Discret A

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IG H/JLKNMLOPM
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S~U`WgY\[g]UlRWZ[ZU`tUgUlxdm3yxdY\hgUl[g[gmlRRUlxdm3xdY>hgxdYPxd]vh^WZ]vi)WZUlh]vitcdY>idq\]Ulh[gYNtYN]mlidY\h>
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cdidxtUlSnY>i)WZmlhUlxdY>q\ctU`xdmohxdmoixdYPh^cdh^WgY\ijWkUl[emohWZY>[g]ml[gY\hed[gmlcidxd]\Ulq\]vmoidY>h\
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itUlRjxdYq4UlxtUq\UledvWgcdRmRvma<cYq>moidhWZ]vWgcoYcdidUdY>[g[ZU`S~]vY\ijWkU]vS~e[gY\h^q\]vidxd]RvY
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SVUXWZY\S~}`Wg]vq4UxdY>hgxdYcitU eY>[ghgeY>q>Wg]vÙ did]vq4UlSnY\ijWZYV]vidh^Wg[gcdSnY\ijWkUlRh^]idm|a<cY
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Y\iq\c[ghgmlhhgcdq>Y\hg]omoh\
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cdi]vidh^Wg[gcdSnY\ijWZmxdYSnY\x]xtUuxYR_Uue[gY\edUl[ZUlq>]wlimoWgY\id]vxtUY>iY\R+ed[gm<q>Y\h^mnxdY
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z|UleRYq\moSnedRvY\SnY\ijWkUl[^]_U`h\
/m<xdY>S~mlhxdY>q\][a)cdY`<Y\inRUfYNeY\[g]vY\iq\]_UxdYY\hWZmohUldmoh>)Y>h^WkU{Snmoidmlro[ZU`vUshgYtU
[gY>oY>R_U`xdmq>moSnmuciy]idhWZ[gcS~Y>i)WgmuWg]RbY\iyRUPed[gY>etUl[ZU`q\]vwoiVxdYsRvmohWZY\S~UlhpUlml[gxtUlxmoh
Y\i'R_UsS~]vhgS~UedcdY>xdY[gY>hgcdRWkUl[UlxY\q>ctUlxtUetUl[gUY>h^WZcxd]_UlijWZY>he[gmlY>hgmo[^Y\hxYm`WZ[ZU`h
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cdY\[^Y\SnmohUlro[gUlxdY>q\Y\[UnRmlhe[gmlY>hgmo[^Y\ha)cdYLtUli]SnetUl[WZ]vxm'R_UnU`hg]rlitU`Wgcd[ZU'Y>i
Y\h^WgmohU`dmohh^cdhq\mlidh^WZUli)WgY\hUlemo[WkUlq>]moidY>h\/UlSd]v\iURmlhUlRcS~idmlha)cYtUli
hgY\dUlR_U`xdmnY>[g[gU`WkUlh>tY\[^[gmo[^Y\htUlidY\qkdmVUlq>mlWkU`q\]mlidY\ha)cdYPSnY^mo[gUliY>RWZYN<Wgmd
QR+hgY>rocdidxdmnU`cWZmo[6{dzpa)cd]vY\[^Y{U`ro[ZUlxY\q>Y\[U'zLdtmoi)WgY\Rvmohphgcq\moRUlmo[ZU
q\]wliY\iR_U3[^Y\h^moRcdq>]wlixdYPUlRrlcdidmohxYPRvmohY^Y\[gq>]q>]mohxdY>RWZYN<Wgmd
Qhui<cY\h^Wg[ZU|]ijWZY>idq\]vwoia<cYyY>h^WZYVS~U`WZY>[g]UlRY>h^WZVY>i9cdi9ed[^m<q\Y>hgm q\moih^WkUì)WZYVxdY
[gY\imÙ`q\]wliS~Y^mo[ZUtxdYPmo[^SVU'x]it}lSn]vq4UsYuY>h^WZUVS~UlidY>[ZUnY>RWZY<WZmVq\mlS~edRvY>Wgm
Y\ihgcoY>[gh^]woiUlqNWZctU`R]v4UlxtUuhgYPedcY\xdYPY>idq\mli)WZ[gUl[Y\iR_Uet}lro]vitUupY\
T44_b<n'<4ojj
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\Ulq\]vmoidY>hq\moidhWkUlijWZY>h\
Y\rl]idmnp[g]_U`xdm3moY\[WZm~zcddml
sY\etU`[^WkU`S~Y>i)WZm'xdYLz|U`WZY>SV}XWZ]q\UsedRv]q\UlxtU
id]oY\[^hg]xdUlxY>lctUì|Ul[gRvmoh
zwoh^WgmoRY>h
3
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#?<6o:
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xd]h^q\[gYNWZmoh> QhWkU1[gY>hgedcY\h^WZUim[gY>hgcdRWkUSc$hgU`WZ]vh^-UlqNWZmo[^]_U9edcdY>hhgY>rocd]vS~mlhhg]vi
q\moidm<q>Y\[Y>R hg]vroid] q4U`xdm3xdY\R q\UlRv] q\U`WZ]om
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N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . }.
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pctUlidxdmRmoh[^Y\ed[^Y\hgY>i)WZUlSnmohhgmoRvY\SnmohcdhgUl[ cditUhgY>S~]v[g[gY>q>WZUq>moRm<q\UlidxdmURUxdY>[gY\qktU
Rmohi)dSnY\[gmlhS~U?omo[^Y\!h
1
2
3
4
...
...
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WZY\S~}`Wg]q>mcdiuem<q\msSV}`h/q>moS~eRY^md`Rvmoh
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q>moiX^ci)WZmVxYuRvmohi)dSnY\[gmlhitU`WgRcd[ZUlRvY\h> N R
Y\hY>h^WZ[^]qNWkUlSnY\ijWZY{SV}lhro[gUlidxdY` N 6= R moii<S~Y>[gmoh[^Y4UlRvY\hY>Rq\Y>[gmdbR_Ulh[gUlqN
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idmh^YnedcY\xdY>iY>hgq\[^]d]v[SnY\xd]Uli)WgY3cii)dSnY\[^mxY\q\]vSVU`Rq>moicditUq\UlijWZ]xdUlx id]WkU
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/UlSd]v\ibq>moS~mnY\i|Y\Rq4Ulh^mVxdYLRmlhi<dSnY>[gmohitU`WZc[ZUlRvY\h\bhgmlRY\Snmoh[gY>ed[gY>hgY\ijWkUl[
Rmohi<dSnY\[^moh[^Y4UlRvY\hpemohg]WZ]omohpSnY\xd]UlijWZYcditUh^Y\Sn][g[^Y\qNWkUuxdmlidxdYfq4UlxtUucdidm3xYfhgcdh
+
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S~U?oml![
0
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P-a)cdYhgYsUledRv]q4U{UPRmohi<dSnY\[^mohidU`WZcd[gUlRY>hk'xd+Y -,$&.,$/0P-ULRvmohi)dSnY\[gmlh

[^Y4UlRvY\hZN
moh/i<dSnY\[^moh/itU`WZc[ZUlRvY\h/h^moix]hgq>[gYNWZmoh>oY\hxY\q>][\`hgYpxd]vhgemoidY>iY\iuR_Uh^Y\Sn][g[^Y\qNWkU
a)cdYVRmohL[^Y\ed[^Y\h^Y\ijWk1U #2% 3%4

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i)dSnY\[gmlhnY>i)WZY>[gmoh Z -cdi]woixdYRmlh'itUXWZcd[ZU`RY>h'Y\R 0 Rmlh'idY>rjU`Wg]vomohZuWZ]vY\idY>ixdY
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]iyY\StUl[^romdRvmohpi<dSnY\[^moh[gY\UlRY>hhgmoiS3cVxd]vh^WZ]vi)Wgmoh\QhWk}liWgm<xdmo:h #$<;4%4
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ecdi)WgY4UlxtUQi)Wg[gYfY\R+cdidmVY>R+xdmohidm3tU4= %; /?>@Nh^]Y>S~ed[^YfdU?Vi)dSnY\[gmlhY\ijWZ[gY
Y>RRvmo!h AY>h^WZ}Vemo[Y^Y>S~eRm~Y>R 1.5 Y>i S~Y>xd]mQi)Wg[gYuY>R Y\R 1.5 Y\hWk}Veml[Y^Y\SnedRvm
Y>R 1.2 C BY>i)Wg[gYPY>R 1 cdii<S~Y>[gmnScyq\Y>[gq4UìdmVU temlidrjUlSnmohemo[Y^Y\SnedRvm'Y\R
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1+10
xYq>Y\[^moh~RcdY>romcicdidm)tU?~i<dSnY>[gmoheml[SnY\x]md<emo[pY^Y>S~eRmuY\R 1 + 10
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q\mlS~edRvY>WZUlSnY\i)WgYeY\roUlxdmoh
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xYxdmlidxdYfetUl[^WgYfR_UL]xdY\UuxdYRvS']WZYVemo[pWZUlijWZm3Rvmohpq>moidq>Y\eWgmohxYq>moi)Wg]i)cd]xtU`xyxdY
cidq\]vmoidY\h>bxY\[g]ÙlxdUt]vi)WZY>ro[ZU`R+otY>i idWZm<xdmlhRmoha)cdYPq\mlidh^Wg]vWZcoY\icdiq>cd[gh^m~xdY
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107
108
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7l
m v

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_bamco
+eqrsnfgfnfepmn#"be iliD][n iai m_lciDaliD]}a]a&i 4_lp e lnji]_ba;,
N = {1, 2, 3, 4....}
Z = {0, 1, 1, 2, 2, ...}.
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7
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\=tnjadc _l] ! epmnoearse]_lp eqa _ e b _lpgji3' ]eh _u_lgjgjea+gje _ ! erviDae_lgj_l~Dnjp _bagoe
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pi hnjH_ e z_ba&gje _a_ aAv_b]}_bYg @e @f]c gji D B
= b-Ah34 ++ @f/a(3a{v&&9&r6X&F4v> '&x &x&-CaF&x+
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i 4_bp e bn]}am_ _B]_ 4iDpgoea2p_b~goea;,
ep e@e e a N a__;B]_ a + 1 = s(a)

ep e@ e e a, b N a__;B]_ a + s(b) = s(a + b)
\al iD]am_2H _b]'bnoe_lg5pmnj]'lnnfi_nf]'''Hbn#D]_veaA@K h_brviDa _;B]hni2eg4

nf_bpa] rse a + b l iD] a, b N 8\]}_;%_Hl c i3 a_@e a N ]}] rs_lpi]ec`peg 7 _be
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+b+;-348 7 _>cnj_l]__ 1 A 3e_go
e pnfrv_bp epm_b~Dgjevnj]3nbe
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iDrv
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h_;B]n iK$a eq'] i
goezp_l~Dgjeza_b ~ '] eMa e 4_lrsia_ a + s(b) = s(a + b) biD]gji_ a + s(b) _badc
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\ amc]'nj_lrsiagoe}_bamcp]'xc`peegj~D_Hp eqnbe[_bg=ep (N, +) _la_Hbnfpgoeahpi nf_
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c nj_l]_b]zgoeaamnj~ hnj_b]3c _la-,
n
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e 2egj_larnj_lp e
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a liDrvi {0} ,
Z = {1, 2, 3, ...} {0} {1, 2, 3, ...} = N+ {0} N .
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_~_l]ic ersia|p_la]4_Hlc n ! erv_b]3c _ s+ s <$ar@ka_c nf_b]_4iDp|_/m_brgji3h_
_ = 6 \adc'eaia]ilnjiD]h_ba4_bprvnfc_b]e_;B]njp_l]6_bg
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n N+
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l iDrvid3 ea_-egoerviDa2 e]3 i\ e gjersia _9gjenf]'''Hb n#D]_badc p]'xc`hp eg$am_
! _bpn4B)b e h_F, A Z F&x 2r-& A 6= 3)8Ar3 n A &3 /&x6&`-+&
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n, m Z
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b-33%H&(A)
4F&+tAF-&|?$vo&F4a+'&
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n
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njnfno8_tnfamc _l'] lno
e _+4AvAn,_tnjadc
_ ]}_b]3c _bpmi 0 Z c eg_epe
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n ! _tnfamc _l'] bnj
e _%tt4A644abna, ep
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ic pmi_b]-c_bpm
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e @ e e a Z _l]ic'eqrsi<a bi] a _lgnj] ! _lpami
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iDp
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h pi''x c i _uer4 iDa a b Z
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o&4 R v&(bvz-+& p/q &o&4/9 r/s a4F(&x+'&X ps = qr
#)4obFjsv&(& F/ &wFFnX)4obF'sv& &mf+o&(% 5
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n b__ b a an
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i hnj_b]v_tnjamc_ ]s] rv_bpmiu]eq`c hp eg c c'eg_ b = a + c \âdc _&iD]p h_b]eqrsnf_b]-ci
b=a
h_ugjiDa] rs_lpiDa]e`c pegj_laa_uGa _bgf_upH_ p_la_l]-c'eqp$a i p_ ]evam_brvnjpmp2_ xc'eM e lnoeygoe
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4iDpsnj]3''2lnD]jbiDrgf_lc e_ N A = N 2gji_ nf_bp_l_2lnjp_ A _ba7_lg
biDQ] Gh]-c i ! e -@fi
iDrvi A ]hiyc nf_b]_kr3@j]nfrvi_l]-ciD'] b_la 1 / A h_bamciv_la2 1 N A 7 _kcnj_b]h_)gje
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e nf_b]Xan 1 / A 2 / A &wf n / A _l]-c i'] b_la s(n) / A 'h_bavam_bpA@oe
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MA348 7 n a b a 6= b _bGa bpmn nfp_brviDa a > b 9ev_ p_lan#D] b a _ba$ic pe
r7e]h_bp
e _u_l]a lpn njp a b
= lAh3Qf #Hh 1 & 1 {+{C(&xoX&x+'&x)-+&V/&x6&x
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eqp e_lrsiamc pep h_ r rv_l]iDp _ r _b]9biD]3c p eqnjlbn#D]

