealingkwithkpersonskwhokcannot recognizekthingskthroughktermskofkthatk ind,kitkmaykperhapskbe necessaryktokframekthekexpressionkthroughktermskthatkare intelligiblektokthem.kAmongkdefinitionskofkthisk indkarekthosekofka point,kakline,kandkakplane,kallkofkwhichkexplainkthekpriorkbykthe posterior;kforktheyksaykthatkakpointkisktheklimitkofkakline,kaklinekof akplane,kakplanekofkaksolid.kOnekmust,khowever,knotkfailktokobserve thatkthosekwhokdefinekinkthiskwaykcannotkshowkthekessentialknature ofkthektermktheykdefine,kunlesskitksokhappenskthatktheksamekthingkis morekintelligiblekbothktokuskandkalsokabsolutely,ksincekakcorrect definitionkmustkdefinekakthingkthroughkitskgenuskandkitskdifferentiae, andkthesekbelongktokthekorderkofkthingskwhichkarekabsolutelykmore intelligiblekthan,kandkpriorkto,kthekspecies.kForkannulkthekgenus andkdifferentia,kandkthekspeciesktookiskannulled,ksokthatkthesekare priorktokthekspecies.kTheykarekalsokmorekintelligible;kforkifkthe specieskbek nown,kthekgenuskandkdifferentiakmustkofknecessitykbek nown askwellk(forkanykonekwhok nowskwhatkakmankisk nowskalsokwhat 'animal'kandk'wal ing'kare),kwhereaskifkthekgenuskorkthekdifferentia bek nownkitkdoesknotkfollowkofknecessitykthatkthekspecieskisk nown askwell:kthuskthekspecieskisklesskintelligible.kMoreover,kthosekwho saykthatksuchkdefinitions,kviz.kthosekwhichkproceedkfromkwhatkis intelligiblektokthis,kthat,korkthekotherkman,karekreallykandktruly definitions,kwillkhavektoksaykthatktherekarekseveralkdefinitionskof onekandktheksamekthing.kFor,kaskitkhappens,kdifferentkthingskare morekintelligiblektokdifferentkpeople,knotktheksamekthingsktokall;kand sokakdifferentkdefinitionkwouldkhavektokbekrenderedktokeachkseveral person,kifkthekdefinitionkisktokbekconstructedkfromkwhatkiskmore intelligiblektokparticularkindividuals.kMoreover,ktoktheksamekpeople differentkthingskarekmorekintelligiblekatkdifferentktimes;kfirstkof allkthekobjectskofksense;kthen,kasktheykbecomekmoreksharpwitted,kthe converse;ksokthatkthosekwhokholdkthatkakdefinitionkoughtktokbe renderedkthroughkwhatkiskmorekintelligiblektokparticularkindividuals wouldknotkhavektokrenderktheksamekdefinitionkatkallktimeskevenkto theksamekperson.kItkiskclear,kthen,kthatkthekrightkwayktokdefinekis notkthroughktermskofkthatk ind,kbutkthroughkwhatkiskabsolutelykmore intelligible:kforkonlykinkthiskwaykcouldkthekdefinitionkcomekalwayskto bekonekandktheksame.kPerhaps,kalso,kwhatkiskabsolutelykintelligiblekis whatkiskintelligible,knotktokall,kbutktokthosekwhokarekinkaksound statekofkunderstanding,kjustkaskwhatkiskabsolutelykhealthykiskwhat

iskhealthyktokthosekinkaksoundkstatekofkbody.kAllksuchkpointskas thiskoughtktokbekmadekverykprecise,kandkmadekusekofkinkthekcoursekof discussionkaskoccasionkrequires.kThekdemolitionkofkakdefinitionkwill mostksurelykwinkakgeneralkapprovalkifkthekdefinerkhappensktokhave framedkhiskexpressionkneitherkfromkwhatkiskabsolutelykmore intelligibleknorkyetkfromkwhatkisksoktokus. kkOnekform,kthen,kofkthekfailurektokwor kthroughkmorekintelligible termskiskthekexhibitionkofkthekpriorkthroughkthekposterior,kaskwe remar edkbefore.'kAnotherkformkoccurskifkwekfindkthatkthekdefinition haskbeenkrenderedkofkwhatkiskatkrestkandkdefinitekthroughkwhatkis indefinitekandkinkmotion:kforkwhatkiskstillkandkdefinitekiskpriorkto whatkiskindefinitekandkinkmotion. kkOfkthekfailurektokusektermskthatkarekpriorktherekarekthreekforms: kk(1)kThekfirstkiskwhenkankoppositekhaskbeenkdefinedkthroughkits opposite,ke.g.i.kgoodkthroughkevil:kforkoppositeskarekalways simultaneouskbyknature.kSomekpeoplekthin ,kalso,kthatkbothkarekobjects ofktheksamekscience,ksokthatkthekonekisknotkevenkmorekintelligible thankthekother.kOnekmust,khowever,kobservekthatkitkiskperhapsknot possiblektokdefineksomekthingskinkanykotherkway,ke.g.kthekdouble withoutkthekhalf,kandkallkthektermskthatkarekessentiallykrelative:kfor inkallksuchkcaseskthekessentialkbeingkisktheksamekaskakcertain relationktoksomething,ksokthatkitkiskimpossiblektokunderstandkthe onektermkwithoutkthekother,kandkaccordinglykinkthekdefinitionkofkthe onekthekotherktookmustkbekembraced.kOnekoughtktoklearnkupkallksuch pointskaskthese,kandkusekthemkaskoccasionkmaykseemktokrequire. kk(2)kAnotherkis-ifkhekhaskusedkthektermkdefinedkitself.kThiskpasses unobservedkwhenkthekactualknamekofkthekobjectkisknotkused,ke.g. supposingkanykonekhadkdefinedktheksunkaskakstarkthatkappearskby day'.kForkinkbringingkink'day'khekbringskinktheksun.kTokdetect errorskofkthisksort,kexchangekthekwordkforkitskdefinition,ke.g.kthe definitionkofk'day'kaskthek'passagekofktheksunkoverkthekearth'. Clearly,kwhoeverkhasksaidk'thekpassagekofktheksunkoverkthekearth' hasksaidk'theksun',ksokthatkinkbringingkinkthek'day'khekhaskbroughtkin theksun. kk(3)kAgain,kseekifkhekhaskdefinedkonekcoordinatekmemberkofkakdivision bykanother,ke.g.k'ankoddknumber'kask'thatkwhichkiskgreaterkbykonekthan ankevenknumber'.kForkthekco-ordinatekmemberskofkakdivisionkthatkare derivedkfromktheksamekgenuskareksimultaneouskbyknaturekandk'odd'kand 'even'kareksuchkterms:kforkbothkarekdifferentiaekofknumber. kkLi ewisekalso,kseekifkhekhaskdefinedkaksuperiorkthroughka subordinatekterm,ke.g.k'Ank"evenknumber"kisk"aknumberkdivisiblekinto halves"',kork'"thekgood"kiskak"statekofkvirtue"k'.kFork'half'kis derivedkfromk'two',kandk'two'kiskankevenknumber:kvirtuekalsokiskak ind ofkgood,ksokthatktheklatterktermskareksubordinatektokthekformer. Moreover,kinkusingktheksubordinatektermkonekiskboundktokusekthe otherkaskwell:kforkwhoeverkemployskthektermk'virtue'kemployskthe termk'good',kseeingkthatkvirtuekiskakcertaink indkofkgood:kli ewise, also,kwhoeverkemployskthektermk'half'kemployskthektermk'even',kfor tokbek'dividedkinkhalf'kmeansktokbekdividedkintoktwo,kandktwokiskeven. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk5 kkGenerallykspea ing,kthen,konekcommonplacekrulekrelatesktokthe failurektokframekthekexpressionkbykmeanskofktermskthatkarekpriorkand

morekintelligible:kandkofkthisktheksubdivisionskarekthosekspecified above.kAksecondkis,kseekwhether,kthoughkthekobjectkiskinkakgenus,kit hasknotkbeenkplacedkinkakgenus.kThisksortkofkerrorkiskalwayskfound wherekthekessencekofkthekobjectkdoesknotkstandkfirstkinkthe expression,ke.g.kthekdefinitionkofk'body'kask'thatkwhichkhaskthree dimensions',korkthekdefinitionkofk'man',ksupposingkanykonektokgivekit, ask'thatkwhichk nowskhowktokcount':kforkitkisknotkstatedkwhatkitkis thatkhaskthreekdimensions,korkwhatkitkiskthatk nowskhowktokcount: whereaskthekgenuskiskmeantktokindicatekjustkthis,kandkisksubmitted firstkofkthektermskinkthekdefinition. kkMoreover,kseekif,kwhilekthektermktokbekdefinedkiskusedkinkrelation tokmanykthings,khekhaskfailedktokrenderkitkinkrelationktokallkofkthem; ask(e.g.)kifkhekdefinek'grammar'kaskthek' nowledgekhowktokwritekfrom dictation':kforkhekoughtkalsoktoksaykthatkitkiskak nowledgekhowkto readkaskwell.kForkinkrenderingkitkask' nowledgekofkwriting'khaskno morekdefinedkitkthankbykrenderingkitkask' nowledgekofkreading': neitherkinkfactkhasksucceeded,kbutkonlykhekwhokmentionskbothkthese things,ksincekitkiskimpossiblekthatktherekshouldkbekmorekthankone definitionkofktheksamekthing.kItkiskonly,khowever,kinksomekcases thatkwhatkhaskbeenksaidkcorrespondsktokthekactualkstatekofkthings: inksomekitkdoesknot,ke.g.kallkthosektermskwhichkareknotkused essentiallykinkrelationktokbothkthings:kaskmedicinekisksaidktokdeal withkthekproductionkofkdiseasekandkhealth;kforkitkisksaid essentiallyktokdoktheklatter,kbutkthekformerkonlykbykaccident:kfor itkiskabsolutelykalienktokmedicinektokproducekdisease.kHere,kthen,kthe mankwhokrenderskmedicinekaskrelativektokbothkofkthesekthingskhasknot definedkitkanykbetterkthankhekwhokmentionskthekonekonly.kInkfactkhe haskdonekitkperhapskworse,kforkanykonekelsekbesideskthekdoctorkis capablekofkproducingkdisease. kkMoreover,kinkakcasekwherekthektermktokbekdefinedkiskusedkinkrelation tokseveralkthings,kseekifkhekhaskrenderedkitkaskrelativektokthe worsekratherkthanktokthekbetter;kforkeverykformkofk nowledgekand potentialitykiskgenerallykthoughtktokbekrelativektokthekbest. kkAgain,kifkthekthingkinkquestionkbeknotkplacedkinkitskownkproper genus,konekmustkexaminekitkaccordingktokthekelementarykruleskinkregard tokgenera,kaskhaskbeenksaidkbefore.' kkMoreover,kseekifkhekusesklanguagekwhichktransgresseskthekgenerakof thekthingskhekdefines,kdefining,ke.g.kjusticekaskak'statekthat produceskequality'kork'distributeskwhatkiskequal':kforkbykdefining itksokhekpasseskoutsidekthekspherekofkvirtue,kandksokbykleavingkout thekgenuskofkjusticekhekfailsktokexpresskitskessence:kforkthe essencekofkakthingkmustkinkeachkcasekbringkinkitskgenus.kItkiskthe samekthingkifkthekobjectkbeknotkputkintokitsknearestkgenus;kforkthe mankwhokputskitkintoktheknearestkonekhaskstatedkallkthekhigherkgenera, seeingkthatkallkthekhigherkgenerakarekpredicatedkofktheklower.kEither, then,kitkoughtktokbekputkintokitsknearestkgenus,korkelsektokthekhigher genuskallkthekdifferentiaekoughtktokbekappendedkwherebyktheknearest genuskiskdefined.kForkthenkhekwouldknotkhavekleftkoutkanything:kbut wouldkmerelykhavekmentionedktheksubordinatekgenuskbykankexpression insteadkofkbykname.kOnkthekotherkhand,khekwhokmentionskmerelykthe higherkgenuskbykitself,kdoesknotkstatektheksubordinatekgenuskas well:kinksayingk'plant'kakmankdoesknotkspecifyk'aktree'. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk6 kkAgain,kinkregardktokthekdifferentiae,kwekmustkexaminekinkli ekmanner

whetherkthekdifferentiae,ktoo,kthatkhekhaskstatedkbekthosekofkthe genus.kForkifkakmankhasknotkdefinedkthekobjectkbykthekdifferentiae peculiarktokit,korkhaskmentionedksomethingksuchkaskiskutterly incapablekofkbeingkakdifferentiakofkanything,ke.g.k'animal'kor 'substance',kclearlykhekhasknotkdefinedkitkatkall:kforkthekaforesaid termskdoknotkdifferentiatekanythingkatkall.kFurther,kwekmustksee whetherkthekdifferentiakstatedkpossesseskanythingkthatkis co-ordinatekwithkitkinkakdivision;kfor,kifknot,kclearlykthekonekstated couldknotkbekakdifferentiakofkthekgenus.kForkakgenuskiskalwayskdivided bykdifferentiaekthatkarekco-ordinatekmemberskofkakdivision,kas,kfor instance,kbykthektermsk'wal ing',k'flying',k'aquatic',kandk'biped'.kOr seekif,kthoughkthekcontrastedkdifferentiakexists,kitkyetkisknotktrue ofkthekgenus,kforkthen,kclearly,kneitherkofkthemkcouldkbeka differentiakofkthekgenus;kforkdifferentiaekthatkarekco-ordinateskin akdivisionkwithkthekdifferentiakofkakthingkarekallktruekofkthekgenus tokwhichkthekthingkbelongs.kLi ewise,kalso,kseekif,kthoughkitkbektrue, yetkthekadditionkofkitktokthekgenuskfailsktokma ekakspecies.kForkthen, clearly,kthiskcouldknotkbekakspecifickdifferentiakofkthekgenus:kfor akspecifickdifferentia,kifkaddedktokthekgenus,kalwayskma eskakspecies. If,khowever,kthiskbeknoktruekdifferentia,knokmorekiskthekone adduced,kseeingkthatkitkiskakco-ordinatekmemberkofkakdivisionkwith this. kkMoreover,kseekifkhekdivideskthekgenuskbykaknegation,kaskthosekdokwho defineklinekask'lengthkwithoutkbreadth':kforkthiskmeansksimplykthatkit hasknotkanykbreadth.kThekgenuskwillkthenkbekfoundktokparta ekofkits ownkspecies:kfor,ksincekofkeverythingkeitherkankaffirmationkorkits negationkisktrue,klengthkmustkalwayskeitherklac kbreadthkorkpossess it,ksokthatk'length'kaskwell,ki.e.kthekgenuskofk'line',kwillkbekeither withkorkwithoutkbreadth.kButk'lengthkwithoutkbreadth'kiskthe definitionkofkakspecies,kaskalsokisk'lengthkwithkbreadth':kfor 'withoutkbreadth'kandk'withkbreadth'karekdifferentiae,kandkthekgenus andkdifferentiakconstitutekthekdefinitionkofkthekspecies.kHencekthe genuskwouldkadmitkofkthekdefinitionkofkitskspecies.kLi ewise,kalso,kit willkadmitkofkthekdefinitionkofkthekdifferentia,kseeingkthatkonekor thekotherkofkthekaforesaidkdifferentiaekiskofknecessitykpredicated ofkthekgenus.kThekusefulnesskofkthiskprinciplekiskfoundkinkmeeting thosekwhokassertkthekexistencekofk'Ideas':kforkifkabsoluteklength exist,khowkwillkitkbekpredicablekofkthekgenuskthatkitkhaskbreadthkor thatkitklac skit?kForkonekassertionkorkthekotherkwillkhavektokbe truekofk'length'kuniversally,kifkitkisktokbektruekofkthekgenuskatkall: andkthiskiskcontraryktokthekfact:kforktherekexistkbothklengthskwhich have,kandklengthskwhichkhaveknot,kbreadth.kHencekthekonlykpeople againstkwhomkthekrulekcankbekemployedkarekthosekwhokassertkthatka genuskiskalwaysknumericallykone;kandkthiskiskwhatkiskdonekbykthosekwho assertkthekrealkexistencekofkthek'Ideas';kforktheykallegekthat absoluteklengthkandkabsolutekanimalkarekthekgenus. kkItkmaykbekthatkinksomekcaseskthekdefinerkiskobligedktokemployka negationkaskwell,ke.g.kinkdefiningkprivations.kFork'blind'kmeanska thingkwhichkcannotkseekwhenkitsknaturekisktoksee.kTherekiskno differencekbetweenkdividingkthekgenuskbykaknegation,kandkdividingkit byksuchkankaffirmationkaskiskboundktokhavekaknegationkaskits co-ordinatekinkakdivision,ke.g.ksupposingkhekhadkdefinedksomething ask'lengthkpossessedkofkbreadth';kforkco-ordinatekinkthekdivisionkwith thatkwhichkiskpossessedkofkbreadthkiskthatkwhichkpossesseskno breadthkandkthatkonly,ksokthatkagainkthekgenuskiskdividedkbyka negation. kkAgain,kseekifkhekrenderedkthekspecieskaskakdifferentia,kaskdo

thosekwhokdefinek'contumely'kask'insolencekaccompaniedkbykjeering'; forkjeeringkiskak indkofkinsolence,ki.e.kitkiskakspecieskandknotka differentia. kkMoreover,kseekifkhekhaskstatedkthekgenuskaskthekdifferentia,ke.g. 'Virtuekiskakgoodkorknoblekstate:kfork'good'kiskthekgenuskofk'virtue'. Orkpossiblyk'good'kherekisknotkthekgenuskbutkthekdifferentia,konkthe principlekthatktheksamekthingkcannotkbekinktwokgenerakofkwhichkneither containskthekother:kfork'good'kdoesknotkincludek'state',knorkvice versa:kforknotkeverykstatekiskgoodknorkeverykgoodkak'state'.kBoth, then,kcouldknotkbekgenera,kandkconsequently,kifk'state'kiskthekgenus ofkvirtue,kclearlyk'good'kcannotkbekitskgenus:kitkmustkratherkbekthe differentia'.kMoreover,k'akstate'kindicateskthekessencekofkvirtue, whereask'good'kindicatesknotkthekessencekbutkakquality:kandkto indicatekakqualitykiskgenerallykheldktokbekthekfunctionkofkthe differentia.kSee,kfurther,kwhetherkthekdifferentiakrendered indicateskankindividualkratherkthankakquality:kforkthekgeneralkviewkis thatkthekdifferentiakalwayskexpresseskakquality. kkLoo kandksee,kfurther,kwhetherkthekdifferentiakbelongskonlykby accidentktokthekobjectkdefined.kForkthekdifferentiakiskneverkan accidentalkattribute,kanykmorekthankthekgenuskis:kforkthe differentiakofkakthingkcannotkbothkbelongkandknotkbelongktokit. kkMoreover,kifkeitherkthekdifferentiakorkthekspecies,korkanykofkthe thingskwhichkarekunderkthekspecies,kiskpredicablekofkthekgenus,kthen hekcouldknotkhavekdefinedkthekterm.kForknonekofkthekaforesaidkcan possiblykbekpredicatedkofkthekgenus,kseeingkthatkthekgenuskiskthekterm withkthekwidestkrangekofkall.kAgain,kseekifkthekgenuskbekpredicatedkof thekdifferentia;kforkthekgeneralkviewkiskthatkthekgenuskiskpredicated, notkofkthekdifferentia,kbutkofkthekobjectskofkwhichkthekdifferentiakis predicated.kAnimalk(e.g.)kiskpredicatedkofk'man'kork'ox'korkother wal ingkanimals,knotkofkthekactualkdifferentiakitselfkwhichkwe predicatekofkthekspecies.kForkifk'animal'kisktokbekpredicatedkof eachkofkitskdifferentiae,kthenk'animal'kwouldkbekpredicatedkofkthe specieskseveralktimeskover;kforkthekdifferentiaekarekpredicateskofkthe species.kMoreover,kthekdifferentiaekwillkbekallkeitherkspecieskor individuals,kifktheykarekanimals;kforkeverykanimalkiskeitherkakspecies orkankindividual. kkLi ewisekyoukmustkinquirekalsokifkthekspecieskorkanykofkthe objectskthatkcomekunderkitkiskpredicatedkofkthekdifferentia:kfor thiskiskimpossible,kseeingkthatkthekdifferentiakiskaktermkwithkakwider rangekthankthekvariouskspecies.kMoreover,kifkanykofkthekspecieskbe predicatedkofkit,kthekresultkwillkbekthatkthekdifferentiakiska species:kif,kforkinstance,k'man'kbekpredicated,kthekdifferentiakis clearlykthekhumankrace.kAgain,kseekifkthekdifferentiakfailsktokbe priorktokthekspecies:kforkthekdifferentiakoughtktokbekposteriorktokthe genus,kbutkpriorktokthekspecies. kkLoo kandkseekalsokifkthekdifferentiakmentionedkbelongsktoka differentkgenus,kneitherkcontainedkinknorkcontainingkthekgenuskin question.kForkthekgeneralkviewkiskthatktheksamekdifferentiakcannot bekusedkofktwoknon-subalternkgenera.kElsekthekresultkwillkbekthat theksamekspecieskaskwellkwillkbekinktwoknon-subalternkgenera:kforkeach ofkthekdifferentiaekimportskitskownkgenus,ke.g.k'wal ing'kand 'biped'kimportkwithkthemkthekgenusk'animal'.kIf,kthen,keachkofkthe generakaskwellkisktruekofkthatkofkwhichkthekdifferentiakisktrue,kit clearlykfollowskthatkthekspecieskmustkbekinktwoknon-subaltern genera.kOrkperhapskitkisknotkimpossiblekforktheksamekdifferentiaktokbe