liD] _ r _ba_bg r3@j]nfri_ A
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rv_bpmiDa_b]3c _bpmiDaeb_ _kgjeuiD4_bpebn#D]7_{n ! njan#D]s]hia_{_lep_@eqgjn"bepânj_lrvp_
%nj~Deg h_]iza_y_bh_v_%_bxc ep)anf_brvp_goe7p_lamc'e|_b]CgjiDak]-rv_bpia)]eqcp egf_ba x
<$] _ka_kh_b_kn ! nfnjp^_l]-cp_ iDhc _l]_lp2]`]rv_bpmi_l]-c _lpitanj]7_breqp~Di
gjen ! nfan#D]|_b]3c p_ ]iya_)h_b_)_%_llc epu+aADgji4ih_brviDa2iDhc_b]_lp]|bibnf_b]3c _
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9 9
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& &Ax/ .& a|b .X&m0 .'&%tv(&xo&x+'&xo c /F-& b = a c 5H+F(31.32x
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8:5
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258
9 Hx)IJ(K8LKNMO( QPSR>6jj+TVK6jURjKxVMd
iDrvia__bhb_u_gjeaiaiDa_lp ! ebnfiD]_ba_bg +qpp eW%ive]3c _lpnjip_lg liD]m]3c iv_
n ! njamiDp_la4iDanwc n ! iDa_]v]-rv_bpi]eqc peg a _la^]vbi]m]-ciu]i ! eq-@fis e h_$eg
rs_l]iDa a 1 aiD]sn ! nfaiDpm_ba^_ a B]nwc i7 e _$_lamcubi]-c _l]njhi>_b]s_bgliD]m]3c i
24ipgfi _cnj_l]_am_b]-cnjigoeanj~nj_l]-c_)_;B]njlnD]Q
{a, a + 1, ..., a 1, a}
" "
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)+7Y.DZB.F7Y a b Y&v&%^6&&\
(v@0 .(|a(y.7.]Y>v& a b ^Y&
&_YAx/.& mcd(a, b) a(.&\(VXu>v&\7Y
.7 .]Y_& Ya( 6_& Y>v& a b 5

8erviDa)e`_baeppmiDgjgjep{]egf~DiDpn c rvi7eqp e|begfbgjep{_bgrvbC_yia]-rv_bpiab

^\ a^h]segf~DiDpn c rvi{bganfbi)liD]ibnfiliDrviuegf~DiDpmnwc rik_\^hbgjnf_labK&_bl_bamnfc'eqp_brviDa
ep ey_badc'ebi]amc pmbln]M_bg amnj~nj_l]-c _)gf_brseh
8Q#QfX3v7Yv7Y9C(&xo7Y&xEZ'&x7Y3)+7Y.DZB.F7Y
v4v& r _& Y& \ o_& YZjsv& .7 .+ .
mcd(a, b) = mcd(b, r)
`
a b a > b
&xEZ+& b 5
a
&xEZj,&_Y
&(7YZ$X.58eqrsiDa2e_brviDadc p eqp _k_bg,bi]m]3c iy_kn ! nfaiDpm_babiDr]_laeX

_lanf~Deg _)_lg,liD] m]3c i_kn ! njaip_labiDr]h_bae. e`^\adc iynfrsgfnw@e _
mcd(a, b) = mcd(b, r)
\]M_ %_bxc ian p n ! nf_e a e b _l]-c i]b_la$_tnfamc _l]M]hrs_lpiDa_l]-c _lpia s, t Z
c'egf_ba _
a = ps
b = pt,
D1
h_`rvii _`gjeMnf~Degfe _èM_bg8c_biDpm_brseM_lgp_badc i

_lalpnjhnjpbirsi
a = qb + r
am_`h_b_
r = a qb = ps qpt = p(s qt)
gfi _uh_br_lamc pe _ p n ! nf_ee r

_l-@fpibers_l]-c_amn p n ! fn _e b e
b = pt
liD]}gjiybeqg
_b]-ciD]l_ba
r = pu,
a = qb + r = qpt + pu = p(qt + u),
gfi _uh_br_lamc pe _ p n ! nf_e a ^\âdc i

B]egfn"begoe_brviDamcp eln]z_bg gf_brseh
iDpc e]-ci}an^n ! nfnjriDa _b]3c pm_ _bg^pmiDgj_lrsezh_sbegfbgjep)_bg
a_
pm_bhb_eg;1gfbgfi7_lg mcd(b,a r) _baiD]eiDpe7]hrs_lpiDa{ra{4_ hmcd(a,
_-iDa)4b)
iDp{_lg
c_biDpm_brse_ugjehn ! njamnD]Q$_ ! erv_b]3c _>4ih_brviDa&hn ! njnfp b _l]-c pm_ r ihc _l]_bp&]
pm_badc i r 4iDp&gji _>_bgpmiDgj_lr7ey_ba$begjlgoep_bg mcd(r, r ) <$ar@;amb_lan ! erv_b]3c _
am_ ! e]M1@egfbgje]hi r r fw _>amiD]M]rv_bpmiDa&_l]-c_bpia$4iD1amnfcn ! iDa h_ ! eq]9h_blp_
lnj_l]i| r > r > r 2...x3K gj_l~3epo_b]3c iD]l_ba2h]`rsirs_l]-ci>_b]`_lg _ r = 0 t_lamc i
nfrshgjnw@e 1_ r 2 n 3! nf_>e r +_bg;p_lamci`_goevhn ! njamnD]}_ba r = 0 n _l]-c i]b_la
n1
n2
n
_lg
mcd(a, b) = mcd(rn2 , rn1 ) = rn1
b%\Q#Qf
aX\j\bX &\(v@0.(7a(yC.7.]Yuv&GcsedfdEg@C5
$nihnjnfrviDa :: ! _l]-cp_ D| epeihc _l]_bp;,
8872 = 125 70 + 122
i h_unj]hnjbe _$,
j
mcd(8872, 125) = mcd(125, 122).
$nihnjnfrviDa D _b]3c p_ D|f ,

ipc'eq]-c i8,
125 = 122 1 + 3.
mcd(125, 122) = mcd(122, 3)
D -!
{_u]-_hDi8,
122 = 3 40 + 2,
4iDp2c'e]3c i,
mcd(122, 3) = mcd(3, 2).
< cp ekhD_lF,
3 = 2 1 + 1,
gji h_uanf~D]n#B@e8,
mcd(3, 2) = mcd(2, 1).
^\ gp_lamciy_{nihnfnjp84ip D _ba2amnj_lrshp_VE>ipgji _k_lg mcd(8872, 125) = 1 ^\amci

a_àm_bgf_7nj]hnjbepubiDrvi _ :: ! D| }ai])4/.(7YmxEZ+nmVYx*&+inm\bXZB.WXo9mxEZLm
Y
p .Do7
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Y7m>
._mx`;q+sAtA%hA};s 5
mcd(a, b) = 1
b-33%aX\j\bX p m\uX\ v/.DZosGmky\v.+Gm_Ykm\
MA348<{g$p_lamc i_nbhnjnfp _b]3c p_
a_-egoeqrsiDa2_b]}_bg be@fcgjieq]-c_bpnfiDp'a
b-33%daYAx.mkmx
gfi_b]iqc'epm_brviDa
a mod b
+birsi
hv'b.wvem\uX\ v/.DZBovGm)h\v.+Gm_Y-5
p Y7m
8Q#Q+4 GmwxmryaaGZ ('mrX

v7 Y|mxEZLmxo7Y s t Z3X\]m_Y-Em
`
mcd(247, 9981)
a, b Z
Go9mxo7YVmxEZ)mxo7Y p 7 Y.DZB.F7Y_z{mm0.]YZLmx
mcd(a, b) = sa + tb.
kmo7YZ$X.57\a>]e}biD]ha_bl_b]bnjeM_bg8egf~DiDpmnwc rizh_7\lgjnf_balp_lbiDpm_brviDa
e %iprsNe }
h_am4iD]nf_b]hi _ a b c_b]@jerviDa2]e_hhp_bamnD]}_gok
a = q0 b + r0
b = q 1 r0 + r 1
r0 = q 2 r1 + r 2
wf
D:
rn3 = qn1 rn2 + rn1
rn2 = qn rn1
hiD]_ r = mcd(a, b)
8ervn1
iDae9_brviDamcp ep _èp eM@ee
rvii ~_ }
ri i 0
u_tnjadc _b]6_l]-c _lpiDa
si
ti
_
ri = si a + ti b.
\amc ivbi]bgf _u_lg gj_lr7e4iDp _ r = mcd(a, b)

jes_lrsiamc pebn#D] _hersia{evn1
p_la_b]3c'ep{_lab_egf~D]erse]_bpehbiD]hamc pm
cnihqet 7 n_la4_ erviDa r _b]goev4_b]hgfc nfrsevnj~egfeQ_hhp_baerviDak_bg mcd(a, b)
liDrvi9liDrnj]ebn#D]gjnf]n1
_@eqg^_l]-c_bp eM_
%_badc i nf_bpm_7_lbnfp h_`_tnja@
c_b]iDa]-rv_bpia_b]3c _lpiDa A B _rrsn3
ihi rn2
_ mcd(a, b) = Ar + Br x
iDa_bam4_ e]hi r _b]goe|anf~Dnj_l]-c_nj~DegjeqQ r _l]gje}n3e]3c _lpnjipbn2
wf
7pm_bn lhqeprv
n2
n3
pm_b]-c_brv_b]3c _hqerviDavamamcnfc _b]i_l]goea_tpm_banfiD]_la|eq]-c _lpnfiDp_lab2egB]eqg
_tp_la erviDa mcd(a, b) liDrsivbiry hnj]eln]}gfnj]_beg _l]-c_bpes_ a b __lamamc'e
rv_b]3c _gfi _ h_bp_lrsiab
.iDprsegfbn l@eriDa2_lg p e lliD]ervnf_b]-ciy4iDpnj]hbbn#D]zbiDrvgf_lc ey_l] i
\g @eami i = 0 _ba&lnj_lpmc ih_bamci _ }
r0 = a q0 b.
ipc'eq]-c i s = 1 t = q .
\g;@eami 0i = 1 _ba&c'0 erhn]b0]}lnj_bpdc ish_badc i _
amamcnfc _b]hi7gjeynf~Degfe|e]-c_bpnfiDpc _l]_brviDa1}
9{_>_badc _rvii
r 1 = b q 1 r0
r1 = b q1 (a q0 b) = (1 + q1 q0 )b q1 a.
ipc'eq]-c i s = q t = 1 + q q
^_@eqrsiDa&1e~iDp e 1 _ua1n _bggf_brsey1 _b0a&lnj_bpdc ivep eleg nf_bphqegjip_lamcpnjxc'erv_l]-c _
rv_b]hiDp _ i c'eqryhn]l]zgfi_la&epe i
\]M_ %_llcic _l]_brviD1a }
ri = ri2 qi ri1 .
&a e]hisgje|hnjc_banfa_nj]hbbn#D]zepe
ipc'eq]-c i
ri1
ri2
a_iDhcnj_l]_}
ri = (si2 a + ti2 b) qi (si1 a + ti1 b).

ai = si2 qi si1
D 3"
bi = ti2 qi ti1
eb_l] _uam_hD_bpmn#B __bg gf_brseh

b+QQ+H p nm_Y1X9m\
F5
N
mcd(35, 20)
Wo9Wo31.sX.\v.UmrX\GmV8cM
ea_hhp_bamnjiD]h_ba&_bgegf~DiDpn c riyh_>\lgjnf_ba}
j
35 = 20 1 + 15
20 = 15 1 + 5
\^]3c iD]hb_labt_la4_ eq]i_lgk_b]sgje)a_l~D]eunf~DegfeyiDtc _b]h_brviDa 5 = 20 15 1

{_bam4_ e]hiz_lg D v_b]goevpmnjrv_bpevnj~Degjeq 15 = 35 20 1 7 adc nwc _l]i|_lg
a_b~]V
i hegjip_b]}goepmnjrv_bp enf~Degfe 5 = 20 (35 20 1x_ba_blnjp}
5 = 2 20 + (1) 35.
4+hq%Q# + v('mrX
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Z
x x p 7Y.DZ.F9-Fm7a,b.7.+Gm9
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k
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ab
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4+hq%Q# + ('mrX p z p zn555bz p Go9mxo7Y p /.Do7Y-5(F. p .7.+GmX\ p obFZ'

mxE
Z',_ m_Ykmm0.]YZLm i zaZX\;1-Em 1 n i n p = p 5
p ...p
D FE
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hpnjrviDal
7 nn n =nbht1nf_l_g e bipiDgjepnfi_bac _bp]3nbhc iDnoe]hgbt_l4ab3iDpgjgjers_Beq]]njlinD]zehg_u]-pihrv_blpcii pnfrvi qc _b]h_brviDa
p ...p p
7 p
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pk_bngbiDpmiDgjepnfi
_ p in hnf_eg1pminlcn+1
n+1
eq]-c _lpnfiDpb p _ba^]s]-rv_bpmiupmnjrvi _&bn htnf_e p _c er]n l]_la8pnfrviip
c e]-civbiD]hbgjhnjrviDa _ p = p i_lrsiDa_b]3c n+1
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1
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_ %iDprse7]nf@e`biDrvi|pmixc iz_
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1
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a 2
h_b]eers_l]-c_}amngjiDay]-rv_bpmiDarv_b]iDpm_ba _ a r7e iDp_la _ D gfiChin hnj_l]Q
h_lc _l]n]l]iD]hiDa_l]|_bgrsirs_l]-c i>_b] _k_b]liD]3c p eqrsiDa]`nihnjamiDp_ a 7 n_lrsia
gfgj_l~3ei eqamc'e a _b]-ciD]l_ba a ]ikc nj_l]_2in hnfaiDpm_ba ipc'e]3c i)_la^h]]rv_bpmi)pnfrsi
n_l]bi]-c perviDa]6bn htnfaiDp
egam_bp_lgpmnjrv_bpmi _`_b]liD]-cp erviDal]_lb/_
a7 epnjerv_b]-c__lahpnjrviu\]_%p_bx<
c i abirsi`_ba_lgpmnjrv_bpi h__b]liD]-cp erviDal p ]i
cnj_l]_yhin hnjamiDp_lakrs_l]iDp_la ^
_ lgQh_baam_bpr@je]in hnfaiDpm_bak_ a \^]C_lamc'e|am_b~D]he
4ianjhnjgjnweMhin hnjnfrvia a/p _lrs4_ l@erviDa{h_]h_ hDi|_bgpil_bamizliD]_bgbilnj_b]3c _
}
a/p
\^]3c peeN}

i := 2
a a>2
DD
nfgj_
a mod i 6= 0
:= i + 1
ii <
cr_b]
.m_YXZ'>Gm
a
e7 gfnjea} r r :=
\]7@eami_ h _
_bgfa_
r :=
XSm_Y p .Do
]i%h_bp eupnfrsip_l4_lc nfrviDa8_bgpil_baibi]`_lg4libnj_l]-c_
a/i
b+QQ+vaX\j\]mo7Y\bX&XZj/.by7X.Gm>08cu5
iDrvi DA ]hiv_baepb]i_ba&hnihnjamnjgf_k4ip
nhbn htnfnjriDa_b]3c pm_ ihc _l]_brviDa _ 135 = 345 ipc e]-ci _ba]|+eqlciDp
pnfrs7 i_ DA t
_bnj]hnjlnoeriDa_lgegf~DiDpmnwc ri}biD]-t $
i ebe
_ +eqgfc'ezpiep>liD]gfiDa>hpnjrviDa
h_u]ivnihnf@oe]zeqg ]-rs_lpivh_ueqpmc nfehh4iDp _u]ivh_b_l]9nihnfnjp2eg libnf_b]-c_

hD_bp_ m_bpmbnfbnfianf~Dnj_l]-c_Ax
{_]_ hDis_bain hnjamnjgf_{_b]-cp_ _badc iv_ba
\g bilnj_l]-c __]-_ hDis_la&bn hnjanfgf_k_l]-c pm_ 45 =153 = 315 5

5 _ba]}]rv_bpmivpmnjrv[i } 135 = 33 5
b-33%('mrX a, b, c mxEZLmx7Y p 7 Y.DZB.F7Y-5( p fXo7Yz-Em b .7.+GmSX c 5

mo7 YZ$ Xu-E mY. a 6 s.7.+GmX c mxEZj,_m_Y a 6s.7.+GmX\A.3mxEZLm>Gm c mxEZnm
k
5
b
\ g,egf~DiDpn c rviupm_bam_b]3c'eiyr_lamc pegje>3lA3%s_{goe+elciDpnil@elnD],-_b4_/
rsiDa$biDrvpmiDep{eip e7goe;+3+;X_gje7rvnjamr7et elliD]erviDa$4iDp{p_lbln]
eg eahpi
e +exc iDpm]n lbebn#D]|]i_ba&h]njbe_l]-ciD]b_l1a }
7 4i]~3erviDa _ugjk
bm
a = pa11 pa22 ... pann = q1b1 ... qm
.
iDpc e]-ci[}
iuhnj_b]_tnjadc _ q hnjamcnj]3c iebeg nf_bp e)_gjia p -gfi _&_ba8h]ebiD]3c p eqnjlbn#D]
4iDp _{_b]3c iD]hb_ba24i iDp]7goei q nbhtnf_{e a 4iDpj_bg4ic pmi q ]hihnihnj_$e a e @
i
a_u_lamcovae]iv_bg liDpigoepmnfi i D -
inf_b] n = m p_liDp_l]e]hivanQ_ba]_lb_baepnfi p = q wwf p = q _hnfamc_
4i]~3erviDa _ a > b +amn8]hi%h_bp eMeaA1@8_lg8p1elbi]ervnnj_l]-c izn a_eeqpr@oe
ai 6= bi 7
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a_2c nf_b]_ _4iDp]gjei p in hnf_e c 4iDp_lgicpi p ]i)bn htnf_2e c e _ c _bia
i
i
D
hpixc i_{pmnjrviDa^njadc nj]3c iDa8h_ p e 8@h_{]h_hDia_{_lamc>a e]hi_bg4bipiDgjepnfi

D -gji _u_ba]eliD]-cp enfblnDi],
iDpc'e]3c isbi]bgfnjrviDagje_brviDamcp elnD]}_bg c _bip_brseh4ege4_bp$_lrviDamc pei
c e]-civgjey_tnjamc_b]lnoeliDrvigoe]nfbnjez_gjk
e +exc iDpmn]lbebn#D]|_ a
e$anf~Dnj_l]-c_hpiD4iDamnjlnD]eqrs_l]-c e$]iqc'egf_brv_b]3c _8goe&_Bbnf_b]hbnoe$h_bgtegj~Dipnwcrvi
h_+eqlc ipn]lbebn#D]Q
j
u^s@+34xQ#Q+bvo9mxomxEZLmxo)Wo p Em_YZ'

o9mx6 V
.wFN X\;-E m a 5
p 6= 1
mo%7YZ+$X.5 elbiD]ersia4ippm_bhbbn#D]egteahpi

gfiDaq+eqlc ip_ba|pnfrsiDa7_ a aiD] _lamc pmnjxc'erv_b]3c _r7e iDpm_ba
liDrv_badc ihc _b]h_brviDa
x QXZ'q p /.Do
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7 h 4_ i]~3erv iDa iD rv
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hiD]_ìnj_l] a > 1 inj_l] n > 1 %iCeqryeabia ea x\]Xleg nj_lp e9_`gfiDa
beaiab;liDrv
i h_brv1 iDaam_lamci h_ p > a ep e|bee i = 1...n ay
_ c nf_b]_ _
i
2
f
g
i

u
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e
b
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b%\Q#Q+t'XZj/._mo7YdfdEg@v5
iDrvi_ba&h]M]-rv_bpmivep 8872 = 2 4436
\ghbibnf_b]3c _2_ba_2]_hDiep 8872 = 22 2218 _2]_hDi 8872 = 23 1109
iDrvi 1109 = 33.3001 _l4_brviDa;hpiDeqpliD]>gfiDa pnfrviDa rv_l]iDp_la;inj~Degj_la
_ 8D _uamiD] 44! DFD DA D ! D "h " 8D
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_la&pmnjrvi gjey_laliDrs4ianjln]}_la
8872 = 23 1109.
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n a0 pb mod p _l]-c i]b_lav_hnfamc_z]X_b]3c _lpi c _|rvii _
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b-q3+3% hWo p oF_Xx\bXWYxY.wF.3mxEZLm_Y_m\bX./Um_YuGmFmx,.X
2 4 mod 2
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c e]-ci6am__l
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m\[:
0 5 10 15 20...
1 6 11 16 21...
2 7 12 17 22...
3 8 13 18 23...
4 9 14 19 24...
4 1 6 11 16... mod 5
3 2 7 12 17... mod 5
2 3 8 13 18... mod 5
1 4 9 14 19... mod 5
0 5 10 15 20... mod 5
mod
mod
mod
mod
mod
5
5
5
5
5
7YGo9mx7YUmfXZ.F7YZ3Xo31.32xYCGmX\ Ft6sGmkm_Y7YZB. p 7Y-
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eqar@
7421 124592 1 2 2 mod 5.
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2345 + 214 432,
2419 + 987.
D1
e %iDprsegfnbl@eln]M__lamciDakbiD]hb_btc iDal aip_goe _pi~%]nil@epm_brviDa$_b]_lg

be@wc gfi 1 am_u_b]hb_l]-c pev_b]}goeaamnj~Dhnj_b]3c _la_B]nfbnji]_ba}
j e
|3;+34xQ('mrX A t tE Z'9 tsXnm\bX.GmSm-.WX\]mx,.Xmx

5
X$ Xr X3f Xm\]mo9mxE Z'
Y7mGm%Ûm\bXs3%EbG;%h%3%6;
z
A
Y7m)G
mx6W ZX p C(a) p aazAWoVm\ tEZ'yGmxZ'bvYX3-Em\D\7Ym\]mo9mxEZj7aYkGm
-F mxY7mun m\bX ./s X a
A
a = {b A : b a}.
|3;+34xQj('mrX A 6tEZ's sX|nm\bX.Gm^m-G.WX\]mx,.XSmx

5y'( myG m%Û mVm\D4t-@D -%AGm A p \bXznm\bX.Gmem-G.WX\]mx,.X
A
W o9
m\ E ZjsG m\bXWYy \bXWY7m_YuGm|m-G.WX\]mx,.X
A/ = {a : a A}.
\]-c i]b_lagjezepnwc V
r lcnf@e`rhgji|]_b]3c _lpiM4iDamnfc bn hDi amiD]goeqaiD4_lp elnjiD]h_ba
_a_p_begfn]l@eq]_b]_lgbi]m]3c i}libnf_b]-c__ Z 4iDp)gje`p_bgjpebn#D]h_biD]h~Dp_l]bnje

r3gfi p < _badc _7biD]mh]-c i9bilnj_l]-c_7gjiMh_b]iqc'epm_brviDa Z eqc _l]nj_l]ieMgjea
p
liD]amnj_lp elnjiD]h_ba&e]-c_bpmnjiDpm_b1a }
Zp = {0, 1, ..., p 1}.
b%\Qf
HJYZh.3mo7Y\bXWY p xm $X./Um_YuGmxYoVXs p obFZjqmx
Z7
\amc|%iDpmr7ehiy4iDp$!bgjea_la&h_u_ h nihqeqgj_b]hbnjeN}
Z7 = {0, 1, ..., 6}.
\ ]Mgoebgjea_)__ nbhqegf_b]lnoey_lg 0 _badc]}gjiDa2ryhgfc nfhgfiDa_!