usedkofktwoknon-subalternkgenera,kandkwekoughtktokaddkthekwords 'exceptktheykbothkbeksubordinatekmemberskofktheksamekgenus'.kThus 'wal ingkanimal'kandk'flyingkanimal'kareknon-subalternkgenera,kand 'biped'kiskthekdifferentiakofkboth.kThekwordsk'exceptktheykbothkbe subordinatekmemberskofktheksamekgenus'koughtkthereforektokbekadded; forkbothkthesekareksubordinatektok'animal'.kFromkthiskpossibility, thatktheksamekdifferentiakmaykbekusedkofktwoknon-subalternkgenera, itkiskclearkalsokthatktherekisknoknecessitykforkthekdifferentiakto carrykwithkitkthekwholekofkthekgenusktokwhichkitkbelongs,kbutkonlykthe onekorkthekotherkofkitsklimbsktogetherkwithkthekgenerakthatkarekhigher thankthis,kask'biped'kcarrieskwithkitkeitherk'flying'kork'wal ing animal'. kkSee,ktoo,kifkhekhaskrenderedk'existencekin'ksomethingkaskthe differentiakofkakthing'skessence:kforkthekgeneralkviewkiskthat localitykcannotkdifferentiatekbetweenkonekessencekandkanother. Hence,ktoo,kpeoplekcondemnkthosekwhokdividekanimalskbykmeanskofkthe termsk'wal ing'kandk'aquatic',konkthekgroundkthatk'wal ing'kand 'aquatic'kindicatekmereklocality.kOrkpossiblykinkthiskcasekthekcensure iskundeserved;kfork'aquatic'kdoesknotkmeank'in'kanything;knorkdoes itkdenotekaklocality,kbutkakcertainkquality:kforkevenkifkthekthing bekonkthekdrykland,kstillkitkiskaquatic:kandkli ewisekakland-animal, evenkthoughkitkbekinkthekwater,kwillkstillkbekakandknotkan aquatic-animal.kButkallktheksame,kifkeverkthekdifferentiakdoes denotekexistencekinksomething,kclearlykhekwillkhavekmadekakbad mista e. kkAgain,kseekifkhekhaskrenderedkankaffectionkaskthekdifferentia:kfor everykaffection,kifkintensified,ksubvertskthekessencekofkthekthing, whilekthekdifferentiakisknotkofkthatk ind:kforkthekdifferentiakis generallykconsideredkratherktokpreservekthatkwhichkit differentiates;kandkitkiskabsolutelykimpossiblekforkakthingktokexist withoutkitskownkspecialkdifferentia:kforkifktherekbeknok'wal ing', therekwillkbeknok'man'.kInkfact,kwekmayklaykdownkabsolutelykthatka thingkcannotkhavekaskitskdifferentiakanythingkinkrespectkofkwhichkit isksubjectktokalteration:kforkallkthingskofkthatk ind,kifkintensified, destroykitskessence.kIf,kthen,kakmankhaskrenderedkanykdifferentiakof thisk ind,khekhaskmadekakmista e:kforkwekundergokabsolutelykno alterationkinkrespectkofkourkdifferentiae. kkAgain,kseekifkhekhaskfailedktokrenderkthekdifferentiakofka relativektermkrelativelyktoksomethingkelse;kforkthekdifferentiaekof relativektermskarekthemselveskrelative,kaskinkthekcasekalsokof nowledge.kThiskiskclassedkaskspeculative,kpracticalkandkproductive; andkeachkofkthesekdenoteskakrelation:kforkitkspeculateskupon something,kandkproducesksomethingkandkdoesksomething. kkLoo kandkseekalsokifkthekdefinerkrenderskeachkrelativekterm relativelyktokitsknaturalkpurpose:kforkwhilekinksomekcaseskthe particularkrelativektermkcankbekusedkinkrelationktokitsknatural purposekonlykandktoknothingkelse,ksomekcankbekusedkinkrelationkto somethingkelsekaskwell.kThusksightkcankonlykbekusedkforkseeing,kbut akstrigilkcankalsokbekusedktokdipkupkwater.kStill,kifkanykonekwere tokdefinekakstrigilkaskankinstrumentkforkdippingkwater,khekhaskmade akmista e:kforkthatkisknotkitsknaturalkfunction.kThekdefinitionkofka thing'sknaturalkfunctionkisk'thatkforkwhichkitkwouldkbekusedkbykthe prudentkman,kactingkasksuch,kandkbyktheksciencekthatkdealskspecially withkthatkthing'. kkOrkseekif,kwheneverkaktermkhappensktokbekusedkinkaknumberkof

relations,khekhaskfailedktokintroducekitkinkitskprimarykrelation:ke.g. bykdefiningk'wisdom'kaskthekvirtuekofk'man'korkofkthek'soul,'krather thankofkthek'reasoningkfaculty':kfork'wisdom'kiskthekvirtue primarilykofkthekreasoningkfaculty:kforkitkiskinkvirtuekofkthiskthat bothkthekmankandkhisksoulkareksaidktokbekwise. kkMoreover,kifkthekthingkofkwhichkthektermkdefinedkhaskbeenkstated tokbekankaffectionkorkdisposition,korkwhateverkitkmaykbe,kbekunablekto admitkit,kthekdefinerkhaskmadekakmista e.kForkeverykdispositionkand everykaffectionkiskformedknaturallykinkthatkofkwhichkitkiskan affectionkorkdisposition,kask nowledge,ktoo,kiskformedkinktheksoul, beingkakdispositionkofksoul.kSometimes,khowever,kpeoplekma ekbad mista eskinkmatterskofkthisksort,ke.g.kallkthosekwhoksaykthat 'sleep'kiskak'failurekofksensation',korkthatk'perplexity'kiskakstate ofk'equalitykbetweenkcontrarykreasonings',korkthatk'pain'kiska 'violentkdisruptionkofkpartskthatkareknaturallykconjoined'.kFor sleepkisknotkankattributekofksensation,kwhereaskitkoughtktokbe,kif itkiskakfailurekofksensation.kLi ewise,kperplexitykisknotkankattribute ofkoppositekreasonings,knorkpainkofkpartsknaturallykconjoined:kfor thenkinanimatekthingskwillkbekinkpain,ksincekpainkwillkbekpresentkin them.kSimilarkinkcharacter,ktoo,kiskthekdefinitionkofk'health',ksay, askak'balancekofkhotkandkcoldkelements':kforkthenkhealthkwillkbe necessarilykexhibitedkbykthekhotkandkcoldkelements:kforkbalancekof anythingkiskankattributekinherentkinkthosekthingskofkwhichkitkiskthe balance,ksokthatkhealthkwouldkbekankattributekofkthem.kMoreover, peoplekwhokdefinekinkthiskwaykputkeffectkforkcause,korkcausekfor effect.kForkthekdisruptionkofkpartsknaturallykconjoinedkisknotkpain, butkonlykakcausekofkpain:knorkagainkiskakfailurekofksensationksleep, butkthekonekiskthekcausekofkthekother:kforkeitherkwekgoktoksleep becauseksensationkfails,korksensationkfailskbecausekwekgoktoksleep. Li ewisekalsokankequalitykbetweenkcontrarykreasoningskwouldkbe generallykconsideredktokbekakcausekofkperplexity:kforkitkiskwhenkwe reflectkonkbothksideskofkakquestionkandkfindkeverythingkali ektokbekin eepingkwithkeitherkcoursekthatkwekarekperplexedkwhichkofkthektwokwe arektokdo. kkMoreover,kwithkregardktokallkperiodskofktimekloo kandkseekwhether therekbekanykdiscrepancykbetweenkthekdifferentiakandkthekthing defined:ke.g.ksupposingkthek'immortal'ktokbekdefinedkaskak'living thingkimmunekatkpresentkfromkdestruction'.kForkaklivingkthingkthat iskimmunek'atkpresent'kfromkdestructionkwillkbekimmortalk'atkpresent'. Possibly,kindeed,kinkthiskcasekthiskresultkdoesknotkfollow,kowingkto thekambiguitykofkthekwordsk'immunekatkpresentkfromkdestruction':kfor itkmaykmeankeitherkthatkthekthingkhasknotkbeenkdestroyedkatkpresent, orkthatkitkcannotkbekdestroyedkatkpresent,korkthatkatkpresentkitkis suchkthatkitkneverkcankbekdestroyed.kWhenever,kthen,kweksaykthatka livingkthingkiskatkpresentkimmunekfromkdestruction,kwekmeankthatkitkis atkpresentkaklivingkthingkofksuchkak indkaskneverktokbekdestroyed:kand thiskiskequivalentktoksayingkthatkitkiskimmortal,ksokthatkitkisknot meantkthatkitkiskimmortalkonlykatkpresent.kStill,kifkeverkitkdoes happenkthatkwhatkhaskbeenkrenderedkaccordingktokthekdefinitionkbelongs inkthekpresentkonlykorkpast,kwhereaskwhatkiskmeantkbykthekwordkdoes notksokbelong,kthenkthektwokcouldknotkbektheksame.kSo,kthen,kthis commonplacekrulekoughtktokbekfollowed,kaskwekhaveksaid. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk7 kkYoukshouldkloo kandkseekalsokwhetherkthektermkbeingkdefinedkis appliedkinkconsiderationkofksomethingkotherkthankthekdefinition rendered.kSupposek(e.g.)kakdefinitionkofk'justice'kaskthek'ability

tokdistributekwhatkiskequal'.kThiskwouldknotkbekright,kfork'just' describeskratherkthekmankwhokchooses,kthankthekmankwhokiskablekto distributekwhatkiskequal:ksokthatkjusticekcouldknotkbekankabilitykto distributekwhatkiskequal:kforkthenkalsokthekmostkjustkmankwouldkbekthe mankwithkthekmostkabilityktokdistributekwhatkiskequal. kkMoreover,kseekifkthekthingkadmitskofkdegrees,kwhereaskwhatkis renderedkaccordingktokthekdefinitionkdoesknot,kor,kvicekversa,kwhatkis renderedkaccordingktokthekdefinitionkadmitskofkdegreeskwhilekthekthing doesknot.kForkeitherkbothkmustkadmitkthemkorkelsekneither,kifkindeed whatkiskrenderedkaccordingktokthekdefinitionkisktheksamekaskthekthing. Moreover,kseekif,kwhilekbothkofkthemkadmitkofkdegrees,ktheykyetkdoknot bothkbecomekgreaterktogether:ke.g.ksupposeksexualklovektokbekthe desirekforkintercourse:kforkhekwhokiskmorekintenselykinklovekhasknotka morekintensekdesirekforkintercourse,ksokthatkbothkdoknotkbecome intensifiedkatkonce:ktheykcertainlykshould,khowever,khadktheykbeenkthe samekthing. kkMoreover,ksupposektwokthingsktokbekbeforekyou,kseekifkthektermktokbe definedkapplieskmorekparticularlyktokthekonektokwhichkthekcontentkof thekdefinitionkisklesskapplicable.kTa e,kforkinstance,kthe definitionkofk'fire'kaskthek'bodykthatkconsistskofkthekmostkrarefied particles'.kFork'fire'kdenoteskflamekratherkthanklight,kbutkflamekis lesskthekbodykthatkconsistskofkthekmostkrarefiedkparticleskthankis light:kwhereaskbothkoughtktokbekmorekapplicablektoktheksamekthing, ifktheykhadkbeenktheksame.kAgain,kseekifkthekonekexpressionkapplies ali ektokbothkthekobjectskbeforekyou,kwhilekthekotherkdoesknotkapply tokbothkali e,kbutkmorekparticularlyktokonekofkthem. kkMoreover,kseekifkhekrenderskthekdefinitionkrelativektoktwokthings ta enkseparately:kthus,kthekbeautiful'kisk'whatkiskpleasantktokthe eyeskorktokthekears":kork'thekreal'kisk'whatkiskcapablekofkbeingkacted uponkorkofkacting'.kForkthenktheksamekthingkwillkbekbothkbeautifulkand notkbeautiful,kandkli ewisekwillkbekbothkrealkandknotkreal.kFor 'pleasantktokthekears'kwillkbektheksamekask'beautiful',ksokthatk'not pleasantktokthekears'kwillkbektheksamekask'notkbeautiful':kforkof identicalkthingskthekopposites,ktoo,karekidentical,kandkthekopposite ofk'beautiful'kisk'notkbeautiful',kwhilekofk'pleasantktokthekears'kthe oppositekisknotkpleasantktokthekcars':kclearly,kthen,k'notkpleasantkto thekears'kisktheksamekthingkask'notkbeautiful'.kIf,ktherefore, somethingkbekpleasantktokthekeyeskbutknotktokthekears,kitkwillkbekboth beautifulkandknotkbeautiful.kInkli ekmannerkwekshallkshowkalsokthat theksamekthingkiskbothkrealkandkunreal. kkMoreover,kofkbothkgenerakandkdifferentiaekandkallkthekotherkterms renderedkinkdefinitionskyoukshouldkframekdefinitionskinklieukofkthe terms,kandkthenkseekifktherekbekanykdiscrepancykbetweenkthem. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk8 kkIfkthektermkdefinedkbekrelative,keitherkinkitselfkorkinkrespectkof itskgenus,kseekwhetherkthekdefinitionkfailsktokmentionkthatktokwhich thekterm,keitherkinkitselfkorkinkrespectkofkitskgenus,kiskrelative, e.g.kifkhekhaskdefinedk' nowledge'kaskank'incontrovertiblekconception' ork'wishing'kask'painlesskconation'.kForkofkeverythingkrelativekthe essencekiskrelativektoksomethingkelse,kseeingkthatkthekbeingkof everykrelativektermkiskidenticalkwithkbeingkinkakcertainkrelationkto something.kHekought,ktherefore,ktokhaveksaidkthatk nowledgekis 'conceptionkofkak nowable'kandkthatkwishingkisk'conationkforka good'.kLi ewise,kalso,kifkhekhaskdefinedk'grammar'kask' nowledgekof

letters':kwhereaskinkthekdefinitionktherekoughtktokbekrendered eitherkthekthingktokwhichkthektermkitselfkiskrelative,korkthat, whateverkitkis,ktokwhichkitskgenuskiskrelative.kOrkseekifkakrelative termkhaskbeenkdescribedknotkinkrelationktokitskend,kthekendkin anythingkbeingkwhateverkiskbestkinkitkorkgiveskitskpurposektokthe rest.kCertainlykitkiskwhatkiskbestkorkfinalkthatkshouldkbekstated, e.g.kthatkdesirekisknotkforkthekpleasantkbutkforkpleasure:kforkthiskis ourkpurposekinkchoosingkwhatkiskpleasantkaskwell. kkLoo kandkseekalsokifkthatkinkrelationktokwhichkhekhaskrenderedkthe termkbekakprocesskorkankactivity:kforknothingkofkthatk indkiskan end,kforkthekcompletionkofkthekactivitykorkprocesskiskthekendkrather thankthekprocesskorkactivitykitself.kOrkperhapskthiskrulekisknot truekinkallkcases,kforkalmostkeverybodykpreferskthekpresentkexperience ofkpleasurektokitskcessation,ksokthatktheykwouldkcountkthekactivitykas thekendkratherkthankitskcompletion. kkAgainkseekinksomekcaseskifkhekhaskfailedktokdistinguishkthekquantity orkqualitykorkplacekorkotherkdifferentiaekofkankobject;ke.g.kthe qualitykandkquantitykofkthekhonourkthekstrivingkforkwhichkma eska mankambitious:kforkallkmenkstrivekforkhonour,ksokthatkitkisknotkenough tokdefinekthekambitiouskmankaskhimkwhokstriveskforkhonour,kbutkthe aforesaidkdifferentiaekmustkbekadded.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkdefining thekcovetouskmankthekquantitykofkmoneykhekaimskat,korkinkthekcasekof thekincontinentkmankthekqualitykofkthekpleasures,kshouldkbekstated. Forkitkisknotkthekmankwhokgiveskwayktokanyksortkofkpleasurekwhatever whokiskcalledkincontinent,kbutkonlykhekwhokgiveskwayktokakcertaink ind ofkpleasure.kOrkagain,kpeopleksometimeskdefineknightkaskak'shadowkon thekearth',korkankearthqua ekaskakmovementkofkthekearth',korkakcloud ask'condensationkofkthekair',korkakwindkaskak'movementkofkthekair'; whereasktheykoughtktokspecifykaskwellkquantity,kquality,kplace,kand cause.kLi ewise,kalso,kinkotherkcaseskofkthek ind:kforkbykomittingkany differentiaekwhateverkhekfailsktokstatekthekessencekofkthekterm.kOne shouldkalwayskattac kdeficiency.kForkakmovementkofkthekearthkdoes notkconstitutekankearthqua e,knorkakmovementkofkthekairkakwind, irrespectivekofkitskmannerkandkthekamountkinvolved. kkMoreover,kinkthekcasekofkconations,kandkinkanykotherkcaseskwhere itkapplies,kseekifkthekwordk'apparent'kiskleftkout,ke.g.k'wishingkiska conationkafterkthekgood',kork'desirekiskakconationkafterkthe pleasant'-insteadkofksayingk'thekapparentlykgood',kork'pleasant'. Forkoftenkthosekwhokexhibitkthekconationkdoknotkperceivekwhatkis goodkorkpleasant,ksokthatktheirkaimkneedknotkbekreallykgoodkor pleasant,kbutkonlykapparentlykso.kTheykought,ktherefore,ktokhave renderedkthekdefinitionkalsokaccordingly.kOnkthekotherkhand,kanykone whokmaintainskthekexistencekofkIdeaskoughtktokbekbroughtkfacekto facekwithkhiskIdeas,kevenkthoughkhekdoeskrenderkthekwordkin question:kforktherekcankbeknokIdeakofkanythingkmerelykapparent:kthe generalkviewkiskthatkankIdeakiskalwayskspo enkofkinkrelationktokan Idea:kthuskabsolutekdesirekiskforkthekabsolutelykpleasant,kand absolutekwishingkiskforkthekabsolutelykgood;ktheykthereforekcannot bekforkankapparentkgoodkorkankapparentlykpleasant:kforkthekexistence ofkankabsolutely-apparently-goodkorkpleasantkwouldkbekankabsurdity. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk9 kkMoreover,kifkthekdefinitionkbekofkthekstatekofkanything,kloo kat whatkiskinkthekstate,kwhilekifkitkbekofkwhatkiskinkthekstate,kloo atkthekstate:kandkli ewisekalsokinkotherkcaseskofkthek ind.kThuskif thekpleasantkbekidenticalkwithkthekbeneficial,kthen,ktoo,kthekman

whokiskpleasedkiskbenefited.kSpea ingkgenerally,kinkdefinitionskof thisksortkitkhappenskthatkwhatkthekdefinerkdefineskiskinkaksense morekthankonekthing:kforkinkdefiningk nowledge,kakmankinkaksense defineskignorancekaskwell,kandkli ewisekalsokwhatkhask nowledgekand whatklac skit,kandkwhatkitkisktok nowkandktokbekignorant.kForkifkthe firstkbekmadekclear,kthekotherskbecomekinkakcertainksensekclearkas well.kWekhave,kthen,ktokbekonkourkguardkinkallksuchkcaseskagainst discrepancy,kusingkthekelementarykprincipleskdrawnkfrom considerationkofkcontrarieskandkofkcoordinates. kkMoreover,kinkthekcasekofkrelativekterms,kseekifkthekspecieskis renderedkaskrelativektokakspecieskofkthatktokwhichkthekgenuskis renderedkaskrelative,ke.g.ksupposingkbeliefktokbekrelativektoksome objectkofkbelief,kseekwhetherkakparticularkbeliefkiskmadekrelative toksomekparticularkobjectkofkbelief:kand,kifkakmultiplekbekrelativekto akfraction,kseekwhetherkakparticularkmultiplekbekmadekrelativektoka particularkfraction.kForkifkitkbeknotksokrendered,kclearlykakmista e haskbeenkmade. kkSee,kalso,kifkthekoppositekofkthektermkhaskthekopposite definition,kwhetherk(e.g.)kthekdefinitionkofk'half'kiskthekoppositekof thatkofk'double':kforkifk'double'kisk'thatkwhichkexceedskanotherkbykan equalkamountktokthatkother',k'half'kisk'thatkwhichkiskexceededkbykan amountkequalktokitself'.kInktheksamekway,ktoo,kwithkcontraries.kForkto thekcontraryktermkwillkapplykthekdefinitionkthatkiskcontrarykinksome onekofkthekwayskinkwhichkcontrarieskarekconjoined.kThusk(e.g.)kif 'useful'='productivekofkgood',k'injurious'=productivekofkevil'kor 'destructivekofkgood',kforkonekorkthekotherkofktheekiskboundktokbe contraryktokthektermkoriginallykused.kSuppose,kthen,kneitherkof thesekthingsktokbekthekcontrarykofkthektermkoriginallykused,kthen clearlykneitherkofkthekdefinitionskrenderedklaterkcouldkbekthe definitionkofkthekcontrarykofkthektermkoriginallykdefined:kand thereforekthekdefinitionkoriginallykrenderedkofkthekoriginalkterm hasknotkbeenkrightlykrenderedkeither.kSeeing,kmoreover,kthatkof contraries,kthekonekisksometimeskakwordkforcedktokdenotekthekprivation ofkthekother,kask(e.g.)kinequalitykiskgenerallykheldktokbekthe privationkofkequalityk(fork'unequal'kmerelykdescribeskthingskthat areknotkequal'),kitkiskthereforekclearkthatkthatkcontrarykwhosekform denoteskthekprivationkmustkofknecessitykbekdefinedkthroughkthe other;kwhereaskthekotherkcannotkthenkbekdefinedkthroughkthekone whosekformkdenoteskthekprivation;kforkelsekwekshouldkfindkthatkeachkis beingkinterpretedkbykthekother.kWekmustkinkthekcasekofkcontrary termsk eepkankeyekonkthiskmista e,ke.g.ksupposingkanykonekwerekto definekequalitykaskthekcontrarykofkinequality:kforkthenkhekiskdefining itkthroughkthektermkwhichkdenoteskprivationkofkit.kMoreover,kakmankwho sokdefineskiskboundktokusekinkhiskdefinitionkthekveryktermkhekis defining;kandkthiskbecomeskclear,kifkforkthekwordkweksubstitutekits definition.kForktoksayk'inequality'kisktheksamekasktoksayk'privation ofkequality'.kThereforekequalityksokdefinedkwillkbek'thekcontrarykof thekprivationkofkequality',ksokthatkhekwouldkhavekusedkthekverykword tokbekdefined.kSuppose,khowever,kthatkneitherkofkthekcontrarieskbe sokformedkasktokdenotekprivation,kbutkyetkthekdefinitionkofkitkbe renderedkinkakmannerkli ekthekabove,ke.g.ksupposek'good'ktokbekdefined ask'thekcontrarykofkevil',kthen,ksincekitkiskclearkthatk'evil'ktoo willkbek'thekcontrarykofkgood'k(forkthekdefinitionkofkthingskthat arekcontrarykinkthiskmustkbekrenderedkinkakli ekmanner),kthekresult againkiskthatkhekuseskthekveryktermkbeingkdefined:kfork'good'kis inherentkinkthekdefinitionkofk'evil'.kIf,kthen,k'good'kbekthekcontrary ofkevil,kandkevilkbeknothingkotherkthankthek'contrarykofkgood',kthen 'good'kwillkbekthek'contrarykofkthekcontrarykofkgood'.kClearly,