\]goezlgoeam_v_s_ hnihqeqgj_b]hbnje}_lg 1 _lamcq]c iiDaugfiDa]rv_bpmiDau4iDanwc nbhDiDa _
e]}p_lamc i D eg hin hnjhnjp4iDp$!4iDp_ m_lrshgji : D t F K<_bra_lgU 1 G DA Ehwf
eaA@ _b]}@eebgjea_h_u_ in hegj_l]bnjeh
ep eahr7eqpeamc ea eq4_bp2gji _)ilppm_)egeqb_bp2gjeaamrsea2r3gfiy!>_kgfiDa
-] rv_bpiau_lgQEMeg 1 gfi}rvnjamrsi|ep ez_bg^hpixc i9j i}p_bhp_bam_b]3c'erviDau_b]iDa
c egjea1}
vTT]CZ}]nLOQ[ H ] VxG MHXG=ZPQ] [\.MONQP

LOY P9]
+ 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 1 2 3
2 2 3 4
3 3 4 5
4 4 5 6
5 5 6 0
6 6 0 1
3 4 5
3 4 5
4 5 6
5 6 0
6 0 1
0 1 2
1 2 3
2 3 4
6
6
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
0 0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
3
0
3
6
2
5
1
4
6
0
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
2
0
2
4
6
1
3
5
4
0
4
1
5
2
6
3
5
0
5
3
1
6
4
2
D D!
eac egoeqa_goeqaarsea gjiDahpixc iDa_gjiDa2]rv_bpmiDa

j
0, 1, ..., p 1
biD]3c nf_b]_l]XciiDaygfiDapmixc iDa arseayh_zgjeeqpnfcrexc nfbe9rvigjep|%ep e]

bnj_lpmci_b]-c_bpmi px
$_lrviDa7eqnj_lpmci_l]-c i]b_la7_bg&berv4i_Mgjeepnwc rVlcnf@ersihgoeqpbi_brviDa
_%_bxc eqpi4_bp eqbnfiD]_ba el_bpamr7eqa hpixc iDa rhgjih]zbnj_lpmciy]rv_bpmi p
nj_l]_v_b]-ciD]l_ba>a_b]3c nfiMgje]-c_@ep)_blelnjiD]_lab6el_bpuic peaiD4_bpebnfiD]_bal;cp eqc ep
_p_bamiDig hD_lpanfamc _lr7eqa__lbelnji]_balfw
7r

2
l5
5
z|l
e
|
iDrviv_b;@oeqrsiDaegB]egjnil@ep2goeya_lblnD]9e]3c _lpnjipbgoeqaiD4_lp elnjiD]h_ba&h_ugoeepnwc rV

c njbervigjep]iDa84_lprvnfc _l]vgje]-c_@ep^_lbebnfiD]_lai>anfamc_brsea8h_$_lbeqbnji]_balK<{ar@
4i_brviD
a egjep2h_h]eD4;a;;3+C+-biDrviy]ey_blelnD]zgfnj]_beg_)gje
%iDprse
iD]_
ax + b c mod p
aiD]}_l]-c _lpiDaBqeiDal
a, b, c, p
p>1
_la&]eynj]_xc _lprvnj]eeh
D:
b%\Q#Q+('mrX p km!mo p \^\bX}Emx,.X 3x + 3 4 mod 5 5{('mZ+rXZ3X

m -f YAr X
G
Zjbv7 Y|X3-E m\D\7YGo9mxo7YVmxEZLmx7Y x ZX\]m_Yy-Em^X\uo G\vZB. p \v.rX/\7Y p 8
Y oVX/ \]m_Y8VYE mxE Z)m_Yq
|
:o7bF\ec5
np ~e lbiD]ersiabiDrviasn %_lp e]`_lbelnjiD]h_ba2_{pmnjrv_bp8~Dp eqicp ehnjbnfiD]eqgf_balgji
q
_ 7 el_brviDapmnjrv_bpmi9_baeaep_lg p_badc'e]hieqgic pmirsnf_brpmi9ep e9_labpmnjnfp
\amci`_labamrsep e _
e7er4iDagoeia
3x 1 mod 5
h_ugoey_ nbhqegf_b]lnoet\amc eviD4_bpebn#D]}]hisam 4iD]_u3
]nj]~]}2 mod
pigj_l5r7e4iDp _u_b]M_lg
eq]njgfgfi_&gjiDa^]hrs_lpiDa8_b]3c _bpmiDa4i_brviDa8p_lamc'eqpk+_tnjamc_$_bgnjf] hD_bpmaiep eugjearse3
_lc'eq]9gjeap_lgoeqbnji]_bah_uliD]~Dpm_b]hbnoet
a_u<-pm_biam4p es
gfi _ h_bppA@oerviDa&_la{ea ep$_lg hnihnjhnj_b]higji _>_b]9gjiDa&]-rv_bpia
_l]-c_bpia>]iM4i_lrsi
a el_bpu4iDp _s_lg^njf] hD_bpmaiM_ _la>goq
e %p elbn#D] D _s]hi
_lau]]rv_bpmi}_b]3c _lpiV
j;e|b_lamc n#D]]eqcp eg_bauae4_bpanêgc p eqeeqp)r3gji}
%i9r3gji}icpiDau]rv_bpmiDa>_b]3c _bpmiDa'u_lg c nj_l]_si9]hinf] hD_lpai9eqp eM_lgpmixc i
r3gfi p eqp ea e4_lpyb+q]iCilpp_`_bamciC]_bl_bamnfc ersiay_lg2gf_brse9_z#1_ lliDhc@
h_brviDamcp eive]3c _bpmnjiDpmrs_l]-c_
QQf'( mrX a, p Z G o9mxo YmxE ZLmxo7 Y p 7 Y.DZ.F7 Y^6+G \7 Y-52F( . mcd(a, p) =
-mxE Z'
,_ m_Ymm0 .]YZLmm\J. mxn Y9G m a p X$ Xm\ p bF Zj7 zm_Y`G m' .3
mxE Z)mxo b Z3X\
1
-E m a b 1 mod p 5
mo%7 YZ+$ X .5iDrvi

_bghgf_brse$_#1_ lliDhc~3epe]-c]n lbe$goe$_tnjadc _l]bnje
h_uia]rv_bpmiDa_l]-c _lpiDmcd(a,
a s, t p)Z =h_u1rvii ~_ }
1 = sa + tp
ipc e]-ciseqgQcp eeeqpr3gjizc _b]h_brviDa1}
1 sa mod p,
ipc'eq]-c i s _ba_bg nf]hD_lpaiv_ a epe_lg pihlc ivr3gfi p

Ab-Ah34 #Q#('mrX a p mxEZ)mxo7Y_z p > 1 5(F.mm0.]YZLm b mxEZLmxoZX\
-E m ba 1 mod p mxEZ',_m_Y b m_YE.Vo7bFG\ p 5
|s lA348 7 4iD]~3eqrsia ab0 1 mod p &\]3c iD]l_ba ab ab0 0 mod p
_lamci_lab p bn htnf_e a(bb0 ) 7 n mcd(a, p) = 1 4i_lrsiaaep_lg+iDpmiDgoeqpnfi DA
p) 6= 1
_l]-ecaAiD@ ]pb_la$nih_hnfnfam_kc_be ]Mb _l]-c b_l0 pgjiDi a _kbiDc ]hebgjgj_l a _)hgj_ e>_lrsiDadc p eqbn#D]Q 7 n r = mcd(a,
Q{__bamc_
rvii abt 0 mod p hiDsrv i tab 1 moda p=_brs

]3c iD ]hbp_b=
a trt_ba&1h]M<rt <gfcnfpgfi_ p gfi
__ba&]ebiD]3c penjlbn#D]Q e _ 1 < t < p

LOY P9]
lAh3Q# \bXWYxo|.]YoVXWYu4../Um_Y)Gm\ZLm_moVXWz6Y.

6q
mm0 .]YZ)m b Z ZX\;-Em ab 1 mod p 5
r 6= 1
A
D "
mcd(a, p) =
sl@348iDrvi mcd(a, p) = r 6= 1 4_l]-ciD]l_ba{_tnfamc _l]_l]-c _lpia s, t Z

z
c'egf_ba _ a = rs p = tr biD] 1 < t < p \{_|_bamc_zrsihi at 0 mod p
7 4iD]~DerviDa h_u_tnjadc _ b Z c eg _ ab 1 mod p 8\]-ciD]l_ba}
__badc _urvii
bat t mod p
gji h_u_ba]ebi]-c penfblnD]|_ba
t 0 mod p
1<t<p
__bamc evrse]_lp ey_bgQc_biDpm_brsee]-c_bpmnjiDp goea2iDa_lp$hqeqbnfiD]_ba&amanf~Dnf_b]3c _ba@eW

{
p exc _bpmn]lbe]be]hiM_tnjadc _v_bg^nf]hD_lpaiMeqp ez_bg^hpixc iMr3gji
eq_bra_bg
c _bip_brseynj]hnjbeyliDrvi@egfbgjepgfihK$e _uha ep_lgegj~Dipnwcrvi_up\bgfnj_laepe
gjgj_l~3ep2eygoenj_l]-c nfe|_bg gf_brseyh_>#_1lbihc@
b+QQ#('mrX\7Y>Go9mxo7Ykc7|35EXo7YXMrX\jG\bX|m\.mx_Y7Gm 5
o7bfG
\ 11 5hW o5
Y p / .Do7 Y5mxE Zn m^Yxx
* mxE Zj,_ m_Y5mm0 .]YZLm a Z Z3X\-E m 5a
>
5
a
X\jG
\bXo7
Ym\W
X\G
m 5
\FX\ v/ .DZouG
my \v.+G m_Y&f X\bX.+G mxE ZB.+f X3
1 mod 11
a
mwxmry|$G Z/
G
Z3XEZ'7zJo7bF\s3
1 = 11 + 5 (2).
1 5 (2) mod 11.
\-Fm a = 9 m_Ym\.mxnY=Gmco7@FG\=35 _9Y72xm_Y7mC-Fm 2

5
9 mod 11
\âdc iv4_bpmrsnwc _)pm_bamiDgihD_lpgoebiD]~p_l]bnje _u4iD]8@oerviDa2_l]M]}_ m_lrshgjie]-c_bpnfiDp}
3x + 3 4 mod 5.
7 _-eqgoerviDa _unf/eliD]~Dpm_b]lnoey_bp e_ nihegj_l]-c_eae]iv_lg pm_bamc e]ih4e

3x 1 mod 5.
D@1 E
ip{_bg;c _bip_lr7e7e]-c_bpmnjiDplliDrsi samiD]hpnjrviDa&_b]3c p_ar@_tnjadc __lgnf]hD_lpai`_

rhgjizt <$gc peeepkr3gfiz7c ihiz]-rs_lpiz_laliD]~Dpm_b]3c _bi]]hi}h_bg
liD]m]3c i {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} 8;ith_brviDa_l]-c i]b_la$am@ep_bg nf] hD_lpaivpmiDe]h[i }
3 0 0 mod 5
3 1 3 mod 5
3 2 1 mod 5
3 3 4 mod 5
3 4 2 mod 5
\a_blnjp_lg nj]fhD_bpmaiv_lg _ba_bg e _ 3 2 1 mod 5

5}gfcnjgfnfbervia2goebiD]h~Dp_l]bnje4iDp c_b]_lrviDa
3x 2 1 2 mod 5,
_la&_lbnfpb
x 2 mod 5.
ipc e]-ci)c iiDagjia]hrs_lpiDa_b]3c _lpiDa

h_ugjek%iDpmr7e
x = 5K + 2
_ai]vaiDgfbn#D]y_goekbi]~Dph_b]lnoe)aiD]
K Z.
< a_l$p hqep

_ _brviDa$piDh_badc iìDa{rse]_lp ea$h_@egfbgjep&_lgnf]hD_lpai7_]
-] rv_bpi a rhgji p iDph]gjei{a eqpgoe$nj_l]-cnje_#_1lliDhcb34iDpic pmikgoei{njp
hpiDeq]iliD]7gjiDa^njadc nj]3c iDa^pmilciDa a 1 a 2 4wfw a (p 1) eadc'e>_l]biD]3c pep
_lg pihlci
_ hqegf~3e D
b%\Q#Q#hWo
3 1 3 mod 6
3 4 0 mod 6
3 2 0 mod 6 3 3 3 mod 6
3 5 3 mod 6 3 0 0 mod 6
x ', k6 x mx_Yo7@FG\xF59Y72xm_Y7m8-Em86Y7mJZ.3mxUmxk\bXWYG. p WZLm_Y.]Y

^ |- mcd(3, 6) = 3 5
m EZ
_m_YJ8
ZB.3m Uma.
Gm\'ZLm _m oVXWz X
Em
b-q3+3%mo7YZ$Xu-Em\bXzEmx,.XV\v.UmrX\
6^Z.3mxUmYW\.5
3x + 4 5 mod 6

LOY P9]
DA18D
b-33%X\D\bXZ'bfXWY\bXWYYW\./Um_YmxEZ)mx$XWY>Gm\bXzFmx,.X
5x + 2 5 mod 7.
na_h_b_l]ygoeq]-c _bep;_blelnjiD]h_bagjnj]h_@egf_labq_la]eqcp egeiDpe$gje]-c_@eqp_lgtpmi~