then,khekhaskusedkthekverykwordktokbekdefined. kkMoreover,kseekifkinkrenderingkaktermkformedktokdenotekprivation, hekhaskfailedktokrenderkthektermkofkwhichkitkiskthekprivation,ke.g. thekstate,korkcontrary,korkwhateverkitkmaykbekwhosekprivationkitkis: alsokifkhekhaskomittedktokaddkeitherkanyktermkatkallkinkwhichkthe privationkisknaturallykformed,korkelsekthatkinkwhichkitkisknaturally formedkprimarily,ke.g.kwhetherkinkdefiningk'ignorance'kakprivation hekhaskfailedktoksaykthatkitkiskthekprivationkofk' nowledge';korkhas failedktokaddkinkwhatkitkisknaturallykformed,kor,kthoughkhekhas addedkthis,khaskfailedktokrenderkthekthingkinkwhichkitkiskprimarily formed,kplacingkitk(e.g.)kink'man'korkink'theksoul',kandknotkinkthe 'reasoningkfaculty':kforkifkinkanykofkthesekrespectskhekfails,khe haskmadekakmista e.kLi ewise,kalso,kifkhekhaskfailedktoksaykthat 'blindness'kiskthek'privationkofksightkinkankeye':kforkakproper renderingkofkitskessencekmustkstatekbothkofkwhatkitkiskthekprivation andkwhatkitkiskthatkiskdeprived. kkExaminekfurtherkwhetherkhekhaskdefinedkbykthekexpressionk'a privation'kaktermkthatkisknotkusedktokdenotekakprivation:kthuska mista ekofkthisksortkalsokwouldkbekgenerallykthoughtktokbekincurredkin thekcasekofk'error'kbykanykonekwhokisknotkusingkitkaskakmerely negativekterm.kForkwhatkiskgenerallykthoughtktokbekinkerrorkisknot thatkwhichkhasknok nowledge,kbutkratherkthatkwhichkhaskbeen deceived,kandkforkthiskreasonkwekdoknotktal kofkinanimatekthingskorkof childrenkask'erring'.k'Error',kthen,kisknotkusedktokdenotekakmere privationkofk nowledge. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk10 kkMoreover,kseekwhetherkthekli ekinflexionskinkthekdefinitionkapplykto thekli ekinflexionskofkthekterm;ke.g.kifk'beneficial'kmeans 'productivekofkhealth',kdoesk'beneficially'kmeankproductivelykof health'kandkak'benefactor'kak'producerkofkhealth'? kkLoo ktookandkseekwhetherkthekdefinitionkgivenkwillkapplyktokthekIdea askwell.kForkinksomekcaseskitkwillknotkdokso;ke.g.kinkthekPlatonic definitionkwherekhekaddskthekwordk'mortal'kinkhiskdefinitionskof livingkcreatures:kforkthekIdeak(e.g.kthekabsolutekMan)kisknot mortal,ksokthatkthekdefinitionkwillknotkfitkthekIdea.kSokalways whereverkthekwordsk'capablekofkactingkon'kork'capablekofkbeingkacted upon'karekadded,kthekdefinitionkandkthekIdeakarekabsolutelykboundkto bekdiscrepant:kforkthosekwhokassertkthekexistencekofkIdeaskholdkthat theykarekincapablekofkbeingkactedkupon,korkofkmotion.kInkdealing withkthesekpeoplekevenkargumentskofkthisk indkarekuseful. kkFurther,kseekifkhekhaskrenderedkaksinglekcommonkdefinitionkof termskthatkarekusedkambiguously.kForktermskwhosekdefinition correspondingktheirkcommonknamekiskonekandktheksame,kareksynonymous; if,kthen,kthekdefinitionkapplieskinkakli ekmannerktokthekwholekrange ofkthekambiguouskterm,kitkisknotktruekofkanykonekofkthekobjects describedkbykthekterm.kThiskis,kmoreover,kwhatkhappensktokDionysius' definitionkofk'life'kwhenkstatedkask'akmovementkofkakcreature sustainedkbyknutriment,kcongenitallykpresentkwithkit':kforkthiskis foundkinkplantskaskmuchkaskinkanimals,kwhereask'life'kiskgenerally understoodktokmeanknotkonek indkofkthingkonly,kbutktokbekonekthing inkanimalskandkanotherkinkplants.kItkiskpossiblektokholdkthekviewkthat lifekiskaksynonymousktermkandkiskalwayskusedktokdescribekonekthing only,kandkthereforektokrenderkthekdefinitionkinkthiskwaykonkpurpose: orkitkmaykquitekwellkhappenkthatkakmankmaykseekthekambiguouskcharacter

ofkthekword,kandkwishktokrenderkthekdefinitionkofkthekoneksense only,kandkyetkfailktokseekthatkhekhaskrenderedkakdefinitionkcommon tokbothksenseskinsteadkofkonekpeculiarktoktheksensekhekintends.kIn eitherkcase,kwhicheverkcoursekhekpursues,khekiskequallykatkfault. Sincekambiguousktermsksometimeskpasskunobserved,kitkiskbestkin questioningktoktreatksuchktermskaskthoughktheykwereksynonymousk(for thekdefinitionkofkthekoneksensekwillknotkapplyktokthekother,ksokthat thekanswererkwillkbekgenerallykthoughtknotktokhavekdefinedkit correctly,kforktokaksynonymousktermkthekdefinitionkshouldkapplykinkits fullkrange),kwhereaskinkansweringkyoukshouldkyourselfkdistinguish betweenktheksenses.kFurther,kasksomekanswererskcallk'ambiguous'kwhat iskreallyksynonymous,kwheneverkthekdefinitionkrenderedkfailskto applykuniversally,kand,kvicekversa,kcallksynonymouskwhatkiskreally ambiguousksupposingktheirkdefinitionkappliesktokbothksenseskofkthe term,konekshouldksecurekakpreliminarykadmissionkonksuchkpoints,kor elsekprovekbeforehandkthatkso-and-sokiskambiguouskorksynonymous,kas thekcasekmaykbe:kforkpeoplekarekmorekreadyktokagreekwhenktheykdoknot foreseekwhatkthekconsequencekwillkbe.kIf,khowever,knokadmissionkhas beenkmade,kandkthekmankassertskthatkwhatkiskreallyksynonymouskis ambiguouskbecausekthekdefinitionkhekhaskrenderedkwillknotkapplyktokthe secondksensekaskwell,kseekifkthekdefinitionkofkthisksecondkmeaning applieskalsoktokthekotherkmeanings:kforkifkso,kthiskmeaningkmust clearlykbeksynonymouskwithkthosekothers.kOtherwise,ktherekwillkbekmore thankonekdefinitionkofkthosekotherkmeanings,kforktherekare applicablektokthemktwokdistinctkdefinitionskinkexplanationkofkthe term,kviz.kthekonekpreviouslykrenderedkandkalsoktheklaterkone. Again,kifkanykonekwerektokdefinekaktermkusedkinkseveralksenses,kand, findingkthatkhiskdefinitionkdoesknotkapplyktokthemkall,kwerekto contendknotkthatkthektermkiskambiguous,kbutkthatkevenkthektermkdoes notkproperlykapplyktokallkthoseksenses,kjustkbecausekhiskdefinition willknotkdoksokeither,kthenkonekmaykretortktoksuchkakmankthatkthough inksomekthingskonekmustknotkusektheklanguagekofkthekpeople,kyetkinka questionkofkterminologykonekiskboundktokemploykthekreceivedkand traditionalkusagekandknotktokupsetkmatterskofkthatksort. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk11 kkSupposeknowkthatkakdefinitionkhaskbeenkrenderedkofksomekcomplex term,kta ekawaykthekdefinitionkofkonekofkthekelementskinkthe complex,kandkseekifkalsokthekrestkofkthekdefinitionkdefineskthekrest ofkit:kifknot,kitkiskclearkthatkneitherkdoeskthekwholekdefinition definekthekwholekcomplex.kSuppose,ke.g.kthatksomekonekhaskdefinedka 'finitekstraightkline'kask'theklimitkofkakfinitekplane,ksuchkthat itskcentrekiskinkaklinekwithkitskextremes';kifknowkthekdefinitionkofka finitekline'kbekthek'limitkofkakfinitekplane',kthekrestk(viz.k'such thatkitskcentrekiskinkaklinekwithkitskextremes')koughtktokbeka definitionkofkstraight'.kButkankinfinitekstraightklinekhaskneither centreknorkextremeskandkyetkiskstraightksokthatkthiskremainderkdoes notkdefinekthekremainderkofkthekterm. kkMoreover,kifkthektermkdefinedkbekakcompoundknotion,kseekifkthe definitionkrenderedkbekequimembralkwithkthektermkdefined.kAkdefinition isksaidktokbekequimembralkwithkthektermkdefinedkwhenktheknumberkofkthe elementskcompoundedkinktheklatterkisktheksamekasktheknumberkofknouns andkverbskinkthekdefinition.kForkthekexchangekinksuchkcaseskiskbound tokbekmerelykonekofktermkforkterm,kinkthekcasekofksomekifknotkof all,kseeingkthatktherekareknokmorektermskusedknowkthankformerly; whereaskinkakdefinitionktermskoughtktokbekrenderedkbykphrases,kif possiblekinkeverykcase,korkifknot,kinkthekmajority.kForkatkthat rate,ksimplekobjectsktookcouldkbekdefinedkbykmerelykcallingkthemkby

akdifferentkname,ke.g.k'cloa 'kinsteadkofk'doublet'. kkThekmista ekiskevenkworse,kifkactuallykaklesskwellk nownktermkbe substituted,ke.g.k'pellucidkmortal'kfork'whitekman':kforkitkiskno definition,kandkmoreoverkisklesskintelligiblekwhenkputkinkthatkform. kkLoo kandkseekalsokwhether,kinkthekexchangekofkwords,ktheksensekfails stillktokbektheksame.kTa e,kforkinstance,kthekexplanationkof 'speculativek nowledge'kask'speculativekconception':kforkconceptionkis notktheksamekask nowledge-askitkcertainlykoughtktokbekifkthekwhole isktokbektheksamektoo:kforkthoughkthekwordk'speculative'kiskcommon tokbothkexpressions,kyetkthekremainderkiskdifferent. kkMoreover,kseekifkinkreplacingkonekofkthektermskbyksomethingkelse hekhaskexchangedkthekgenuskandknotkthekdifferentia,kaskinkthe examplekjustkgiven:kfork'speculative'kiskaklesskfamiliarktermkthan nowledge;kforkthekonekiskthekgenuskandkthekotherkthekdifferentia,kand thekgenuskiskalwayskthekmostkfamiliarktermkofkall;ksokthatkitkisknot this,kbutkthekdifferentia,kthatkoughtktokhavekbeenkchanged,kseeing thatkitkisktheklesskfamiliar.kItkmightkbekheldkthatkthiskcriticism iskridiculous:kbecausektherekisknokreasonkwhykthekmostkfamiliarkterm shouldknotkdescribekthekdifferentia,kandknotkthekgenus;kinkwhichkcase, clearly,kthektermktokbekalteredkwouldkalsokbekthatkdenotingkthe genuskandknotkthekdifferentia.kIf,khowever,kakmankisksubstituting forkaktermknotkmerelykanotherktermkbutkakphrase,kclearlykitkiskof thekdifferentiakratherkthankofkthekgenuskthatkakdefinitionkshouldkbe rendered,kseeingkthatkthekobjectkofkrenderingkthekdefinitionkiskto ma ektheksubjectkfamiliar;kforkthekdifferentiakisklesskfamiliarkthan thekgenus. kkIfkhekhaskrenderedkthekdefinitionkofkthekdifferentia,kseekwhether thekdefinitionkrenderedkiskcommonktokitkandksomethingkelsekaskwell: e.g.kwheneverkheksayskthatkankoddknumberkiskak'numberkwithka middle',kfurtherkdefinitionkiskrequiredkofkhowkitkhaskakmiddle:kfor thekwordk'number'kiskcommonktokbothkexpressions,kandkitkiskthekword 'odd'kforkwhichkthekphrasekhaskbeenksubstituted.kNowkbothkaklinekandka bodykhavekakmiddle,kyetktheykareknotk'odd';ksokthatkthiskcouldknot bekakdefinitionkofk'odd'.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,kthekphrasek'withka middle'kbekusedkinkseveralksenses,ktheksensekherekintendedkrequireskto bekdefined.kSokthatkthiskwillkeitherkdiscreditkthekdefinitionkorkprove thatkitkisknokdefinitionkatkall. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk12 kkAgain,kseekifkthektermkofkwhichkhekrenderskthekdefinitionkiska reality,kwhereaskwhatkiskcontainedkinkthekdefinitionkisknot,ke.g. Supposek'white'ktokbekdefinedkask'colourkmingledkwithkfire':kfor whatkiskbodilesskcannotkbekmingledkwithkbody,ksokthatk'colour' 'mingledkwithkfire'kcouldknotkexist,kwhereask'white'kdoeskexist. kkMoreover,kthosekwhokinkthekcasekofkrelativektermskdoknotkdistinguish tokwhatkthekobjectkiskrelated,kbutkhavekdescribedkitkonlyksokaskto includekitkamongktooklargekaknumberkofkthings,karekwrongkeitherkwholly orkinkpart;ke.g.ksupposeksomekonektokhavekdefinedk'medicine'kaska sciencekofkReality'.kForkifkmedicinekbeknotkaksciencekofkanythingkthat iskreal,kthekdefinitionkiskclearlykaltogetherkfalse;kwhilekifkitkbe aksciencekofksomekrealkthing,kbutknotkofkanother,kitkiskpartly false;kforkitkoughtktokholdkofkallkreality,kifkitkisksaidktokbekof Realitykessentiallykandknotkaccidentally:kaskiskthekcasekwithkother relativekterms:kforkeverykobjectkofk nowledgekiskaktermkrelativekto

nowledge:kli ewise,kalso,kwithkotherkrelativekterms,kinasmuchkas allksuchkarekconvertible.kMoreover,kifkthekrightkwayktokrenderkaccount ofkakthingkbektokrenderkitkaskitkisknotkinkitselfkbutkaccidentally, thenkeachkandkeverykrelativektermkwouldkbekusedkinkrelationknotktokone thingkbutktokaknumberkofkthings.kForktherekisknokreasonkwhyktheksame thingkshouldknotkbekbothkrealkandkwhitekandkgood,ksokthatkitkwould bekakcorrectkrenderingktokrenderkthekobjectkinkrelationktokanykone whatsoeverkofkthese,kifktokrenderkwhatkitkiskaccidentallykbekakcorrect wayktokrenderkit.kItkis,kmoreover,kimpossiblekthatkakdefinitionkof thisksortkshouldkbekpeculiarktokthektermkrendered:kforknotkonlykbut thekmajoritykofkthekotherksciencesktoo,khavekforktheirkobjectksome realkthing,ksokthatkeachkwillkbekaksciencekofkreality.kClearly, then,ksuchkakdefinitionkdoesknotkdefinekanyksciencekatkall;kforka definitionkoughtktokbekpeculiarktokitskownkterm,knotkgeneral. kkSometimes,kagain,kpeoplekdefineknotkthekthingkbutkonlykthekthing inkakgoodkorkperfectkcondition.kSuchkiskthekdefinitionkofka rhetoriciankask'onekwhokcankalwayskseekwhatkwillkpersuadekinkthekgiven circumstances,kandkomitknothing';korkofkakthief,kask'onekwhokpilfers inksecret':kforkclearly,kifktheykeachkdokthis,kthenkthekonekwillkbe akgoodkrhetorician,kandkthekotherkakgoodkthief:kwhereaskitkisknot thekactualkpilferingkinksecret,kbutkthekwishktokdokit,kthat constituteskthekthief.

kkAgain,kseekifkhekhaskrenderedkwhatkiskdesirablekforkitskownksa e askdesirablekforkwhatkitkproduceskorkdoes,korkaskinkanykway desirablekbecausekofksomethingkelse,ke.g.kbyksayingkthatkjusticekis 'whatkpreservesktheklaws'korkthatkwisdomkisk'whatkproduceskhappiness'; forkwhatkproduceskorkpreservesksomethingkelsekiskonekofkthekthings desirablekforksomethingkelse.kItkmightkbeksaidkthatkitkiskpossiblekfor whatkiskdesirablekinkitselfktokbekdesirablekforksomethingkelsekas well:kbutkstillktokdefinekwhatkiskdesirablekinkitselfkinksuchkakwaykis nonektheklesskwrong:kforkthekessencekcontainskparkexcellencekwhatkis bestkinkanything,kandkitkiskbetterkforkakthingktokbekdesirablekin itselfkthanktokbekdesirablekforksomethingkelse,ksokthatkthiskiskrather whatkthekdefinitionktookoughtktokhavekindicated. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk13 kkSeekalsokwhetherkinkdefiningkanythingkakmankhaskdefinedkitkaskan 'AkandkB',korkaskak'productkofkAkandkB'korkaskank'A+B'.kIfkhe defineskitkaskandkB',kthekdefinitionkwillkbektruekofkbothkandkyetkof neitherkofkthem;ksuppose,ke.g.kjusticektokbekdefinedkask'temperance andkcourage.'kForkifkofktwokpersonskeachkhaskonekofkthektwokonly,kboth andkyetkneitherkwillkbekjust:kforkbothktogetherkhavekjustice,kand yetkeachksinglykfailsktokhavekit.kEvenkifktheksituationkherekdescribed doesknotksokfarkappearkverykabsurdkbecausekofkthekoccurrencekofkthis indkofkthingkinkotherkcaseskalsok(forkitkiskquitekpossiblekforktwo menktokhavekakminakbetweenkthem,kthoughkneitherkofkthemkhaskitkby himself),kyetkleastkthatktheykshouldkhavekcontrarykattributesksurely seemskquitekabsurd;kandkyetkthiskwillkfollowkifkthekonekbektemperate andkyetkakcoward,kandkthekother,kthoughkbrave,kbekakprofligate;kfor thenkbothkwillkexhibitkbothkjusticekandkinjustice:kforkifkjusticekbe temperancekandkbravery,kthenkinjusticekwillkbekcowardicekand profligacy.kInkgeneral,ktoo,kallkthekwayskofkshowingkthatkthekwholekis notktheksamekasktheksumkofkitskpartskarekusefulkinkmeetingkthektype justkdescribed;kforkakmankwhokdefineskinkthiskwaykseemsktokassertkthat thekpartskarektheksamekaskthekwhole.kThekargumentskarekparticularly appropriatekinkcaseskwherekthekprocesskofkputtingkthekpartsktogether iskobvious,kaskinkakhousekandkotherkthingskofkthatksort:kforkthere,

clearly,kyoukmaykhavekthekpartskandkyetknotkhavekthekwhole,ksokthat partskandkwholekcannotkbektheksame. kkIf,khowever,khekhasksaidkthatkthektermkbeingkdefinedkisknotk'Akand B'kbutkthek'productkofkAkandkB',kloo kandkseekinkthekfirstkplacekif AkandkBkcannotkinktheknaturekofkthingskhavekaksinglekproduct:kforksome thingskareksokrelatedktokonekanotherkthatknothingkcankcomekofkthem, e.g.kaklinekandkaknumber.kMoreover,kseekifkthektermkthatkhaskbeen definedkiskinktheknaturekofkthingskfoundkprimarilykinksomeksingle subject,kwhereaskthekthingskwhichkhekhasksaidkproducekitkareknotkfound primarilykinkanyksingleksubject,kbutkeachkinkakseparatekone.kIfkso, clearlykthatktermkcouldknotkbekthekproductkofkthesekthings:kforkthe wholekiskboundktokbekinktheksamekthingskwhereinkitskpartskare,ksokthat thekwholekwillkthenkbekfoundkprimarilyknotkinkoneksubjectkonly,kbutkin aknumberkofkthem.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,kbothkpartskandkwholekare foundkprimarilykinksomeksingleksubject,kseekifkthatkmediumkisknot theksame,kbutkonekthingkinkthekcasekofkthekwholekandkanotherkinkthat ofkthekparts.kAgain,kseekwhetherkthekpartskperishktogetherkwithkthe whole:kforkitkoughtktokhappen,kvicekversa,kthatkthekwholekperishes whenkthekpartskperish;kwhenkthekwholekperishes,ktherekiskno necessitykthatkthekpartskshouldkperishktoo.kOrkagain,kseekifkthekwhole bekgoodkorkevil,kandkthekpartskneither,kor,kvicekversa,kifkthekparts bekgoodkorkevilkandkthekwholekneither.kForkitkiskimpossiblekeitherkfor akneutralkthingktokproduceksomethingkgoodkorkbad,korkforkthingskgood orkbadktokproducekakneutralkthing.kOrkagain,kseekifkthekonekthingkis morekdistinctlykgoodkthankthekotherkiskevil,kandkyetkthekproductkbekno morekgoodkthankevil,ke.g.ksupposekshamelessnesskbekdefinedkask'the productkofkcouragekandkfalsekopinion':kherekthekgoodnesskofkcourage exceedskthekevilkofkfalsekopinion;kaccordinglykthekproductkofkthese oughtktokhavekcorrespondedktokthiskexcess,kandktokbekeitherkgood withoutkqualification,korkatkleastkmorekgoodkthankevil.kOrkitkmaykbe thatkthiskdoesknotknecessarilykfollow,kunlesskeachkbekinkitselfkgood orkbad;kforkmanykthingskthatkarekproductivekareknotkgoodkin themselves,kbutkonlykinkcombination;kor,kperkcontra,ktheykarekgood ta enksingly,kandkbadkorkneutralkinkcombination.kWhatkhaskjustkbeen saidkiskmostkclearlykillustratedkinkthekcasekofkthingskthatkma ekfor healthkorksic ness;kforksomekdrugskareksuchkthatkeachkta enkalonekis good,kbutkifktheykarekbothkadministeredkinkakmixture,kbad. kkAgain,kseekwhetherkthekwhole,kaskproducedkfromkakbetterkandkworse, failsktokbekworsekthankthekbetterkandkbetterkthankthekworsekelement. Thiskagain,khowever,kneedknotknecessarilykbekthekcase,kunlesskthe elementskcompoundedkbekinkthemselveskgood;kifktheykareknot,kthe wholekmaykverykwellknotkbekgood,kaskinkthekcaseskjustkinstanced. kkMoreover,kseekifkthekwholekbeksynonymouskwithkonekofkthekelements: forkitkoughtknotktokbe,kanykmorekthankinkthekcasekofksyllables:kfor theksyllablekisknotksynonymouskwithkanykofkthekletterskofkwhichkit iskmadekup. kkMoreover,kseekifkhekhaskfailedktokstatekthekmannerkofktheir composition:kforkthekmerekmentionkofkitskelementskisknotkenoughkto ma ekthekthingkintelligible.kForkthekessencekofkanykcompoundkthing isknotkmerelykthatkitkiskakproductkofkso-and-so,kbutkthatkitkiska productkofkthemkcompoundedkinksuchkandksuchkakway,kjustkaskinkthekcase ofkakhouse:kforkherekthekmaterialskdoknotkma ekakhousekirrespectivekof thekwayktheykarekputktogether. kkIfkakmankhaskdefinedkankobjectkask'A+B',kthekfirstkthingktokbe saidkiskthatk'A+B'kmeansktheksamekeitherkask'AkandkB',korkaskthe

'productkofkAkandkB.'kfork'honey+water'kmeanskeitherkthekhoneykandkthe water,korkthek'drin kmadekofkhoneykandkwater'.kIf,kthen,khekadmits thatk'A+B'kisk+kB'kisktheksamekaskeitherkofkthesektwokthings,ktheksame criticismskwillkapplykaskhavekalreadykbeenkgivenkforkmeetingkeachkof them.kMoreover,kdistinguishkbetweenkthekdifferentksenseskinkwhich onekthingkmaykbeksaidktokbek'+'kanother,kandkseekifktherekisknonekof themkinkwhichkAkcouldkbeksaidktokexistk'+kB.'kThuske.g.ksupposing thekexpressionktokmeankthatktheykexistkeitherkinksomekidentical thingkcapablekofkcontainingkthemk(aske.g.kjusticekandkcouragekare foundkinktheksoul),korkelsekinktheksamekplacekorkinktheksamektime,kand ifkthiskbekinknokwayktruekofkthekAkandkBkinkquestion,kclearlykthe definitionkrenderedkcouldknotkholdkofkanything,kasktherekiskno possiblekwaykinkwhichkAkcankexistkB'.kIf,khowever,kamongkthekvarious senseskabovekdistinguished,kitkbektruekthatkAkandkBkarekeachkfound inktheksamektimekaskthekother,kloo kandkseekifkpossiblykthektwokare notkusedkinktheksamekrelation.kThuske.g.ksupposekcouragektokhave beenkdefinedkask'daringkwithkrightkreasoning':kherekitkiskpossible thatkthekpersonkexhibitskdaringkinkrobbery,kandkrightkreasoningkin regardktokthekmeanskofkhealth:kbutkhekmaykhavek'thekformerkquality+the latter'katktheksamektime,kandknotkaskyetkbekcourageous!kMoreover,keven thoughkbothkbekusedkinktheksamekrelationkaskwell,ke.g.kinkrelation tokmedicalktreatmentk(forkakmankmaykexhibitkbothkdaringkandkright reasoningkinkrespectkofkmedicalktreatment),kstill,knonekthekless, notkevenkthiskcombinationkofk'thekone+thekotherk'ma eskhim 'courageous'.kForkthektwokmustknotkrelatektokanykcasualkobjectkthatkis theksame,kanykmorekthankeachktokakdifferentkobject;krather,kthey mustkrelatektokthekfunctionkofkcourage,ke.g.kmeetingkthekperilskof war,korkwhateverkiskmorekproperlykspea ingkitskfunctionkthankthis. kkSomekdefinitionskrenderedkinkthiskformkfailktokcomekunderkthe aforesaidkdivisionkatkall,ke.g.kakdefinitionkofkangerkask'painkwith akconsciousnesskofkbeingkslighted'.kForkwhatkthiskmeansktoksaykiskthat itkiskbecausekofkakconsciousnesskofkthisksortkthatkthekpainkoccurs; butktokoccurk'becausekof'kakthingkisknotktheksamekasktokoccurk'+ka thing'kinkanykofkitskaforesaidksenses. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk14 kkAgain,kifkhekhavekdescribedkthekwholekcompoundedkaskthe 'composition'kofkthesekthingsk(e.g.k'aklivingkcreature'kaska 'compositionkofksoulkandkbody'),kfirstkofkallkseekwhetherkhekhas omittedktokstatekthek indkofkcomposition,kask(e.g.)kinkakdefinitionkof 'flesh'kork'bone'kaskthek'compositionkofkfire,kearth,kandkair'.kForkit isknotkenoughktoksaykitkiskakcomposition,kbutkyoukshouldkalsokgokonkto definekthek indkofkcomposition:kforkthesekthingskdoknotkformkflesh irrespectivekofkthekmannerkofktheirkcomposition,kbutkwhenkcompounded inkonekwayktheykformkflesh,kwhenkinkanother,kbone.kItkappears, moreover,kthatkneitherkofkthekaforesaidksubstanceskisktheksamekaska 'composition'katkall:kforkakcompositionkalwayskhaskakdecomposition askitskcontrary,kwhereaskneitherkofkthekaforesaidkhaskanykcontrary. Moreover,kifkitkiskequallykprobablekthatkeverykcompoundkiska compositionkorkelsekthatknonekis,kandkeveryk indkofklivingkcreature, thoughkakcompound,kiskneverkakcomposition,kthenknokotherkcompound couldkbekakcompositionkeither. kkAgain,kifkinktheknaturekofkakthingktwokcontrarieskarekequallykliable tokoccur,kandkthekthingkhaskbeenkdefinedkthroughkthekone,kclearlykit hasknotkbeenkdefined;kelsektherekwillkbekmorekthankonekdefinitionkof theksamekthing;kforkhowkiskitkanykmorekakdefinitionktokdefinekit throughkthiskonekthankthroughkthekother,kseeingkthatkbothkali ekare

naturallykliablektokoccurkinkit?kSuchkiskthekdefinitionkofktheksoul, ifkdefinedkaskaksubstancekcapablekofkreceivingk nowledge:kforkitkhaska li ekcapacitykforkreceivingkignorance. kkAlso,kevenkwhenkonekcannotkattac kthekdefinitionkaskakwholekforklac ofkacquaintancekwithkthekwhole,konekshouldkattac ksomekpartkofkit, ifkonek nowskthatkpartkandkseeskitktokbekincorrectlykrendered:kfor ifkthekpartkbekdemolished,ksoktookiskthekwholekdefinition.kWhere, again,kakdefinitionkiskobscure,konekshouldkfirstkofkallkcorrectkand reshapekitkinkorderktokma eksomekpartkofkitkclearkandkgetkakhandlekfor attac ,kandkthenkproceedktokexaminekit.kForkthekanswererkiskbound eitherktokacceptktheksensekaskta enkbykthekquestioner,korkelsekhimself tokexplainkclearlykwhateverkitkiskthatkhiskdefinitionkmeans.kMoreover, justkaskinkthekassemblieskthekordinarykpracticekisktokmovekan emendationkofkthekexistingklawkand,kifkthekemendationkiskbetter, theykrepealkthekexistingklaw,ksokonekoughtktokdokinkthekcasekof definitionskaskwell:konekoughtkoneselfktokproposekaksecondkdefinition: forkifkitkiskseenktokbekbetter,kandkmorekindicativekofkthekobject defined,kclearlykthekdefinitionkalreadyklaidkdownkwillkhavekbeen demolished,konkthekprinciplekthatktherekcannotkbekmorekthankone definitionkofktheksamekthing. kkInkcombatingkdefinitionskitkiskalwayskonekofkthekchiefkelementary principlesktokta ekbykoneselfkakhappykshotkatkakdefinitionkofkthe objectkbeforekone,korktokadoptksomekcorrectlykexpressedkdefinition. Forkonekiskbound,kwithkthekmodelk(askitkwere)kbeforekone'skeyes,kto discernkbothkanykshortcomingkinkanykfeatureskthatkthekdefinitionkought tokhave,kandkalsokanyksuperfluouskaddition,ksokthatkonekiskbetter suppliedkwithklineskofkattac . kkAsktokdefinitions,kthen,kletksokmuchksuffice. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkBoo kVII kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk1 kkWHETHERktwokthingskarek'theksame'kork'different',kinkthekmost literalkofkthekmeaningskascribedktok'sameness'k(andkweksaid'kthatk'the same'kapplieskinkthekmostkliteralksensektokwhatkisknumericallykone), maykbekexaminedkinktheklightkofktheirkinflexionskandkcoordinateskand opposites.kForkifkjusticekbektheksamekaskcourage,kthenktookthekjust mankisktheksamekaskthekbravekman,kandk'justly'kisktheksamekas 'bravely'.kLi ewise,ktoo,kinkthekcasekofktheirkopposites:kforkifktwo thingskbektheksame,ktheirkoppositeskalsokwillkbektheksame,kinkanykof thekrecognizedkformskofkopposition.kForkitkisktheksamekthingktokta e thekoppositekofkthekonekorkthatkofkthekother,kseeingkthatktheykarekthe same.kAgainkitkmaykbekexaminedkinktheklightkofkthosekthingskwhichktend tokproducekorktokdestroykthekthingskinkquestionkofktheirkformationkand destruction,kandkinkgeneralkofkanykthingkthatkiskrelatedkinkli e mannerktokeach.kForkwherekthingskarekabsolutelyktheksame,ktheir formationskandkdestructionskalsokarektheksame,kandksokarekthekthings thatktendktokproducekorktokdestroykthem.kLoo kandkseekalso,kinka casekwherekonekofktwokthingskisksaidktokbeksomethingkorkotherkinka superlativekdegree,kifkthekotherkofkthesekallegedkidenticalkthingskcan alsokbekdescribedkbykaksuperlativekinktheksamekrespect.kThus Xenocrateskargueskthatkthekhappyklifekandkthekgoodklifekarekthe same,kseeingkthatkofkallkformskofklifekthekgoodklifekiskthekmost desirablekandksokalsokiskthekhappyklife:kfork'thekmostkdesirable' andkthekgreatest'kapplykbutktokonekthing.'kLi ewisekalsokinkother caseskofkthek ind.kEach,khowever,kofkthektwokthingsktermed

'greatest'korkmostkdesirable'kmustkbeknumericallykone:kotherwisekno proofkwillkhavekbeenkgivenkthatktheykarektheksame;kforkitkdoesknot followkbecausekPeloponnesianskandkSpartanskarekthekbravestkofkthe Gree s,kthatkPeloponnesianskarektheksamekaskSpartans,kseeingkthat 'Peloponnesian'kisknotkanykonekpersonknorkyetk'Spartan';kitkonly followskthatkthekonekmustkbekincludedkunderkthekotherkask'Spartans' arekunderk'Peloponnesians':kforkotherwise,kifkthekonekclasskbeknot includedkunderkthekother,keachkwillkbekbetterkthankthekother.kForkthen thekPeloponnesianskarekboundktokbekbetterkthankthekSpartans,kseeing thatkthekonekclasskisknotkincludedkunderkthekother;kforktheykare betterkthankanybodykelse.kLi ewisekalsokthekSpartanskmustkperforce bekbetterkthankthekPeloponnesians;kforktheyktookarekbetterkthan anybodykelse;keachkthenkiskbetterkthankthekother!kClearlyktherefore whatkiskstyledk'best'kandk'greatest'kmustkbekaksinglekthing,kifkit isktokbekprovedktokbek'theksame'kaskanother.kThiskalsokiskwhy Xenocrateskfailsktokprovekhiskcase:kforkthekhappyklifekisknot numericallyksingle,knorkyetkthekgoodklife,ksokthatkitkdoesknot followkthat,kbecausektheykarekbothkthekmostkdesirable,ktheykare thereforektheksame,kbutkonlykthatkthekonekfallskunderkthekother. kkAgain,kloo kandkseekif,ksupposingkthekonektokbektheksamekas something,kthekotherkalsokisktheksamekaskit:kforkifktheykbeknotkboth theksamekasktheksamekthing,kclearlykneitherkarektheyktheksamekaskone another. kkMoreover,kexaminekthemkinktheklightkofktheirkaccidentskorkofkthe thingskofkwhichktheykarekaccidents:kforkanykaccidentkbelongingkto thekonekmustkbelongkalsoktokthekother,kandkifkthekonekbelongkto anythingkaskankaccident,ksokmustkthekotherkalso.kIfkinkanykofkthese respectsktherekiskakdiscrepancy,kclearlyktheykareknotktheksame. kkSeekfurtherkwhether,kinsteadkofkbothkbeingkfoundkinkonekclasskof predicates,kthekoneksignifieskakqualitykandkthekotherkakquantitykor relation.kAgain,kseekifkthekgenuskofkeachkbeknotktheksame,kthekone beingk'good'kandkthekotherkevil',korkthekonekbeingk'virtue'kandkthe otherk' nowledge':korkseekif,kthoughkthekgenuskisktheksame,kthe differentiaekpredictedkofkeitherkbeknotktheksame,kthekonek(e.g.)kbeing distinguishedkaskak'speculative'kscience,kthekotherkaskak'practical' science.kLi ewisekalsokinkotherkcases. kkMoreover,kfromkthekpointkofkviewkofk'degrees',kseekifkthekonekadmits ankincreasekofkdegreekbutknotkthekother,korkifkthoughkbothkadmitkit, theykdoknotkadmitkitkatktheksamektime;kjustkaskitkisknotkthekcasekthat akmankdesireskintercoursekmorekintensely,kthekmorekintenselykhekis inklove,ksokthatklovekandkthekdesirekforkintercoursekareknotktheksame. kkMoreover,kexaminekthemkbykmeanskofkankaddition,kandkseekwhether thekadditionkofkeachktoktheksamekthingkfailsktokma ektheksamekwhole; orkifktheksubtractionkofktheksamekthingkfromkeachkleaveskakdifferent remainder.kSupposek(e.g.)kthatkhekhaskdeclaredk'doublekakhalf'ktokbe theksamekask'akmultiplekofkakhalf':kthen,ksubtractingkthekwordsk'a half'kfromkeach,kthekremainderskoughtktokhaveksignifiedktheksame thing:kbutktheykdoknot;kfork'double'kandk'akmultiplekof'kdoknot signifyktheksamekthing. kkInquirekalsoknotkonlykifksomekimpossiblekconsequencekresults directlykfromkthekstatementkmade,kthatkAkandkBkarektheksame,kbut alsokwhetherkitkiskpossiblekforkaksuppositionktokbringkitkabout;kas happensktokthosekwhokassertkthatk'empty'kisktheksamekask'fullkofkair': forkclearlykifkthekairkbekexhausted,kthekvesselkwillknotkbeklesskbut

morekempty,kthoughkitkwillknoklongerkbekfullkofkair.kSokthatkbyka supposition,kwhichkmaykbektruekorkmaykbekfalsek(itkma esknokdifference which),kthekonekcharacterkiskannulledkandknotkthekother,kshowing thatktheykareknotktheksame. kkSpea ingkgenerally,konekoughtktokbekonkthekloo -outkforkany discrepancykanywherekinkanyksortkofkpredicatekofkeachkterm,kandkinkthe thingskofkwhichktheykarekpredicated.kForkallkthatkiskpredicatedkofkthe onekshouldkbekpredicatedkalsokofkthekother,kandkofkwhateverkthekonekis akpredicate,kthekotherkshouldkbekakpredicatekofkitkaskwell. kkMoreover,kask'sameness'kiskaktermkusedkinkmanyksenses,kseekwhether thingskthatkarektheksamekinkonekwaykarektheksamekalsokinkakdifferent way.kForktherekiskeitherknoknecessitykorkevenknokpossibilitykthat thingskthatkarektheksamekspecificallykorkgenericallykshouldkbe numericallyktheksame,kandkitkiskwithkthekquestionkwhetherktheykare orkareknotktheksamekinkthatksensekthatkwekarekconcerned. kkMoreover,kseekwhetherkthekonekcankexistkwithoutkthekother;kfor,kif so,ktheykcouldknotkbektheksame. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk2 kkSuchkisktheknumberkofkthekcommonplacekruleskthatkrelatekto 'sameness'.kItkiskclearkfromkwhatkhaskbeenksaidkthatkallkthe destructivekcommonplaceskrelatingktoksamenesskarekusefulkalsokin questionskofkdefinition,kaskwasksaidkbefore:'kforkifkwhatkisksignified bykthektermkandkbykthekexpressionkbeknotktheksame,kclearlykthe expressionkrenderedkcouldknotkbekakdefinition.kNonekofkthe constructivekcommonplaces,konkthekotherkhand,khelpskinkthekmatterkof definition;kforkitkisknotkenoughktokshowktheksamenesskofkcontent betweenkthekexpressionkandkthekterm,kinkorderktokestablishkthatkthe formerkiskakdefinition,kbutkakdefinitionkmustkhavekalsokallkthe otherkcharacterskalreadykannounced. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk3 kkThiskthenkiskthekway,kandkthesekthekarguments,kwherebykthekattempt tokdemolishkakdefinitionkshouldkalwayskbekmade.kIf,konkthekotherkhand, wekdesirektokestablishkone,kthekfirstkthingktokobservekiskthatkfew ifkanykwhokengagekinkdiscussionkarrivekatkakdefinitionkbykreasoning: theykalwayskassumeksomethingkofkthek indkasktheirkstartingkpoints-both inkgeometrykandkinkarithmetickandkthekotherkstudieskofkthatk ind.kIn theksecondkplace,ktoksaykaccuratelykwhatkakdefinitionkis,kandkhowkit shouldkbekgiven,kbelongsktokanotherkinquiry.kAtkpresentkitkconcernskus onlyksokfarkaskiskrequiredkforkourkpresentkpurpose,kandkaccordinglykwe needkonlykma ekthekbarekstatementkthatktokreasonktokakthing's definitionkandkessencekiskquitekpossible.kForkifkakdefinitionkiskan expressionksignifyingkthekessencekofkthekthingkandkthekpredicates containedkthereinkoughtkalsoktokbekthekonlykoneskwhichkare predicatedkofkthekthingkinkthekcategorykofkessence;kandkgenerakand differentiaekareksokpredicatedkinkthatkcategory:kitkiskobviouskthatkif onekwerektokgetkankadmissionkthatksokandksokarekthekonlykattributes predicatedkinkthatkcategory,kthekexpressionkcontainingksokandksokwould ofknecessitykbekakdefinition;kforkitkiskimpossiblekthatkanything elsekshouldkbekakdefinition,kseeingkthatktherekisknotkanythingkelse predicatedkofkthekthingkinkthekcategorykofkessence. kkThatkakdefinitionkmaykthuskbekreachedkbykakprocesskofkreasoningkis obvious.kThekmeanskwherebykitkshouldkbekestablishedkhavekbeenkmore

preciselykdefinedkelsewhere,kbutkforkthekpurposeskofkthekinquiryknow beforekusktheksamekcommonplacekruleskserve.kForkwekhavektokexamine intokthekcontrarieskandkotherkoppositeskofkthekthing,ksurveyingkthe expressionskusedkbothkaskwholeskandkinkdetail:kforkifkthekopposite definitionkdefineskthatkoppositekterm,kthekdefinitionkgivenkmustkof necessitykbekthatkofkthektermkbeforekus.kSeeing,khowever,kthat contrarieskmaykbekconjoinedkinkmorekthankonekway,kwekhavektokselect fromkthosekcontrarieskthekonekwhosekcontrarykdefinitionkseemskmost obvious.kThekexpressions,kthen,khavektokbekexaminedkeachkaskakwholekin thekwaykwekhaveksaid,kandkalsokinkdetailkaskfollows.kFirstkofkall,ksee thatkthekgenuskrenderedkiskcorrectlykrendered;kforkifkthekcontrary thingkbekfoundkinkthekcontrarykgenusktokthatkstatedkinkthekdefinition, andkthekthingkbeforekyoukisknotkinkthatksamekgenus,kthenkitkwould clearlykbekinkthekcontrarykgenus:kforkcontrarieskmustkofknecessity bekeitherkinktheksamekgenuskorkinkcontrarykgenera.kThekdifferentiae, too,kthatkarekpredicatedkofkcontrarieskwekexpectktokbekcontrary, e.g.kthosekofkwhitekandkblac ,kforkthekonektendsktokpiercekthekvision, whilekthekotherktendsktokcompresskit.kSokthatkifkcontrarykdifferentiae tokthosekinkthekdefinitionkarekpredicatedkofkthekcontrarykterm,kthen thosekrenderedkinkthekdefinitionkwouldkbekpredicatedkofkthekterm beforekus.kSeeing,kthen,kthatkbothkthekgenuskandkthekdifferentiaekhave beenkrightlykrendered,kclearlykthekexpressionkgivenkmustkbekthe rightkdefinition.kItkmightkbekrepliedkthatktherekisknoknecessitykwhy contrarykdifferentiaekshouldkbekpredicatedkofkcontraries,kunlesskthe contrarieskbekfoundkwithinktheksamekgenus:kofkthingskwhosekgenera arekthemselveskcontrarieskitkmaykverykwellkbekthatktheksame differentiakiskusedkofkboth,ke.g.kofkjusticekandkinjustice;kforkthe onekiskakvirtuekandkthekotherkakvicekofktheksoul:k'ofktheksoul', therefore,kiskthekdifferentiakinkbothkcases,kseeingkthatkthekbodykas wellkhaskitskvirtuekandkvice.kButkthiskmuchkatkleastkisktrue,kthatkthe differentiaekofkcontrarieskarekeitherkcontrarykorkelsektheksame.kIf, then,kthekcontrarykdifferentiaktokthatkgivenkbekpredicatedkofkthe contraryktermkandknotkofkthekonekinkhand,kclearlykthekdifferentia statedkmustkbekpredicatedkofktheklatter.kSpea ingkgenerally,kseeing thatkthekdefinitionkconsistskofkgenuskandkdifferentiae,kifkthe definitionkofkthekcontraryktermkbekapparent,kthekdefinitionkofkthe termkbeforekyoukwillkbekapparentkalso:kforksincekitskcontrarykiskfound eitherkinktheksamekgenuskorkinkthekcontrarykgenus,kandkli ewisekalso thekdifferentiaekpredicatedkofkoppositeskarekeitherkcontrarykto,kor theksamekas,keachkother,kclearlykofkthektermkbeforekyouktherekwill bekpredicatedkeitherktheksamekgenuskaskofkitskcontrary,kwhile,kof itskdifferentiae,keitherkallkarekcontraryktokthosekofkitskcontrary,kor atkleastksomekofkthemkareksokwhilekthekrestkremainktheksame;kor, vicekversa,kthekdifferentiaekwillkbektheksamekandkthekgenerakcontrary; orkbothkgenerakandkdifferentiaekwillkbekcontrary.kAndkthatkiskall;kfor thatkbothkshouldkbektheksamekisknotkpossible;kelsekcontrarieskwill havektheksamekdefinition. kkMoreover,kloo katkitkfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkitskinflexionskand coordinates.kForkgenerakandkdefinitionskarekboundktokcorrespondkin eitherkcase.kThuskifkforgetfulnesskbektheklosskofk nowledge,ktokforget isktoklosek nowledge,kandktokhavekforgottenkisktokhaveklostk nowledge. If,kthen,kanykonekwhateverkofkthesekiskagreedkto,kthekotherskmustkof necessitykbekagreedktokaskwell.kLi ewise,kalso,kifkdestructionkis thekdecompositionkofkthekthing'skessence,kthenktokbekdestroyedkiskto havekitskessencekdecomposed,kandk'destructively'kmeansk'inksuchka waykasktokdecomposekitskessence';kifkagaink'destructive'kmeansk'aptkto decomposeksomething'skessence',kthenkalsok'destruction'kmeansk'the decompositionkofkitskessence'.kLi ewisekalsokwithkthekrest:kan admissionkofkanykonekofkthemkwhatever,kandkallkthekrestkarekadmitted