7
gj_lr7e&h_p_laiDgbhD_bpbBlA[&;yD4;a;;3+E&+;-%G_ba_lbnjpl_tpm_bamnjiD]_la
_bgQc nf4i
x a1 mod p1
x a2 mod p2
...
x an mod pn
\ g -zW;M7+s{Gl@_la^_bgnf]amcprv_b]3c ie_lbeqiuepe)a e4_lp

an ]}anfamc _lr7eyh_u_lamc_c nf4iyc nf_b]_)aiDgflnD] 4_bpmrsnwc _)begfbgjepgjeh
( mrX
'
Go9mxo7YmxEZ)mxo7Y p , p , ..., p xm EZLmxo7Y p W
Y.D-ZB.F7tYmx/. 2Q#rQX4
1 2
n
vF a1 , a2 , ..., an
.
p > 1 p X$ Xzr X3fX iX=$X}1,rX35f5X 5bz n
.D. i
zh555bz
i 6= j 5
mcd(pi , pj ) = 1 p
i, j = 1
n
EZ',_m_Ykm\UY/.]YZ)moVX
x a1 mod p1
x a2 mod p2
...
x an mod pn
x 9tE.rXeo7bF\9m\ p o bFZ'
ZB.3m UmxY W\ .
P = p1 p2 ...pn
mo7YZ$X.5 7 _@e] P = p ...p P = P/p bi] i ]_l]-c_bpiM_b]3c p_ D n

k
iDpnjc_bamnjagfiDa p ai]|pnfrs1ia_bn]3c p_kaAi@,bi]|gjiileg mcd(P , p ) = 1 i = 1 fww
hirs^
i _lrsi
a hnjiamciseq]-c_ba;_biDpm_brse 0t epebee._itnjadic njpr q c eg h_
n
i
qi Pi 1 mod pi .
D@1
7 _@e_b]3c iD]l_ba
x0 = a1 P1 q1 + a2 P2 q2 + ... + an Pn qn
h_urvii _ueg,c iDrsep2bi]~Dph_b]lnoer3gfi p am_uiDtc nj_l]_}

i
an j 6= i _b]3c iD]l_ba P _la&nbhtnfanfgf_k4iDp p 4iDpc e]-ci P 0 mod p
j
i
an j = i _b]3c iD]l_ba Pjq 1 mod p i
i i
i
4ipc'e]3c i x a mod p i = 1 wfw nbiDrvi _bpA@oerviDah_brviDamcp epl=<{ar@hc ihiDa
gfiDa]-rs_lpiDa0 _go
e i %iDprse i
liD]
x = x0 + KP
a i]MamiDgjhbn]z_lgamnjadc _brseh
{_brviDadc p eqrsiDaueiDpe}goez]njlnjeq_sgje}aigjlnD]r3gji P z\amc i9pm_be
eq_bra _2cie{aigjlnD]_lghanfamc _lr7e$_ba_2gj{
e %iDprse x = x +KP bi] K Z
KZ
irs_lrsia
hiDa8aiDgfbnfiD]_ba^_lg4amnjamc_brseh-_l]-c i]b_la
amnjadc _brsey_bi]~Dph_b]lnoea
_baamiDgjln]v_bg
x 0 mod p1
x 0 mod p2
...
x 0 mod pn
l_ a{_blnjpb mod P e _ _ba{rgwc nfgfi_

h_br_badc pevgjey]hnjlnje|_goeyamiDgfbn#D]zr3gfi P
pi
eqp es@eqe i gfi _
b%\Q#QfH{m_YW\ mxm\Y.]YZ)moVX
x 2 mod 3
x 3 mod 5
x 2 mod 7
iDrvi !amiD]|pmnjrviDa_b]3c pm_)aA@t_bg4c _liDp_lr7e_nf]i_kgjiap_lamc ia4_lprvnfc _

begjlgoeqp2goe]nf@eyaiDgfbn#D]zr3gfi 3 5 7 = 105

LOY P9]
DA1D
7 nf~Dnf_b]iygoe]ic ebn#D]z_lgQc _liDp_lr7e

P1 = 105/3 = 35
P2 = 105/5 = 21
P3 = 105/7 = 15
< hiDp e q _lay_lgnj]fhD_bpami_ Mrhgji

iDrvi 35 2 mod 3 _b]3c iD]l_ba
1
_b]-ciD]l_ba q = 2 e _ 2 2 1 mod 3
{_>gjers1 nfarseyrse]_bpe q _ba$_bgnj]fhD_bpmai7_ C D r3gfi74_la$_blnjpl4_lg;nf]hD_lpai
_ D r3gfivt4iDpc e]-ci q2 = 1
2
.nf]egfrv_l]-c_ q = 1
3
iDp2c'e]3c i
x = 2 35 2 + 3 21 1 + 2 15 1 = 233
_bagje$]nf@e$aiDgfbn#D]r3gji D E3th_2rvii _c ieqagoeaamiDgjlnjiD]h_bah_bgtanjadc _lr7e

aiD'] }
x = 23 + 105K
K Z.
$]ekegfnj@eqbn#D] _24ihpr@oeqrsia;p_la_b]3c'eph_bgc _bip_brse$_nj]i{_gjiDapm_badc iDa_la

goe{iDam_bp@hqebn#D]_ _gjiap_lamciDa^r3hgjikh]biD]m]-ci_]-rs_lpiapmnjrviDa_b]3c pm_
ar@4_bpmrsnwc _l]9_lc_bprvnj]ep$h]@ihDiberv_b]-c_h]]-rs_lpihV$__badc'e7r7eq]_bpes]rv_bpmiDa
_7~Dpe]c er7e$iMa_74ihpr@oeq]pm_bpm_bam_b]-c ep4ip>aap_lamc iar3gfi}]iDalnj_lpmc ia
pnfrsiDa eqar@Qp_llnjpamamc e]lnoegfrs_l]-c _kamzc er7e$ii]}_lamc iap_badc iDaa_h_b_l]
eb_lpi_lp eqbnji]_ba
goe`pm_bl4_bpebn#D]_lg]-rv_bpi|_b]l_badc n#D]eqa e|4iDp)gje`p_/
aiDgfbn#D]Mh_>]9anjadc _lr7evh_liD]~p_l]bnjeab&\adc i7p_laiDbg hD_bpr@jeveqpbnjegjr_b]-c_biDrvi

hD_bp_lrviDa&_l]M_lg _ m_lrsgfiamnj~Dhnj_l]-c _qgoegjnfrvnwc eln#D]`_@j~Dnwc ia2_]er nf]eh
b+QQf
( p f Xo7 Y-F mZ)mxU mo7 YQts X>r X\j \bX3v$ X)G md>*w .DZ'7 Y-E m
_ mo7
YyN X_ mxV
\bXY oVXCG me\7 YsG o9mxo7 Yqc0dfdfdfdc30 8c0d99G cfG8D1 :g|5W oVXo7 Y_z
m!mo p \7 z{\7 YvG o9mxo7 Y p / .Do7 YqmxE Z+n m|Yx*&G f7zxfM
[gM p obF Zj P m_Y
p q
GfF5 87zo9mx6uG
md} . r XWY-5
\ p / .Do9mx) o9mxo mx/ . 2r X

\UY7mF4vmx/. 2rX
5888851358 58 mod 100

5888851358 72 mod 99
5888851358 78 mod 97.
259632147 47 mod 100
259632147 93 mod 99
259632147 7 mod 97.
D@1
) x
) t x
' ;>Gm_Y p F2_Ynm_YW\ mx
p X $X NX /m \bXY GoVX _XWYZ3X NX _m \bXY GoVX Gm\ 7Y _m_YZ 7Y_z

m\Y.]YZ)moVX
x 47 + 58 mod 100
x 72 + 93 mod 99
x 78 + 7 mod 97
m_YZLm&\vZ.Do p XWY7z p X$Xnm' p mxrXxm\Go9mxo7zNX-EmNX_mxV p mx$X./Um_Y
mxE Z)mxo7 YG movWYmdM*w.DZ'7Y_z p \`-Fm_z p p .Xo9mxEZLm_zd}*w.DZ'7YYAW\

mo7 Y8N X_ mx
X/ .DZBo92Z.r Xqe
\bXWY2nm p nm_Y7mxEZX./Um_Y p JYfY_m_YZ'7Yo7bFG\Gf7z
p bG
fsq
[g|5
eqrn]l]=_bh_9ha epma_M_badc _}c _liDpm_brseep eel_bpvp_bl_b]3c ia7bi]]-rv_bpmiDa
~p e]h_bab
b%\Q#Q+( p fXo7Y-EmkZLmxUmo7YtsX5oVXE. m_YZX.-EmY1Xmo7Y
-E mN XCq-_ mf X3v
Xo9mx67YvGm
to|.D\D\j6m p mxnYsXWYy9-Emxnmo%7Y_z$Gm_YbGm|\bX
f XE .by7X .N zY1X mx
m\G o9mxo
mm X Z'G m_mfX3v7Y-5m_Y p m.Do%7Yz-Fm5Ym
XA p mx=G
m7G fmxXG f}
X p tE Z3Xo7 Yqm\^n m_YZ'F5Mf Xo7 Yv-F m|Y+
8F5}J YZ'
.4
.r X7-F mkm\ G o9mx x G m p X/ Z. . p XE Z)m_Y) mx/ . 2r X
x 30 mod 100.
m_Y p F2_Y\]m_Y p m.Do7Y&-EmY7m-XA p mxmxv p 7Y$Gm-fWz;YFbrX`Gc>^mxv p 7Y

Gm[g^YFb$XC08u5aYGm'.nzY7mZ.3mxUm|m\Y.wFG.3mxEZ)mxY.]YZLmoeX7mEmx,.XWY-
x 30 mod 100
x 25 mod 99
x 13 mod 97
hWovGf7zJfv9[gY p /.Do7YmxEZ+nmxYx*]zm\Y.]YZLmoVXVZ.3mxUmxYW\.5>hWo

mxE
Z',_m_Y|\bXME.rXYW\. p 7Y.DZ.WX}So9mx6-Fmqm_Y7m
100 99 97 = 960.300
G o9mxoq
m_Y|m\Q o9mxosG m p X/ Z. . p XE Z)m_Ymx
\bXeoVXE . m_YZX.5
b-q3+3%HmZ)mx/o|.sX5m\Go9mxoGm p X /Z.. p X EZ)m_Ymx>\bXXEZ)mx/./eoVXE.D
m_YZ3X .5
sA

v
5 S
A
;_lprvnj]erviDay_lamc_}c _lr7eCliD]_badc'ea_lbbn#D]_bnf@eqeeCgjiDayanjadc _lr7ea_}]-rs_/

pebn#D]Q8_bav_lbnfpvegjek
a %iDprseay_zp_bhp_bam_b]3c'epsgfiDay]rv_bpmiDa_b]-c_bpmiDab
jeCea_
vTbfT]CZ}]nLOQ[ H ] VxM=[ Y9HG=Z
DA1
_baliD~Dnfeepegoey]-rv_bp eqbn#D]z_ba$ephnfc pepnje _bamcov]nbhD_bpma egfrs_l]-c_uervnfcnfegje

ea_ D E+anfamc _lr7e{_]-rv_bp eqbn]y_lbnfr7ego n]l-a_lnjeek]-_badc p e)pmiDnoekeq]eW
c iDr3@oe h_vpm_bam_b]3c'e D E|_bhiDaep e`4i_bp)biD]3c'ep)liD]_lgjgfiDab_bpizic pea)eqa_ba
_]-rs_lp eln]amiD]c'eqryh]n l]ynjrv4iDpmc e]-c_ba }gjekeam_iDa&+anfamc_brse)_]rv_bpebn#D]
nj]eqpnoeD_la %]eqrs_l]-c eg_l]|gje>nj] %iDprqcnfbe goeqac_bgf_bliDr]nf@elnjiD]_labiD]h_kgje
nj]N%iDpmr7eqbn#]C_badcMliDrv_lamc'e}_vb_bpmiDa ]iabgoe|ea_ 1 E}_lauc'ernib]Cnjrv4iDp@
c'e]3c __l]egf~D]iDak@erv4iDas%Q _ lrs_lnje`_3]~DhgjiDa {_bhnjiMeqg~p e]C]rv_bpmi
_{bn hnjaip_bah_bg 1 E7 D tht 1 D Eh D| D t Eh Et 1 E3x-c'erin b]sgjeuea_ D|
_ba{p_lgj_ he]-c__b]rv_bnfeac _lrs4iDpegj_lab44iDp$pe lbi]_ba{anfrsnfgjeqp_la$esgoeveam_ 1 Eh8We
rsiDa2k
e hD_lp _kc iiDa2_badc iDaamnjadc _brsea24_bpmrsnwc _l]|p_lp_la_b]3c'eplrs_lnoe]3c _{]ic ebn#D]
4iDanfbnji]egtbeg nj_lp]rv_bpmiv_l]-c_bpi eqb_bpiD4_lp elnjiD]h_babi]M_lamc ev]iqc'elnD],
e]hiy_balpnfnjrviDa_bg]rv_bpmi D -u_l]zea_ D E_badc'erviDaa eq]iygji _)am_
gjgoeqrse|@34s @+3+4 @eqe}@j~nfc i`c nf_b]h_v]anf~D]n4B@ehi}4iDp_bg^gf~3ep
h_ibhehS<{ar@_brv4_1lbe]i64iDp7goe_lp_b_eh&goepnfrv_bp elni%pe_la|gjeh_gjea
]nje_labgoeanf~Dnj_l]-c_)goe_goeah_bl_b]ealfww4_ba_blnjpb
12345 = 5 100 + 4 101 + 3 102 + 2 103 + 1 104 .
_badc i _)am_el_)bi]zgoe>ea_ D Ehh_tp_la ep_bg,]rv_bpmiybirsiliDrnj]eqbn#D]
gjnj]h_@egh_gjea24ic _l]bnjea_)goeeam_am__l_el_bpep e]5hqegfiDpepmnfcp epmnfi_

goeea_q
Q#Q('mrX
t6-7YtW
X\_m_Y)tE.7Y
o9mxo7YqmxEZ)mxo7Y 7 Y.DZ.F7Y_z) b > 1 5}0.]YZLmx

| a 6= 0 zGmobvs-Em
p
a b
z2
a0 , a1 , ...an
0 ai < b
a = a0 b0 + a1 b1 + a2 b2 + ... + an bn .
kmo7YZ$X.5$nihnjnfrviDa
_l]-c pm_
ep eyiDhc_b]_lp
a = q0 b + r0 .
^\ adc izr_lamcp e _ a = r 4iDp h_ 0 r < b X<_brakr_badc p e`gje7]nfbnfe