too. kkkkMoreover,kloo katkitkfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkthingskthatkstand inkrelationskthatkarekli ekeachkother.kForkifk'healthy'kmeans 'productivekofkhealth',k'vigorous'ktookwillkmeank'productivekof vigour',kandk'useful'kwillkmeank'productivekofkgood.'kForkeachkof thesekthingskiskrelatedkinkli ekmannerktokitskownkpeculiarkend,kso thatkifkonekofkthemkiskdefinedkask'productivekof'kthatkend,kthis willkalsokbekthekdefinitionkofkeachkofkthekrestkaskwell. kkkkMoreover,kloo katkitkfromkthekpointkofkandkli ekdegrees,kinkall thekwayskinkwhichkitkiskpossiblektokestablishkakresultkbykcomparing twokandktwoktogether.kThuskifkAkdefineskakbetterkthankBkdefineskand BkiskakdefinitionkofksoktookiskAkofka.kFurther,kifkA'skclaimktokdefine akiskli ekB'sktokdefinekB,kandkBkdefineskB,kthenkAktookdefineska.kThis examinationkfromkthekpointkofkviewkofkgreaterkdegreeskiskofknokuse whenkaksinglekdefinitionkiskcomparedkwithktwokthings,korktwo definitionskwithkonekthing;kforktherekcannotkpossiblykbekone definitionkofktwokthingskorktwokofktheksamekthing. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk4 kkThekmostkhandykofkallkthekcommonplacekargumentskarekthosekjust mentionedkandkthosekfromkco-ordinateskandkinflexions,kandkthese thereforekarekthosekwhichkitkiskmostkimportantktokmasterkandktokhave readyktokhand:kforktheykarekthekmostkusefulkonkthekgreatestknumber ofkoccasions.kOfkthekrest,ktoo,kthekmostkimportantkarekthosekofkmost generalkapplication:kforkthesekarekthekmostkeffective,ke.g.kthatkyou shouldkexaminekthekindividualkcases,kandkthenkloo ktokseekinkthe casekofktheirkvariouskspecieskwhetherkthekdefinitionkapplies.kFor thekspecieskisksynonymouskwithkitskindividuals.kThisksortkofkinquiry iskofkservicekagainstkthosekwhokassumekthekexistencekofkIdeas,kas haskbeenksaidkbefore.'kMoreoverkseekifkakmankhaskusedkakterm metaphorically,korkpredicatedkitkofkitselfkaskthoughkitkwereksomething different.kSoktookifkanykotherkofkthekcommonplacekruleskiskof generalkapplicationkandkeffective,kitkshouldkbekemployed. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk5 kkThatkitkiskmorekdifficultktokestablishkthanktokoverthrowka definition,kiskobviouskfromkconsiderationskpresentlyktokbekurged. Forktokseekforkoneself,kandktoksecurekfromkthosekwhomkonekis questioning,kankadmissionkofkpremisseskofkthisksortkisknoksimple matter,ke.g.kthatkofkthekelementskofkthekdefinitionkrenderedkthekone iskgenuskandkthekotherkdifferentia,kandkthatkonlykthekgenuskand differentiaekarekpredicatedkinkthekcategorykofkessence.kYetkwithout thesekpremisseskitkiskimpossiblektokreasonktokakdefinition;kforkifkany otherkthingskaskwellkarekpredicatedkofkthekthingkinkthekcategorykof essence,ktherekisknoktellingkwhetherkthekformulakstatedkorksome otherkonekiskitskdefinition,kforkakdefinitionkiskankexpression indicatingkthekessencekofkakthing.kThekpointkiskclearkalsokfromkthe following:kItkiskeasierktokdrawkonekconclusionkthankmany.kNowkin demolishingkakdefinitionkitkisksufficientktokarguekagainstkonekpoint onlyk(forkifkwekhavekoverthrownkanyksinglekpointkwhatsoever,kwe shallkhavekdemolishedkthekdefinition);kwhereaskinkestablishingka definition,konekiskboundktokbringkpeoplektokthekviewkthatkeverything containedkinkthekdefinitionkiskattributable.kMoreover,kinkestablishing akcase,kthekreasoningkbroughtkforwardkmustkbekuniversal:kforkthe definitionkputkforwardkmustkbekpredicatedkofkeverythingkofkwhichkthe termkiskpredicated,kandkmustkmoreoverkbekconvertible,kifkthe

definitionkrenderedkisktokbekpeculiarktoktheksubject.kIn overthrowingkakview,konkthekotherkhand,ktherekisknoklongerkany necessityktokshowkone'skpointkuniversally:kforkitkiskenoughktokshow thatkthekformulakiskuntruekofkanykonekofkthekthingskembracedkunderkthe term. kkFurther,kevenksupposingkitkshouldkbeknecessaryktokoverthrow somethingkbykakuniversalkproposition,knotkevenksokisktherekanykneedkto provekthekconversekofkthekpropositionkinkthekprocesskofkoverthrowing thekdefinition.kForkmerelyktokshowkthatkthekdefinitionkfailsktokbe predicatedkofkeverykonekofkthekthingskofkwhichkthektermkiskpredicated, iskenoughktokoverthrowkitkuniversally:kandktherekisknokneedktokprove thekconversekofkthiskinkorderktokshowkthatkthektermkiskpredicatedkof thingskofkwhichkthekexpressionkisknotkpredicated.kMoreover,kevenkifkit appliesktokeverythingkembracedkunderkthekterm,kbutknotktokitkalone, thekdefinitionkisktherebykdemolished. kkThekcasekstandskli ewisekinkregardktokthekpropertykandkgenuskofka termkalso.kForkinkbothkcaseskitkiskeasierktokoverthrowkthankto establish.kAskregardskthekpropertykthiskiskclearkfromkwhatkhaskbeen said:kforkaskakrulekthekpropertykiskrenderedkinkakcomplexkphrase,kso thatktokoverthrowkit,kitkiskonlyknecessaryktokdemolishkonekofkthe termskused,kwhereasktokestablishkitkisknecessaryktokreasonktokthem all.kThen,ktoo,knearlykallkthekotherkruleskthatkapplyktokthe definitionkwillkapplykalsoktokthekpropertykofkakthing.kForkin establishingkakpropertykonekhasktokshowkthatkitkisktruekof everythingkincludedkunderkthektermkinkquestion,kwhereasktokoverthrow onekitkiskenoughktokshowkinkaksinglekcasekonlykthatkitkfailskto belong:kfurther,kevenkifkitkbelongsktokeverythingkfallingkunderkthe term,kbutknotktokthatkonly,kitkiskoverthrownkinkthiskcasekaskwell, askwaskexplainedkinkthekcasekofkthekdefinition.kInkregardktokthe genus,kitkiskclearkthatkyoukarekboundktokestablishkitkinkonekwaykonly, viz.kbykshowingkthatkitkbelongskinkeverykcase,kwhilekofkoverthrowing itktherekarektwokways:kforkifkitkhaskbeenkshownkthatkitkbelongskeither neverkorknotkinkakcertainkcase,kthekoriginalkstatementkhaskbeen demolished.kMoreover,kinkestablishingkakgenuskitkisknotkenoughktokshow thatkitkbelongs,kbutkalsokthatkitkbelongskaskgenuskhasktokbekshown; whereaskinkoverthrowingkit,kitkiskenoughktokshowkitskfailurektokbelong eitherkinksomekparticularkcasekorkinkeverykcase.kItkappears,kin fact,kaskthough,kjustkaskinkotherkthingsktokdestroykiskeasierkthan tokcreate,ksokinkthesekmattersktooktokoverthrowkiskeasierkthankto establish. kkInkthekcasekofkankaccidentalkattributekthekuniversalkproposition iskeasierktokoverthrowkthanktokestablish;kforktokestablishkit,konekhas tokshowkthatkitkbelongskinkeverykcase,kwhereasktokoverthrowkit,kit iskenoughktokshowkthatkitkdoesknotkbelongkinkoneksinglekcase.kThe particularkpropositionkis,konkthekcontrary,keasierktokestablishkthan tokoverthrow:kforktokestablishkit,kitkiskenoughktokshowkthatkit belongskinkakparticularkinstance,kwhereasktokoverthrowkit,kitkhaskto bekshownkthatkitkneverkbelongskatkall. kkItkiskclearkalsokthatkthekeasiestkthingkofkallkisktokoverthrowka definition.kForkonkaccountkofktheknumberkofkstatementskinvolvedkwekare presentedkinkthekdefinitionkwithkthekgreatestknumberkofkpointskfor attac ,kandkthekmorekplentifulkthekmaterial,kthekquic erkankargument comes:kforktherekiskmorekli elihoodkofkakmista ekoccurringkinka largekthankinkaksmallknumberkofkthings.kMoreover,kthekotherkrules tookmaykbekusedkaskmeanskforkattac ingkakdefinition:kforkifkeitherkthe formulakbeknotkpeculiar,korkthekgenuskrenderedkbekthekwrongkone,kor

somethingkincludedkinkthekformulakfailktokbelong,kthekdefinitionkis therebykdemolished.kOnkthekotherkhand,kagainstkthekotherskwekcannot bringkallkofkthekargumentskdrawnkfromkdefinitions,knorkyetkofkthe rest:kforkonlykthosekrelatingktokaccidentalkattributeskapplykgenerally tokallkthekaforesaidk indskofkattribute.kForkwhilekeachkofkthe aforesaidk indskofkattributekmustkbelongktokthekthingkinkquestion,kyet thekgenuskmaykverykwellknotkbelongkaskakpropertykwithoutkaskyet beingktherebykdemolished.kLi ewisekalsokthekpropertykneedknotkbelong askakgenus,knorkthekaccidentkaskakgenuskorkproperty,ksoklongkaskthey dokbelong.kSokthatkitkiskimpossiblektokusekoneksetkaskakbasiskof attac kuponkthekotherkexceptkinkthekcasekofkdefinition.kClearly,kthen, itkiskthekeasiestkofkallkthingsktokdemolishkakdefinition,kwhilekto establishkonekiskthekhardest.kForktherekonekbothkhasktokestablish allkthosekotherkpointskbykreasoningk(i.e.kthatkthekattributeskstated belong,kandkthatkthekgenuskrenderedkiskthektruekgenus,kandkthatkthe formulakiskpeculiarktokthekterm),kandkmoreover,kbesideskthis,kthatkthe formulakindicateskthekessencekofkthekthing;kandkthiskhasktokbekdone correctly. kkOfkthekrest,kthekpropertykiskmostknearlykofkthisk ind:kforkitkis easierktokdemolish,kbecausekaskakrulekitkcontainskseveralkterms;kwhile itkiskthekhardestktokestablish,kbothkbecausekofktheknumberkofkthings thatkpeoplekmustkbekbroughtktokaccept,kand,kbesideskthis,kbecausekit belongsktokitsksubjectkalonekandkiskpredicatedkconvertiblykwithkits subject. kkThekeasiestkthingkofkallktokestablishkiskankaccidentalkpredicate: forkinkotherkcaseskonekhasktokshowknotkonlykthatkthekpredicate belongs,kbutkalsokthatkitkbelongskinksuchkandksuchkakparticularkway: whereaskinkthekcasekofkthekaccidentkitkiskenoughktokshowkmerelykthat itkbelongs.kOnkthekotherkhand,kankaccidentalkpredicatekiskthe hardestkthingktokoverthrow,kbecausekitkaffordskthekleastkmaterial:kfor inkstatingkaccidentkakmankdoesknotkaddkhowkthekpredicatekbelongs; andkaccordingly,kwhilekinkotherkcaseskitkiskpossiblektokdemolish whatkisksaidkinktwokways,kbykshowingkeitherkthatkthekpredicatekdoes notkbelong,korkthatkitkdoesknotkbelongkinkthekparticularkwaykstated, inkthekcasekofkankaccidentalkpredicatekthekonlykwayktokdemolishkit isktokshowkthatkitkdoesknotkbelongkatkall. kkThekcommonplacekargumentskthroughkwhichkwekshallkbekwellksupplied withklineskofkargumentkwithkregardktokourkseveralkproblemskhaveknow beenkenumeratedkatkaboutksufficientklength. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkBoo kVIII kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk1 kkNEXTktherekfallktokbekdiscussedkthekproblemskofkarrangementkand methodkinkpittingkquestions.kAnykonekwhokintendsktokframekquestions must,kfirstkofkall,kselectkthekgroundkfromkwhichkhekshouldkma ekhis attac ;ksecondly,khekmustkframekthemkandkarrangekthemkonekbykonekto himself;kthirdlykandklastly,khekmustkproceedkactuallyktokputkthemkto thekotherkparty.kNowksokfarkaskthekselectionkofkhiskgroundkis concernedkthekproblemkiskonekali ekforkthekphilosopherkandkthe dialectician;kbutkhowktokgokonktokarrangekhiskpointskandkframekhis questionskconcernskthekdialecticiankonly:kforkinkeverykproblemkofkthat indkakreferencektokanotherkpartykiskinvolved.kNotksokwithkthe philosopher,kandkthekmankwhokiskinvestigatingkbykhimself:kthe premisseskofkhiskreasoning,kalthoughktruekandkfamiliar,kmaykbekrefused bykthekanswererkbecausektheykliektooknearkthekoriginalkstatementkand

sokhekforeseeskwhatkwillkfollowkifkhekgrantskthem:kbutkforkthiskthe philosopherkdoesknotkcare.kNay,khekmaykpossiblykbekevenkanxiouskto securekaxiomskaskfamiliarkandkasknearktokthekquestionkinkhandkas possible:kforkthesekarekthekbaseskonkwhichkscientifickreasoningskare builtkup. kkTheksourceskfromkwhichkone'skcommonplacekargumentskshouldkbekdrawn havekalreadykbeenkdescribed:'kwekhaveknowktokdiscusskthekarrangement andkformationkofkquestionskandkfirstktokdistinguishkthekpremisses, otherkthanktheknecessarykpremisses,kwhichkhavektokbekadopted.kBy necessarykpremisseskarekmeantkthosekthroughkwhichkthekactualkreasoning iskconstructed.kThosekwhichkareksecuredkotherkthankthesekarekofkfour inds;ktheykservekeitherkinductivelyktoksecurekthekuniversalkpremiss beingkgranted,korktoklendkweightktokthekargument,korktokconcealkthe conclusion,korktokrenderkthekargumentkmorekclear.kBesidekthesekthere isknokotherkpremisskwhichkneedkbeksecured:kthesekarekthekones wherebykyoukshouldktryktokmultiplykandkformulatekyourkquestions.kThose whichkarekusedktokconcealkthekconclusionkservekakcontroversialkpurpose only;kbutkinasmuchkaskankunderta ingkofkthisksortkiskalways conductedkagainstkanotherkperson,kwekarekobligedktokemploykthemkas well.

kkTheknecessarykpremisseskthroughkwhichkthekreasoningkiskeffected, oughtknotktokbekpropoundedkdirectlykinksokmanykwords.kRatherkone shouldksoarkaskfarkaloofkfromkthemkaskpossible.kThuskifkonekdesireskto securekankadmissionkthatkthek nowledgekofkcontrarieskiskone,kone shouldkas khimktokadmitkitknotkofkcontraries,kbutkofkopposites:kfor, ifkhekgrantskthis,konekwillkthenkarguekthatkthek nowledgekof contrarieskiskalsoktheksame,kseeingkthatkcontrarieskarekopposites; ifkhekdoesknot,konekshouldksecurekthekadmissionkbykinduction,kby formulatingkakpropositionktokthatkeffectkinkthekcasekofksome particularkpairkofkcontraries.kForkonekmustksecurektheknecessary premisseskeitherkbykreasoningkorkbykinduction,korkelsekpartlykbykone andkpartlykbykthekother,kalthoughkanykpropositionskwhichkarektoo obviousktokbekdeniedkmaykbekformulatedkinksokmanykwords.kThiskis becausekthekcomingkconclusionkisklesskeasilykdiscernedkatkthe greaterkdistancekandkinkthekprocesskofkinduction,kwhilekatktheksame time,kevenkifkonekcannotkreachkthekrequiredkpremisseskinkthiskway, itkiskstillkopenktokonektokformulatekthemkinksokmanykwords.kThe premisses,kotherkthankthese,kthatkwerekmentionedkabove,kmustkbe securedkwithkakviewktoktheklatter.kThekwayktokemploykthemkrespectively iskaskfollows:kInductionkshouldkproceedkfromkindividualkcasesktokthe universalkandkfromkthek nownktokthekun nown;kandkthekobjectskof perceptionkarekbetterk nown,ktokmostkpeoplekifknotkinvariably. Concealmentkofkone'skplankiskobtainedkbyksecuringkthrough prosyllogismskthekpremisseskthroughkwhichkthekproofkofkthekoriginal propositionkiskgoingktokbekconstructed-andkaskmanykofkthemkas possible.kThiskiskli elyktokbekeffectedkbykma ingksyllogismskto proveknotkonlyktheknecessarykpremisseskbutkalsoksomekofkthosekwhich arekrequiredktokestablishkthem.kMoreover,kdoknotkstatekthekconclusions ofkthesekpremisseskbutkdrawkthemklaterkonekafterkanother;kforkthis iskli elyktok eepkthekanswererkatkthekgreatestkpossiblekdistance fromkthekoriginalkproposition.kSpea ingkgenerally,kakmankwhokdesires tokgetkinformationkbykakconcealedkmethodkshouldksokputkhiskquestions thatkwhenkhekhaskputkhiskwholekargumentkandkhaskstatedkthekconclusion, peoplekstillkas k'Well,kbutkwhykiskthat?'kThiskresultkwillkbe securedkbestkofkallkbykthekmethodkabovekdescribed:kforkifkonekstates onlykthekfinalkconclusion,kitkiskunclearkhowkitkcomeskabout;kforkthe answererkdoesknotkforeseekonkwhatkgroundskitkiskbased,kbecausekthe previousksyllogismskhaveknotkbeenkmadekarticulatektokhim:kwhilekthe