_ a e _u_bgQc_biDpm_b0 rsey0_bg pm_bamciv~3ep eq]-c 0nil@e _u_lg p_lamc iv_la&]nfbi
0
n7 bn hnjnfrviDa2e iDpe q _l]-c pm_ b a_uihc nf_b]_
0
_b]3c iD]l_ba
q0 = bq1 + r1
D@1D1
a = b2 q1 + br1 + a0 ,
liD]zgjibeg a = r +_)]-_hDiv]nfbiy4iDp _)_ba]zp_lamc i3x eqar@Qamb_lanbhqerv_b]3c _

eamc e h_u_bg 1libnj_l1]-c_
am_@e]}rs_l]iDp _ b
qn
b-q3+3%d.]Y7mxsXX\ v/.DZo p X$Xqm_YAx/.1.9Go9mxoem_YAx/.DZjemx_XWY7m
qmx_ XWY7mX5
G
.]Y7mxs XXt
X\ v/ .DZo p X$ Xm_YAx .1.XtGo9mxoSm_YAx.DZ'Smx_XWY7m|Xmx_XWY7m

5
10
.]Y7mxs XXt
X\ v .DZo p X$ Xm_YAx/ .1 .G o9mxoS

m_YAx .DZ'S
mx_ XWY7m a mx_ XWY7m
5b
b-q3+3%HaYAx/.1.mx _XWY7m{G\7YY.wFG.3mxEZ)m_Y$Go9mxo7Y_zJm_YAx/.DZ'7Ymx _XWY7m&z
87q
cs_ m_Y p m' Z.W Xo9mxE Z)m-
101001001
12101
342104
b-q3+3%
HaYAx/.1.m\ Go9mxs1:Ucmx_XWY7mzc7g|5
B]egfrs_l]-c _a_h_b_l]_balpnfnjpzegj~iDpnwcrvia|ep e+eqb_lp}iD4_bpebnfiD]_la}_
amrse hpixc i}h_]hrs_lpiDa)_bambpmnfc ia_b]leg nj_lp)eqa__]-rv_bp eqbn#D]QQanj]
ra h_8c_b]_lp;_b]>l_b]3c'e _8gji _^c penfbnfiD]egwrv_l]-c _a_8_tpm_bae$biDrvio9m\D\]mxF
s X _{_l]èam_ D E>am_-el_{be]ia_{gjgf_b~3ee D Eh_b]7]e>eam_{_{]-rv_bp eqbn]
leg hnj_bpeya_el_ule]iva_gjgf_b~3eegUhqegfiDph_ugjeyea_q
b%\Q#Qf(oVXo7Ymx_XWY7mq\7YuGo9mxo7Y>3Gs`Gf5
1101
1001
10110
\bX p /.Do9mxrXM. $X7Emo7YYGoVX3v|N&z-EmfX|9-Em|X\jrXGy7XX5\bX_XWY7m_z p

Z3XE
ZjsXeo9m\D\]mxFs5
vT1TaY G=ZG=ZP9]
DA1 !
b+QQ#G\vZ. p \v.rXo7Ykmx_XWY7mq\7YuGo9mxo7Y>3Gs`35

1101
11
1101
1101
100111
b-33%\haYAx.1.5X\ v/.DZBo7Y p X rXYGoVXmxx_XWY7m` p X $Xo \vZ. p \v.rX

mx_ XWY7mv5
7
U2 1 x
b-33%\,îD]_lp&hiDa_ m_lrsgfiDa_~}
n]hrs_lpiDaliD]~p_l]-c _la$liD] r3gfi
njno8]rv_bpmiDabi]~Dph_b]3c _ba&bi]rhgjiv!
njnfno8]hrs_lpiDaliD]~p_l]-c _la$liD] DfD rhgjiv
in hh^]-rs_lpiDa]i]hgjiDarhgji D c eg h_ka|hpixc ir3gji
D am_@e]gfi
hh2]rv_bpmiDanfamcnj]-ciDa2_ D r3gji D c'eg _uamMpmilciva_@e D
b-33%\ Q2egjlgjep2a e]his_lgegf~DiDpnwcrvi_u\lgjnjh_b1a }
n mcd(10223, 33341)
njno mcd(385, 1729).
b-33%QQ$_brviDamcp ep2goepm_b~Dgjeh_hnihnjamnjnfgwnfeq`4iDp"N}m_Yu.7.]Y.1\]m p
Y.\bX^Y
oVX`G mxY Yy . $ XWYkm_Y> .7 .]Y.1 \]m p

b-33%\C; _begjnil@egoeaamnj~Dhnj_b]3c _laiD4_lp elnjiD]h_ba1}
n f t :
1234 - DACD rhgjiv
njno8 t D E )9 : 89 848 841234 3 DACD rhgji
njnfno f !Dt 3 : 9 8 841234 - DAfCD r3gji!t
b-33%QV{_lrsiDadc p eqp __lganj~nj_l]-c_amnjadc _brses_bi]~Dph_b]lnoea{]i7cnj_l]_

aiDgfbn#D'] }
D@1D:
x 2 mod 6
x 3 mod 9
b-q3+3%+QK{_brviDamcp ep _kgjiDaamnj~Dhnj_l]-c _laanfamc_brseacnj_b]h_b]àigjlnD] p_bamiDgb

D_lpgfiDa1}
n
h
x 3 mod 5
x 5 mod 7
njno
y 5 mod 11
y 7 mod 13
s$
'2A x

5
b-q3+3% \iDrv_l][l@erviDaliD]
amrsea_)c nf_b]_
c = 1
\]-c i]b_laa e]hiCgoeap_l~Dgoea_|gje
(a + b) + 1 = s(a + b) = a + s(b) = a + (b + 1).
ip ea4i]~3erviDa _
h_ugjeyamr7eya_)c nf_b]_

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
y{_u]-_hDis_ugjeapm_b~Dgjea
(a + b) + s(c) = s((a + b) + c) = s(a + (b + c)) = a + s(b + c) = a + (b + s(c)).
b-q3+3% .n eriDa n N ;iDr7eqrsia_bgbiD]m]-ci A = {m N : nm _lamc

h_]nfi } je`hpnjrv_bpesp_b~goe7_lghpixc i|~3epe]-cn]lbe _ 1 A je7a_b~]e
pm_b~Dgje}njl_ _àmn m A _b]3c iD]hb_ba s(m) A {_7_bamc_`rvii A = N 4ip>_bg
hpnj]hbnjhnji_nj]hblnD]Q
b-q3+3%Q$.n eriDa n Z ;iDr7eqrsia&_bgliD]mh]-c i A = {m Z : n + m
_lamco9_]njhi } iDrvi 1 A _b]3c iD]hb_la A 6= n m A gjeaupm_b~Dgjeac _lpl_bp e
nf]lelbpmc n#Dez]z~3_beamp ceqp]-c xin c l@ep] eg h_ s(m) A _ a(m) A siDp)c'eq]-c i A = Z 4iDp
vTvuTaY G=ZG=ZP9] Y>Q]MNnLyP9]
1"
b-33%#2eqamc'ekc _l]_bp^_l]sl_b]3c'e_bganj~]i a ep_bgpihlc i _c _l]_brviDa

_b]}gjiDa]-rv_bpmiDa_b]3c _lpiDa&]hiv]_b~Deqc bn hDiDab N+
{_ ]njrviDa)liDrviz_b
a eqnfceg_bAg hqegfiDp)eaigjhciz_ n Z birsi |n| = n amn
amn
}
n N+ |0| = 0 |n| = n n N
a0=0a=0
an
i nj_l] a > 0 b > 0 inj_l]
_b]}_bg pm_bamcish_gjiDabeaiab
a b = |a| |b|
a b = |a| |b|
a<0
b<0
b-33%QQkeeaiDar7ec pnfb_laba__]h_>gjeyarseliDrvivgjeyahr7ey_ubee

]e{_2aha_l]-c peealirsi{@eqek_l]-c pee{_badc %iDpmr7eqe$4iDph]y]hrs_lpik_l]-c _lpi
goeèqaibnjeqc bn hnje9_goesarse`_rseqc pmnjl_ba{_la)bi]a_lb_b]bnje|_goe7eailnoeqcin hnje
_goearseh_ugfiDa]hrs_lpiDa_b]-c_bpmiDab^ _brgoebiD]hrytc'eqcin hnjeQ
\g _bgf_brv_b]3c i]_lhc pmis_la&gjeyrseqc pm]n l{]gjehl ea&_b]3c peeaai]M]-goeqab
0 0
0 0
a11 a12
a21 a22
\g_lgj_lrs_l]-cinjf] hD_bpmaieqp e>goearse>_{]e>rseqc pmn]l _lagoeurseqc pmn]l

p_lag
c'ei_kbernjep8_kamnj~D]ibee_b]3c p eqe_ A h_l]iDrvAnj]eqe>liD]|gje>gj_xA
c p e a a
biDpmp_bam4iD]nf_b]3c _uam[ j]hnjl_
A =
t_be]uiarseqcpnjl_ba
b eqa;_l]-c peea ai]u_l]iDrvnj]eqeaQp_la4_llc nbhqerv_b]3c _
biD]goeqa`gj_lcp ea a b A ma BazbiD pmp_la4iD]hnj_b]3c _la}ah[j]hnjl_ba' \gkpihlci=_
r7eqcpnfb_laa__ ]h_}
AB =
a11 b11 + a12 b21 a11 b12 + a12 b22

a21 b11 + a22 b21 a21 b11 + a22 b21
iDrvpierviDa _}_laseailnoeqcnihDi^_badc i_lab (AB)C = A(BC) iD]_zgoea

_b]-cp eeah_ C _bamco]7_l]iDrvnj]eqea^bi]7gjegj_xc pe c j ieb_lrsiaep egoe_l]-c pee
_àm[ f]nfb
_ 07_lgpmixc i_7nj~Deg^r7e]h_bp eMam_qep$oe}epe9gjea>ic pea>cp_la
_b]-cp eeab
\]M_lg pihlci (AB)C a_)c nf_b]_ h_unj_ ey_b]3c pee_l1a }
(a11 b11 + a12 b21 )c11 + (a11 b12 + a12 b22 )c21 .
A!
\]M_bgQpihlc i
A(BC)
a_cnj_l]_ _nj_ey_b]3c p ee_ba}
a11 (b11 c11 + b12 c21 ) + a12 (b21 c11 + b22 c21 ).
_ba]eliDrvpiDebn#D]qhD_bpnb@eqp _>ereqa_tp_lanfiD]_ba&aiD]}nf~Degf_bal

\g3_lgj_lrs_l]-ci]h_bhcpiep e2_bgDpmilci_bagje2rseqc pnilnf_b]3c njeQAbi]ugje2nje~DiD]eg
%iprsee4iDp]iDa
_lg p_badc ivb_lpiDal
1 0
0 1
ir7eq]i4iDp_ m_brvgfigjearseqc pmnjb_la
M=
1 1
0 1
N=
1 0
1 0
a _uh_b_uliDrshpiDeqp _ M N 6= N M liD]Mgfi _u_lg pihlc iv_rseqc pmnjb_la