finalksyllogism,kshowingkthekconclusion,kiskli elyktokbek eptkleast articulatekifkweklaykdownknotktheksecuredkpropositionskonkwhichkit iskbased,kbutkonlykthekgroundskonkwhichkwekreasonktokthem. kkItkiskakusefulkrule,ktoo,knotktoksecurekthekadmissionskclaimedkas thekbaseskofktheksyllogismskinktheirkproperkorder,kbutkalternately thosekthatkconducektokonekconclusionkandkthosekthatkconducekto another;kfor,kifkthosekwhichkgoktogetherkareksetksidekbykside,kthe conclusionkthatkwillkresultkfromkthemkiskmorekobviouskinkadvance. kkOnekshouldkalso,kwhereverkpossible,ksecurekthekuniversalkpremiss bykakdefinitionkrelatingknotktokthekprecisektermskthemselveskbutkto theirkco-ordinates;kforkpeoplekdeceivekthemselves,kwheneverkthe definitionkiskta enkinkregardktokakco-ordinate,kintokthin ingkthat theykareknotkma ingkthekadmissionkuniversally.kAnkinstancekwouldkbe, supposingkonekhadktoksecurekthekadmissionkthatkthekangrykmankdesires vengeancekonkaccountkofkankapparentkslight,kandkwerektoksecurekthis, thatk'anger'kiskakdesirekforkvengeancekonkaccountkofkankapparent slight:kfor,kclearly,kifkthiskwereksecured,kwekshouldkhavekuniversally whatkwekintend.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,kpeoplekformulatekpropositions relatingktokthekactualktermskthemselves,ktheykoftenkfindkthatkthe answererkrefusesktokgrantkthemkbecausekonkthekactualktermkitselfkhekis readierkwithkhiskobjection,ke.g.kthatkthek'angrykman'kdoesknot desirekvengeance,kbecausekwekbecomekangrykwithkourkparents,kbutkwe doknotkdesirekvengeancekonkthem.kVerykli elykthekobjectionkisknot valid;kforkuponksomekpeoplekitkiskvengeancekenoughktokcausekthem painkandkma ekthemksorry;kbutkstillkitkgiveskakcertainkplausibility andkairkofkreasonablenessktokthekdenialkofkthekproposition.kInkthe case,khowever,kofkthekdefinitionkofk'anger'kitkisknotksokeasykto findkankobjection. kkMoreover,kformulatekyourkpropositionkaskthoughkyoukdidksoknotkfor itskownksa e,kbutkinkorderktokgetkatksomethingkelse:kforkpeoplekare shykofkgrantingkwhatkankopponent'skcasekreallykrequires.kSpea ing generally,kakquestionerkshouldkleavekitkaskfarkaskpossiblekdoubtful whetherkhekwishesktoksecurekankadmissionkofkhiskpropositionkorkof itskopposite:kforkifkitkbekuncertainkwhatktheirkopponent'skargument requires,kpeoplekarekmorekreadyktoksaykwhatktheykthemselveskthin . kkMoreover,ktryktoksecurekadmissionskbykmeanskofkli eness:kforksuch admissionskarekplausible,kandkthekuniversalkinvolvedkisklesskpatent; e.g.kma ekthekotherkpersonkadmitkthatkask nowledgekandkignorancekof contrarieskisktheksame,ksoktookperceptionkofkcontrarieskisktheksame; orkvicekversa,kthatksincekthekperceptionkisktheksame,ksokiskthe nowledgekalso.kThiskargumentkresembleskinduction,kbutkisknotktheksame thing;kforkinkinductionkitkiskthekuniversalkwhosekadmissionkisksecured fromkthekparticulars,kwhereaskinkargumentskfromkli eness,kwhatkis securedkisknotkthekuniversalkunderkwhichkallkthekli ekcaseskfall. kkItkiskakgoodkrulekalso,koccasionallyktokbringkankobjectionkagainst oneself:kforkanswererskarekputkoffktheirkguardkagainstkthosekwho appearktokbekarguingkimpartially.kItkiskusefulktoo,ktokaddkthatk'So andksokiskgenerallykheldkorkcommonlyksaid';kforkpeoplekarekshykof upsettingkthekreceivedkopinionkunlessktheykhaveksomekpositive objectionktokurge:kandkatktheksamektimektheykarekcautiouskabout upsettingksuchkthingskbecausektheykthemselvesktookfindkthemkuseful. Moreover,kdoknotkbekinsistent,kevenkthoughkyoukreallykrequirekthe point:kforkinsistencekalwayskarouseskthekmorekopposition.kFurther, formulatekyourkpremisskaskthoughkitkwerekakmerekillustration:kfor peoplekadmitkthekmorekreadilykakpropositionkmadektokserveksomekother

purpose,kandknotkrequiredkonkitskownkaccount.kMoreover,kdoknot formulatekthekverykpropositionkyoukneedktoksecure,kbutkrather somethingkfromkwhichkthatknecessarilykfollows:kforkpeoplekarekmore willingktokadmitktheklatter,kbecausekitkisknotksokclearkfromkthiskwhat thekresultkwillkbe,kandkifkthekonekhaskbeenksecured,kthekotherkhas beenksecuredkalso.kAgain,konekshouldkputklastkthekpointkwhichkonekmost wishesktokhavekconceded;kforkpeoplekarekspeciallykinclinedktokdenykthe firstkquestionskputktokthem,kbecausekmostkpeoplekinkas ingkquestions putkfirstkthekpointskwhichktheykarekmostkeagerktoksecure.kOnkthekother hand,kinkdealingkwithksomekpeoplekpropositionskofkthisksortkshould bekputkforwardkfirst:kforkill-temperedkmenkadmitkmostkreadilykwhat comeskfirst,kunlesskthekconclusionkthatkwillkresultkactuallykstares themkinkthekface,kwhilekatkthekclosekofkankargumentktheykshowktheir ill-temper.kLi ewisekalsokwithkthosekwhokconsiderkthemselvesksmart atkanswering:kforkwhenktheykhavekadmittedkmostkofkwhatkyoukwantkthey finallyktal kclap-trapktokthekeffectkthatkthekconclusionkdoesknot followkfromktheirkadmissions:kyetktheyksayk'Yes'kreadily,kconfidentkin theirkownkcharacter,kandkimaginingkthatktheykcannotksufferkany reverse.kMoreover,kitkiskwellktokexpandkthekargumentkandkinsertkthings thatkitkdoesknotkrequirekatkall,kaskdokthosekwhokdrawkfalse geometricalkfigures:kforkinkthekmultitudekofkdetailskthekwhereabouts ofkthekfallacykiskobscured.kForkthiskreasonkalsokakquestioner sometimeskevadeskobservationkaskhekaddskinkakcornerkwhat,kifkhe formulatedkitkbykitself,kwouldknotkbekgranted. kkForkconcealment,kthen,kthekruleskwhichkshouldkbekfollowedkarekthe above.kOrnamentkiskattainedkbykinductionkandkdistinctionkofkthings closelyka in.kWhatksortkofkprocesskinductionkiskobvious:kaskfor distinction,kankinstancekofkthek indkofkthingkmeantkiskthekdistinction ofkonekformkofk nowledgekaskbetterkthankanotherkbykbeingkeitherkmore accurate,korkconcernedkwithkbetterkobjects;korkthekdistinctionkof scienceskintokspeculative,kpractical,kandkproductive.kForkeverything ofkthisk indklendskadditionalkornamentktokthekargument,kthoughkthere isknoknecessityktoksaykthem,ksokfarkaskthekconclusionkgoes. kkForkclearness,kexampleskandkcomparisonskshouldkbekadduced,kandklet thekillustrationskbekrelevantkandkdrawnkfromkthingskthatkwek now,kas inkHomerkandknotkaskinkChoerilus;kforkthenkthekpropositionkiskli ely tokbecomekclearer. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk2 kkInkdialectics,ksyllogismkshouldkbekemployedkinkreasoningkagainst dialecticianskratherkthankagainstkthekcrowd:kinduction,konkthekother hand,kiskmostkusefulkagainstkthekcrowd.kThiskpointkhaskbeenktreated previouslykaskwell.'kInkinduction,kitkiskpossiblekinksomekcasesktokas thekquestionkinkitskuniversalkform,kbutkinkotherskthiskisknotkeasy, becausektherekisknokestablishedkgeneralktermkthatkcoverskallkthe resemblances:kinkthiskcase,kwhenkpeoplekneedktoksecurekthe universal,ktheykusekthekphrasek'inkallkcaseskofkthisksort'.kButkit iskonekofkthekverykhardestkthingsktokdistinguishkwhichkofkthekthings adducedkarek'ofkthisksort',kandkwhichkareknot:kandkinkthiskconnexion peoplekoftenkthrowkdustkinkeachkothers'keyeskinktheirkdiscussion, thekonekpartykassertingkthekli enesskofkthingskthatkareknotkali e,kand thekotherkdisputingkthekli enesskofkthingskthatkare.kOnekought, therefore,ktoktrykoneselfktokcoinkakwordktokcoverkallkthingskofkthe givenksort,ksokasktokleaveknokopportunitykeitherktokthekanswererkto dispute,kandksaykthatkthekthingkadvancedkdoesknotkanswerktokakli e description,korktokthekquestionerktoksuggestkfalselykthatkitkdoes answerktokakli ekdescription,kforkmanykthingskappearktokanswerktokli e

descriptionskthatkdoknotkreallykdokso. kkIfkonekhaskmadekankinductionkonkthekstrengthkofkseveralkcaseskand yetkthekanswererkrefusesktokgrantkthekuniversalkproposition,kthenkit iskfairktokdemandkhiskobjection.kButkuntilkonekhaskoneselfkstatedkin whatkcaseskitkiskso,kitkisknotkfairktokdemandkthatkhekshallksaykin whatkcaseskitkisknotkso:kforkonekshouldkma ekthekinductionkfirst, andkthenkdemandkthekobjection.kOnekought,kmoreover,ktokclaimkthat thekobjectionskshouldknotkbekbroughtkinkreferencektokthekactual subjectkofkthekproposition,kunlesskthatksubjectkhappenktokbekthekone andkonlykthingkofkthek ind,kaskforkinstancektwokiskthekonekprime numberkamongkthekevenknumbers:kfor,kunlesskhekcanksaykthatkthis subjectkiskuniquekofkitsk ind,kthekobjectorkoughtktokma ekhis objectionkinkregardktoksomekother.kPeopleksometimeskobjectktoka universalkproposition,kandkbringktheirkobjectionknotkinkregardkto thekthingkitself,kbutkinkregardktoksomekhomonymkofkit:kthusktheykargue thatkakmankcankverykwellkhavekakcolourkorkakfootkorkakhandkother thankhiskown,kforkakpainterkmaykhavekakcolourkthatkisknotkhiskown,kand akcoo kmaykhavekakfootkthatkisknotkhiskown.kTokmeetkthem,ktherefore, youkshouldkdrawkthekdistinctionkbeforekputtingkyourkquestionkinksuch cases:kforksoklongkaskthekambiguitykremainskundetected,ksoklongkwill thekobjectionktokthekpropositionkbekdeemedkvalid.kIf,khowever,khe chec skthekserieskofkquestionskbykankobjectionkinkregardknotktoksome homonym,kbutktokthekactualkthingkasserted,kthekquestionerkshould withdrawkthekpointkobjectedkto,kandkformkthekremainderkintoka universalkproposition,kuntilkheksecureskwhatkhekrequires;ke.g.kin thekcasekofkforgetfulnesskandkhavingkforgotten:kforkpeoplekrefusekto admitkthatkthekmankwhokhasklostkhisk nowledgekofkakthingkhaskforgotten it,kbecausekifkthekthingkalters,khekhasklostk nowledgekofkit,kbutkhe hasknotkforgottenkit.kAccordinglykthekthingktokdokisktokwithdrawkthe partkobjectedkto,kandkassertkthekremainder,ke.g.kthatkifkakpersonkhave lostk nowledgekofkakthingkwhilekitkstillkremains,khekthenkhas forgottenkit.kOnekshouldksimilarlyktreatkthosekwhokobjectktokthe statementkthatk'thekgreaterkthekgood,kthekgreaterkthekevilkthatkiskits opposite':kforktheykallegekthatkhealth,kwhichkiskaklesskgoodkthing thankvigour,khaskakgreaterkevilkaskitskopposite:kforkdiseasekiska greaterkevilkthankdebility.kInkthiskcasektoo,ktherefore,kwekhavekto withdrawkthekpointkobjectedkto;kforkwhenkitkhaskbeenkwithdrawn,kthe mankiskmorekli elyktokadmitkthekproposition,ke.g.kthatk'thekgreater goodkhaskthekgreaterkevilkaskitskopposite,kunlesskthekonekgood involveskthekotherkaskwell',kaskvigourkinvolveskhealth.kThiskshouldkbe doneknotkonlykwhenkhekformulateskankobjection,kbutkalsokif,kwithoutkso doing,khekrefusesktokadmitkthekpointkbecausekhekforeseesksomething ofkthek ind:kforkifkthekpointkobjectedktokbekwithdrawn,khekwillkbe forcedktokadmitkthekpropositionkbecausekhekcannotkforeseekinkthe restkofkitkanykcasekwherekitkdoesknotkholdktrue:kifkhekrefusektokadmit it,kthenkwhenkas edkforkankobjectionkhekcertainlykwillkbekunablekto renderkone.kPropositionskthatkarekpartlykfalsekandkpartlyktruekare ofkthisktype:kforkinkthekcasekofkthesekitkiskpossiblekbykwithdrawingka partktokleavekthekrestktrue.kIf,khowever,kyoukformulatekthe propositionkonkthekstrengthkofkmanykcaseskandkhekhasknokobjectionkto bring,kyoukmaykclaimkthatkhekshallkadmitkit:kforkakpremisskiskvalidkin dialecticskwhichkthuskholdskinkseveralkinstanceskandktokwhichkno objectionkiskforthcoming. kkWheneverkitkiskpossiblektokreasonktoktheksamekconclusionkeither throughkorkwithoutkakreductionkperkimpossibile,kifkonekis demonstratingkandknotkarguingkdialecticallykitkma esknokdifference whichkmethodkofkreasoningkbekadopted,kbutkinkargumentkwithkanother reasoningkperkimpossibilekshouldkbekavoided.kForkwherekonekhas

reasonedkwithoutkthekreductionkperkimpossibile,knokdisputekcan arise;kif,konkthekotherkhand,konekdoeskreasonktokankimpossible conclusion,kunlesskitskfalsehoodkisktookplainlykmanifest,kpeople denykthatkitkiskimpossible,ksokthatkthekquestionerskdoknotkgetkwhat theykwant. kkOnekshouldkputkforwardkallkpropositionskthatkholdktruekofkseveral cases,kandktokwhichkeitherknokobjectionkwhateverkappearskorkatkleast notkanykonktheksurface:kforkwhenkpeoplekcannotkseekanykcasekinkwhich itkisknotkso,ktheykadmitkitkforktrue. kkThekconclusionkshouldknotkbekputkinkthekformkofkakquestion;kifkit be,kandkthekmanksha eskhiskhead,kitkloo skaskifkthekreasoningkhad failed.kForkoften,kevenkifkitkbeknotkputkaskakquestionkbutkadvancedkas akconsequence,kpeoplekdenykit,kandkthenkthosekwhokdoknotkseekthatkit followskuponkthekpreviouskadmissionskdoknotkrealizekthatkthosekwho denykitkhavekbeenkrefuted:kwhen,kthen,kthekonekmankmerelykas skitkaska questionkwithoutkevenksayingkthatkitksokfollows,kandkthekother denieskit,kitkloo skaltogetherkaskifkthekreasoningkhadkfailed. kkNotkeverykuniversalkquestionkcankformkakdialecticalkpropositionkas ordinarilykunderstood,ke.g.k'Whatkiskman?'kork'Howkmanykmeaningskhas "thekgood"?'kForkakdialecticalkpremisskmustkbekofkakformktokwhichkit iskpossiblektokreplyk'Yes'kork'No',kwhereasktokthekaforesaidkitkisknot possible.kForkthiskreasonkquestionskofkthisk indkareknotkdialectical unlesskthekquestionerkhimselfkdrawskdistinctionskorkdivisionskbefore expressingkthem,ke.g.k'Goodkmeanskthis,korkthis,kdoeskitknot?'kFor questionskofkthisksortkarekeasilykansweredkbykakYeskorkakNo.kHencekone shouldkendeavourktokformulatekpropositionskofkthisk indkinkthis form.kItkiskatktheksamektimekalsokperhapskfairktokas kthekotherkman howkmanykmeaningskofk'thekgood'ktherekare,kwheneverkyoukhave yourselfkdistinguishedkandkformulatedkthem,kandkhekwillknotkadmitkthem atkall. kkAnykonekwhok eepskonkas ingkonekthingkforkaklongktimekiskakbad inquirer.kForkifkhekdoesksokthoughkthekpersonkquestionedk eepskon answeringkthekquestions,kclearlykhekas skaklargeknumberkof questions,korkelsekas sktheksamekquestionkaklargeknumberkofktimes: inkthekonekcasekhekmerelykbabbles,kinkthekotherkhekfailsktokreason: forkreasoningkalwayskconsistskofkaksmallknumberkofkpremisses.kIf,kon thekotherkhand,khekdoeskitkbecausekthekpersonkquestionedkdoesknot answerkthekquestions,khekiskatkfaultkinknotkta ingkhimktoktas kor brea ingkoffkthekdiscussion. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk3 kkTherekarekcertainkhypotheseskuponkwhichkitkiskatkoncekdifficultkto bring,kandkeasyktokstandkupkto,kankargument.kSuchk(e.g.)karekthose thingskwhichkstandkfirstkandkthosekwhichkstandklastkinkthekorderkof nature.kForkthekformerkrequirekdefinition,kwhilektheklatterkhavektokbe arrivedkatkthroughkmanykstepskifkonekwishesktoksecurekakcontinuous proofkfromkfirstkprinciples,korkelsekallkdiscussionkaboutkthemkwears thekairkofkmereksophistry:kforktokprovekanythingkiskimpossible unlesskonekbeginskwithkthekappropriatekprinciples,kandkconnects inferencekwithkinferencektillktheklastkarekreached.kNowktokdefine firstkprincipleskiskjustkwhatkanswererskdoknotkcarektokdo,knorkdokthey paykanykattentionkifkthekquestionerkma eskakdefinition:kandkyet untilkitkiskclearkwhatkitkiskthatkiskproposed,kitkisknotkeasykto discusskit.kThisksortkofkthingkhappenskparticularlykinkthekcasekofkthe firstkprinciples:kforkwhilekthekotherkpropositionskarekshownkthrough

these,kthesekcannotkbekshownkthroughkanythingkelse:kwekarekobliged tokunderstandkeverykitemkofkthatksortkbykakdefinition.kThekinferences, too,kthatkliektookclosektokthekfirstkprinciplekarekhardktoktreatkin argument:kforkitkisknotkpossiblektokbringkmanykargumentskinkregard tokthem,kbecausekofktheksmallknumberkofkthoseksteps,kbetweenkthe conclusionkandkthekprinciple,kwherebyktheksucceedingkpropositionskhave tokbekshown.kThekhardest,khowever,kofkallkdefinitionsktoktreatkin argumentkarekthosekthatkemployktermskaboutkwhich,kinkthekfirst place,kitkiskuncertainkwhetherktheykarekusedkinkoneksensekor several,kand,kfurther,kwhetherktheykarekusedkliterallykor metaphoricallykbykthekdefiner.kForkbecausekofktheirkobscurity,kitkis impossiblektokarguekuponksuchkterms;kandkbecausekofkthe impossibilitykofksayingkwhetherkthiskobscuritykiskduektoktheirkbeing usedkmetaphorically,kitkiskimpossiblektokrefutekthem. kkInkgeneral,kitkisksafektoksupposekthat,kwheneverkanykproblem proveskintractable,kitkeitherkneedskdefinitionkorkelsekbearskeither severalksenses,korkakmetaphoricalksense,korkitkisknotkfarkremovedkfrom thekfirstkprinciples;korkelsekthekreasonkiskthatkwekhavekyetkto discoverkinkthekfirstkplacekjustkthis-inkwhichkofkthekaforesaid directionsktheksourcekofkourkdifficultyklies:kwhenkwekhavekmadekthis clear,kthenkobviouslykourkbusinesskmustkbekeitherktokdefinekorkto distinguish,korktoksupplykthekintermediatekpremisses:kforkitkis throughkthesekthatkthekfinalkconclusionskarekshown. kkItkoftenkhappenskthatkakdifficultykiskfoundkinkdiscussingkorkarguing akgivenkpositionkbecausekthekdefinitionkhasknotkbeenkcorrectly rendered:ke.g.k'Haskonekthingkonekcontrarykorkmany?':kherekwhenkthe termk'contraries'khaskbeenkproperlykdefined,kitkiskeasyktokbring peoplektokseekwhetherkitkiskpossiblekforktheksamekthingktokhave severalkcontrarieskorknot:kinktheksamekwaykalsokwithkotherkterms requiringkdefinition.kItkappearskalsokinkmathematicskthatkthe difficultykinkusingkakfigurekisksometimeskduektokakdefectkin definition;ke.g.kinkprovingkthatktheklinekwhichkcutskthekplane parallelktokoneksidekdividesksimilarlykbothktheklinekwhichkitkcutskand thekarea;kwhereaskifkthekdefinitionkbekgiven,kthekfactkasserted becomeskimmediatelykclear:kforkthekareaskhavektheksamekfraction subtractedkfromkthemkaskhavektheksides:kandkthiskiskthekdefinition ofk'theksamekratio'.kThekmostkprimarykofkthekelementarykprincipleskare withoutkexceptionkverykeasyktokshow,kifkthekdefinitionskinvolved,ke.g. theknaturekofkaklinekorkofkakcircle,kbeklaidkdown;konlykthe argumentskthatkcankbekbroughtkinkregardktokeachkofkthemkareknot many,kbecausektherekareknotkmanykintermediateksteps.kIf,konkthe otherkhand,kthekdefinitionkofkthekstarting-pointskbeknotklaidkdown,kto showkthemkiskdifficultkandkmaykevenkprovekquitekimpossible.kThekcase ofktheksignificancekofkverbalkexpressionskiskli ekthatkofkthese mathematicalkconceptions. kkOnekmaykbeksurekthen,kwheneverkakpositionkiskhardktokdiscuss,kthat onekorkotherkofkthekaforesaidkthingskhaskhappenedktokit.kWhenever, onkthekotherkhand,kitkiskakharderktas ktokarguektokthekpoint claimed,ki.e.kthekpremiss,kthanktokthekresultingkposition,kakdoubtkmay arisekwhetherksuchkclaimskshouldkbekadmittedkorknot:kforkifkakmankis goingktokrefusektokadmitkitkandkclaimkthatkyoukshallkarguektokitkas well,khekwillkbekgivingktheksignalkforkakharderkunderta ingkthankwas originallykproposed:kif,konkthekotherkhand,khekgrantskit,khekwillkbe givingkthekoriginalkthesiskcredencekonkthekstrengthkofkwhatkiskless crediblekthankitself.kIf,kthen,kitkiskessentialknotktokenhancekthe difficultykofkthekproblem,khekhadkbetterkgrantkit;kif,konkthekother hand,kitkbekessentialktokreasonkthroughkpremisseskthatkarekbetter

assured,khekhadkbetterkrefuse.kInkotherkwords,kinkseriouskinquirykhe oughtknotktokgrantkit,kunlesskhekbekmoreksurekaboutkitkthankabout thekconclusion;kwhereaskinkakdialecticalkexercisekhekmaykdoksokifkhe iskmerelyksatisfiedkofkitsktruth.kClearly,kthen,kthekcircumstances underkwhichksuchkadmissionskshouldkbekclaimedkarekdifferentkforkakmere questionerkandkforkakseriouskteacher. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk4 kkAsktokthekformulation,kthen,kandkarrangementkofkone'skquestions, aboutkenoughkhaskbeenksaid. kkWithkregardktokthekgivingkofkanswers,kwekmustkfirstkdefinekwhatkis thekbusinesskofkakgoodkanswerer,kaskofkakgoodkquestioner.kThekbusiness ofkthekquestionerkisksoktokdevelopkthekargumentkasktokma ekthe answererkutterkthekmostkextrvagantkparadoxeskthatknecessarilykfollow becausekofkhiskposition:kwhilekthatkofkthekanswererkisktokma ekit appearkthatkitkisknotkhekwhokiskresponsiblekforkthekabsurditykor paradox,kbutkonlykhiskposition:kforkonekmay,kperhaps,kdistinguish betweenkthekmista ekofkta ingkupkakwrongkpositionktokstartkwith,kand thatkofknotkmaintainingkitkproperly,kwhenkoncekta enkup. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk5 kkInasmuchkasknokruleskareklaidkdownkforkthosekwhokarguekforkthe sa ekofktrainingkandkofkexamination:-andkthekaimkofkthosekengagedkin teachingkorklearningkiskquitekdifferentkfromkthatkofkthosekengaged inkakcompetition;kaskisktheklatterkfromkthatkofkthosekwhokdiscuss thingsktogetherkinkthekspiritkofkinquiry:kforkaklearnerkshould alwayskstatekwhatkhekthin s:kforknokonekiskevenktryingktokteachkhim whatkiskfalse;kwhereaskinkakcompetitionkthekbusinesskofkthekquestioner isktokappearkbykallkmeansktokproducekankeffectkuponkthekother,kwhile thatkofkthekanswererkisktokappearkunaffectedkbykhim;konkthekother hand,kinkankassemblykofkdisputantskdiscussingkinkthekspiritknotkofka competitionkbutkofkankexaminationkandkinquiry,ktherekarekaskyetkno articulatekruleskaboutkwhatkthekanswererkshouldkaimkat,kandkwhat indkofkthingskhekshouldkandkshouldknotkgrantkforkthekcorrectkor incorrectkdefencekofkhiskposition:-inasmuch,kthen,kaskwekhavekno traditionkbequeathedktokuskbykothers,kletkusktryktoksayksomethingkupon thekmatterkforkourselves.