]hiv_babiD]rhc eqc nbhDi
b-q3+3%?Q&\g;p_lamc i7_>nihnfnjp"D" : >_b]3c p_ -!_la7D\g;p_badc i7_>nihnfnjp
_ 7&_ba8-t\gp_badc i>_&bn hnjnfpN&_b]3c pm_$-)_la0\gpm_bamci>_&nihnfnjp
-!)_b]3c pm
3y_l]-cpV
_ u_l
a DîDp2c'e]3c [i }
mcd(9981, 247) = mcd(247, 101) = mcd(101, 45) = mcd(45, 11) = mcd(11, 1) = 1.
b-q3+3%d
\]-c peeN} a, b N
i := a j := b
njgf_
j 6= 0
r := i mod j
i := j
j := r
hegfnjeN}
i
ab
b-q3+3%x 9
t4iD]h~3erviDa _ nihnjh_veglibnf_b]-c_ = c/b Z _l]-ciD]l_ba
_tnjamc_2]_b]3c _bpmi s _2rvii _ as a= q \adc i)nfrshgjnw@e c =q abs
_l]ybi]-c penfbbn#D]
liD]}_bg _l_ is_ _ a ]ivnbhtnf_e c
vTvuTaY G=ZG=ZP9] Y>Q]MNnLyP9]
b-33%\
Q2\g]rv_lpi 1 ]is_la$eqp&4_bpmisar_ba$rhgfc nfgwih_ 2\]-c i]b_la
in hnjhnj_l]i_l]-cp_ am_iDhc nf_b]h_ 1653 = 3 551 ip enf_b] 232 = 529
iDpc'eq]-c isD e_c_b]_lp&]S+exc iDprv_b]iDpivnj~eg _ \ga@"
242 = 576
in hnjh_es DJ t_)cnj_b]h_ _ 551 = 19 29 hiDrvi "y_bapnfrsiyam_cnj_l]_}
1653 = 3 19 29.
b-33%
tn
^_b]3c iD]l_baa_|cnj_b]h_ _z_hnfamc_b]
p
_b]-c_bpmiDa{]i7]_b~3ec nbhDiDra =q a qmod
c0 egj_lpa =_ bamod
-_anf~D_ _
= pq + r b = pq 0 + r
liD]}gji h_ a b mod p
a b = p(q q 0 )
tnf]4_bpmnje7_~_b]_lp egfnjeqam4iD]~Dersia
ipk_lgc _liDp_lr7e7h_bgp_lamci
ab
l
_
]

c
b
_

p

i
a

c

e
j
g
l
_
a

_
0 r rvii r r0 =
b = pq0 + r0 \]3c iD]_ba
]6ryhgfc nfhgfiM_ p iDrvi p < r r0 < p _l]-ciD]b_la
(a b) p(q q 0 )
]_bl_ba eqpnjers_l]-c_ r = r0 biDrvi _b$p oerviDah_brviDamcp epl
b-33% 2 4 mod 2 4iDp _ 2 4 = 2
4iDp _ 13 + 2 = 5 3
13 2 mod 5
4
D
i
p h_ 15 3 = 4 3
15 3 mod 3
b-33% J tn a c mod p _b]3c iD]l_ba&_tnjadc _]}_b]3c _bpmi s c eg _ }
tn
a c = sp.
b d mod p
_l]-ciD]b_la$_tnjamc_uh]M_l]-c_bpi
c'eg _~}
b d = tp.
trse]hiseqreanj~egje_laa_)c nf_b]_~}
(a + b) (c + d) = p(t + s).
{_rsii _ a + b c + d mod p
iDpic pmigoeiyrgwc nfgfnw@e]hiy4iDp b goepmnjrv_bp enf~Degfeà_)c nj_l]_}
5Mgwc nfgjnw@eq]iy4iDp
ab bc = spb.
goeyam_b~]evnf~Degfeà_cnj_l]_}

bc dc = tpc.
A!
trse]i=gjeaziDa}nf~Degfeh_ba|a_cnj_l]_ _

_lp jersia_brviDadc p eqpb
b-q3+3%Q 2345 + 214 432 6 mod 7
2419 + 987 4 mod 7
ab dc = p(ab + tc)
b-q3+3% tn_tnfamc _ x Z c eg _ 3x + 4 5 mod 6 _l]-ciD]b_la

_rvii _u_tnjadc _uh]M_l]-c_bpi k c eg _
1 mod 6
liDrvi
3x
3x = 6k + 1
gfi _ue]eliD]-cp ehnjbln]z_lau]i_ba&rgwc nfgwi_

b-q3+3% KiDrvi 5x + 2 5 mod 7 eaerviDa_bgiDa^pm_bamc e]iuep e)iDtc _b]h_bp
QiDrvi_bg
_l]-c i]b_la$_tnfamc __lg njf] hD_bpamiv_>yeqp ey_bg
5x 3 mod 7
7) = 1
hpixc izr3gji|!t\]mcd(5,
_ %_bxc i nf/ i|nf
] hD_lpaiz_la e _ 5 3 1 mod 7
$_|_lamc _`rviirgwc nfgwnfbe]iM4iDp iDhc _l]_brviDa x 2 mod 7 \]-c i]b_laygoea
amiDgjhbnji]_baaiD]}_gjeyanf~Dnf_b]3c x
_ %iDpmr7ei]_ k Z }
x = 7k + 2.
b-q3+3%Q
jeabiD]h~Dp_l]bnjeaygfnj]_begf_bagje]3c _@eqeac nf_b]h_b]XamiDgjhbn]64ipy_lg
c_biDpm_brsey/hnj]i_gjiDa2p_badc iDalh{nf_eaigjlnD]|_ba 1 D t
j
iDa_ m_lplnjbnfiDa 1 !D 1D: 1 3" !~3t_p_la_l]-c'eq]_l_iDa&biD]959eqgj_q
9 9
Qv>R-M6j( TVj

+sEbbBlAC6-34
^_@eqrsiDa>-rsi9am_`_l_b]6njrvgf_brv_l]-c epu_l]=59ehgj_snjadc nj]3c iDa>egj~iDpnwcrviau_
bernjiyh_uea_q
b-q3+3%d
|
;Eb6-
;Eb+
X
je=_l]-cp ee=_ba}_lg]-rs_lpi=_l]-c _lpi
goe6eqa
_ X \guegf~DiDpmnwc ri6_b4_njp
begjlgoeq]igjeabni%pea_bg ]rv_bpmiv_b]Mea_9X9eqbnj_l]ivnbhnjanfiD]_laal_banbhqea$4iDp

X
jesa eqgjnjevam_bpr7]esgfnjamc e a a ;fwf a _>rsihi h_
am_uc_liDarslpenj4]_isbiDgfiDrva&i p_lamciDab
0
1
m
_b]}eae
_ X
n
a ...a a
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njnfno8_bg 0 |
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9

x 1 2 6 = 12 0 mod 12x
3 4 = 12 0 mod 12
hh
: 2 8 = 16 1 mod 15 9 4 4 = 16 1 mod 15
b-q3+3%?Q
n

irsi
irsi
irsi
irsi
irsi
mcd(10223, 33341) = mcd(33341, 10223)

33341 mod 10223 = 2672
mcd(33341, 10223) = mcd(10223, 2672)

10223 mod 2672 = 2207
mcd(10223, 2672) = mcd(2672, 2207)

2672 mod 2207 = 465
mcd(2672, 2207) = mcd(2207, 465)

2207 mod 465 = 347
mcd(2207, 465) = mcd(465, 347)

465 mod 347 = 118
mcd(465, 347) = mcd(347, 118)
iDrvi
iDrvi
iDrvi
347 mod 118 = 111
!D!
mcd(347, 118) = mcd(118, 111)

118 mod 111 = 7,
mcd(118, 111) = mcd(111, 7)
111 mod 7 = 6
.nj]eqgjr_b]3c _qliDrvi
mcd(111, 7) = mcd(7, 6)
7 mod 6 = 1
mcd(7, 6) = mcd(6, 1) = 1
iaiDa]-rs_lpiDaeiDaamiD]}pnfrsiDa2_l]-cp_ar
njno
j
iDrvi
iDrvi
iDrvi
mcd(385, 1729) = mcd(1729, 385)

1729 mod 385 = 189
mcd(1729, 385) = mcd(385, 189)

385 mod 189 = 7
189 mod 7 = 0
mcd(385, 189) = mcd(189, 7)
mcd(189, 7) = mcd(7, 0)
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j
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9 8 mod 5 = (1) (2) mod 5 = 2 mod 5
!_brviDa2a ehi
841234 mod 5 = (1)1234 mod 5 = 1 mod 5

(1) mod 5
(245 + 1321) mod 5 = (0 + 1) mod 5 = 1 mod 5
njno (4 + 5) mod 2 = (0 + 1) mod 2 = 1 mod 2
(1044 + 8) mod 2 = (0 + 0) mod 2 = 0 mod 2
(9 8) mod 2 = (1 0) mod 2 = 0 mod 2
841234 mod 2 = 01234 mod 2 = 0 mod 2
(245 + 1321) mod 2 = (1 + 1) mod 2 = 0 mod 2
njnfno (3 + 75) mod 7 = (3 + (2)) mod 7 = 1 mod 7
(234 + 458) mod 7 = (3 + 3) mod 7 = 6 mod 7
(9 8) mod 7 = (2 1) mod 1 = 2 mod 1
841234 mod 7 = 01233 mod 7 = 0 mod 7
(245 + 1321) mod 7 = (0 + 5) mod 7 = 5 mod 7.
_
a0 + a 1 +
84 mod 5 =
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3(2K1 3K2 ) = 1
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a eqc nfa$+el_ugje
aeqc nfa$+el_gje
x = (3 3 7 + 5 3 5) mod 35 = 138 mod 35 = 33 mod 35
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kZ
x = 33 + 35k
h_
njno
p1 = 11 p2 = 13 P = 143 P1 = 13, P2 = 11
q1 13 1 mod 11
q2 11 1 mod 13
2#aberviDa
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q2 = 6
q2
c'eqgj_ba
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aeqc nfa$+el_gje
x = (5 6 13 + 7 6 11) mod 143 = 852 mod 143 = 137 mod 143
{__bamc_urviiyc ieagjeaaigjlnjiD]_laamiD]}_goe%iDprseanf~Dnj_l]-c_)biD]
x = 137 + 143k.
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go
e ]eqg
T otal : 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 63.
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c_b]~De]~3e]eiDV
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~De]eip'xh4iDpc e]-ci_bg ]hrs_lpi_epmcnjeqa_ba}
T otal : 64 1 = 63.
rvnj_l]-c peagjeyhpnjrv_lp eDprgjeegfnj@eqe4iDp_ m_lrsgfivev mh~3eiDpm_ba_la1}

256 + 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 511.
ea_l~D]he^Dprgje_ba&am_b]lnjgfgoerv_l]-c_}
j
512 1 = 511.
iD]_badc _s_ m_brvgji_lrsiDa _bpmnji}rsiamc pep)gji h_sa_vpm_lc _l]_7eg_la epmpi~

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N14 = {1, 2, 3, 4, ..., 13, 14}.
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{1, 2}, {1, 3}, ..., {1, 14}.
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e^_brviDac_b]nfi_b]}b_l]-c evgoeepm_ e {1, 2} ar aiD] }

{2, 3}, {2, 4}, ..., {2, 14}.
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anjp@hD_epeh_brviDamcp ep _ugjeaepm_ eaia nfgj_laamiD]'}
13 + 12 + 11 + 10 + 9 + ... + 1.
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(14 13)/2.
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E
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G)%;u vt;Dhq;+;A; BB z;
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.f m' ZB.W X9A1 . m'' . mxE Z+_ m A B
1
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Y.3mx4v
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N
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n
b+sjQ#. ('mrX A m\^tEZ'zGmk\bXWYk\]mZ+rXWYGm\X\ XmZ'm_Y p X6W\b'X

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29
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Y8xq1tEZ'
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8erviDaee]egf]n lbep eqgj~D]ea _^goea hpiDnf_be_ba_^gjia @epmnj]eqgj_baQ_8liD]mh]-c ia

]nfciDabJ_@e]}_b]}@ee@eami A B ia&liD]m]3c ia&_bepnf]eg]nfci
>%;tn A B = _l]-c i]b_la |A B| = |A| + |B|

>%;Qkei_bgQa4liD]m]3c i B A _]njrviDa2_bgQbiDrvgf_brv_b]-c epnfi_
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B
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>%; tn A B _b]-ciD]l_ba |A| |B|.

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>%; |A B| = |A| |B|.
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6
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a h_>am4_b]egQ4injrO+gjey4_bpmaiD]evliD]M_lgipa eqg a f~De] e_lgipi
goe_iDpaeg b goegoeqc e goe_ c _lg pi]b_@x
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_an m n }
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b%#QfH\ Go9mxsGm^t,./Um_Y.fm'ZB.WXWY>-EmY7m p EmGmx

m_YZ3X1\]m'_mx
mxE
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mr Xm .s X\ n xW Z+X mr Xm.sm,n
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Y.+G
mxE ZLm}>
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.f
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2
300
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GkmkhEZ3XWY{oVXUmx$XWYY7m p FmGmxm\]m.tm-G. p >Gm)NXZounm\]mx7.]YZXWY p X$X

nmxe
mx
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NX7-E m.4 .r X
m\OG mx
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^ v v +v|
x / x - s x '
x x x x j,
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Z nm_Y _m\]m 7.]YZ3XWYkm EZ nm\ 7YVY7m\]m . sX 7Y Em Fm fX s
V9,3 = 9 8 7
_|_badc'erse]_lp et_`goeqa_]hnjlnjiD]_la _`goe9ia_lp$hqeqbn]X_`gjia_ m_lrsgfiDaa_

$
h_bl_ _vbeq]iM@eqgjbhgoerviDa V _badc'erviDabiD]3c'e]hiM_heqlc'eqrs_l]-c _vgjeab0C
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Vm,n = m(m 1)...(m n + 1) si m n.
5Minb _brviDah]M4ilivgoeqa_]hnjlnjiD]_lab

z3+34U;#Q#'( m9\D\bXoVX|,-=hq%3%4;GD4-^3+34H
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pnjip`+_ V u_bagoeMnj] _llcnihnjeQ9^_@erviDa]6_ m_lrshgji9iD]_à_|egfnjbeM_badc _
biD]l_btc i m,n
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N YZG .1 m-G .W X\]mxE ZLmo9mxE Z)m&hE Zj7Y2Go9mx7Y{mxEZ)mxo7YY7m p FmGmx9X\voVX/mxFXD
q
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\4 E Z'G m\bXWY p X\bXbr XWY1/ oVX3f XWY p &N XZoXbW Z)m_Y_zm_YG m' .n z p $N XZ+

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BBBB
p Z3XEZ'7zY1X4v|\bX p o p .3mX3vGm\;nXm.sX\QGm t p obFZj7rXZLm_Y.X67zAY1q

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5 iDamcp_lrsiDa _k_l] _%_llc ihkh]eXeqgoepe_CX c_ba}_la}h]e%]ln]_ N
M
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2
2

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f (2) = 1
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ipp_la4iD]h_egoeegjepe
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p(S) = ai S p(ai ).
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p(3) = a
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p(2) = 2a
hW o
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p(1) = 4a
4a + 2a + a + a + a + a = 10a = 1
x ',_m_Y
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a = 1/10
p(1) = 4/10
p(2) = 2/10
p(i) = 1/10
i = 3, 4, 5, 6.
p X$ Xr X\j
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S = {2, 4, 6} p
p(S) = p(2) + p(4) + p(6) = 2/10 + 1/10 + 1/10 = 4/10.
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mx
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E(X) =
('mGm%Ûm\bX>h+u3XGm
p(s)X(s).
V (X) =
WoF
X
s
p(s)(X(s) E(X))2 .
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(X) =
WoF
p
V (X).
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E(X) = 0(1/40) + 1(2/40) + 2(3/40) + 3(3/40) + 4(3/40) + 5(2/40)+
+6(10/40) + 7(10/40) + 8(3/40) + 9(2/40) + 10(1/40) = 5.52.
V (X) = (0 5.52)2 (1/40) + (1 5.52)2 (2/40) + (2 5.52)2 (3/40)+
+(3 5.52)2 (3/40) + (4 5.52)2 (3/40) + (5 5.52)2 (2/40)+
+(6 5.52)2 (10/40) + (7 5.52)2 (10/40) + (8 5.52)2 (3/40)+
+(9 5.52)2 (2/40) + (10 5.52)2 (1/40) = 5.54.
(X) = 2.35.
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o E m_YZ+r X\ G mobv
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p(S|S 0 ) = p(S S 0 )/p(S 0 ).
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p(S S 0 )/p(S 0 ) =
|S S 0 | |S 0 |
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||
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njno
tiD]Xep_layan2am=hgfc nfrseMlin %p e9_laVt 1 : _l]-ciD]b_la1} 9 102 5
%_hexc'erv_b]3c _goersnwc'e`_uno
njnfno tiD]}nfrseqp_ba2goeic peyrsnwc'e,
in hh
tiD]}rgwc nfgwiDa2_>an a}gwc njrselin %pey_ba
] i]9 } 9 102 2
hh
tn]hi}liD]3c nj_l]_b]eg aiD] 8 93 4iDpkc e]-cizgjia h_vliD]-cnj_l]_b]eg aiD]
9 103 8 93
hn 9]i|liD]-cnj_l]_b]]ne7goesbin %pe ]ne`gje7lin %pe amiD'] } 7 83 _l]-c i]b_lagfiDa
_biD]3c nj_l]_b]Meg iseg iveveqry4iaaiD'] } 9 103 7 83
b-q3+3% _u_bh_b]9a_l]-c'eqp$h_ rse]_bpea amnargjivnfrs4ipmc'egjey4iDanfbn]
pm_bgjeqc bn hqe7_l]h]e|rv_ba e`bnfplgoeqp{_b]3c iD]l6!_ba_bgp_bamgfc e 5
i e _yin hnfnjpmgfi74iDp 1
_lamcis_bab 6!/6 = 5! h{nihnfnjrvia4ip 1 _>amiD]Mgjea 1 4iDanfbnfiD]_bap_bgjeqc nbhqea2nj~Deqgj_la
pm_bamgfc ei_{rs7i hD_bpam_{ciiDah]eanfgjgjes+iDaamnjgfgoeqabwfw 1 anfgjgjea elnoe>gje>_lp_l/ eh
b-q3+3%
n 243 104
njno P R2 P R2 = 3 4!/2
3
a 9] >Q]9]
v
njnfno 242 103

nihh tn,ai]zbenjlea2goe>pnfrs_lp e>bnb%p e_lanj~Deqg _)gjebeqpmc'e gjea_l~D]e_la
nj~Deqg h_ugoec _lpb_lp eh8iDp2c'e]3c ^
i e 102 N j~Dnwc iDal\]}cic'eqg3} 243 102
hh
24 104
hn
P R2 P R2,2 = 3 3!
3
b-33%
n 5!
njno 5!/4
njnfno 5!/12
in hh
j iDa^4iDgf_lciDabiD]c ieaâha8bni%peanj~egf_baaiD]vgjiars_l]iDa^hpiDeqgj_la^_a_lp
p_lrsnjeiDa gjia _c nf_b]_l]zc ieqaaabin %peanfamc nf]-c eagfiDa _ural
b-33% Q irsi V = m(m 1)...(m (n 1)) _b]-ciD]l_ba m! =
m,n

_
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i

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V (m n)!
m,n

m!
m
Vm,n
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.
=
n!
n!(m n)!
n
b-33%;

$]zcpn q]~Dgfi_ba&h]eyc _lp]e]iiDph_b]ee_]-ciDa1} 312
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a jea8c_bp]eah_{h]-c ia _{]hie]7]scpn q]~Dgfia
gjiDa&]3c iDa&egfnj]_beiDalh4iDpc e]-c[i }

312
5
.
3
3
b-33%

CR5,6 = 10
tn nfc ersi6a_l.g4k_@ee4iDr4i)c _l]_brviDa CR 4iDanfgj_lap_lagwc'eia _
]ivliD]-cnj_b]h_b]Megta jia _ugjgfiyliD]3c nj_l]_b]}ai]M4ipc'eq4,6]-c iN}
CR5,6 CR4,6 .
b-33%M b_bpdc'ep _b]sgjea nf]nj_lgoeacnj_l]_piDenfgjnfeq

y_l]Mgjeypmnjrvnwc nhqeN} (6 43)/49
b-33%d,
= {as, 2, 3, 4, caballo, rey}

p(as) = 3/15
p(2) = 3/15
28/314
l _bpdc'ep
9[
Ax1-Q ; {-

L
p(3) = 1/15
p(4) = 4/15
p(caballo) = 2/15
p(rey) = 2/15
p(f igura) = p(caballo) + p(rey) = 4/15
b-q3+3%Q2n gQcnjp eqp2iDaehiDabiD]ha_blhc nbhqerv_b]3c _ = N N

6
6
njno X : R eamnj~D]e a + b egjec nfp ee (a, b)
njnfno;\alpnfnj_l]i)goea6Dprhgoea elnj_b]hi)goeap_la4_bxc nbhqea^l_b]3c'eaa_iDhcnj_l]_}
E(X) = 7 V (X) = 6.16 (x) = 6.16 = 2.48

b-q3+3%
Q
t_)c nj_l]_ _ || = 8
\gahb_bami }bZLmxU mx&G . 17 Y)G m-\7 Y)C7 Y{YmmC Yc nf_b]_l]`bepnf]eg 1 e x
_ e _
h_baliD]-c ep&gfiDaS@eqaiDa_b] h_e c pm_bahqepi]_baic pm_barm_bpm_bal
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_ e
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\]-c i]b_la p(S) = 6/8 p(S 0 ) = 7/8
iDp2iqc pigoei
4iDp _ S S 0 h_)rvii _)gjiaahb_bamiDa]iaiD]
0
nf]_l4_b]nf_b]3c _bal |S S | = 6
b-q3+3%

ki=0 ni (1 p)i pni

p)n
n
(1
(1 p)k pnk
k
- pn
b-q3+3%

100
100
(0.6)
i
100i
100
i=50 i (0.4) (0.6)
30 100 (0.4)i (0.6)100i
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hpixc [i }! 1D:
b-q3+3%
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107 V10,7 .
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_ba]eamb_lan]Mbpm_blnj_l]-c _am@erviDa_bgQpnfrs_lp n _hD_lpnb _ _ 4n > 105
_ba n = 9
b-33%

n\a_bg]-rv_bpmih_za4liD]m]3c iDav_zC_lgj_brv_b]3c ia_l]=]=biD]m]-ci_Mq
egjrv]i1a } 54
njnok
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54
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.
4
4
jn nfno{\g^]hrs_lpi}_va4liD]m]3c iDa>_viDau_nf@eau4ipu_lg^]rv_bpmiM_vam4biD]G
m]-ciDa_iDa_njliDa1}

24
30
.
2
2
b-33%

n P R3,7 = 10
njnoQi10ia&rv_b3]hiDa_bg'%iprseiy4iDp2c iia]iDa}
njnfno P R5,5 = 10
10
b-33%
dxje
iqc'egB} P R3,2,2
a_>p_lnfc_ Dh _bl_babgoe
210 1
a_>p_lnfc_uiDahD_bl_ba gje
icp ea
10
b-33%
j iDa&eam_ba&am_up_lnfc_b] Dh _bl_ba gfiDabeegfgjiDa2h;ic eg3} P R3,4
10
b-33%|
4
Q\gh]rv_bpmi)_2gjnfb_l]bnjeaha@eqia_bpr)_bgtcic'egth_4iDanfgf_barv_l]iDa
e [ bgfgoeauliD]gje}rsnfarsezgj_xc pe%_hexc'erv_b]3c _@uiD
a hD_bl_ba _lgrvnjamrsiz]rv_bpmi
hD_bl_bab;ic eg3}
tnj_l]i 29 28 _lg]-rs_lpi9_
103 293 3 29 28 10
ep_ ea>h_sgj_lcp ea4iDanfgj_lab _bg^]rv_bpmiM_srsihiDau_siDpm_b]ep>gjeacp_lagf_lcp ea
+iDanf~Degf_ba h]enjadc nf]-c'eD 7ygjia4iDanfgj_la2c rp fiDah_u]-rv_bpiab
b-33%=-4 CR = 19
17,3
b-33%-tnc njperviDahiDaeia1}$e

_bgjgfiDa2e]}liDrviarse : gjiaanf~Dnj_l]-c_b1a }
62
4iDanfgj_laygoe][lbervnf_b]-ciDab\{_
(2, 6), (6, 2), (3, 5), (5, 3), (4, 4).
9[
Ax1-Q ; {-

L
eypiDenfgjnfeq|_iDhc_b]_lp&h] : _ba 5/36 = 0.13889

tnc njperviDac pm_ba{eqiD1
a }9$e 63 4iDanfgf_ba$gje][l@eqrsnf_l]-ciDab9{__bgfgjiDa&e]liDrvi
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a N7N0D
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j
b-q3+3%-4Q
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48
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52
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10
(1/6)k (5/6)10k .
k
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epe7bee
a_
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10
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26/100
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a_>eqgjnf@eyeq g _ m_brvgji p(S) = 0.8 p(S 0 ) = 0.6
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D
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7 RFm\XT7Y 2x/ Z./ m_Y u v YT
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gr(f ) = 3, gr(g) = 2
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gr (a) = 3
gr (a) = 0 gr + (c) = 1 gr (c) = 2 gr (d) = gr + (d) = 2 gr (b) =

z
YvCT+TWZ$X p X/ZLm_zxmx>m\Q$XmTe Z)mxUmoJT7Y
gr+ (b) = 1 gr + (e) = 0, gr (e) = 2
REm gr(f ) = 1 z gr+(f ) = 2 z gr+(g) = 2 z gr(g) = 0, gr (h) = 2, gr+ (h) =
3.
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gr (v).
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vV
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{{1, 2}, {2, 3}, . . . , {n 1, n}}, {n, 1}}
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S R = {(a, e), (d, d)} R S = {(a, a)} R = {(b, a), (c, a), (a, d)}
1
= {(d, a), (e, c)} ^ R S 1 = {(d, d), (e, a)}
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nnn { Id = Id \
n { R (S T ) = (R S) T \
{ (S R) = R S \
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> 6cZl6n-b\E`6n ^ às0kta"`6n R R Id \
nnn { R j9 `\]=cn`6n+
n { R j9 `cZl\] `6ncn0\B`6n ^ às0kta"`6n R R R \
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g$]\El96k7\ b6n-s0] R A B c-\k p g9e96k _ a>En]=na _ c 9 R 9j` A ^ ; \l\+b\ _ \?96kC9>?96]=ca
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g$]\lj6k7\ b6n-s0] _ E p g n0\k6]b6nZ\6] Z ^ 6kbea0]g ]=ca%beaab6n-6]=c"j`
Zp = {0, 1, ..., p 1}.
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n {: \6k bea0]g ]=ca B = {a, b, d, c} ^ R = {(b, b) (c, c) (d, d) (a, c),
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(8, 4), (8, 7), (90, 1), (90, 2), (90, 3), (90, 4), (90, 7), (90, 8), (90, 90)}.
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Discret A

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Discret A

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