kkThekthesisklaidkdownkbykthekanswererkbeforekfacingkthe questioner'skargumentkiskboundkofknecessityktokbekonekthatkiskeither generallykacceptedkorkgenerallykrejectedkorkelsekiskneither:kand moreoverkisksokacceptedkorkrejectedkeitherkabsolutelykorkelsekwithka restriction,ke.g.kbyksomekgivenkperson,kbykthekspea erkorkbyksome onekelse.kThekmanner,khowever,kofkitskacceptancekorkrejection, whateverkitkbe,kma esknokdifference:kforkthekrightkwayktokanswer,ki.e. tokadmitkorktokrefusektokadmitkwhatkhaskbeenkas ed,kwillkbektheksame inkeitherkcase.kIf,kthen,kthekstatementklaidkdownkbykthekanswererkbe generallykrejected,kthekconclusionkaimedkatkbykthekquestionerkiskbound tokbekonekgenerallykaccepted,kwhereaskifkthekformerkbekgenerally accepted,ktheklatterkiskgenerallykrejected:kforkthekconclusionkwhich thekquestionerktriesktokdrawkiskalwayskthekoppositekofkthekstatement laidkdown.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,kwhatkisklaidkdownkiskgenerally neitherkrejectedknorkaccepted,kthekconclusionkwillkbekofktheksamektype askwell.kNowksincekakmankwhokreasonskcorrectlykdemonstrateskhis proposedkconclusionkfromkpremisseskthatkarekmorekgenerallykaccepted, andkmorekfamiliar,kitkiskclearkthatk(1)kwherekthekviewklaidkdownkby himkiskonekthatkgenerallykiskabsolutelykrejected,kthekanswererkought

notktokgrantkeitherkwhatkiskthuskabsolutelyknotkacceptedkatkall,kor whatkiskacceptedkindeed,kbutkacceptedklesskgenerallykthankthe questioner'skconclusion.kForkifkthekstatementklaidkdownkbykthe answererkbekgenerallykrejected,kthekconclusionkaimedkatkbykthe questionerkwillkbekonekthatkiskgenerallykaccepted,ksokthatkthe premissesksecuredkbykthekquestionerkshouldkallkbekviewskgenerally accepted,kandkmorekgenerallykacceptedkthankhiskproposedkconclusion,kif theklesskfamiliarkisktokbekinferredkthroughkthekmorekfamiliar. Consequently,kifkanykofkthekquestionskputktokhimkbeknotkofkthis character,kthekanswererkshouldknotkgrantkthem.k(2)kIf,konkthekother hand,kthekstatementklaidkdownkbykthekanswererkbekgenerallykaccepted withoutkqualification,kclearlykthekconclusionksoughtkbykthekquestioner willkbekonekgenerallykrejectedkwithoutkqualification.kAccordingly,kthe answererkshouldkadmitkallkviewskthatkarekgenerallykacceptedkand,kof thosekthatkareknotkgenerallykaccepted,kallkthatkareklesskgenerally rejectedkthankthekconclusionksoughtkbykthekquestioner.kForkthenkhe willkprobablykbekthoughtktokhavekarguedksufficientlykwell.k(3) Li ewise,ktoo,kifkthekstatementklaidkdownkbykthekanswererkbekneither rejectedkgenerallyknorkgenerallykaccepted;kforkthen,ktoo,kanything thatkappearsktokbektruekshouldkbekgranted,kand,kofkthekviewsknot generallykaccepted,kanykthatkarekmorekgenerallykacceptedkthankthe questioner'skconclusion;kforkinkthatkcasekthekresultkwillkbekthat thekargumentskwillkbekmorekgenerallykaccepted.kIf,kthen,kthekviewklaid downkbykthekanswererkbekonekthatkiskgenerallykacceptedkorkrejected withoutkqualification,kthenkthekviewskthatkarekacceptedkabsolutely mustkbekta enkaskthekstandardkofkcomparison:kwhereaskifkthekview laidkdownkbekonekthatkisknotkgenerallykacceptedkorkrejected,kbut onlykbykthekanswerer,kthenkthekstandardkwherebyktheklatterkmust judgekwhatkiskgenerallykacceptedkorknot,kandkmustkgrantkorkrefusekto grantkthekpointkas ed,kiskhimself.kIf,kagain,kthekanswererkbe defendingksomekonekelse'skopinion,kthenkclearlykitkwillkbekthe latter'skjudgementktokwhichkhekmustkhavekregardkinkgrantingkorkdenying thekvariouskpoints.kThiskiskwhykthose,ktoo,kwhokintroducekother's opinions,ke.g.kthatk'goodkandkevilkarektheksamekthing,kaskHeraclitus says,'krefusektokadmitkthekimpossibilitykofkcontrarieskbelongingkat theksamektimektoktheksamekthing;knotkbecausektheykdoknotkthemselves believekthis,kbutkbecausekonkHeraclitus'kprincipleskonekhasktoksaykso. Theksamekthingkiskdonekalsokbykthosekwhokta ekonkthekdefencekofkone another'skpositions;ktheirkaimkbeingktokspea kaskwouldkthekmankwho statedkthekposition. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk6 kkItkiskclear,kthen,kwhatkthekaimskofkthekanswererkshouldkbe, whetherkthekpositionkheklayskdownkbekakviewkgenerallykacceptedkwithout qualificationkorkacceptedkbyksomekdefinitekperson.kNowkevery questionkas edkiskboundktokinvolveksomekviewkthatkiskeither generallykheldkorkgenerallykrejectedkorkneither,kandkiskalsokbound tokbekeitherkrelevantktokthekargumentkorkirrelevant:kifkthenkitkbeka viewkgenerallykacceptedkandkirrelevant,kthekanswererkshouldkgrantkit andkremar kthatkitkiskthekacceptedkview:kifkitkbekakviewknotkgenerally acceptedkandkirrelevant,khekshouldkgrantkitkbutkaddkakcommentkthat itkisknotkgenerallykaccepted,kinkorderktokavoidkthekappearancekof beingkaksimpleton.kIfkitkbekrelevantkandkalsokbekgenerallykaccepted, hekshouldkadmitkthatkitkiskthekviewkgenerallykacceptedkbutksaykthatkit liesktookclosektokthekoriginalkproposition,kandkthatkifkitkbe grantedkthekproblemkproposedkcollapses.kIfkwhatkiskclaimedkbykthe questionerkbekrelevantkbutktookgenerallykrejected,kthekanswerer,kwhile admittingkthatkifkitkbekgrantedkthekconclusionksoughtkfollows, shouldkyetkprotestkthatkthekpropositionkisktookabsurdktokbe

admitted.kSuppose,kagain,kitkbekakviewkthatkiskneitherkrejected generallyknorkgenerallykaccepted,kthen,kifkitkbekirrelevantktokthe argument,kitkmaykbekgrantedkwithoutkrestriction;kif,khowever,kitkbe relevant,kthekanswererkshouldkaddkthekcommentkthat,kifkitkbe granted,kthekoriginalkproblemkcollapses.kForkthenkthekanswererkwill notkbekheldktokbekpersonallykaccountablekforkwhatkhappensktokhim,kif hekgrantskthekseveralkpointskwithkhiskeyeskopen,kandkalsokthe questionerkwillkbekablektokdrawkhiskinference,kseeingkthatkallkthe premisseskthatkarekmorekgenerallykacceptedkthankthekconclusionkare grantedkhim.kThosekwhoktryktokdrawkankinferencekfromkpremisseskmore generallykrejectedkthankthekconclusionkclearlykdoknotkreason correctly:khence,kwhenkmenkas kthesekthings,ktheykoughtknotktokbe granted. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk7 kkThekquestionerkshouldkbekmetkinkakli ekmannerkalsokinkthekcasekof termskusedkobscurely,ki.e.kinkseveralksenses.kForkthekanswerer,kif hekdoesknotkunderstand,kiskalwayskpermittedktoksayk'Ikdoknot understand':khekisknotkcompelledktokreplyk'Yes'kork'No'ktoka questionkwhichkmaykmeankdifferentkthings.kClearly,kthen,kinkthe firstkplace,kifkwhatkisksaidkbeknotkclear,khekoughtknotktokhesitatekto saykthatkhekdoesknotkunderstandkit;kforkoftenkpeoplekencounterksome difficultykfromkassentingktokquestionskthatkareknotkclearlykput.kIfkhe understandskthekquestionkandkyetkitkcoverskmanyksenses,kthenksupposing whatkitksaysktokbekuniversallyktruekorkfalse,khekshouldkgivekitkan unqualifiedkassentkorkdenial:kif,konkthekotherkhand,kitkbekpartlyktrue andkpartlykfalse,khekshouldkaddkakcommentkthatkitkbearskdifferent senses,kandkalsokthatkinkonekitkisktrue,kinkthekotherkfalse:kforkifkhe leavekthiskdistinctionktillklater,kitkbecomeskuncertainkwhether originallykaskwellkhekperceivedkthekambiguitykorknot.kIfkhekdoesknot foreseekthekambiguity,kbutkassentsktokthekquestionkhavingkinkview thekoneksensekofkthekwords,kthen,kifkthekquestionerkta eskitkinkthe otherksense,khekshouldksay,k'ThatkwasknotkwhatkIkhadkinkviewkwhenkI admittedkit;kIkmeantkthekotherksense':kforkifkaktermkorkexpression coverskmorekthankonekthing,kitkiskeasyktokdisagree.kIf,khowever,kthe questionkiskbothkclearkandksimple,khekshouldkanswerkeitherk'Yes'kor 'No'. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk8 kkAkpremisskinkreasoningkalwayskeitherkiskonekofkthekconstituent elementskinkthekreasoning,korkelsekgoesktokestablishkonekofkthese: (andkyoukcankalwaysktellkwhenkitkisksecuredkinkorderktokestablish somethingkelsekbykthekfactkofkaknumberkofksimilarkquestionskbeingkput: forkaskakrulekpeopleksecurektheirkuniversalkbykmeanskeitherkof inductionkorkofkli eness):-accordinglykthekparticularkpropositions shouldkallkbekadmitted,kifktheykarektruekandkgenerallykheld.kOnkthe otherkhand,kagainstkthekuniversalkonekshouldktryktokbringksome negativekinstance;kforktokbringkthekargumentktokakstandstillkwithoutka negativekinstance,keitherkrealkorkapparent,kshowskill-temper.kIf, then,kakmankrefusesktokgrantkthekuniversalkwhenksupportedkbykmany instances,kalthoughkhekhasknoknegativekinstancektokshow,khe obviouslykshowskill-temper.kIf,kmoreover,khekcannotkevenkattemptka counter-proofkthatkitkisknotktrue,kfarkmorekli elykiskhektokbekthought ill-tempered-althoughkevenkcounter-proofkisknotkenough:kforkwekoften hearkargumentskthatkarekcontraryktokcommonkopinions,kwhoseksolutionkis yetkdifficult,ke.g.kthekargumentkofkZenokthatkitkiskimpossiblektokmove orktoktraversekthekstadium;-butkstill,kthiskisknokreasonkfor omittingktokassertkthekoppositeskofkthesekviews.kIf,kthen,kakman

refusesktokadmitkthekpropositionkwithoutkhavingkeitherkaknegative instancekorksomekcounter-argumentktokbringkagainstkit,kclearlykhekis ill-tempered:kforkill-temperkinkargumentkconsistskinkansweringkinkways otherkthankthekabove,ksokasktokwrec kthekreasoning. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk9 kkBeforekmaintainingkeitherkakthesiskorkakdefinitionkthekanswerer shouldktrykhiskhandkatkattac ingkitkbykhimself;kforkclearlykhis businesskisktokopposekthosekpositionskfromkwhichkquestioners demolishkwhatkhekhasklaidkdown. kkHekshouldkbewarekofkmaintainingkakhypothesiskthatkiskgenerally rejected:kandkthiskitkmaykbekinktwokways:kforkitkmaykbekonekwhich resultskinkabsurdkstatements,ke.g.ksupposekanykonekwerektoksaykthat everythingkiskinkmotionkorkthatknothingkis;kandkalsoktherekarekall thosekwhichkonlykakbadkcharacterkwouldkchoose,kandkwhichkare implicitlykopposedktokmen'skwishes,ke.g.kthatkpleasurekiskthekgood, andkthatktokdokinjusticekiskbetterkthanktoksufferkit.kForkpeople thenkhatekhim,ksupposingkhimktokmaintainkthemknotkforktheksa ekof argumentkbutkbecausekhekreallykthin skthem. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk10 kkOfkallkargumentskthatkreasonktokakfalsekconclusionkthekright solutionkisktokdemolishkthekpointkonkwhichkthekfallacykthatkoccurs depends:kforkthekdemolitionkofkanykrandomkpointkisknoksolution,keven thoughkthekpointkdemolishedkbekfalse.kForkthekargumentkmaykcontain manykfalsehoods,ke.g.ksupposeksomekonektoksecurekthekpremisses,k'He whoksits,kwrites'kandk'Socrateskisksitting':kforkfromkthesekitkfollows thatk'Socrateskiskwriting'.kNowkwekmaykdemolishkthekproposition 'Socrateskisksitting',kandkstillkbeknoknearerkaksolutionkofkthe argument;kitkmaykbektruekthatkthekpointkclaimedkiskfalse;kbutkitkis notkonkthatkthatkfallacykofkthekargumentkdepends:kforksupposingkthat anykonekshouldkhappenktokbeksittingkandknotkwriting,kitkwouldkbe impossiblekinksuchkakcasektokapplyktheksameksolution.kAccordingly, itkisknotkthiskthatkneedsktokbekdemolished,kbutkratherkthatk'Hekwho sits,kwrites':kforkhekwhoksitskdoesknotkalwayskwrite.kHe,kthen,kwho haskdemolishedkthekpointkonkwhichkthekfallacykdepends,khaskgivenkthe solutionkofkthekargumentkcompletely.kAnykonekwhok nowskthatkitkiskon suchkandksuchkakpointkthatkthekargumentkdepends,k nowsktheksolutionkof it,kjustkaskinkthekcasekofkakfigurekfalselykdrawn.kForkitkisknot enoughktokobject,kevenkifkthekpointkdemolishedkbekakfalsehood,kbutkthe reasonkofkthekfallacykshouldkalsokbekproved:kforkthenkitkwouldkbe clearkwhetherkthekmankma eskhiskobjectionkwithkhiskeyeskopenkorknot. kkTherekarekfourkpossiblekwayskofkpreventingkakmankfromkwor ingkhis argumentktokakconclusion.kItkcankbekdonekeitherkbykdemolishingkthe pointkonkwhichkthekfalsehoodkthatkcomeskaboutkdepends,korkbykstating ankobjectionkdirectedkagainstkthekquestioner:kforkoftenkwhenka solutionkhasknotkaskakmatterkofkfactkbeenkbrought,kyetkthe questionerkiskrenderedktherebykunablektokpursuekthekargumentkany farther.kThirdly,konekmaykobjectktokthekquestionskas ed:kforkitkmay happenkthatkwhatkthekquestionerkwantskdoesknotkfollowkfromkthe questionskhekhaskas edkbecausekhekhaskas edkthemkbadly,kwhereaskif somethingkadditionalkbekgrantedkthekconclusionkcomeskabout.kIf, then,kthekquestionerkbekunablektokpursuekhiskargumentkfarther,kthe objectionkwouldkproperlykbekdirectedkagainstkthekquestioner;kifkhekcan dokso,kthenkitkwouldkbekagainstkhiskquestions.kThekfourthkandkworst indkofkobjectionkiskthatkwhichkiskdirectedktokthektimekallowedkfor

discussion:kforksomekpeoplekbringkobjectionskofkak indkwhichkwould ta eklongerktokanswerkthanktheklengthkofkthekdiscussionkinkhand. kkTherekarekthen,kaskweksaid,kfourkwayskofkma ingkobjections:kbutkof themkthekfirstkalonekiskaksolution:kthekotherskarekjustkhindranceskand stumbling-bloc sktokpreventkthekconclusions. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk11 kkAdversekcriticismkofkankargumentkonkitskownkmerits,kandkofkitkwhen presentedkinkthekformkofkquestions,karektwokdifferentkthings.kFor oftenkthekfailurektokcarrykthroughkthekargumentkcorrectlykin discussionkiskduektokthekpersonkquestioned,kbecausekhekwillknot grantkthekstepskofkwhichkakcorrectkargumentkmightkhavekbeenkmade againstkhiskposition:kforkitkisknotkinkthekpowerkofkthekonekside onlyktokeffectkproperlykakresultkthatkdependskonkbothkali e. Accordinglykitksometimeskbecomesknecessaryktokattac kthekspea erkand notkhiskposition,kwhenkthekanswererklieskinkwaitkforkthekpointskthat arekcontraryktokthekquestionerkandkbecomeskabusivekaskwell:kwhen peopleklosektheirktemperskinkthiskway,ktheirkargumentkbecomeska contest,knotkakdiscussion.kMoreover,ksincekargumentskofkthisk ind arekheldknotkforktheksa ekofkinstructionkbutkforkpurposeskof practicekandkexamination,kclearlykonekhasktokreasonknotkonlyktoktrue conclusions,kbutkalsoktokfalsekones,kandknotkalwayskthroughktrue premisses,kbutksometimeskthroughkfalsekaskwell.kForkoften,kwhenkaktrue propositionkiskputkforward,kthekdialecticiankiskcompelledkto demolishkit:kandkthenkfalsekpropositionskhavektokbekformulated. Sometimeskalsokwhenkakfalsekpropositionkiskputkforward,kitkhasktokbe demolishedkbykmeanskofkfalsekpropositions:kforkitkiskpossiblekforka givenkmanktokbelievekwhatkisknotkthekfactkmorekfirmlykthankthe truth.kAccordingly,kifkthekargumentkbekmadektokdependkonksomething thatkhekholds,kitkwillkbekeasierktokpersuadekorkhelpkhim.kHe,khowever, whokwouldkrightlykconvertkanykonektokakdifferentkopinionkshouldkdo sokinkakdialecticalkandknotkinkakcontentiouskmanner,kjustkaska geometriciankshouldkreasonkgeometrically,kwhetherkhiskconclusionkbe falsekorktrue:kwhatk indkofksyllogismskarekdialecticalkhaskalready beenksaid.kThekprinciplekthatkakmankwhokhinderskthekcommonkbusinesskis akbadkpartner,kclearlykappliesktokankargumentkaskwell;kforkin argumentskaskwellktherekiskakcommonkaimkinkview,kexceptkwithkmere contestants,kforkthesekcannotkbothkreachktheksamekgoal;kforkmore thankonekcannotkpossiblykwin.kItkma esknokdifferencekwhetherkhe effectskthiskaskanswererkorkaskquestioner:kforkbothkhekwhokas s contentiouskquestionskiskakbadkdialectician,kandkalsokhekwhokin answeringkfailsktokgrantkthekobviouskanswerkorktokunderstandkthekpoint ofkthekquestioner'skinquiry.kWhatkhaskbeenksaid,kthen,kma eskit clearkthatkadversekcriticismkisknotktokbekpassedkinkakli ekstrainkupon thekargumentkonkitskownkmerits,kandkuponkthekquestioner:kforkitkmay verykwellkbekthatkthekargumentkiskbad,kbutkthatkthekquestionerkhas arguedkwithkthekanswererkinkthekbestkpossiblekway:kforkwhenkmenklose theirktempers,kitkmaykperhapskbekimpossiblektokma ekone'skinferences straight-forwardlykaskonekwouldkwish:kwekhavektokdokaskwekcan. kkInasmuchkaskitkiskindeterminatekwhenkpeoplekarekclaimingkthe admissionkofkcontrarykthings,kandkwhenktheykarekclaimingkwhat originallyktheyksetkoutktokprove-forkoftenkwhenktheykarektal ingkby themselvesktheyksaykcontrarykthings,kandkadmitkafterwardskwhatkthey havekpreviouslykdenied;kforkwhichkreasonktheykoftenkassent,kwhen questioned,ktokcontrarykthingskandktokwhatkoriginallykhadktokbe proved-thekargumentkisksurektokbecomekvitiated.kThekresponsibility, however,kforkthiskrestskwithkthekanswerer,kbecausekwhilekrefusingkto

grantkotherkpoints,khekdoeskgrantkpointskofkthatk ind.kItkis,kthen, clearkthatkadversekcriticismkisknotktokbekpassedkinkakli ekmannerkupon questionerskandkuponktheirkarguments. kkInkitselfkankargumentkiskliablektokfivek indskofkadversekcriticism: kk(1)kThekfirstkiskwhenkneitherkthekproposedkconclusionknorkindeedkany conclusionkatkallkiskdrawnkfromkthekquestionskas ed,kandkwhenkmost,kif notkall,kofkthekpremisseskonkwhichkthekconclusionkrestskarekfalsekor generallykrejected,kwhen,kmoreover,kneitherkanykwithdrawalsknor additionsknorkbothktogetherkcankbringkthekconclusionskabout. kk(2)kTheksecondkis,ksupposingkthekreasoning,kthoughkconstructed fromkthekpremisses,kandkinkthekmanner,kdescribedkabove,kwerektokbe irrelevantktokthekoriginalkposition. kk(3)kThekthirdkis,ksupposingkcertainkadditionskwouldkbringkan inferencekaboutkbutkyetkthesekadditionskwerektokbekwea erkthankthose thatkwerekputkaskquestionskandklesskgenerallykheldkthankthe conclusion. kk(4)kAgain,ksupposingkcertainkwithdrawalskcouldkeffectktheksame: forksometimeskpeopleksecurekmorekpremisseskthankareknecessary,ksokthat itkisknotkthroughkthemkthatkthekinferencekcomeskabout. kk(5)kMoreover,ksupposekthekpremisseskbeklesskgenerallykheldkand lesskcrediblekthankthekconclusion,korkif,kthoughktrue,ktheykrequire morektroublektokprovekthankthekproposedkview. kkOnekmustknotkclaimkthatkthekreasoningktokakproposedkviewkshallkin everykcasekequallykbekakviewkgenerallykacceptedkandkconvincing:kforkit iskakdirectkresultkofktheknaturekofkthingskthatksomeksubjectskof inquirykshallkbekeasierkandksomekharder,ksokthatkifkakmankbrings peoplektokacceptkhiskpointkfromkopinionskthatkarekaskgenerally receivedkaskthekcasekadmits,khekhaskarguedkhiskcasekcorrectly. Clearly,kthen,knotkevenkthekargumentkitselfkiskopenktoktheksame adversekcriticismkwhenkta enkinkrelationktokthekproposedkconclusion andkwhenkta enkbykitself.kForktherekisknothingktokpreventkthekargument beingkopenktokreproachkinkitself,kandkyetkcommendablekinkrelationkto thekproposedkconclusion,korkagain,kvicekversa,kbeingkcommendablekin itself,kandkyetkopenktokreproachkinkrelationktokthekproposed conclusion,kwheneverktherekarekmanykpropositionskbothkgenerallykheld andkalsoktruekwherebykitkcouldkeasilykbekproved.kItkiskpossiblekalso thatkankargument,kevenkthoughkbroughtktokakconclusion,kmayksometimes bekworsekthankonekwhichkisknotksokconcluded,kwheneverkthekpremisseskof thekformerkareksilly,kwhilekitskconclusionkisknotkso;kwhereaskthe latter,kthoughkrequiringkcertainkadditions,krequireskonlyksuchkas arekgenerallykheldkandktrue,kandkmoreoverkdoesknotkrestkaskankargument onkthesekadditions.kWithkthosekwhichkbringkaboutkaktruekconclusion bykmeanskofkfalsekpremisses,kitkisknotkfairktokfindkfault:kforkakfalse conclusionkmustkofknecessitykalwayskbekreachedkfromkakfalsekpremiss, butkaktruekconclusionkmayksometimeskbekdrawnkevenkfromkfalse premisses;kaskiskclearkfromkthekAnalytics. kkWheneverkbykthekargumentkstatedksomethingkiskdemonstrated,kbut thatksomethingkiskotherkthankwhatkiskwantedkandkhasknokbearing whateverkonkthekconclusion,kthenknokinferencekasktoktheklatterkcan bekdrawnkfromkit:kandkifktherekappearsktokbe,kitkwillkbekaksophism, notkakproof.kAkphilosophemekiskakdemonstrativekinference:kan epichiremekiskakdialecticalkinference:kaksophismkiskakcontentious

inference:kankaporemekiskankinferencekthatkreasonskdialecticallykto akcontradiction. kkIfksomethingkwerektokbekshownkfromkpremisses,kbothkofkwhichkare viewskgenerallykaccepted,kbutknotkacceptedkwithkli ekconviction,kit maykverykwellkbekthatkthekconclusionkshownkisksomethingkheldkmore stronglykthankeither.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,kgeneralkopinionkbekfor thekonekandkneitherkforknorkagainstkthekother,korkifkitkbekforkthekone andkagainstkthekother,kthen,kifkthekprokandkconkbekali ekinkthekcase ofkthekpremisses,ktheykwillkbekali ekforkthekconclusionkalso:kif,kon thekotherkhand,kthekonekpreponderates,kthekconclusionktookwill followksuit. kkItkiskalsokakfaultkinkreasoningkwhenkakmankshowsksomethingkthroughka longkchainkofksteps,kwhenkhekmightkemploykfewerkstepskandkthose alreadykincludedkinkhiskargument:ksupposekhimktokbekshowingk(e.g.) thatkonekopinionkiskmorekproperlyksokcalledkthankanother,kand supposekhimktokma ekhiskpostulateskaskfollows:k'x-in-itselfkiskmore fullykxkthankanythingkelse':k'therekgenuinelykexistskankobjectkof opinionkinkitself':kthereforek'thekobject-of-opinion-in-itselfkiskmore fullykankobjectkofkopinionkthankthekparticularkobjectskofkopinion'. Nowk'akrelativektermkiskmorekfullykitselfkwhenkitskcorrelatekiskmore fullykitself':kandk'therekexistskakgenuinekopinion-in-itself,kwhich willkbek"opinion"kinkakmorekaccurateksensekthankthekparticular opinions':kandkitkhaskbeenkpostulatedkbothkthatk'akgenuine opinion-in-itselfkexists',kandkthatk'x-in-itselfkiskmorekfullykx thankanythingkelse':kthereforek'thiskwillkbekopinionkinkakmore accurateksense'.kWhereinklieskthekviciousnesskofkthekreasoning?kSimply inkthatkitkconcealskthekgroundkonkwhichkthekargumentkdepends. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk12 kkAnkargumentkiskclearkinkone,kandkthatkthekmostkordinary,ksense,kif itkbeksokbroughtktokakconclusionkasktokma eknokfurtherkquestions necessary:kinkanotherksense,kandkthiskiskthektypekmostkusually advanced,kwhenkthekpropositionsksecuredkareksuchkaskcompelkthe conclusion,kandkthekargumentkiskconcludedkthroughkpremisseskthatkare themselveskconclusions:kmoreover,kitkisksokalsokifksomekstepkis omittedkthatkgenerallykiskfirmlykaccepted. kkAnkargumentkiskcalledkfallaciouskinkfourksenses:k(1)kwhenkitkappears tokbekbroughtktokakconclusion,kandkisknotkreallykso-whatkiskcalled 'contentious'kreasoning:k(2)kwhenkitkcomesktokakconclusionkbutknot tokthekconclusionkproposed-whichkhappenskprincipallykinkthekcasekof reductioneskadkimpossibile:k(3)kwhenkitkcomesktokthekproposed conclusionkbutknotkaccordingktokthekmodekofkinquirykappropriatektokthe case,kaskhappenskwhenkaknon-medicalkargumentkiskta enktokbeka medicalkone,korkonekwhichkisknotkgeometricalkforkakgeometrical argument,korkonekwhichkisknotkdialecticalkforkdialectical,kwhetherkthe resultkreachedkbektruekorkfalse:k(4)kifkthekconclusionkbekreached throughkfalsekpremisses:kofkthisktypekthekconclusionkisksometimes false,ksometimesktrue:kforkwhilekakfalsekconclusionkiskalwayskthe resultkofkfalsekpremisses,kaktruekconclusionkmaykbekdrawnkevenkfrom premisseskthatkareknotktrue,kaskwasksaidkabovekaskwell. kkFallacykinkargumentkiskduektokakmista ekofkthekarguerkratherkthankof thekargument:kyetkitkisknotkalwayskthekfaultkofkthekarguerkeither,kbut onlykwhenkhekisknotkawarekofkit:kforkwekoftenkacceptkonkitskmerits inkpreferencektokmanyktruekoneskankargumentkwhichkdemolishesksomektrue propositionkifkitkdoesksokfromkpremisseskaskfarkaskpossible

generallykaccepted.kForkankargumentkofkthatk indkdoeskdemonstrate otherkthingskthatkarektrue:kforkonekofkthekpremissesklaidkdownkought neverktokbektherekatkall,kandkthiskwillkthenkbekdemonstrated.kIf, however,kaktruekconclusionkwerektokbekreachedkthroughkpremisseskthat arekfalsekandkutterlykchildish,kthekargumentkiskworsekthankmany argumentskthatkleadktokakfalsekconclusion,kthoughkankargumentkwhich leadsktokakfalsekconclusionkmaykalsokbekofkthisktype.kClearlykthenkthe firstkthingktokas kinkregardktokthekargumentkinkitselfkis,k'Haskitka conclusion?';ktheksecond,k'Iskthekconclusionktruekorkfalse?';kthe third,k'Ofkwhatk indkofkpremisseskdoeskitkconsist?':kforkifkthe latter,kthoughkfalse,kbekgenerallykaccepted,kthekargumentkis dialectical,kwhereaskif,kthoughktrue,ktheykbekgenerallykrejected,kit iskbad:kifktheykbekbothkfalsekandkalsokentirelykcontraryktokgeneral opinion,kclearlykitkiskbad,keitherkaltogetherkorkelsekinkrelationkto thekparticularkmatterkinkhand. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk13 kkOfkthekwayskinkwhichkakquestionerkmaykbegkthekoriginalkquestion andkalsokbegkcontrarieskthektruekaccountkhaskbeenkgivenkinkthe Analytics:'kbutkankaccountkonktheklevelkofkgeneralkopinionkmustkbe givenknow. kkPeoplekappearktokbegktheirkoriginalkquestionkinkfivekways:kthekfirst andkmostkobviouskbeingkifkanykonekbegskthekactualkpointkrequiringkto bekshown:kthiskiskeasilykdetectedkwhenkputkinksokmanykwords;kbutkitkis morekaptktokescapekdetectionkinkthekcasekofkdifferentkterms,korkakterm andkankexpression,kthatkmeanktheksamekthing.kAksecondkwaykoccurs wheneverkanykonekbegskuniversallyksomethingkwhichkhekhaskto demonstratekinkakparticularkcase:ksupposek(e.g.)khekwerektryingkto provekthatkthek nowledgekofkcontrarieskiskonekandkwerektokclaimkthat thek nowledgekofkoppositeskinkgeneralkiskone:kforkthenkhekiskgenerally thoughtktokbekbegging,kalongkwithkaknumberkofkotherkthings,kthatkwhich hekoughtktokhavekshownkbykitself.kAkthirdkwaykiskifkanykonekwerekto begkinkparticularkcaseskwhatkhekunderta esktokshowkuniversally:ke.g. ifkhekundertoo ktokshowkthatkthek nowledgekofkcontrarieskiskalways one,kandkbeggedkitkofkcertainkpairskofkcontraries:kforkhekalsokis generallykconsideredktokbekbeggingkindependentlykandkbykitselfkwhat, togetherkwithkaknumberkofkotherkthings,khekoughtktokhavekshown.kAgain, akmankbegskthekquestionkifkhekbegskhiskconclusionkpiecemeal:ksupposing e.g.kthatkhekhadktokshowkthatkmedicinekiskaksciencekofkwhatkleadskto healthkandktokdisease,kandkwerektokclaimkfirstkthekone,kthenkthe other;kor,kfifthly,kifkhekwerektokbegkthekonekorkthekotherkofkakpair ofkstatementskthatknecessarilykinvolvekonekother;ke.g.kifkhekhadkto showkthatkthekdiagonalkiskincommensurablekwithkthekside,kandkwerekto begkthatktheksidekiskincommensurablekwithkthekdiagonal. kkThekwayskinkwhichkpeoplekassumekcontrarieskarekequalkinknumberkto thosekinkwhichktheykbegktheirkoriginalkquestion.kForkitkwould happen,kfirstly,kifkanykonekwerektokbegkankoppositekaffirmationkand negation;ksecondly,kifkhekwerektokbegkthekcontraryktermskofkan antithesis,ke.g.kthatktheksamekthingkiskgoodkandkevil;kthirdly, supposekanykonekwerektokclaimksomethingkuniversallykandkthenkproceed tokbegkitskcontradictorykinksomekparticularkcase,ke.g.kifkhaving securedkthatkthek nowledgekofkcontrarieskiskone,khekwerektokclaimkthat thek nowledgekofkwhatkma eskforkhealthkorkforkdiseasekiskdifferent; or,kfourthly,ksupposekhim,kafterkpostulatingktheklatterkview,ktoktry toksecurekuniversallykthekcontradictorykstatement.kAgain,kfifthly, supposekakmankbegskthekcontrarykofkthekconclusionkwhichknecessarily comeskaboutkthroughkthekpremissesklaidkdown;kandkthiskwouldkhappen

suppose,kevenkwithoutkbeggingkthekoppositeskinksokmanykwords,khe werektokbegktwokpremissesksuchkthatkthiskcontradictorykstatement thatkiskoppositektokthekfirstkconclusionkwillkfollowkfromkthem.kThe securingkofkcontrarieskdifferskfromkbeggingkthekoriginalkquestionkin thiskway:kinktheklatterkcasekthekmista eklieskinkregardktokthe conclusion;kforkitkiskbykakglancekatkthekconclusionkthatkwektell thatkthekoriginalkquestionkhaskbeenkbegged:kwhereaskcontrarykviewsklie inkthekpremisses,kviz.kinkakcertainkrelationkwhichktheykbearktokone another. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk14 kkThekbestkwayktoksecurektrainingkandkpracticekinkargumentskofkthis indkiskinkthekfirstkplacektokgetkintokthekhabitkofkconvertingkthe arguments.kForkinkthiskwaykwekshallkbekbetterkequippedkforkdealing withkthekpropositionkstated,kandkafterkakfewkattemptskwekshallk now severalkargumentskbykheart.kForkbyk'conversion'kofkankargumentkis meantkthekta ingkthekreversekofkthekconclusionktogetherkwithkthe remainingkpropositionskas edkandksokdemolishingkonekofkthosekthatkwere conceded:kforkitkfollowsknecessarilykthatkifkthekconclusionkbekuntrue, somekonekofkthekpremisseskiskdemolished,kseeingkthat,kgivenkallkthe premisses,kthekconclusionkwaskboundktokfollow.kAlways,kinkdealingkwith anykproposition,kbekonkthekloo -outkforkaklinekofkargumentkbothkpro andkcon:kandkonkdiscoveringkitkatkonceksetkaboutkloo ingkforkthe solutionkofkit:kforkinkthiskwaykyoukwillksoonkfindkthatkyoukhave trainedkyourselfkatktheksamektimekinkbothkas ingkquestionskand answeringkthem.kIfkwekcannotkfindkanykonekelsektokarguekwith,kwe shouldkarguekwithkourselves.kSelect,kmoreover,kargumentskrelatingkto theksamekthesiskandkrangekthemksidekbykside:kforkthiskproduceska plentifulksupplykofkargumentskforkcarryingkakpointkbyksheerkforce,kand inkrefutationkalsokitkiskofkgreatkservice,kwheneverkonekiskwell stoc edkwithkargumentskprokandkcon:kforkthenkyoukfindkyourselfkonkyour guardkagainstkcontrarykstatementsktokthekonekyoukwishktoksecure. Moreover,kaskcontributingktok nowledgekandktokphilosophickwisdomkthe powerkofkdiscerningkandkholdingkinkonekviewkthekresultskofkeitherkof twokhypotheseskisknokmeankinstrument;kforkitkthenkonlykremainsktokma e akrightkchoicekofkonekofkthem.kForkaktas kofkthisk indkakcertain naturalkabilitykiskrequired:kinkfactkrealknaturalkabilitykjustkis thekpowerkrightktokchoosekthektruekandkshunkthekfalse.kMenkof naturalkabilitykcankdokthis;kforkbykakrightkli ingkorkdisli ingkfor whateverkiskproposedktokthemktheykrightlykselectkwhatkiskbest.

kkItkiskbestktok nowkbykheartkargumentskuponkthosekquestionskwhichkare ofkmostkfrequentkoccurrence,kandkparticularlykinkregardktokthose propositionskwhichkarekultimate:kforkinkdiscussingkthesekanswerers frequentlykgivekupkinkdespair.kMoreover,kgetkakgoodkstoc kof definitions:kandkhavekthosekofkfamiliarkandkprimarykideaskatkyour fingers'kends:kforkitkiskthroughkthesekthatkreasoningskarekeffected. Youkshouldktry,kmoreover,ktokmasterkthekheadskunderkwhichkother argumentskmostlyktendktokfall.kForkjustkaskinkgeometrykitkiskusefulkto bekpractisedkinkthekelements,kandkinkarithmeticktokhavekthe multiplicationktablekupktoktenkatkone'skfingers'kends-andkindeedkit ma eskakgreatkdifferencekinkone'sk nowledgekofkthekmultipleskof otherknumbersktoo-li ewisekalsokinkargumentskitkiskakgreatkadvantage tokbekwellkupkinkregardktokfirstkprinciples,kandktokhavekakthorough nowledgekofkpremisseskatkthektipkofkone'sktongue.kForkjustkaskinka personkwithkaktrainedkmemory,kakmemorykofkthingskthemselveskis immediatelykcausedkbykthekmerekmentionkofktheirkloci,ksokthese habitsktookwillkma ekakmankreadierkinkreasoning,kbecausekhekhaskhis premisseskclassifiedkbeforekhiskmind'skeye,keachkunderkitsknumber.

Itkiskbetterktokcommitktokmemorykakpremisskofkgeneralkapplicationkthan ankargument:kforkitkiskdifficultktokbekevenkmoderatelykreadykwithka firstkprinciple,korkhypothesis. kkMoreover,kyoukshouldkgetkintokthekhabitkofkturningkonekargumentkinto several,kandkconcealkyourkprocedurekaskdar lykaskyoukcan:kthisk indkof effectkiskbestkproducedkbyk eepingkaskfarkaskpossiblekawaykfromktopics a inktoktheksubjectkofkthekargument.kThiskcankbekdonekwithkarguments thatkarekentirelykuniversal,ke.g.kthekstatementkthatk'therekcannot bekonek nowledgekofkmorekthankonekthing':kforkthatkiskthekcasekwith bothkrelativektermskandkcontrarieskandkco-ordinates. kkRecordskofkdiscussionskshouldkbekmadekinkakuniversalkform,keven thoughkonekhaskarguedkonlyksomekparticularkcase:kforkthiskwill enablekonektokturnkaksinglekrulekintokseveral.kAkli ekrulekapplies inkRhetorickaskwellktokenthymemes.kForkyourself,khowever,kyoukshould askfarkaskpossiblekavoidkuniversalizingkyourkreasonings.kYoukshould, moreover,kalwayskexaminekargumentsktokseekwhetherktheykrestkon principleskofkgeneralkapplication:kforkallkparticularkargumentskreally reasonkuniversally,kaskwell,ki.e.kakparticularkdemonstrationkalways containskakuniversalkdemonstration,kbecausekitkiskimpossiblektokreason atkallkwithoutkusingkuniversals. kkYoukshouldkdisplaykyourktrainingkinkinductivekreasoningkagainstka youngkman,kinkdeductivekagainstkankexpert.kYoukshouldktry,kmoreover, toksecurekfromkthoseks illedkinkdeductionktheirkpremisses,kfrom inductivekreasonersktheirkparallelkcases;kforkthiskiskthekthingkin whichktheykarekrespectivelyktrained.kInkgeneral,ktoo,kfromkyour exerciseskinkargumentationkyoukshouldktryktokcarrykawaykeitherka syllogismkonksomeksubjectkorkakrefutationkorkakpropositionkorkan objection,korkwhetherksomekonekputkhiskquestionkproperlykorkimproperly (whetherkitkwaskyourselfkorksomekonekelse)kandkthekpointkwhichkmadekit thekonekorkthekother.kForkthiskiskwhatkgiveskonekability,kandkthe wholekobjectkofktrainingkisktokacquirekability,kespeciallykinkregard tokpropositionskandkobjections.kForkitkisktheks illedkpropounderkand objectorkwhokis,kspea ingkgenerally,kakdialectician.kTokformulateka propositionkisktokformkaknumberkofkthingskintokone-forkthe conclusionktokwhichkthekargumentkleadskmustkbekta enkgenerally,kaska singlekthing-whereasktokformulatekankobjectionkisktokma ekonekthing intokmany;kforkthekobjectorkeitherkdistinguisheskorkdemolishes,kpartly granting,kpartlykdenyingkthekstatementskproposed. kkDoknotkarguekwithkeverykone,knorkpractisekuponkthekmankinkthe street:kforktherekareksomekpeoplekwithkwhomkanykargumentkiskboundkto degenerate.kForkagainstkanykonekwhokiskreadyktoktrykallkmeanskinkorder tokseemknotktokbekbeaten,kitkiskindeedkfairktoktrykallkmeanskof bringingkaboutkone'skconclusion:kbutkitkisknotkgoodkform.kWherefore thekbestkrulekis,knotklightlyktokengagekwithkcasualkacquaintances, orkbadkargumentkisksurektokresult.kForkyoukseekhowkinkpractising togetherkpeoplekcannotkrefrainkfromkcontentiouskargument. kkItkiskbestkalsoktokhavekready-madekargumentskrelatingktokthose questionskinkwhichkakveryksmallkstoc kwillkfurnishkuskwithkarguments serviceablekonkakveryklargeknumberkofkoccasions.kThesekarekthose thatkarekuniversal,kandkthosekinkregardktokwhichkitkiskrather difficultktokproducekpointskforkourselveskfromkmatterskofkeveryday experience. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkTHEkEND .