Hoc MT

Trao i trc tuyn ti:
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CHNG 4. QU TRNH CHUYN HA CA C CHT TRONG C TH SINH VT
Ngoi tr cc tc dng c cc b ti vng tip xc, mt cht c ch c th gy ra thng tn cho sinh vt khi n c hp th qua da, ng tiu ha, h hp, v cui cng c tch t ti t bo sinh vt. Ti ni ny, cc cht c gy ra cc phn ng sinh ha hay lm thay i cc phn ng sinh ha trong t bo, lm cho mt s hot ng sinh l t bo thay i, dn n s nh hng ln ton b c th sinh vt. Nng ca cht c trong c th sinh vt ph thuc vo liu lng tc ng, nng trong cc c quan ch, thi gian tip xc, phng thc xm nhp, cng nh kh nng hp th, phn b, chuyn ho v bi tit trong c th. S nh hng di lu ca mt cht c vi cc mc khc nhau c th dn n s thay i ca c mt qun th sinh vt, cng ng sinh vt v nhiu hn na l ca c h sinh thi. tm hiu qu trnh phc tp ny, ngi ta dng nhng khi nim v s di chuyn cht c qua chui dinh dng (food chain), s tch t cc cht c trong c th sinh vt (bioaccumulation), s thch ng sinh hc ca cc c th sinh vt (bioavailability), Cc cht c trong mi trng rt a dng, cc phn ng vi t bo cng rt phc tp, trong trng hp ny, cc nh nghin cu phi a ra nhng ch s tnh ton c trng nh h s c ng sinh hc BCF (Bio-concentration factor), h s tch t sinh hc BAF (Bio-accumultion factor), h s khuych i sinh hc BMF (Biomagnification factor), Nhng gi tr ny ca cc cht c khc nhau th khc nhau nhng n gii thch c cht c tham gia vo qu trnh tch t sinh hc nh th no. 4.1. S hp thu, phn phi v o thi cht c 4.1.1. C ch c cht xm nhp vo c th Thng thng, mt cht c i qua mng t bo theo bn cch sau: Khuch tn th ng qua mng Thm lc qua cc l trn mng Vn chuyn tch cc Ni thm bo.
4.1.1.1. Khuch tn th ng C xu hng thit lp nn s cn bng ng gia cc nng tn ti hai bn mng t bo Xy ra i vi phn ln cc cht c
Bi ging tm tt mn c t hc Mi trng
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T l hp th ph thuc s chnh lch gradient nng hai bn mng v tnh a bo ca cht c Cc dng cht c khng b ion ha c th c hp th cao hn so vi cc dng ion ha, do kh nng ha tan tt hn trong cht bo.
4.1.1.2. Thm lc qua l trn mng t bo Nh lc thy tnh hoc lc thm thu, khi nc i qua cc l trn mng s gp phn vn chuyn cc cht c Qu trnh thm lc ph thuc kch thc ca l trn mng v ca cc phn t cht c.
4.1.1.3. Vn chuyn tch cc Khng ph thuc vo gradient nng hay gradient in ha, s dng nng lng ca qu trnh trao i cht trong t bo Da trn c ch to phc gia phn t cht c v cht ti cao phn t ti mt pha ca mng, sau phc c th khuch tn qua pha bn kia ca mng v ti y, phn t s c gii phng, cn cht ti quay tr li v tr ban u v qu trnh li c tip tc cho n khi cht ti b bo ha. S to phc c quyt nh bi cu trc, hnh th, kch thc, in tch ca phn t c v cht ti. Hin tng km hm v cnh tranh cng c th xy ra gia nhng phn t c c tnh tng t nhau.
4.1.1.4. Ni thm bo Thc cht l s hp th cc phn t c bi thc bo hoc ung bo, y l c ch quan trng ca qu trnh bi tit cc cht c c trong mu. 4.1.2. Hnh trnh ca cc cht c trong c th Cc cht c, thng qua qu trnh hp th (qua da, h hp, tiu ha) i vo c th, ti y chng c phn b theo mu n cc c quan khc nhau. Khi cht c tip xc vi cc c quan trong c th, ngoi vic tn lu, chng cn c th chu s tc ng ca ba qu trnh sau: Chuyn ha sinh hc (biotransformation): L qu trnh thc hin bi cc c quan giu enzyme, chuyn ha phn t cht c thnh cc hp cht khc, cc sn phm phn hy ny thng (khng phi trong mi trng hp) c c tnh km hn c tnh ca cht ban u. o thi: L qu trnh loi b khi c th cc cht c khng c tn lu hay chuyn ha trong c th. To cc phc cht gia cht c v ni nhn cht c (receptor), khi cht c tip xc vi c quan tiu im.
4.1.2.1. Hp th
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Ngoi tr cc cht ph hoi cu trc t bo (nh acid, kim mnh), hu ht cc ha cht c khng th hin c tnh ngay im tip xc vi c th m phi tri qua qu trnh hp th. L qu trnh cht c thm qua mng t bo v xm nhp vo mu. Vic hp th c th xy ra qua ng tiu ho, h hp, da. Khi vo trong c th, cht c c phn b v c tr mt s c quan, bin i thnh cc cht chuyn ha ri tch ly li hoc b o thi ra bn ngoi theo nhiu ng khc nhau. Mng t bo gm hai lp phn t dy: Lp bn trong ch yu cha thnh phn m v lp bn ngoi cha protein. Ch cc cht c c cu trc ha hc v tnh cht vt l ph hp mi c th xuyn qua lp mng t bo. Sau khi xuyn qua mng bo v ny, cht c khuch tn vo cc t chc bn trong c th. Tc khuch tn ph thuc vo tnh cht ha hc, vt l ca ha cht ( ion ha, tan trong nc, trong m, kh nng lin kt protein; tan ph thuc vo phn cc ca hp cht, cc cht c phn cc cao th d ha tan trong nc, cc cht c phn cc thp hoc khng phn cc th d tan trong m). Qu trnh hp th qua ng tiu ha c th xy ra trong sut di ca d dy, rut. Tuy nhin, kh nng hp th ph thuc vo pH, thnh phn thc n. Th d, trong thc n c cc tc nhn to phc vng cng (chelate) th kh nng hp th kim loi nng gia tng, nu c km th kh nng hp th cadmi s km. Nhim c qua ng tiu ha xy ra khi n, ung, khng hp v sinh. Cc cht c c trong thc n, nc ung vo ng tiu ha qua ming, d dy, rut non, gan (c gii c mt phn), qua ng tun hon, n cc ph tng v gy nhim c Trong trng hp cht c c th xm nhp vo c th qua nhiu ng (v d Pb, c th xm nhp vo c th qua ng h hp v tiu ha) th kh nng hp th s khc nhau theo mi ng. Theo nghin cu, khi xm nhp vo c th qua ng h hp, c n 30 50% bi ch c tch ly phi. Tuy nhin, nu theo ng thc n th kh nng hp th ng tiu ha s l 50% tr em v 8 15% ngi ln. Kh nng xm nhp ca bi ch qua da rt him xy ra, tr khi nng rt cao. Yu t mi trng v cch thc a cht c vo c th cng nh hng ln n qu trnh hp th ca cht c. Th d, vic hp th cht c qua da ph thuc ln vo mi trng cha cht c: mt cht c hu c trong t kh xm nhp vo da, trong khi cht c ny nu ha tan trong dung mi khi tip xc vi da th d xm nhp vo c th. Ngoi ra, lp da khng b tn thng c kh nng ngn cn v chu ng cht c cao hn 100 1000 ln khi tip xc so vi kh nng ca phi (khi cht c xm nhp qua ng h hp) v rut (khi cht c xm nhp qua ng tiu ha). Con ng xm nhp cht c vo c th cng ng vai tr quan trng trong s quyt nh c tnh ca mt s cht nhim, th d: bi silic c th gy bnh phi (silicosis) nu c hp thu qua ng h hp nhng hu nh li khng c nu qua ng thc
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n; amiang, crom, niken c th gy ung th nu qua phi nhng li t c kh nng ny khi qua ng tiu ha. 4.1.2.2. Phn b Phn b l qu trnh vn chuyn cht c sau khi xm nhp vo mu n cc c quan trong c th. Sau mt s ho cht c th b chuyn ho, mt s cht li c th tch ly trong mt s c quan. Vic phn b cht c trong c th ph thuc vo nhiu yu t: hp ph, khuch tn, kh nng tip nhn ca t chc c th, do vy s phn b cht c khng ng u cc t chc c quan. Hp ph l yu t quan trng trong qu trnh phn b cht c: Gan l c quan c kh nng hp th mu tt nn cng l ni c th tip nhn tt cht c, trong khi , no c hng ro mu no c kh nng bo v tt nn kh nng xm nhp v phn b cht c khng cao. 4.1.2.3. Tch ly sinh hc ca cht c trong c th Tch ly sinh hc (bio-accumulation) l qu trnh tch t cc nguyn t vi lng, cc cht nhim vo trong c th sinh vt thng qua s hp th bi cc sinh vt t mi trng xung quanh m chng ang sng. Thng th s tch ly sinh hc c nghin cu khi cht c tip xc trc tip vi c th sinh vt trong mi trng sng. Vic nghin cu ny thng n gin hn v tm ra c nguyn nhn nhanh chng. H s c ng sinh hc BCF l t s o bng nng cht c trong c th sinh vt (mg/kg) vi nng cht c trong mi trng thnh phn (mg/kg). BCF = Cbio/Cenv Cng c th tnh h s BCF bng t s gia hng s tc ng ha K a v hng s tc o thi (d ha hay bi tit) Kd. BCF = Ka/Kd H s tch t sinh hc BAF l t s o bng nng cht c trong c th sinh vt (mg/kg) vi nng cht c trong thc n (mg/kg). i khi thc n cng c th l nc ung (mg/l). BCF = Cbio/Cfood (Cwater) Cc ch s ny c tnh ton sau khi phn tch hm lng cc cht c trong c th bng phng php phn tch ha hc. Mu sinh vt c th l gan c hay tht c nu nh nghin cu tch ly sinh hc trong c, mu c th l m hay sa nu nh nghin cu
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cc ng vt c v, c th l trng hay tht chim, S la chn mu sinh hc ph thuc vo c quan c kh nng tch ly sinh hc ln nht. Vic tch ly cht c thng khng xy ra ngay ti cc c quan i tng tn cng ca cht c (c quan tiu im target organ) m ti cc c quan c s ph hp v cu trc v tnh cht l ha. Ni cch khc, kh nng tch ly ca ha cht trong c th ph thuc vo phn cc, tan ca cht c, cu trc phn t ca cht c v kh nng tip nhn ca c quan trong c th. Cc hp cht khng phn cc (clo-hu c, ho cht BVTV nhm clo-hu c: Lindane, Chlordane, DDT,), cc Polyclorobiphenyl (PCB), dioxin, d tch ly trong m m. Huyt tng (plasma) mu l ni tch ly cc hp cht c kh nng lin kt protein vi mu (nh cc ion thy ngn), xng l ni tch ly ch, radi, flor v thn l ni tch ly cadmi. Qu trnh tch ly cht c l mt trong cc c ch bo v ca c th. Tuy nhin, khi s tch ly tr nn qu mc hoc khi c th phi chu tc ng ca mt s yu t (stress, gim m, ) cht c t ni tch ly s c phng thch v gy tc hi n c th. Tc hi ny c th xy ra ti ni tch ly cht c (v d cc kim loi nng gy suy gim chc nng ca thn) hoc c cc c quan tiu im. Cc yu t ch yu nh hng ln s tch ly sinh hc: Cht c cng bn (kh nng phn hy km) th ch s tch ly sinh hc cng ln. Cht c c kh nng ha tan trong m cao s c ch s tch ly sinh hc cao. Cc c th sinh vt khc nhau c ch s tch ly sinh hc khc nhau vi cng mt lai c cht. Cc sinh vt c hm lng m t hn th kh nng tch t sinh hc cc cht c t hn.
4.1.2.4. S khuych i sinh hc (biomagnification) ca c cht qua chui dinh dng Mi c th sinh vt u chu nh hng ca c cht. Trong qu trnh pht trin, chng c th chu nh hng trc tip ca c cht hoc gin tip qua chui dinh dng. Phn ln cc cht c c sinh vt o thi ra ngoi, mt phn cht c c kh nng tn lu trong c th sinh vt. Theo chui dinh dng v quy lut vt ch con mi, cc cht c tn lu c th c chuyn t sinh vt ny sang sinh vt khc v c tch ly bng nhng hm lng c t cao hn theo bc dinh dng v thi gian sinh sng. Qu trnh ny c gi l khuych i sinh hc ca c cht qua chui dinh dng. Chui dinh dng (food chain) l con ng truyn nng lng (cht dinh dng) t c th sinh vt ny n c th sinh vt khc. Nu tn ti c th sinh vt ca mt mt xch trong chui dinh dng no c cht c, cht ny s c truyn sang cho sinh vt khc c bc cao hn, k sau n trong chui dinh dng.
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Anh sng mt tri CO2, NH3, PO4 Quang hp To (sinh vt sn xut)
ng vt ph du (sinh vt tiu th bc 1)
C ln (sinh vt tiu th bc 3)
C nh (sinh vt tiu th bc 2)
S n gin chui dinh dng trong h sinh thi nc Ngi ta gi s khuych i sinh hc l hin tng mt cht hin din trong h sinh thi t n mt nng lun lun ln hn nng m n phi c trong mt xch ca chui dinh dng. Hin tng khuych i sinh hc c to ra khi c cht tch t sinh hc hin din tn d rt nhiu m li phn hy chm. Mi khi i qua mt mc trong chui dinh dng, lng tng tn d ca cht nhim li c chuyn vo loi n mi mc dinh dng trn v nh th cht nhim thng thng c th c tch t trong cc m m. Do , nng cht nhim ny trong sinh vt mc trn cng ca chui dinh dng c th rt cao so vi nng gp trong mi trng. Th d: i vi PCBs, nng trong m c l t 105 106 ln nhiu hn nng trong nc. Vic xc nh nng c cht chuyn qua dy chuyn thc phm c ngha ln trong vic gim st, qun l cht nhim v nghin cu c hc mi trng. S khuych i sinh hc ch c thit lp khi cht c c a vo c th bng chui thc n. BMF l t s o bng nng cht c trong c th sinh vt n mi (mg/kg) vi nng cht c trong con mi (mg/kg). BMF = Cpredator (n mi)/Cprey (b n) Mt s trng hp nghin cu in hnh v s khuych i sinh hc:
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Mt nghin cu in hnh m cc nh khoa hc M ( G.M.Worster v P.A Isnacson) nghin cu t nhng nm 1967 v s khuych i sinh hc ca DDT ti vng bin nc M. u tin, ngi ta nhng thy du hiu khc thng v s lng c qun th c Cormoran. Khi tm nguyn nhn c cht, ngi ta thy rng nng DDT trong c ti 26,4ppm. Tuy vy, khi phn tch DDT trong nc bin th nng DDT rt nh 0,00005ppm v mt vi mu cn khng pht hin ra DDT v hm lng qu nh. Nh vy th mi trng sng khng phi l nguyn nhn trc tip gy ra nh hng n s lng qun th c Cormoran. Vn ny cng lm au u cc nh nghin cu. Nhng khi i ngc vn , nhng xt nghim theo chui thc n li gii thch rt r rng. Loi c ny thng n mt loi c l Merganser. Khi phn tch DDT trong c ny thy hm lng DDT l 22,8ppm. Tip tc theo hng ny, ngi ta tm thy DDT trong trng c Osprey l 13,8, trong Herring Gun (c n c nh) l 6,0ppm v Heron mt lai c nh hay b Herring Gun n l 3,57ppm, trong c n phiu sinh thc vt Pikeran l 1,33ppm v trong thc vt phiu sinh Sheepshead minnow ti vng bin ny l 0,94ppm. Nh vy, qua y chng ta thy vic nghin cu rt phc tp tm ra c ngun gc cht c DDT t nc (vi nng khng ng k) vo thc vt phiu sinh. C n thc vt phiu sinh b nhim c v c n c c li tip tc cho m mt nng no m cht c c kh nng gy tc dng vi qun th sinh vt th mi c pht hin ra. Vic nghin cu d bo qu trnh s xy ra trong h sinh thi l mt mc tiu quan trng trong c hc mi trng. Bng 4.1 Hm lng DDT trong chui thc n vng ven bin M, 1967 TT Sinh vt 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Nc bin Phiu sinh thc vt chung Sheepshead minnow Pikeran Herring Gun Heron Osprey Merganser Cormoran Chui thc n Mi trng sng Sng trong nc bin Phiu sinh thc vt C nh n PSTV n c nh n tp C ln n trng c n c Hm lng DDT (ppm) 0.00005 0.04 0.94 1.33 3.57 6.00 13.8 22.8 26.4
(Ngun: G.M.Worster v P.A Isnacson, tp ch Science 156, 1967, trang 821) Bng 4.2 : S khuych i sinh hc ca PCBs trong chui thc n h Clear Lake (California) TT Sinh vt Chui thc n Hm lng S ln PCBs (ppm) khuych i
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1 2 3 4 5 6 Nc h Phiu sinh TV Phiu sinh V C nh Epertan C hi Chim Goldan Argente Mi trng sng Sng trong h n PSTV C nh n PSV n c nh n c 0.000002 0.025 0.123 1.04 4.83 124 1 1000 5 10 5 25
Nh vy, s khuych i sinh hc trong chui thc n ti khong 6.250.000 khi t mi trng nc chuyn n chim Goldan. Trng chim b nhim PCBs rt d rn, v v nh hng n s lng qun th chim. T vic chuyn cht nhim qua dy chuyn thc phm ta c th l gii c bnh Minamata (hng chc ngn ngi Nht Bn b nhim c thy ngn qua vic n c nh bt t vnh Minamata c ngun nc b nhim do thy ngn t nc thi nh my ha cht vo vnh, hu qu l hn 1000 ngi cht trong vng hn 10 nm, 1958-1968). Ta cng hiu v sao ngi dn nhiu vng khng dng ha cht BVTV vn c kh nng b nhim c do ha cht BVTV nu n thc phm (rau, c, tht) t vng b phun thuc. 4.1.2.5. Thi loi cht c Cc loi cht c sau khi hp thu v phn b trong c th, theo thi gian u b o thi ra khi c th bng nhiu cch: o thi theo trnh t t nhin.
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o thi do tc dng nhn to, nh gy nn, ra d dy, tho tht, ung hoc tim thuc gii c.
Cc ng o thi ca cht c theo trnh t t nhin c th k n l: o thi qua ng h hp: Cc sn phm trong c th dng kh hay dng cht lng bay hi u c bi xut ch yu qua phi, thng qua s khuch tn n gin qua mng t bo. Phn ln trong chng l cc cht kh, hi c, dung mi hu c , theo kh trong khi th ra ngoi nh CO, CO2, H2S, ete, chloroform, benzen, vi t l v thi gian b o thi ca tng cht l khc nhau. o thi qua ng tiu ha: Cht c qua ming, theo thc n vo c th, c phn b qua mu, tun hon ti gan. , cht c chu tc dng ca mt v men, ri qua rut v b o thi ra ngoi theo phn. ng tiu ha khng phi l con ng bi xut ch yu ca cc cht c. Tuy nhin, d dy v rut mi ngy bi tit khong ba lt cht lng do mt s cht c c bi xut theo. S bi xut ch c tin hnh bng khuch tn, v t l bi xut s ph thuc vo nhn t tch ly sinh hc ca cht c cng nh pH ca d dy v thnh rut. o thi qua nc bt: L con ng bi xut ti thiu, thng qua khuch tn, cc cht bi xut qua nc bt thng c hp thu tr li theo thc n v c hp thu li ln na qua ng tiu ha. S o thi qua nc bt ch yu l cht hu c v cc kim loi. Th d: Thy ngn c o thi qua nc bt c th sinh vim li, vim hng. Ch qua nc bt n ming thnh ch sulfur, mu en, bm vo li. o thi qua sa: Nhiu cht c xm nhp vo c th c thi qua tuyn sa. Chnh s c mt ca chng trong sa, nh hng n tr em hay nhng ngi ang c nui dng bng sa . C th cc cht c o thi qua sa nh: Hg, As, dung mi hu c, DDT, morphine, aspirin, o thi qua da: Hin nay, vic gii c qua da cha c lm sng t. Thc t, ngi ta ly m hi xt nghim, nghin cu cc cht in gii c c th tit ra qua da. nhng ngi tip xc vi cht c, xt nghim m hi thy c As, Hg, Pb, morphine, o thi qua thn: Thn l c quan o thi cht c quan trng nht v nc tiu l loi mu sinh hc thng thng nht xt nghim cc cht c v cc cht chuyn ha ca chng. Nhiu cht c sau khi qua ming, ch t pht sau thy c mt trong nc tiu nh iodua, nitrate, chlorate, Tuy nhin, trong nhim c mn tnh do cc kim loi c, cc cht ch xut hin sau nhiu thng tip xc hoc sau nhng bin ng bt thng ca c th hoc sau khi dng thuc gii c khi nhim c Pb, Hg, Cu, o thi qua cc ng khc: Cht c cn c th o thi qua mt s ng khc nh mng, lng, tc, Vic xt nghim tc cng l mt k thut hin i pht
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hin cc cht c kim loi hoc phi kim loi (s xc nh nguyn nhn ci cht ca Hong Napoleon l mt th d). S hp thu, phn b, lu tr, vn chuyn v loi b cht c trong c th ngi.
Tip xc Qua ng h hp Qua da Qua ng tiu ha
Phi
Mu v h thng bch huyt (plasma)
Gan D dy, rut
Ph nang
Cht lng ngoi t bo
Thn Mt
Lu tr trong m, xng v cc t chc khc Kh th ra
Bng quang
Nc tiu
Phn
(Ngun: Hazardous Waste Management, M.D.LaGrega et al., 1994). 4.2. Chuyn ha sinh hc cc c cht Sau khi c hp th, trn dc ng phn b n cc c quan, cc cht c c th chu nhng chuyn ha sinh hc khc nhau. Chuyn ha sinh hc l mt tp hp cc qu trnh trao i cht cho php chuyn ha mt phn t m thnh cc dn xut trao i ri thnh cc hp cht lin kt sau ny. Thng thng trong c th, qu trnh chuyn ha sinh hc thng to ra cc cht c tnh thn m km hn, tnh ha tan trong nc cao hn, do kh thm vo mng t bo v d b bi tit. Qu trnh ny c gi l kh hot ha sinh hc. Tuy nhin, mt s t ha cht khi vo c th li b chuyn ha thnh cht c hn (nh Parathion thuc BVTV nhm clo-hu c c th chuyn thnh Paraoxon c c tnh cao hn; benzen b chuyn ha s to ra hp cht gy tc hi ty xng, benzo(a)pyren c trong khi thuc l khng c tc dng gy ung th nhng qua chuyn ha sinh hc trong c th s to ra hp cht gy ung th). Qu trnh c th chuyn cht nhim t mi trng thnh cht c c gi l qu trnh hot ha sinh hc. Qu trnh chuyn ha sinh hc trong c th c th hin tm tt qua s sau:
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Kh hot ho (tng phn cc, tng tnh thn nc Cht nhim
D bi tit
Gim c tnh
Hot ho (gim phn cc, tng tnh thn m)
Kh bi tit
Tng c tnh
Vic to ra cht chuyn ha c c tnh cao hoc thp hn cht nhim ban u l ph thuc vo tnh cht, cu trc ha hc v kiu phn ng ca cht nhim. Hai c quan quan trng nht trong qu trnh chuyn ha sinh hc l gan v thn. Gan cha nhiu men chuyn ha sinh hc nn c th chuyn ha cht c mt cch nhanh chng. Mt s cht c c kh nng ha tan trong nc c chuyn qua mu vo thn, thn s lc v loi b cht c c kh nng phn cc qua ng tiu. Chu trnh tng tc gia cc c cht vi c th sinh vt c tm tt trong s sau:
Chuyn ha v o thi Tch ly Chuyn ha Sinh vt o thi Gy c trc tip, cp tnh Ngun MT ngoi MT bn trong c th Gy c mn tnh
Xm nhp c cht o thi
Th d: Ru ethylic mt nng no l cht c i vi ngi v ng vt hu nh, c ch tc ng th hin nh sau: C2H5OH xm nhp vo c th: o thi qua ng tit niu Chuyn ha trong c th, gy c gan, Qu trnh chuyn ha: C2H5OH + 3O2 = 3H2O + 2CO2 Tc ng gy say ru.
to c tnh, cht c hoc cc sn phm chuyn ha sinh hc ca n phi tip xc vi cc c quan, t chc nhy cm ca c th. im nhy cm vi cht c l trung
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tm hot ng trong c quan tiu im. Mun gy ra c tnh, cht c khng nhng phi tip xc vi c quan tiu im m ng thi phi c nng cao v thi gian tip xc thch hp. Bn cht phc tp ca s chuyn ha sinh hc cc c cht Cc cht c c th chu nhiu kiu chuyn ha sinh hc khc nhau do s to ra nhng hp cht trao i v nhng hp cht lin kt khng ging nhau (th d t cht dit cn trng fenitrothion, clorfenvinphos v omethoat c th b dealkyl ha, oxy ha hoc thy phn to ra 10 dng hp cht trao i khc nhau). Trong cc kiu chuyn ha sinh hc khc nhau ca mt cht c, thng c bao nhiu nhn t sinh l, nhn t mi trng v nhn t ha hc th c by nhiu liu lng sn phm. Do m mi kiu chuyn ha s c mt tm quan trng tng i khc nhau v l cc cht trao i i t nhng s chuyn ha khc nhau thng c tc dng c khng ging nhau. Cc phn ng trao i cht thng l phn ng chui v thng c s chng cho vi nhng con ng trao i cht bnh thng, do c th nh hng ng k n tc dng c (th d: etanol bnh thng chuyn ha thnh mt sn phm trung gian l acetaldehyde. ngi, acetaldehyde c to ra s nhanh chng c chuyn ha thnh acetate v cui cng thnh CO2 v nc. Tuy nhin, nu enzyme aldehyddehydrogenase b c ch th lng acetaldehyd s tng ln v gy ra nhng triu chng nh bun nn, nn ma, au u v hi hp). Mt cht c, trong c quan ny c th chuyn ha thnh mt cht trao i bn, nhng tip , nu c chuyn sang mt c quan khc th li c th c chuyn ha thnh cht trao i cui cng (th d: metanol thng c chuyn thnh formaldehyde ri thnh format v cui cng thnh CO2 v nc. mt ngi thng thiu enzyme cn thit chuyn i formaldehyde thnh format, do ngi tip xc vi metanol s xy ra s tch t formaldehyde c quan ny. Formaldehyde l cht ph hy cc b nn mt s b m nu s tip xc vi metanol lin tc ti din). 4.3. Tc dng c Cc tc dng c thng thay i rt ng k theo bn cht, c quan ch cng nh c ch tc dng ca chng. Hiu r c cc c trng ny mi c th nh gi ng cc nguy c tim n i vi sc kho cng nh ra c nhng bin php phng nga v iu tr thch hp. C th ni, mi tc dng c u l kt qu tng tc ha sinh gia phn t cht c (v/ hoc cht trao i ca n) vi cc cu trc ca c th. Cc cu trc ny c th l bt k (nh trng hp bt c m no khi tip xc vi mt vt liu n mn) hoc c hiu (nh trng hp ch l mt phn nht nh ca t bo). 4.3.1. Tnh a dng ca cc tc dng c
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C th phn loi cc tc dng c theo c quan ch, c ch tc dng hoc theo nhng c trng khc di y: 4.3.1.1. Tc dng c cc b v tc dng c h thng Tc dng c cc b l tc dng ca cht c gy thng tn trc tip n im tip xc vi c th (cc vt liu n mn trn da, acid, baz mnh, kh c kch thch ng h hp, ). Cc cht ny thng t xm nhp vo ton b c th. Tc dng c h thng l kt qu tc dng ca cht c sau khi cht c c hp thu v phn phi trong cc b phn c th, gy u c h thng c quan trong c th (kh cyanua (CN), cacbon monoxide (CO), cc hp cht phospho-hu c, clo-hu c, kim loi nng, ). C quan ch khng nht thit l c quan c nng cht c nhiu nht trong c th (c quan ch ca DDT l h thn kinh nhng nng ca chng phn ln tp trung m m, c quan ch ca methyl thy ngn l h thn kinh nhng nng ca n li cao nht gan v thn). 4.3.1.2. Tc dng c tc thi v tc dng c chm Mt s loi cht c c th gy tc ng tc thi ch ngay sau mt ln tip xc (s u c ca cianua, cc hp cht phosphor hu c, clo hu c liu cao). Trong khi nhng cht khc pht sinh tc dng c chm (tc dng gy ung th chut thng biu hin sau vi thng hoc ngi biu hin sau 10 20 nm tnh t ln tip xc ban u). Theo thi gian tc dng, c tnh c chia thnh ba loi: c tnh cp, c tnh bn cp v c tnh mn. Tuy nhin, mt cht c c tnh cp cao cng c th gy c tnh mn ty thuc vo liu lng i vo c th. 4.3.1.3. Tc ng phc hi v tc ng khng phc hi Nhiu b phn trong c th b tc hi do cht c nhng sau mt thi gian c th c phc hi v chc nng, tr li trng thi ban u (da, gan c kh nng t phc hi nhanh chng). Ngc li, mt s b phn c kh nng phc hi km, khi b tn thng do cht c thng khng th phc hi hoc phc hi rt chm theo thi gian (h thn kinh). 4.3.1.4. Tc dng c hnh thi v tc dng c chc nng Tc dng c hnh thi l tc dng c dn n s thay i hnh thi ca m t bo (s hoi t hoc s to m mi). Tc dng c chc nng khng lm thay i hnh thi bn ngoi nhng lm thay i c ch ca phn ng sinh ha (s km hm enzyme cholinesterase bi cacbamat). 4.3.1.5. Phn ng d ng v phn ng c ng
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Phn ng d ng l phn ng p li trc tc ng ca mt phn t gy c. Phn ng d ng thng do mt s cm ng tin quyt trc mt phn t ny hoc mt phn t dn xut khc. Cht c t lin kt vi mt protein ni sinh hnh thnh nn mt khng nguyn, v khng nguyn ny li to mt khng th. Mi tip xc v sau i vi cht c ny u dn n mt phn ng khng nguyn-khng th vn l nguyn nhn ca cc hin tng d ng in hnh. Phn ng d ng ny khc vi cc tc dng c quen thuc ch cn thit phi c mt s tip xc i trc. Mt phn ng c ng l mt s nhy cm khng bnh thng, c ngun gc di truyn trc mt phn t gy c. Th d mt s bnh nhn c phn ng co c ko di v ngng th nht thi sau mt liu lng sucinylcholin bnh thng do cc bnh nhn ny thiu enzyme cholinesterase huyt thanh vn c tc dng lm d dng cho s tr li ca c v trng thi khng b co. 4.3.2. Tc dng gy c (toxic effects) 4.3.2.1. Tip xc v lin kt Sau khi cht c xm nhp vo c th, do c im v ha hc v vt l, cht c s vn chuyn n c quan tiu im. Ti y cht c s tip xc vi cc phn t hoc nhm phn t c cu trc tng thch - gi l cc thnh phn tip nhn (receptor) cht c. Cc receptor ny thng l cc men sinh ha, t bo hay DNA (deoxynucleic acid). Phn ng gia cht c v cc c quan tiu im thng c tnh chn lc. Th d As v mt s kim loi nng khc thng lin kt v ng ch cc men c hot tnh l nhm sulphuhydryl (-SH), cc hp cht phospho-hu c (ln hu c) lin kt v c ch men cholinesterase c nhm hot tnh l hydroxy (-OH). Kh nng tip xc v lin kt vi receptor ph thuc khng ch vo tnh cht ha l ca cht c m cn ph thuc vo tng thch v cu trc (nh cha kha v kha). tng thch cng cao, kh nng lin kt vi receptor cng d dng, cht c cng d lu tr, thi gian tip xc ko di, kh nng phn ng gy phong b nhm hot tnh dn n gy c tnh cng cao.
Giai an tip xc Cht c Cht c Giai an c ch
Trung tm hat ng ca men cha b phong b
Trung tm hat ng ca men b phong b do cht c
S cha kha v kha trong c ch tng tc cht c v receptor

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4.3.2.2. Yu t gy c tnh Tc ca qu trnh hp th, chuyn ha v o thi cht c l thng s thit yu trong nh gi qu trnh chuyn ha cht c trong c th. Nu c th c kh nng o thi nhanh cht c th c kh nng chu ng c vi vic a cht c vo ngi nhiu ln. Ngc li, nu kh nng o thi km th ngay liu thp, nhng vi thi gian tip xc lu di, cht c c th tch ly trong c th n nng gy bnh l. Do vy, thi gian b nhim c, nng cht c v tn s tip xc vi cht c l cc yu t rt quan trng trong vic gy c tnh ca mt cht. Dc ng hc (Pharmacokinetics) Hiu ng thi gian Dc ng hc l phng php m t nh lng qu trnh di chuyn, tip nhn, chuyn ha, tch ly v vn chuyn ca ha cht trong c th. Cc m hnh ng hc th hin tc cc phn ng bc 0, bc 1, bc 2 gia cht c v im tip nhn (receptor). Tc phn ng ph thuc vo nng cc cht tham gia trong phn ng. 4.3.2.3. Phn ng v th hin c tnh Phn ng gia cht c v receptor thng to c tnh: Gy lin kt vi cc trung tm hot ng ca receptor (thng l cc men sinh ha) c ch cc trung tm hot ng, gy cn tr cc phn ng sinh ha ca men (receptor).
Th d v phn ng gia cc hp cht phospho-hu c (thng dng lm ha cht BVTV hoc cht c thn kinh trong v kh ha hc) l tiu biu cho c ch gy c ca cht c, cht nhim i vi c th sinh vt. 4.4. Phn loi hiu ng gy c Hin nay, c nhiu phng php phn loi hiu ng gy c: 4.4.1. Phn loi theo im cui (end point) (biu hin cui cng ca c tnh) L cch phn loi n gin v thng c s dng nht. Theo , c hai loi hiu ng gy c: (1) Hiu ng gy ung th - to khi u (carcinogenic effect) (2) Hiu ng khng gy ung th (non-carcinogenic) - hiu ng gy c khc nhng khng to khi u. Mt s cht c va c c 2 hiu ng. Bng: Hiu ng gy c ca mt s ha cht thng thng.
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Ho cht Ch (Pb) Benzen (C6H6) Asen (As) Cadmi (Cd) Crm (Cr) (VI) Phospho-hu c Clo-hu c Hydrocacbon a vng thm (PAH) Hiu ng gy ung th Khi u thn Bnh bch cu (leukemia) Ung th phi Ung th phi Ung th phi Khng Ung th gan Ung th phi, d dy, da Hiu ng khng gy ung th Thiu cn tr s sinh, thiu mu, tng huyt p, tc hi no, thn, gim tr nh au u, thiu mu, bun ng, chng mt, u c thai Tn thng thn, x cng phi, tn hi thn kinh Tn thng thn, thiu mu, long xng Vim ph qun, tn thng thn, gan Tn hi thn kinh, c tnh ton thn Tn thng gan, tn hi thn kinh Tn thng da, gan
4.4.2. Phn loi da trn c quan tiu im Th d: cadmi c vi thn, benzen c vi tu xng, metyl thy ngn c vi no, cacbon tetraclorua c vi gan, paraquat c vi phi. Tuy nhin, cch phn loi ny khng tht r rng v mt c quan tiu im c th nhy cm vi nhiu loi cht c v nhiu loi cht c cng cho cc triu chng tng t nhau (chng mt, au u, km n, ). 4.5. Quan h liu lng p ng xc nh liu c trn mt loi sinh vt la chn, ngi ta tin hnh th nghim dng ng cong liu lng p ng. Liu lng l yu t quan trng quyt nh i vi tc dng gy c ca mt ha cht. Thng thng, liu cng cao, tc hi u c cng ln. p ng l t l phn trm qun th sinh vt b cht hoc b nh hng bi liu c trong iu kin th nghim quan st r rng. (v d nh trong iu kin m c s c th cn sng v b cht). Ngoi liu lng, tc hi ca cht c cn ph thuc vo nhy cm vi cht c ca i tng b nhim c. nhy cm khc nhau theo gii tnh, tui tc, tnh trng sc khe, di truyn trong mt loi sinh vt v khc nhau gia cc loi sinh vt. Quan h liu lng p ng (dose response relationship) c th hin qua vic nh gi mc gy c (th d gy cht) theo liu lng cht c a vo c th. ng cong log liu lng p ng th hin cht tch ly theo logarit ca liu lng cht c thng c dng ch S nh sau:
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cht tch ly (%) 100
50
LD50
log liu lng (mg/kg)
T ng cong ta xc nh cc loi liu c nh LD0 (ngng c), LD16, LD50, LD 84, Tng t, nu l liu c gy hi: ED 0, ED16, ED50, ED84, Hai thng s quan trng ca ng cong l LD50 (hoc ED50) v dc. T th ny, ta c th thu c gi tr liu gy cht 50% s ng vt thc nghim (LD50). LD50 l i lng dng nh gi c tnh cp ca cc loi cht c. Gi tr LD50 ca tng cht c ph thuc vo loi ng vt, gii tnh, tui, trng thi ca ng vt thc nghim v ng a cht c vo c th. Do vy, khi th hin LD50 phi ghi r i vi loi vt no, ng xm nhp no. Th d: LD50 (mg/kg) ca 2,3,7,8 tetraclorodibenzo-p-dioxin l 0,001 i vi chut lang v 0,02 0,05 i vi chut cng trng (qua ng tiu ha). Bng: Gi tr LD50 ca mt s ha cht (i vi chut cng trng, qua ming) Hp cht Etanol Malathion (ha cht tr su) Aspirin Lindane (ha cht tr su) Natri florua DDT (ha cht tr su) Parathion (ha cht tr su) Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) LD50 (mg/kg) 13000 2800 1500 88 270 180 113 118 2 0,02 0,05
So snh gi tr LD50 trong bng vi Phn loi c tnh ca WHO (chng hai), s xc nh c cp c ca cc ha cht. xy dng c quan h liu lng p ng, trc ht cn chn im cui v c hc c to ra do c th tip xc vi cht c. im cui c xc nh r qua vic nh gi cht hoc s bin i chc nng sinh ha, sinh l, hot ng ca sinh vt th nghim.
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Trong nhiu trng hp, khi cht c th hin tc hi n sc khe liu lng thp hn nhiu so vi liu cht th quan h liu lng tc dng (dose effect relationship) c s dng nh gi c tnh. Liu hiu qu (ED) c s dng th hin mc hiu qu ca mt cht. Thng thng, ngi ta s dng liu hiu qu ch tc ng tt (gim au). Tuy nhin, liu hiu qu cn c th ch tc hi xu (gy t lit), do phi nu c th kt qu Hnh sau cho thy quan h liu lng tc dng gia glycol monometyl ete (GME) vi trng lng ca chut cng sau 11 ngy thc nghim liu thp. liu ny GME khng gy cht m ch lm gim cn nng ca chut.
Trng lng (g) 100 75 50 25 0 50 250 500 750 900 0 liu lng (mg/kg)
S Tc dng ca GME n trng lng chut.
Trao i trc tuyn ti:

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CHNG 5. C HC CC MI TRNG THNH PHN
5.1. c hc mi trng khng kh 5.1.1. Khi nim - Tm quan trng ca cht lng khng kh Cht lng khng kh l yu t quan trng i vi i sng ca con ngi v sinh vt. Hng ngy, mi ngi trng thnh trao i qua ng h hp 16 kg khng kh (gp 6 ln khi lng ca thc n v nc ung). Nh vy, nh vy, trong mi i ngi, hng chc m3 khng kh c a vo c th. Do , nu khng kh c cha mt lng nh cht nhim (bi, SO 2, NOx, CO hoc cc kim loi nng, hydrocarbon, ) th cc cht ny d dng theo dng kh i vo c th, tch ly, dn n gy tc hi cho sc kho con ngi. Mt khi thnh phn khng kh t nhin c s gia tng nng , hm lng ca mt hoc mt vi tc nhn l, ha, sinh hc no th cht lng khng kh s suy gim, dn n nhim khng kh. Cc cht nhim c thi vo mi trng khng kh vi s lng v nng vt qu kh nng t lm sch ca kh quyn s tr thnh cht c. 5.1.2. Ngun pht sinh c cht 5.1.2.1. nhim t nhin T ni la, m chy, gi qua mt t, c th a dioxide lu hunh (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2), hydrocarbon, bi, vo mi trng. Phn hy hu c trong rng nhit i v cc m ly, rung la, c th a metan (CH4) v mt s cht hu c khc (xeton, aldehyde) vo khng kh. Khi lng cc cht nhim t cc ngun t nhin hng ngy a vo mi trng rt ln. Do kh thot ra t cc hot ng ca ni la, cc h cha nc; bi do bo ct sa mc, do s pht tn ca phn hoa. Do qu trnh phn hy sinh hc t nhin cc cht hu c ca vi sinh vt, to ra cc kh nh SO2, H2S, CO2, NOx, NH3, CH4 v cc cht hu c d bay hi c mi hi.
Tng lng cht nhim pht ra t ngun nhim t nhin ln nhng phn b u theo din rng. 5.1.2.2. nhim nhn to
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Hot ng cng nghip Ch yu do cc ngun t nhin liu ha thch (than , du, kh t nhin). Cc c s cng nghip s dng than lm nhin liu lun to ra kh thi cha SO2, Nox, HF (hydroflorua), CO, bi cha than v cc oxit silic, nhm, st. Ngoi ra kh thi mt s ngnh cng nghip cn cha hydrocarbon, kim loi nng nh ch, thy ngn,cadmi, selen, vanadi, km. Cc nh my chy bng du (DO, FO) to ra kh thi cha SO 2, NOx, hydrocarbon v bi. Trong khi , nu s dng kh thin nhin lm nhin liu, thnh phn kh thi hu nh khng c SO2, hydrocarbon, hm lng bi v NOx khng ng k. L thiu rc v bi chn cht thi rn Vic thiu t cht thi rn to ra kh thi cha CO, aldehyde, hydrocarbon v nhiu loi kh khc. Trong trng hp t cc vt liu lm bng polyvinyl clorua (PVC), hoc cc sn phm clo hu c, polyclophenol, nhit di 800oC kh thi c th cha cc hp cht dioxin c c tnh rt cao vi con ngi v sinh vt. Kh thi giao thng Khi cc phng tin giao thng, thit b xy dng s dng than , xng du lm nhin liu, thnh phn kh thi l ngun gy nhim khng kh quan trng, c bit l cc phng tin vn ti ng b vi t l ng gp cao nht ca cc loi bi, SO2, NOx, hydrocarbon, CO, ch, Pht sinh t qu trnh sn xut cng nghip: nh my ha cht, nh my luyn kim, nh my c kh, cc x nghip cng nghip nh, Pht sinh t qu trnh khai thc nh khai thc than, khai thc v ch bin du, Pht sinh t cc hot ng giao thng ng b, ng thy. Do s bc hi ca cht c trong nc v trong t b nhim Pht sinh do cc hot ng sinh hot.
Bng: Cc ngun gy nhim khng kh Cht nhim Ngun pht sinh t nhin liu than , du, cng ngh lc du, Lu hunh dioxide (SO2) luyn kim, sn xut giy, kh thi giao thng t nhin liu, sn xut cng nghip, xy dng, Bi chy rng, t rc, giao thng
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t khng kh cha N v O2 nhit cao (trong ng c xe my), sn xut phn m Xe c ng c, bc hi t kho xng du, cng ngh c s dng dung mi hu c t nhin liu (du) Nhiu ngnh cng nghip, ging du, lc du Sn xut phn ln, gm s, luyn nhm t nhin liu pha ch, sn xut sn pha ch, luyn kim Sn xut giy, sn, ha cht BVTV
Nit oxide (NOx) Cht hu c bay hi Carbon monoxide (CO) Hydro sulphua (H2S) Flo (F2) Ch (Pb) Thy ngn (Hg)
(Ngun: C.E Kupchella , MC Hyland, 1993) 5.1.3. Phn loi c cht trong mi trng khng kh 5.1.3.1. Theo ngun gc cht c Ht Dng hp cht tn ti trong kh quyn. Chng c th l nhng ht rn hay nhng git nh l lng hoc l hn hp ca c hai dng trn. Ty theo kch thc ca ht m chng c tn gi khc nhau: Bi: kch thc 1 200 m, c hnh thnh do s phn r t nhin ca t, hoc cc quy trnh c hc nh nghin, phun. Khi mui: gm cc ht rn kch thc t 0,1 1 m, c thi ra t cc qu trnh ha hc hay luyn kim. Khi: gm cc ht mn kch thc t 0,01 0,1 m, c to ra t qu trnh t hay cc qu trnh ha hc khc. Sng: gm cc git cht lng c kch thc < 10 m, c to thnh do s ngng t trong kh quyn hay t cc hot ng cng nghip. Sol kh: gm tt c cc cht rn hay lng l lng trong khng kh, kch thc < 1m. M: l cc ht sng c to thnh nc vi m c c th gy cn tr tm nhn. Cht kh nhim: NOx, SOx, COx, NH3, H2S, CH4, Oxid lu hunh: Cht kh pht thi ra t cc ngun nhim, di dng SO2, trong khng kh sch SO2 b oxy ha chm to SO3, trong khng kh b nhim, SO2 tham gia phn ng quang ha vi cc cht nhim khc hay cc thnh phn ca kh quyn, to SO 3, H2SO3, H2SO4 v cc mui ca H2SO4.
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Oxid nit: To thnh ch yu do qu trnh t chy nhin liu, trong mi trng nhim, NO c oxy ha theo phn ng quang ha to NO2, ngoi ra n cn c to thnh t cc nh my sn xut acid nitric. Carbon monoxide: L cht c nhim c khi lng ln nht khng kh quyn th, ngun gc t khi, ng x cc thit b t nhin liu (than, gas, du), c i lc vi hemoglobin trong mu v l mt cht gy ngt nguy him. Hydrocarbon: Cc hydrocarbon trong kh quyn t chng khng gy ra cc tc ng c, nhng di tc ng ca nh sng mt tri v NO2, cc cht oxy ho quang ha c to thnh li l nhng cht c nhim quan trng, c bit l cc hydrocarbon khng methane, nhng cht ny c pht thi nhiu qua cc hot ng sn xut, vn chuyn, x l v s dng du v dung mi cc loi. Hi dung mi hu c, hi acid, hi kim loi, Vi sinh vt gy bnh, phn hoa, bo t nm, Tc nhn vt l: Sng in t, tia phng x, tia t ngoi, hng ngoi,
5.1.3.2. Phn loi da trn kh nng gy tc hi ca c cht trn c th sinh vt Tc dng chung: Kch thch ng h hp v cc t chc phi: bi kim, NH3, SO3, CN-). Gy ngt: CO2, CH4, N2 (pha long oxy trong khng kh); CO (ngn cn mu vn chuyn oxy n cc c quan trong c th). Gy m, gy t: ethylene, etylete, xeton. Gy d ng: isocyanat hu c. Tc dng h thng: Thn kinh: thuc BVTV, To mu: kim loi nng (gy s gia tng lng bch cu trong mu). Thn: Pb, Hg, 5.1.4. Cch biu th nng cht c trong khng kh i vi cc hi kh, biu th bng nhiu cch:
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Khi lng c cht trn mt n v th tch khng kh. V d: ppm (cm3/m3). Phn trm (%) c cht c trong khng kh. i vi bi: Trng lng bi hay s ht bi trn mt th tch khng kh. V d: mg/m3, s ht/cm3.
5.1.5. Tnh c ca cc cht nhim trong mi trng khng kh Cht nhim khng kh c kh nng gy c khi nng ca chng vt qu ngng chu ng ca sinh vt. 5.1.5.1. Cc yu t nh hng n kh nng gy c cho sinh vt Sinh vt tip nhn (tui, gii tnh) Cu trc ha hc ca cht c (hp cht hydrocarbon c tnh c t l thun vi s nguyn t carbon c trong phn t; i vi nhng cht c cng nguyn t th trong phn t c cha t nguyn t hn s c hn, v d CO > CO2; s nguyn t halogen thay th hydro cng nhiu th c tnh cng cao, v d: CCl4 > CHCl3). Tnh cht vt l (nhit si, bay hi, kh nng hp th). Nng v thi gian tip xc (cao, lu di s gy ng c mnh hn). Tc ng tng hp ( dng hp cht, cht c c th c tnh c mnh hn khi c tc ng ring l). iu kin mi trng (nhit , p sut, m, gi, c tnh c th tng ln hoc gim i tu thuc tng loi cht).
5.1.5.2. c tnh ng c sinh vt ng xm nhp (tai, mt, mi, ch yu l h h hp phi mao mch phi mu) Dc ng hc: Cht c xm nhp vo t bo theo ba c ch: (1) khuch tn (vn chuyn th ng), (2) thm lc (theo kch thc l mng v kch thc phn t), (3) vn chuyn tch cc (gn kt vo phn t cht mang). Tc ng n sinh vt: thay i cu trc mng t bo, c ch men, thay i chun xc ca DNA, gy bin d hoc tr ngi cho hot ng tng trng bnh thng ca t bo (v d Pb). o thi: cht c theo h thng h hp, vo h tun hon v bi tit ra ngoi qua thn, rut.
Khi s hp th cht c ln hn s chuyn ha sinh hc v bi tit th xy ra s tch ly cht c trong c th sinh vt. 5.1.5. Qu trnh lan truyn c cht trong mi trng khng kh
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c cht c trong mi trng khng kh lan truyn khng bin gii v theo din phn b rt rng. Qu trnh lan truyn ph thuc vo cc yu t sau: Cc iu kin kh tng (hng gi, m, cng v tc di chuyn ca gi, ) iu kin a hnh (i ni, thung lng, dc. V d, vng thong ng th pht tn nhanh theo din rng, vng thung lng hoc vng th b che chn nhiu nh cao tng th cht c khng c pht tn rng). Tnh cht ca ngun thi (lin tc hay gin on, ngun ng hay ngun im, nhit ca ngun thy hay cao v cao ng khi ca ngun kh thi ra).
5.1.6. Tc hi sinh thi ca cc c cht thng gp trong mi trng khng kh 5.1.6.1. i vi con ngi v ng vt Cc cht nhim trong khng kh ch yu xm nhp vo c th qua ng h hp, gy tc hi ln n sc kho con ngi v i sng sinh vt. Cc loi c cht khc nhau c c ch tc dng ln c th sinh vt v tc dng gy c l khc nhau. Tc ng kch thch trn ng h hp trn: Ch yu l cc ht bi c kch thc ln, khi vo c th chng ng li trn cc ng h hp trn v gy hi cho cc b phn. Cc cht gy c ch yu bao gm bi kim, NH 3, SO3. Tc ng gy ngt: Cc cht kh tc ng gy ngt theo hai c ch: Cc cht kh CO2, CH4, SO2, c trong khng kh lm pha long nng oxy, ngn cn vic ly oxy trong khng kh. Cc cht trong khng kh tc dng trc tip ngn cn kh nng vn chuyn oxy ca hemoglobin (Hb). V d: CO tc dng vi Hb ngn cn kh nng vn chuyn oxy ca Hb. NO2 tng kh nng to methemoglobin trong mu, gim kh nng vn chuyn oxy trong mu. Cc cht tc ng ln phi: Gy cc bnh c lin quan n phi nh ung th phi, bnh bi phi, vim phi, Cc cht gy m v gy t: Etylen, etyl ete, xeton. Cc cht ny tc dng ln h thn kinh, gy m v t. Cc cht gy d ng: Nh phn hoa, isocyanat hu c, , cc cht ny gy ra nhng phn ng min dch khng bnh thng, l nguyn nhn dn n d ng. Cc cht tc dng ln thn: Nh Pb, Hg, cc cht ny tch ng trong thn, gy si thn, protein niu. Cc cht tc dng ln h thng to mu: Ngn cn sn xut protein trong mu, gy ra bnh thiu mu v cc bnh lin quan n h h hp. Cc tc ng khc: Mt s dung mi hu c d dng tch t trong c th gy ri lon sinh l, gy t bin gen.
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Bng sau lit k mt s tc hi quan st c trn ngi v ng vt th nghim. Bng: Thng tin v c tnh ca mt s c cht thng gp Cht nhim Cht nhim thng thng - Bi Tc hi Hn ch tm nhn, kch thch mt, mi, hng, vim ph qun, bnh phi. Cc loi bi u gy tc hi nhng bi c kch thc nh (<10 m) gy tc hi nng hn bi thng. Gy hi ng h hp (kh th, gim chc nng phi), kch thch mt mi, gim kh nng khng nhim khun Gim kh nng vn chuyn oxy ca mu, gy tc hi h thng tun hon, thn kinh Tc hi ng h hp, nh hng lu di n t chc phi Gy bnh ng h hp v phi Tc hi no, c bit vi tr em Gy ung th Gy bnh phi, ung th phi Gy chng bnh bch cu (leukemia) Gy bnh ung th gan v phi Gy ung th ng h hp Gy ung th Tc hi nhiu vng no, thn
- Ozone (O3) - Carbon monoxide (CO) - Lu hunh dioxide (SO2) - Nit dioxide (NO2) - Ch (Pb) Cht nhim c hi - Asen (As) - Amian - Benzen (C6H6) - Vinyclorua - Bi l cc - Phng x - Thy ngn (Hg) (Ngun: Ann Boyce, 1997). 5.1.6.2. i vi thc vt
Hu ht cc cht nhim mi trng khng kh u c nh hng xu n thc vt. Biu hin l: Tc ng ln s pht trin ca cy nh km hm s pht trin ca cy, chi non khng c kh nng ny chi, hoc kch thch pht trin lm l pht trin qu nhanh, phin l b qun. Bi bm lm nh hng qu trnh quang hp ca l. Vng l, hoa qu b lp, b nt, mc cao hn th l cy, hoa qu b rng v cht hoi.
T kt qu ca nhiu cng trnh nghin cu, cc kt lun chnh v tc ng ca cht nhim khng kh n cy ci l:
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Khi m (smog) gy thit hi ln n kinh t do gy cht hoc lm gim nng sut cy trng. Ozone (O3) gy tn hi ln n cy c nh a l, gim kh nng pht trin. SO2, NOx l cc kh c tnh acid gy nh hng xu n thc vt, c bit khi cc kh ny kt hp vi nc to ra ma acid. Flo (F), amoniac (NH3), etylen (C2H4), Bo (B), hydro sulphua (H2S) gy tn thng l cy, nh hng n s pht trin ca cy.
Vit Nam, cha c s liu thng k no v tn tht nng nghip v rng do nhim khng kh. Tuy nhin, trong thi gian gn y, mt s tc hi xu trn thc vt c xc nhn r nh hin tng la b bc l do kh HF thng gp vng ven nh my sn xut phn superphosphate (Bnh in Tp.HCM), da b cht hoc rng tri do cc kh SO2 v hi H2SO4 gn nh my sn xut acid sulphuric (Th c Tp.HCM), cy ci b ho l do kh thi t cc l gch. 5.1.7. c cht do hot ng th v giao thng 5.1.7.1. Bi sinh hot Bi sinh hot l bi pht sinh do cc hot ng sinh hot trong nh, hot ng ngoi ng ph. Tnh cht ca bi sinh hot ph thuc vo s pht trin kinh t cng nh x hi ca tng ni. Mt s loi bi sinh hot thng gp: Bi nh: Cc hp cht v c (t, ct, si bng, ); ngun gc t ng vt (lng vt nui, tc, gu, lng v, ); ngun gc t thc vt (phn hoa, cc mnh cy c nh bng ay, gai, c, la, ); ngun gc t vi sinh vt (vi khun, bo t nm, si nm, ). Bi ng ph th: t, ct, bi nha ng trn ph do hot ng giao thng; bi pht sinh t cc cng trnh xy dng; bi c trong khi thi ca cc phng tin giao thng (nh cc hp cht ca ch, ).
Tc ng gy hi ca bi sinh hot: Cc loi bi c ngun gc t thc vt gy d ng hen, st, ban m ay, vim ph qun mn tnh, kh thng mn tnh, Cc cht kch ng dng bi gy vim ph qun, vim phi v ph phi. Mt s bi c th gy ung th nh bi nha ng, b hng, si amiang, Cc bo t nm, vi khun gy bnh, nguyn nhn dn n cc bnh vim nhim. Kch ng mt v lm tn thng mt. Gy ra mt s bnh lin quan n ng h hp khc.
5.1.7.2. Khi thi giao thng
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Cc cht nhim c trong kh thi ca cc phng tin giao thng bao gm CO, SO2, NOx, hi ch hu c v mt s cht hu c khc. 5.1.8. Mt s c cht ph bin trong mi trng khng kh 5.1.8.1. Carbon monoxide (CO) Tnh cht: khng mu, khng mi, t trng d = 0,967, nhit si Ts = -199oC Ngun: t s chy khng hon ton cc nhin liu hay vt liu c cha carbon. Gy c: (1) i vi ngi v ng vt: c th cht t ngt khi ht th kh CO nng cao, do kh tc ng mnh ca CO vi hemoglobin (Hb) trong mu, to thnh carboxyhemoglobin, lm mt kh nng vn chuyn oxy ca mu v gy ra ngt, c th dn n t vong. (Hb.O2 + CO Hb.CO + O2). Cc triu chng bnh xut hin tng ng vi nng CO v Hb.CO trong mu: Nng CO trong khng kh (ppm) 50 100 250 500 1.000 10.000 Nng Hb.CO trong mu (% n v mu) 0,07 0,12 0,25 0,45 0,60 0,95
Mc gy c Nhim c nh Nhim c va, chng mt Nhim c nng, chng mt Bun nn, nn, try tim mch Hn m T vong
(2) i vi thc vt: CO lm mt kh nng c nh nit, lm thc vt thiu m. nng CO cao (100 10.000 ppm), thc vt b rng l, cy non b cht hoc chm pht trin. 5.1.6.2. Cacbon dioxide (CO2) Tnh cht: Kh khng mu, khng mi, khng chy,v cht, d ha lng do nn, t trng d = 1,53, nhit si Ts = -78oC Ngun: t s t chy hon ton cht hu c, qu trnh phn hy cht hu c (mn rc) v ln men ru. Gy c: nh hng nng CO2 trong mi trng khng kh ln sc kho con ngi Nng (%) 0,5 Tc hi Kh chu v h hp
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1,5 36 8 10 10 30 > 30 5.1.6.3. Sulfur oxide (SOx) Tnh cht: ch yu l SO2, SO3 cng c trong khng kh nhng hm lng khng nhiu. SO2 khng mu, v cay, mi kh chu, t trng d = 2,92 Ngun: t l t s dng nhin liu c lu hunh nh l luyn gan, l rn, l gia cng nng, trong cng nghip ha cht: sn xut H2SO4, s dng cc ho cht cha lu hunh. Gy c: tc hi chnh l do s hnh thnh acid H2SO3, H2SO4 Khng th lm vic c C th nguy him n tnh mng Nhc u, ri lon th gic, mt tri gic, ngt th Ngt th ngay, th chm, tim p yu Cht ngi
(1) i vi ngi v ng vt: SOx gy ri lon chuyn ha protein v ng, gy thiu vitamin B, C, c ch enzyme oxydaze. hp th lng ln SO2 c kh nng gy bnh cho h to huyt v to ra methemoglobin tng cng qu trnh oxy ha Fe2+ thnh Fe3+. Bng: Tc hi ca SO2 i vi ngi v ng vt Nng (mg/m3) 30 20 50 260 130 1.300 1.000 (2) i vi thc vt: Gy tc hi n s sinh trng ca cy. L cht ch yu ca ma acid, gy tn thng l cy, v cy, cn tr qu trnh quang hp, l vng a v rng, cn tr s sinh trng ca r, gim kh nng chng bnh v su hi ca cy. 5.1.6.4. Hydro sulfur (H2S) Tnh cht: khng mu, mi thi c trng, t trng d = 1,19, nhit si Ts = 60,2oC. Ngun: Trong t nhin pht sinh t cht hu c, rau c thi ra. Ngoi ra H2S cn c sinh ra cc vt nt ni la, cc sng sui, cng rnh v cc hm l khai thc than. Trong cng nghip, H2S sinh ra do qu trnh s dng nhin liu c cha lu hunh, trong ngnh ha du, luyn than cc. Gy c: Tc hi Ngng c tnh Kch thch ng h hp, ho Liu nguy him sau khi ht th (30 60 pht) Liu gy cht nhanh (30 60 pht)
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Nng (ppm) 5 150 500 700 900 5.1.6.5. Nit dioxide (NO2) Tnh cht: mu hng, mi hng nng > 0,12 ppm. Ngun: T ngun t nguyn liu du, kh t, sn xut ha cht, hn ct kim loi, Gy c: Nng (ppm) 0,06 (lu di) 5 (sau vi pht) 15 50 (sau vi gi) 100 (sau vi pht) 5.1.6.6. Amoniac (NH3) Tnh cht: khng mu, mi khai, t trng d = 0,597, nhit si Ts = -33oC. Ngun: Cc nh my sn xut phn m, acid nitrit, cht thi sinh vt, Gy c: Tc hi Gy bnh v phi Tn thng h h hp Nguy him cho phi, tim, gan Gy cht Tc hi Cm gic rt kh chu Tn thng b my h hp Bnh tiu chy, vim cung phi T vong
(1) i vi ngi v ng vt: L kh c c kh nng kch thch mnh ln ng h hp v nim mac m t, gy rt bng do phn ng km ha km theo ta nhit. Ngng chu ng 20 40 mg/m3, khi tip xc vi amoniac nng 100 mg/m3 trong mt khong thi gian ngn s khng li hu qu lu di, tuy nhin, nng 1.500 2.000 mg/m3 trong thi gian 30 pht s gy nguy him n tnh mng. (2) i vi thc vt: nng cao, amoniac gy tc hi n sinh trng v tn ti ca cy (m gy gin, l a vng, qu thm tm, gim t l ht ging ny mm). 5.1.6.7. Kh chlor (Cl2) v hi acid chlorhydric (HCl) Tnh cht: Kh chlor mu vng lc, mi sc kh th, t trng d = 2,486, nhit si Ts = -33,9oC. Clorua hydro l kh khng mu, t trng d = 0,921. Ngun: khu vc nh my ha cht, qu trnh t than, giy, cht do v nhin liu rn. Gy c:
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(1) i vi ngi v ng vt: Kh chlor gy hi ln on trn ca ng h hp, tip xc vi mi trng c nng chlor cao, trong thi gian di s gy xanh xao, bnh tt v c th gy cht. Hi acid c tc hi n ng h hp v nim mc mt. DO tc dng kch thch cc b, HCl c kh nng gy bng, sng ty, t mu, trng hp nng c th dn n phi b mng nc. Lm vic lu trong mi trng c kh chlor, ng h hp v mng mt b kch thch mnh, ho, chy nc mt. (2) i vi thc vt: nh hng ca kh chlor v HCl lm cho cy ci chm pht trin, vi nng cao th cy cht. HCl c tc dng lm gim m bng ca l cy, lm cho cc t bo biu b ca l b co li. 5.1.6.8. Kh flor (F2) v hydro florua (HF) Tnh cht: Kh F2 mu vng, c tnh kch thch mnh, t trng d = 1,69. Kh HF khng mu. Ngun: Do hot ng ni la, nh my luyn nhm, thp, nh my ha in, super phosphate, cc l nung gch ngi v t qu trnh t than. Gy c:
(1) i vi ngi v ng vt: Ht mt lng nh HF c th lm hng, ph qun b kch thch, gy kh nut, ho, tc ngc, nght th, nng cao, HF gy suy tim, try h hp, t vong. Thng xuyn tip xc florua dng hi hay ht trong khng kh s gy tn thng v xng, dy chng v ri lon cu trc rng. (2) i vi thc vt: HF gy chy cung v mp l, hn ch sinh trng, lm rng l, rng hoa, qu 5.1.6.9. Methane (CH4) Tnh cht: d bt chy, khi nng CH4 trong khng kh t t 5 15% th tch, s n rt mnh khi c tia la. Ngun: c trong cc m, c to thnh trong cc va than v thot ra ngoi khi cc m ny c khai khong. Gy c: Nng methane trong khng kh t 40% tr ln c th gy ngt th do thiu oxy. Khi ht phi kh ny c th gp cc triu chng nh say, co git, ngt, vim phi, p xe phi, c th gy t vong.
5.1.7. Tnh c ca nhim do ting n 5.1.7.1. Khi nim v nhim do ting n nhim ting n l n khng mong mun hoc n c thi lng, tn s, cng gy tc hi v sinh l, tm l cho con ngi hoc sinh vt (Vin Tiu chun M).
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n c tnh bng decibel (dB). Decibel l 10 ln logarit ca t s gia 2 cng n, mt l cng ca n no cn tnh n v hai l cng ca n tham chiu. Theo tiu chun M, cng n tham chiu bng 10-2 wat/m2, l cng m con ngi c th nghe c. n 100.000 ln ln hn cng ny c tnh l 50 decibel. 5.1.7.2. Tc hi ca nhim do ting n n cao c th gy cc tc hi sau: Gim thnh lc: Nu lm vic thng xuyn trong mi trng c n 80 90dbA, thnh lc ca con ngi b gim ng k. Nu tng n ln trn 90dbA, thnh lc b tc hi nng n. nh hng n tm l: Ngi b gim thnh lc d b mc cm trong giao tip, dn n t c lp mnh vi mi ngi. Gy stress: Ngi b tip xc vi ting n ln trong mt thi gian di (vi gi lin tc) thng b stress, dn n cu bn, bc bi, thm ch gy mt tp trung, lm vic thiu chnh xc, gim nng sut lao ng, iu ny c bit nguy him i vi cng nhn trc tip iu khin my mc. c hc mi trng t
5.2.
5.2.1. Dng c cht Cc c cht c th tn ti di nhiu dng khc nhau nh v c, hu c, hp cht, n cht, ion, cht lng, cht rn, cht kh. Tuy nhin, trong mi trng sinh thi t, cc c cht ph bin v gy tc hi nhiu nht thng tn ti di dng ion, gy nh hng n sinh trng, pht dc ca cy trng v sinh vt trong t. Hai dng c cht trong mi trng t l: c cht theo bn cht: L nhng cht c kh nng gy c mi nng (H2S, Na2CO3, CuSO4, Pb, Hg, Cd, ). c cht theo nng : c cht dng ny u c gii hn cho php i vi mi loi sinh vt, vt qu gii hn ny th cc cht mi c kh nng gy c (Al3+, Fe2+, SO42-, OH-, Mn2+, Na+, NH3, NH4+, NO2-). Th d khi nng Fe2+>500 ppm, Al3+>135 ppm s gy c cho la.
5.2.2. Con ng xm nhp vo c th sinh vt i vi thc vt: c cht thng c hp th qua r, ban u, thc vt ch ng hp th trao i, n khi cy c biu hin nhim c, thc vt s hn ch s hp thu, ng thi cng l phn ng t v ca thc vt khi nhn ra cht c. Tuy nhin,
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mt s thc vt, s xm nhp ca cht c n thun ch l do khuch tn t nng cao trong dung dch t n nng thp hn trong c th sinh vt. i vi ng vt v ngi: c cht t mi trng t c th xm nhp vo c th theo hai hng chnh: Trc tip qua da ri vo c th; gin tip qua thc phm. 5.2.3. Cc yu t nh hng n c cht trong mi trng t Bn cht ca cc cht c Ph thuc vo cu to v hot tnh ca chng, th d: Pb, Hg, CuSO4 c tnh k sinh vt nn lun lun gy c khi tip xc, tuy nhin, mt s cht khc c tnh khng k sinh vt th tnh c biu hin thp hn. Nng v liu lng Tng quan t l thun vi tnh c. Nng hoc liu lng cng cao, tnh c cng mnh. Nhit Nhit t cng cao, tnh c cng mnh. Tuy nhin, khi nhit trong t qu cao s lm phn hy c cht. Ngng chu c Ph thuc vo tng loi sinh vt. Nhn chung sinh vt non tr hay gi yu thng mn cm vi cht c hay kh nng chu c km, c ngng chu c thp hn so vi sinh vt trng thnh. Ging ci hay phi n thng d mn cm vi cht c hn ging c hay phi nam. Kh nng t lm sch ca mi trng t Kh nng ny l rt ln, tuy nhin ph thuc rt nhiu vo thi gian v tnh cht ca tng loi t. Cc iu kin khc ca t Ch nc, m, chua trong t c nh hng n s cung cp O2 gii c v phn b nng hi c trong t. 5.2.4. Cc dng nhim c trong mi trng t
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Mi trng t c th b nhim c do s lan truyn t mi trng khng kh, nc b nhim, xc b ng, thc vt tn ti lu di trong t, lm cho nng cc c cht tng ln, vt qu mc an ton, gy ra nhim v nhim c mi trng t. 5.2.4.1. Nhim c do nhim t nhin Nhim phn (bao gm t phn hot ng v t nhim phn). Do nc t cc vng trung tm phn theo dng nc mt hoc nc ngm lan n cc v tr khc v gy nhim phn. Dng nhim phn ny ch yu l nhim cc cht c di dng ion Fe2+, Fe3+, Al3+, SO42-, Cl-, H+. i vi t phn hot ng, mi trng t c pH rt thp cc ion c ny cng tr nn di ng vi nng kh cao, lm gia tng nng ca chng trong dung dch t, keo t, pH ca mi trng t gim xung, gy ng c cho cy trng v sinh vt sng trong t. Ngoi ra, c cht trong t phn cn c th gy hi cho sinh vt sng trong lp nc tip xc vi t, lm cho lp nc mt y d tr thnh nc phn. hn ch pht sinh phn v tc hi ca c cht trong t phn, c th p dng mt s bin php sau: gi nc ngn nga s oxy ha cc vt liu cha khong pyrite trong t phn tim tng; tiu ra c cht ra bn ngoi i vi t phn hot ng; s dng vi trung ha acid trong t i vi vic canh tc cy trng v nui thy sn ti vng phn nh hay phn trung bnh, vic kt hp dung vi v tiu ra bng nc ngt s y nhanh qu trnh thiu ra c cht trong t; ln lip quy hoch vng trng cy chuyn canh chu phn. Nhim mn Do mui trong nc bin, nc thy triu hay t cc m mui, trong c cc cht c Na+, K+, Cl-, SO42-, CO32-, chng gy hi do tc ng ion hay lm gia tng p sut thm thu. Nng mui cao trong dung dch gy hi sinh l cho cy trng v sinh vt trong t. hn ch c cht trong vng t b mn, vic xy dng bao, cng ngn mn c thc hin ph bin, tuy nhin iu ny thc t cng gy nn nhng tc hi khng nh. Do , ngoi vic ng dng pht trin cc loi cy hp l vi tng loi tnh cht t, cn p dng tng hp nhiu bin php ci to khc nh: ra mn, loi tr mui tan trong t, tiu nc ngm mn; xc nh h thng cy trng c kh nng chu mn khc nhau, ph hp vi tng giai on ci to t, xc nh h thng k thut canh tc hp l, m bo t khng b ti nhim mn; s dng t mn nui tm kt hp trng la theo ng k thut. Gley ha
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Qu trnh gley ha trong mi trng t l qu trnh phn gii cht hu c trong iu kin t ngp nc, ym kh, ni tch ly nhiu xc b sinh vt, sn sinh ra nhiu cht c di dng CH4, H2S, N2O, CO2, FeS, Qu trnh ny lm cho mi trng t b chua ha do s to thnh cc acid hu c, hoc mt m do nit bay hi, H2S gy ng c r thc vt, gy cht cho ng vt v mt s vi sinh vt hiu kh trong mi trng t. Cc kh CH4, NO2, NO v CO2 cn gp phn gy ra 15% hiu ng nh knh. hn ch hin tng ng c cho cc sinh vt trn vng t ngp nc, ym kh, bin php hu hiu nht l lm cho t c lun phin thong kh. S oxy ha trong t xy ra lm cho nng cc cht c c gim xung di ngng gy c cho sinh vt (ngoi tr trong mi trng t phn tim tng). 5.2.4.2. Nhim c do nhim nhn to nhim du Hot ng thm d v khai thc du, s c giao thng thy, gy ra s lan truyn du trn mt nc, nhim du trong t, tc hi nhiu n mi trng, lm gim hiu qu ca trng thi t i vi sinh vt. Vic khc phc nhim du trong t c nhiu cch: cy xi v x l tng t nhim lm tng kh nng tip xc vi khng kh du bay hi hay gip vi sinh vt phn hy tt hn; quy hoch, la chn cy trng a du, c kh nng chu c nng du cao trong t; loi b hoc x l li lp t b nhim du; tng kh nng t lm sch ca t bng cch ra tri, thng thong, nhim kim loi nng T nc thi, nc chy trn, cha cc nguyn t Hg, Pb, Cu, Cd, Zn, Cr, Co, F, cc mui ny l nhng cht nhim vi lng v c ch yu hin din trong t. Ch v cadmi l nhng kim loi gy nhim cao nht thng gp trong t. nhim cht hu c Gy ra bi s tch t xc b hu c vt qu kh nng t lm sch ca mi trng t, to ra cc kh c CH 4, H2S v d tha vi sinh vt ym kh. nhim do cht phng x T thnh phn t nhin trong t c cha phng x, t cht thi cc nh my cng nghip, s c t cc nh my in ht nhn, cc v th v kh ht nhn. Thnh phn cc cht thi phng x bao gm: plutonium (Pu), uranium (U), americium (Am), neptunium (Ap), curium (Cm), cesium (Ce).
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Khi vo mi trng t, cc cht ny s xm nhp vo thc vt, ng vt trong chu trnh sinh a ha hay qua dy chuyn thc phm v gy c cho sinh vt tip nhn. Kh nng tn lu ca cc cht phng x c th ko di n 50 nm hoc khng th khi phc tr li mi trng t trong sch khi lng phng x trong t qu cao. nhim vi sinh vt trong mi trng t Cc loi vi trng gy bnh c mt trong t nhiu hn trong nc. Kh nng sinh si ny n v lan truyn bnh ca chng cng cao nh trong nc v khng kh. nhim ha cht nng nghip Cc cht hu c, v c thng c c tnh bn vng trong mi trng t, gy cc tc ng gy c trc tip hoc tim tng ln sinh vt. Khi s dng thuc BVTV, mt phn s tri vo t v nc. Trong t, cc vi sinh vt c ch (phn hy cht thi, cht hu c, chuyn ha cc nguyn t dinh dng, ) u b tc hi v lm gim ph nhiu ca t. Do c thi gian phn hy di nn dn dn cc thuc BVTV s tch t li trong t mt lng ng k, gy hi n sinh vt theo con ng: t - thc vt - ng vt - ngi. 5.3. c hc mi trng nc 5.3.1. Phn loi c cht trong mi trng nc c cht trong nc c th c sinh ra do cc hin tng t nhin (ni la, l lt, xm nhp mn, phong ha, ) nhng s hot ng ca con ngi vn l nguyn nhn ph bin v quan trng nht. Cc hot ng ca con ngi trong sinh hot, sn xut cng nghip, nng nghip, khai khong, xy dng cng trnh thy li, giao thng ng thy, du lch, a khi lng ngy cng ln cht thi vo ngun nc sng h, i dng, nc ngm, gy suy gim r rt cht lng nc t nhin hu ht cc quc gia trn th gii. C hng ngn loi c cht trong mi trng nc, v chng c c ch hot ng rt phc tp khi tham gia vo mi trng vi cc phn ng, tng tc qua li gia chng vi nhau v vi mi trng. Tuy nhin, tin li cho vic quan trc v khng ch x thi, c th phn thnh cc nhm c bn sau: 5.3.1.1. Cc cht hu c d b phn hy sinh hc hoc cc cht tiu th oxy Thuc loi ny gm c cacbohydrat, protein, cht bo ngun gc ng vt v thc vt, y l nhng cht gy nhim ph bin nht c trong nc, rc thi t khu dn c, tri chn nui, khu cng nghip ch bin thc phm (sn xut bt ngt, cng ngh ln men, cng ngh ch bin sa, ru, bia, tht, c, ).
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Trong nc thi sinh hot, c n 60 80% l tng cc cht hu c thuc loi khng bn vng, d b phn hy sinh hc. Trong s c 40 60% l protein, 25 50% cacbohydrat v khong 10% l cht bo. Cht hu c khng bn vng thng gy tc hi ln i vi ngun li thy sn v chng c kh nng gy kit oxy trong nc do nhu cu ca vi khun trong qu trnh t lm sch, dn n cht tm, c. Ngoi ra, cc sn phm t s phn hy cc cht hu c cn c th l cc cht c i vi sinh vt thy sinh. 5.3.1.2. Cc cht hu c bn vng Thng l cc cht c c tnh cao, kh b vi sinh phn hy. Mt s c tc dng tch ly v tn lu lu di trong mi trng v trong c th thy sinh vt nn gy nhim lu di ng thi gy tc hi n h sinh thi nc. Cc cht polychlorophenol (PCP), polychlorobiphenyl (PCB), cc hydrocacbon a vng, l thuc loi ny. Cc cht ny thng c trong nc thi cng nghip v ngun nc chy trn t cc vng nng, lm nghip s dng nhiu thuc tr su, thuc kch thch sinh trng, thuc dit c, y l cc cht c c tnh cao i vi sinh vt v con ngi, ngoi ra chng c kh nng tn lu lu di trong mi trng v trong c th sinh vt nn c tnh tch ly qua dy chuyn thc phm, gy tc hi lu di n i sng sinh vt v con ngi. Mt s hp cht hu c bn ph bin c c tnh cao trong mi trng nc: Cc hp cht phenol: Phenol v cc dn xut phenol c nhiu trong nc thi mt s ngnh cng nghip (lc ha du, sn xut bt giy, nhum, ). Cc hp cht phenol lm cho nc c mi hng, nng, c tnh c cao, gy tc hi cho h sinh thi, nh hng n sc khe v i sng sinh vt. PCP (Polychlorophenol) l cht thng thy trong nc thi cng nghip, nng nghip, c dng tinh th khng mu, bn trong nc, ty thuc vo mi trng, c th tn ti t vi tun n vi thng v c th tch ly trong c th rong to, tm c v cht sa lng. PCP km hm qu trnh quang hp thc vt v tn ti trong phi, d dy, rut trong c th ngi v ng vt, gy c cho chu trnh h hp. Gi tr liu gy cht 50% ng vt thc nghim ca PCP l 27 mg/kg i vi chut cng trng (qua ng tiu ha). Mt s dn xut phenol c kh nng gy ung th. Cc ha cht bo v thc vt hu c: Hin nay c hng trm loi ha cht dit su, ry, nm mc, pht quang c di c s dng trong nng nghip. Cc nhm ha cht chnh l phospho hu c, clo hu c, cacbamat, phenoxyaxetic, pyrethroid tng hp. Hu ht cc cht ny u c c tnh cao i vi ngi v ng vt, c bit l nhm clo hu c,
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do c bn vng cao trong mi trng v kh nng tch ly trong c th sinh vt. Cc hp cht hydrocacbon: Thng l thnh phn ch yu ca du m, kh t, tn ti di cc dng no, khng no, mch vng, mch nhnh ca hp cht ca cacbon v hydro c vng thm. Hng nm trn th gii, c tnh trung bnh c khong 10 triu tn du m b tht thot do r r, s c trong khai thc, vn chuyn, gy nhim mi trng. Nhim c du trong mi trng nc lm gim s lng, cht lng thy sn, ngn cn s pht trin bnh thng ca cc loi thy sinh hoc ph hy ton b h thng sinh thi thy vc. X phng v cht ty ra: X phng l nhng mui ca cc acid bo bc cao, c s dng nh tc nhn lm sch. X phng c pH ln hn 7, khi tham gia vo thnh phn nc thi, c th lm thay i pH ca nc, cng vi kh nng to vng bt, lm gim kh nng ha tan oxy ca nc. Ngoi ra, x phng cn c tnh st khun nh, c tc dng km hm sinh trng ca h vi sinh vt trong nc. Cc cht ty ra c hot tnh b mt cao, ha tan tt trong nc v c sc cng b mt nh, c dng nhiu trong sinh hot nh x phng v trong cng nghip lm tc nhn phn tn, tuyn ni, Trong thnh phn ca cht ty ra thng c 10 30% cht hot ng b mt, cc cht ny khi vo nc s to huyn ph bn vng di dng keo, lm gim hot tnh ca mng sinh hc trong cc phin lc nc cng nh bn hot tnh. Cc cht ty ra khi c trong nc thi s lm cho nc to khi bt ln, gy cm gic kh chu v lm gim kh nng khuch tn ca kh trong nc, gy suy gim cht lng nc. Ngoi ra, cc cht ty ra cn l tc nhn kch thch s pht trin ca thc vt trong nc do khi polyphosphat b phn hy trong nc s to thnh cc dng ion phosphat, lm ngun dinh dng ca cc thc vt thy sinh. Tanin v lignin: L cc ha cht c ngun gc thc vt. Lignin c nhiu trong nc thi cc nh my sn xut bt giy, tanin c trong nc thi cng nghip thuc da. Cc cht ny gy cho ngun nc c mu (nu, en), ng thi chng c c tnh i vi thy sinh, con ngi v gy suy gim cht lng nc cp cho thy li, sinh hot, di lch. Cc hydrocacbon a vng ngng t:
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L cc cht c th c trong nc thi mt s ngnh cng nghip (ha du, sn xut bt giy, dc phm, ). Cc ha cht ny c c tnh cao, kh nng tch ly lu di trong c th sinh vt, trong s c cc cht gy ung th, bin d, tc hi phi thai nh 7,12-benzpyren, cc dioxin, PCB, 5.3.1.3. Cc cht ha hc v c v khong cht Gm cc kim loi, ion v c, cc kh ha tan, du m, cc cht rn v nhiu hp cht ha hc khc. Chng c ngun gc t cng nghip khai thc m, qu trnh sn xut, hot ng ca cc dn khoan du, sn xut nng nghip, cng nghip, cc hin tng t nhin nh xi mn, phong ha, l lt, Cc ha cht ny nh hng n qu trnh lm sch ca ngun nc, hy dit i sng cc loi thy sinh, n mn cc cng trnh. 5.3.1.4. Cht dinh dng thc vt Cc mui ca nit v phospho c gi l cc cht dinh dng i vi thy thc vt v nng ph hp, chng to iu kin pht trin tt cho cc loi cy c, rong, to. Hm lng cc cht ny c th gia tng mnh ti vng nhn nc thi sinh hot, nng nghip, cng nghip, to iu kin tt cho s pht trin vt tri ca cc loi thy thc vt, khi cht i, chng li gy nhim hu c cho ngun nc. 5.3.1.5. Cc tc nhn gy bnh Gm cc loi sinh vt ly nhim, gy bnh c a vo ngun nc qua con ng nc thi. 5.3.1.6. Du m L cht lng, kh tan trong nc, tan trong cc dung mi hu c. Du m c thnh phn ha hc rt phc tp. c tnh v tc ng sinh thi ca du m ph thuc vo tng loi du. Du th c cha hng ngn phn t khc nhau nhng phn ln l cc hydrocacbon c s cacbon t 4 26, trong du th cn c cc hp cht lu hunh, nit, kim loi (nh vanadi). Cc loi du nhin liu sau khi tinh ch (du FO, DO) v mt s sn phm du m cn cha cc cht c nh hydrocacbon thm a vng (PAH), polyclobiphenyl (PCB), kim loi (Pb). Do du m c c tnh cao v tng i bn vng trong mi trng nc. Hu ht cc loi thc, ng vt u b tc hi do du m. Cc loi thy sinh v cy ngp nc d b cht do du m ngn cn qu trnh h hp, quang hp v cung cp dinh dng. 5.3.1.7. Mu Nc t nhin c th c mu v cc l do sau: Cc cht hu c trong cy c b phn r Nc c st v mangan dng keo hoc dng ha tan
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Nc c cht thi cng nghip (cha crm, tanin, lignin, )
Mu tht ca nc l mu to ra do cc cht ha tan hoc dng ht keo; mu bn ngoi (biu kin) ca nc l mu do cc cht l lng trong nc to nn. Trong thc t, ngi ta xc nh mu thc ca nc, ngha l sau khi lc b cc cht khng tan. 5.3.1.8. Mi Nc c mi l do cc nguyn nhn sau: C cht hu c t cng rnh khu dn c, x nghip ch bin thc phm C nc thi cng nghip ha cht, du m C cc sn phm t s phn hy cy c, rong, to, ng vt
Bng: Mt s cht c mi gy nhim ngun nc Cht c mi Amoniac Phn Hydrosulphua Sulphit hu c Mercaptan Amin Diamin Clo Phenol 5.3.1.9. Phng x Trong mi trng lun tn ti mt lng phng x t nhin do hot ng ca con ngi (nh o v khai thc m qung phng x, hot ng ca l phn ng ht nhn, cht thi phng x khng c qun l cht ch), hoc t ngun t, , ni la to ra. Cc s c phng x c kh nng gy tc hi nghim trng n con ngi v sinh vt ch yu do n hoc r r cc l phn ng nguyn t (s c Chernobyl Ucraina thng 4/1986, gy cht hng trm ngi v hng vn ngi b nhim phng x); s dng bom ht nhn (M nm bom nguyn t Hiroshima v Nagasaki vo thng 8/1945 git cht hng chc vn ngi) hoc cc v th bom ht nhn cc o Nam Thi Bnh Dng, Trung . Bc x ht nhn c kh nng gy cht ngi do ph v cu trc t bo, tc hi n nhim sc th. cng thp, bc x ht nhn cng c kh nng gy tc ng mn tnh n nhim sc th gy ung th, hi phi thai, nh hng n di truyn. 5.3.1.10. Nhit Cng thc NH3 C8H5NHCH H2S (CH3)2S, CH3SSCH3 CH3SH, CH3(CH2)3SH CH3NH2, (CH3)3N NH2(CH2)4NH Cl2 C6H5OH Mi Khai Phn Trng thi Bp ci ra Hi C n Tht thi Nng (c trng ca clo) Hc (c trng ca phenol)
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Nhit cng l tc nhn vt l gy nhim ngun nc. Vic gia tng nhit nc sng ch yu l do nc gii nhit t cc nh my nhit in hoc cc nh my cn nc gii nhit. i vi nh my nhit in c cng sut 400 600 MW, chy bng than, du phi cn lu lng nc gii nhit ln n 20 50m3/s. Sau khi qua h thng gii nhit, nhit nc c th tng hn ban u 7 9oC. Lng nc nng ny x trc tip vo sng s gy tng nhit dng sng. Vic gia tng nhit nc sng c th lm thay i cu trc h sinh thi nc. Cc loi to lc, to lam chu nhit tt s pht trin u th nu nhit nc sng trn 32oC. Khi tng nhit , vic h hp ca c s gia tng nhng oxy ha tan li suy gim, mt s loi c c th b cht, trng c v c con rt nhy cm vi s gia tng nhit . 5.3.2. Cc yu t nh hng n c tnh 5.3.2.1. c tnh ca c cht c th hin qua nng v thi gian tc ng ti v tr tip nhn tng thch ln sinh vt v ph thuc vo tng loi ha cht, loi sinh vt. Cc ha cht tan trong nc thng hot ng hn cc ha cht khng tan do kh nng xm nhp vo c th qua ton b din tch b mt c th (da, mang, ming). Tn s ca s ng c cng nh hng n c tnh. Mt s ng c cp tnh ca mt ha cht tc ng n l ln mt sinh vt s gy ra tc ng c hi tc th, trong khi , hai s ng c lin tip m tng lng ha cht c tng ng mt s ng c cp tnh s c th gy ra tc hi t hn hoc khng c tc hi. iu ny xy ra l do qu trnh trao i cht ca ha cht gy c hay do s thch nghi ca sinh vt i vi ha cht. Tuy nhin, nu ha cht khng d dng tham gia vo s trao i cht v c bi tit ra ngoi, chng c th tch t li trong c th v gy ra s ng c mn tnh. 5.3.2.2. c tnh ca sinh vt b tc ng Cc loi khc nhau hay dng pht trin ca loi (v hnh dng, mc tin ha, kh nng l thuc mi trng nc, ) c tnh nhy cm khc nhau ty thuc vo tng loi ha cht tc ng. T l v kiu trao i cht (n gin hay phc tp) nh hng trc tip n qu trnh phn gii c t, to kh nng ng c hoc t ng c hn cho sinh vt tip nhn. 5.3.2.3. Yu t mi trng Nhit
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Trong mi trng nc c th lm tng, gim hay khng nh hng n c tnh ty thuc vo loi c t v loi sinh vt. Trong s nhim c cp tnh, khong thi gian khng i vi loi gy cht s thay i khi nhit thay i ph thuc loi c t v sinh vt tip nhn. Km, thy ngn, phenol, naphthenic acid s tng c tnh nhit thp. Mui cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, mt s thuc tr su (DDT, eldrin, permethrin, ) gia tng c tnh khi nhit tng. C hi i Ty Dng c ngng LC50 nhit 19oC cao hn ngng nhit 3oC hay 5oC i vi c tnh ca km. Trng hp s tng nhit mi trng lm gia tng c tnh ca c cht c gii thch l do nhit lm tng qu trnh ion ha, gii phng c t di dng khng lin kt, d xm nhp qua mng t bo. Th d, s thay i nhit t 0 30oC s lm tng hm lng NH3 trong nc ln gp 9 ln trong cng mt iu kin pH, do lm gia tng c tnh trong mi trng nc. Bn cnh , i vi sinh vt, mt nghin cu cho thy s tc ng gin tip nhng rt quan trng ca nhit ln hot ng ca DDT trong c th, mt tc ng c th gii phng cc cht c khc tch t trong m m ca ng vt. C hi tch t thuc tr su nhiu hn trong mi trng nc m (Reinert et al., 1974) nhng s tch t ny s dn n mc t vong khi loi c ny b a vo vng nc c nhit thp hn v ngun thc n b thiu. DDT c gii phng khi cc m d tr v gy c tc th khi cc m m c hot ha trong iu kin thiu thc n. Oxy ha tan Mt s nghin cu v ng c cp tnh trn ng vt thc nghim xc nh mc gia tng hay suy gim c tnh ph thuc vo s thay i oxy ha tan. Th d, c tnh ca amonia trong loi c hi by mu s gia tng 1,9 ln khi lng oxy ha tan gim t 80 30% mc bo ha (Thurston et al., 1961), iu ny c gii thch l do lng oxy thp nn lng nc qua mang s tng ln, gy ra s gia tng pH cc b v do lm gia tng lng amonia cha c ion ha, khin c tnh tng ln. i vi c vng, c tnh H2S s gia tng gp 1,4 ln khi gim lng oxygen t 63 10% mc bo ha (Adelman v Smith, 1972). pH S thay i pH trong mi trng nc c th lm thay i tnh c ca mt cht. Ion amonia (NH4+) trong mi trng nc l t c hay hon ton khng c, s gia tng pH lm gia tng s ion ha NH4+ thnh dng t do NH3, cc phn t khng lin kt ny s tr nn c hn do d c xm nhp vo m t bo, lm gia tng tc dng c, c hi, LC50 khi nhim c NH3 dao ng t 0,2 0,7 mg/l. Mt s nghin cu vi NH3 trong mi trng nc cho thy, gia tng
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mt n v pH trong mt din tch nc mt nht nh s lm gia tng lng NH3 ln 6 ln v ng thi lm gia tng c tnh. i vi Cyanide, phn t HCN chim u th trong mi trng acid hoc trung tnh, nhng pH ln hn 8,5, mt lng ng k CN- xut hin, khi c tnh s gim i do HCN c c tnh mnh gp hai ln dng ion CN 5.3.3. Th nghim c hc (Toxicity test) 5.3.3.1. i tng nghin cu Nghin cu c hc mi trng nc c cho l nhng nghin cu c bn nht trong c hc mi trng. Phm vi v i tng nghin cu rt rng, bao gm: Nc thi (cng nghip, sinh hat, r rc) Nc sng ngi (nc mt) Nc ging (nc ngm) Nc knh rch (nc mt) Bn lng (sng ngi, knh rch) Nc bin v ven bin Nc nui trng thy sn.
5.3.3.2. Phng php tin hnh Lm th no o c c tnh ca mt mu nc (mi trng nc)? n gin ha bng cch dng sinh vt sng trong nc o c tnh ca mi trng ang xem xt (mu nc). Khi xt nghim c tnh cn phi tun th mt s qui trnh nht nh. Mt s qui trnh chun th nghim c hc hin nay ang c s dng: qui trnh tiu chun ca OECD, ISO, ASTM theo 2 loi th nghim: th nghim c tnh cp (Acute toxicity test) v th nghim c tnh mn (Chronic toxicity test). V ch c nhng kt qu php th nghim c hc c tin hnh theo qui trnh chun mi c cng nhn. Vi mu nc: Cn x l s b (v d nu mu c c cao cn phi kh c, nu mu c mn cao cng cn x l, pH cao hoc thp qu cng cn trung ha trc khi th nghim c hc Vi mu bn: Cn thit phi x l mu ra dng lng bng dung dch chit trc khi tin hnh th nghim c hc.
Dung dch chit c th l nc (phng php chit rt nc) xt nghim phn c cht (thng l cc hp cht v c) ha tan trong nc. Dung dch chit c th l cht hu c nh CDMO, CDM (phng php chit rt hu c) xt nghim phn c cht (thng l cc hp cht hu c) ha tan trong dung mi hu c.
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5.3.3.3. Nhng yu t cn thit v quan trng o c tnh Nhm yu t th nht: c ph thuc vo lng ha cht tip xc vi sinh vt: cng cht gy c, nng cht c, thi gian tip xc Tt c cc yu t lin quan n c u lin quan n nng (dose). C th ni rng, tt c cc cht khi vt qu mt liu lng no th u gy c. V vy mi c cc tiu chun cho cc lai nc dng vi cc mc ch s dng khc nhau. V du: cho nc thi c TCVN ngun A, Btiu chun nc cp, tiu chun nc mt, tiu chun nc cho nui trng thy sn Nhm yu t th hai: Tnh cht gy c, mc nh hng, cch thc cc cht c gy tc ng ln sinh vt v hu qu ca n. Mi quan h gia hai nhm yu t ny chnh l liu lng (dose) v s tch ng ca sinh vt (bioavailability). V th nghim c hc l cho cht c v sinh vt tip xc vi nhau (expose) v chng ta quan st qu trnh xy ra vi sinh vt v nh gi bng cc php o c. y l c s nh gi s nguy hi v ri ro ca cc cht c trong mi trng. Hay ni mt cch khc, cc tc ng gy hi ln sc khe con ngi hay sinh vt ang xt th c gi l tnh c. Cc php o c (hay im cui ca th nghim: end point): ph thuc vp phng php th nghim cp tnh hay mn tnh. Thng trong th nghim c hc cp tnh th im cui ca th nghim thng l: Php o l t l sinh vt cht tnh bng %: LC (%) Php o l % cht c gy nh hng n sinh vt: EC% Php o l cc phn ng sinh ha ca sinh vt (biochemical) Php o s bt ng ca sinh vt (immobility) Php o thay i sinh l sinh vt (physicologycal)
Cn php o kh nng sinh sn thng s dng trong cc th nghim c hc mn tnh. 5.3.3.4. nh gi v c lng liu lng Thng th trc khi th nghim c hc, ngi ta phi tin hnh cc bc: c lng liu lng gy c: nng gy c lm cho 50% sinh vt cht LC50 Nng cao nht khng gy nh hng cho sinh vt NOEC (no observed effect concentrtion)
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5.4. Cht thi c hi i cng v bin php qun l 5.4.1. Cc khi nim 5.4.1.1. Theo C quan Mi trng Hoa K Cht thi c hi (hazardous waste) l cht rn hoc t hp cc cht thi rn do lng hoc nng hoc do c tnh vt l, ha hc, tnh truyn nhim m n c th: (1) to ra hoc gp phn ng k vo vic tng kh nng t vong hoc gy bnh tt nghim trng (2) to ra s nguy hi n sc kho con ngi hoc mi trng trong khi x l, bo qun hoc vn chuyn. (Lut Bo tn v phc hi ti nguyn RCRA). Cht thi c hi l cht c mt hoc mt vi tnh cht sau: C c tnh gy chy, gy st r, c tnh phn ng (gy n) hoc c tnh c pht tn t ngun thi khng c bit (non-specific source waste) hoc t ngun thi c bit (cc ngnh cng ngh chuyn bit). T sn phm hoc bn thnh phm ha hc thng mi hay t hn hp cha cht thi c hi.
(C quan Bo v Mi trng Hoa K - USEPA). 5.4.1.2. Theo Chng trnh Mi trng Lin Hip Quc (UNEP 12.1985) Cc cht thi c hi l cc cht thi (dng rn, bn, lng v kh nhng khng bao gm cc cht phng x v vi trng) c tnh cht ha hc hoc c kh nng gy c,
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gy chy, st r hoc c cc c im gy nguy hi n sc kho con ngi hoc mi trng khi tn ti ring r hoc khi tip xc vi cc cht thi khc. 5.4.1.3. Theo C quan Mi trng Canada (CEA) Cht thi c hi l cht thi m do tnh cht hoc khi lng c th gy nguy hi n sc kho con ngi hoc mi trng v phi cn n k thut c bit mi c th loi tr hoc gim thiu kh nng gy nguy hi. 5.4.2. Phn loi cht thi c hi 5.4.2.1. Phn loi ca C quan Mi trng Hoa K Hai phng php xc nh mt cht thi c thuc loi c hi hay khng c p dng ti Hoa K l: (1) th nghim trong phng th nghim (2) so snh vi danh mc cc cht thi c hi c cc c quan chc nng cng b. Bin php th nghim Da vo cc c im sau xc nh cht thi c hi: Tnh n mn (gy st r) (cht thi c tnh acid hoc kim cao) Tnh gy chy (cht thi d gy chy trong khi bo qun thng thng) Tnh phn ng (cht thi c kh nng gy phn ng ha hc tc thi, th d nh gy n) Tnh c (cht thi c kh nng gy u c mt lng nht nh).
Phng php i chiu vi bng Lut Lin bang Hoa K xc nh c bn loi bng tra cu cht thi c hi. Mt trong cc bng ny l danh mc cc cht c t cc ngun c bit (specific source). C khong 100 cht thi thuc loi ny, phn ln u c c tnh cao. Cc cht thi loi ny c k hiu l cht thi K. Cc ngun c bit gm cc loi hnh cng nghip sn xut ha cht c (ha cht BVTV, ha du, thp, ). Loi bng th hai c xy dng cho cc cht thi c hi t cc ngun khng c bit (non-specific source) v c k hiu l cht thi F. Cc ngun khng c bit gm cc ngnh sn xut thng thng. Mt s ngnh sn xut sn phm thng dng nhng c th to ra nhiu cht thi c hi, th d cng ngh xi m c nc thi cha kim loi nng; cng ngh sn, cht do c cht thi cha dung mi hu c, kim loi,
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C quan Bo v Mi trng Hoa K cn c hai loi bng khc, k hiu l cc cht thi P v cc cht thi U i vi mt s sn phm ha hc thng mi. Cc h thng phn loi khc Ngoi hai bin php trn, c quan Bo v Mi trng Hoa K cn a ra mt s h thng phn loi khc nh: Phn loi theo mc nguy hi Cch phn loi ny da vo thnh phn, nng , linh ng, kh nng tn lu, lan truyn, con ng ti xc v liu lng ca cht thi. Phn loi da vo c im cht thi Cch phn loi ny da vo dng hoc phase phn b (lng/rn); cht hu c hoc v c; nhm, loi ha cht (dung mi hoc kim loi nng); thnh phn cc cht c hi. Bng: H thng phn loi k thut i vi cht thi c hi Cc loi chnh c im Cht thi dng lng bao gm nc c cha cc cht acid hoc kim hoc cht v c c hi (kim loi nng, cyanua, ) Th d - H2SO4 r r trong xng xi m - Cht kim ri vi trong xng luyn kim - NH3 phng thi t xng sn xut bn in t - Nc thi t xng xi m - Nc ra cc thng ng ha cht BVTV - Nc ra l phn ng ha hc - Dung mi r r t xng nh bng kim loi - Dch chng ct r r t xng sn xut ha cht - Du nht s dng t ng c t trong - Du thy lc s dng t cc thit b
Nc thi v c
Nc thi hu c
Cht thi dng lng gm nc cha cc cht hu c c hi Cht lng cha cht hu c
Cht thi lng hu c
Du m
Cht thi dng lng cha du m
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c gii nng - Du ct s dng t cc xng c kh Bn, bi, cht thi rn - Bn t trm x l cht thi ca xng cha cht v c c hi in cc thy ngn Bn v c - Bi trong h thng x l kh thi ca nh my luyn kim - Bn t xng in - Mui than t xng sn xut sn
Bn hu c
Mui than, bn, cht thi rn cha cht hu c c hi
(Ngun: EPA, 1999) 5.4.2.2. Phn loi ca T chc Y t Th gii (WHO) Phn loi ha cht c hi theo gi tr liu gy cht 50% s lng ng vt thc nghim (LD50): Phn nhm v k hiu nhm c Ia c mnh, Rt c Ib c cao c II c trung bnh c hi III c t Ch IV Cn thn Biu tng nhm c c tnh cp LD50 (chut nh) mg/kg Qua ming Qua da Th rn Th lng Th rn Th lng <5 5-50 50-500 5002000 > 2000 < 20 20-200 200-2000 20003000 > 3000 < 10 10-100 1001000 > 1000 < 40 40-400 400-4000 > 4000 -
Khng c
5.4.3. Ngun to ra cht thi c hi 5.4.3.1. Cc ngun sn xut cng nghip L ngun ch yu, c bit l cng nghip ha cht, bn cnh cc ngnh cng nghip khc (luyn kim, xi m, dt nhum, pin accu, thuc da, sn xut phn bn, giy, ) cng l ngun quan trng to ra cc cht thi c hi. Cc cht thi c pht tn ch yu t ngun nc thi, kh thi, cht thi rn ca qu trnh sn xut cng nghip. Bng: Cc cht nhim in hnh (phn in nghing ch cc cht c c tnh cao) trong nc thi mt s ngnh cng nghip
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Ngnh cng nghip Luyn thp Xi mng Sn xut knh Sn xut phn ln Thuc da Ha du Sn xut ha cht BVTV Cht nhim chnh Cht nhim ph
Du m, pH, NH4+, CN-, Cl-, SO42-, to phenol, SS, Fe, Sn, Cr, Zn COD, pH, SS, to Cromat, P, Zn, P, S2-, TDS COD, pH, SS BOD, Cromat, Zn, Cu, Cr, Fe, Sn, NO3-, TDS TDS, F-, pH, SS Al, Fe2-, Hg, N, SO42-, Uranium BOD, COD, SS, mu, Cr, N, P, TDS, coliform NH4+, du m, phenol, S, sulfua BOD, COD, du m, phenol, NH4+, NO3-, SS, CN-, P, TOC, kim loi nng, sulfua Zn BOD, COD, ha cht BVTV, N, P, SS dung mi hu c
Ngoi nc thi cng nghip, cc loi cht thi rn cng nghip cng cha nhiu loi cht c hi (du m, kim loi nng, ha cht hu c, v c, ). 5.4.3.2. Bn t cc c s x l nc thi Qu trnh x l nc thi th v nc thi cng nghip lun lun to ra bn. Trong thnh phn bn thng c cha cht thi c hi l cc cht c bn cao, khng b phn hy trong qu trnh x l, mt s trong c c tnh cao (th d bn sau x l nc thi cng nghip in t c cha cc kim loi nng, flo, ), nu bn ny vo t s gy nhim mi trng lu di. 5.4.3.3. Cht thi th Cht thi rn (rc) th v nc thi t khu dn c, bnh vin, vn phng, khch sn, cng cha mt lng nht nh cc cht c hi. 5.4.3.4. Ha cht BVTV Hng nm trn th gii, lng ha cht BVTV c s dng trong nng nghip ln n hng triu tn. Cc loi ha cht BVTV ch yu l: Cc hp cht clo hu c (lindane, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, thiodan, DDT, ) Cc hp cht phosphor hu c (methaphos, basudine, methamidophos, ) Cc hp cht cacbamat (furadan, bassa, ) Cc hp cht c kim loi Cc hp cht pyrethroid tng hp (cypremethrine, decis, )
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Hu ht cc ha cht BVTV, c bit l bn loi u, u c c tnh cao v c kh nng tn lu lu di trong mi trng. 5.4.4. D phng nhim v gim thiu cht thi c hi Qun l cht thi c hi bao gm nhiu bin php: Loi b hoc lm gim khi lng cht thi Ti ch hoc ti s dng cht thi X l hoc phn hy cht thi (phn hy c hc, x l ha hc, phn hy nhit, ) Tiu tn cht thi (a vo nc, khng kh, t)
Ty theo bn cht ca cht thi c hi, mc yu cu gim thiu, v tr kinh t, c th s dng mt hoc phi hp nhiu bin php trn. Trong tt c cc bin php qun l cht thi, bin php gim khi lng cht thi d phng nhim l thng c s dng nht. Bin php ny gm nhiu cch thc nh s dng hp l nguyn vt liu v s dng cng ngh ph hp. 5.4.4.1. Cch tip cn v d phng nhim v gim thiu cht thi c hi thc s gim thiu khi lng cht thi c hi, cc nh qun l cng nghip cn lun xem xt cc cu hi di y: Liu tt c cc nh qun l, k s, nh nghin cu, cng nhn ca cng ty lm quen vi cc bin php k thut gim cht thi hay cha? Cc nh qun l thy gi tr ca cht thi theo ngha chng c th c ti ch lm nguyn liu hay cha? Cc k s mi trng c o to tt hay cha? Cc cn bng vt cht cho thy cht thi c to ra hp l hay cha?
Cc ni dung chnh ca vic d phng v gim cht thi c hi l: Ti ch ton b hoc mt phn cht thi Ci thin quy trnh cng ngh v thit b gim cc ngun to ra cht thi Ci thin cc hot ng ca nh my. Th d cc khu qun l, x l vt liu, bo tr thit b, quan trc theo di cht thi, t ng ha thit b v lng ghp vic tnh ton cn bng cht vo thit k cng ngh. Thay th nguyn liu to ra t cht thi c hi hn hoc lm gim lng cht c hi a vo qu trnh sn xut. Thit k li hoc thay i cc sn phm cui cng
Vic ti ch cht thi thng c thc hin trc khi x l nhim. D phng nhim thng l tt hn, d v tn t kinh ph hn so vi vic x l nhim.
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5.4.4.2. Trin khai mt h thng kim sot theo di cht thi Mt mc tiu ca d phng nhim v gim cht thi l ti thiu ha vic x l cht thi. X l cht thi l cng on cui cng ca qu trnh sn xut, i hi chi ph ln. Tuy nhin, nu thc hin tt cc bin php d phng nhim trong tng cng on th vic x l cht thi s khng ng k. Do , mt h thng kim sot cht thi l mt phn quan trng ca h thng thng tin qun l mi trng ca nh my. H thng kim sot bao gm vic iu tra cc nguyn liu, cht thi trong qu trnh lu tr v cht thi c to ra trong qu trnh sn xut. Da vo bng iu tra ny, cc cht thi c hi s c xc nh v cc chin lc gim thiu tc ng ca chng n mi trng s c xy dng. Vic s dng ng n h thng kim sot theo di cht thi c th cho php tp trung vo vic d phng nhim v s dng hiu qu nguyn liu hn l tp trung vo x l cht thi. H thng kim sot theo di cht thi cn linh ng, c th thay i khi thay i thng tin. S dng cht thi: Mt mc tiu c bn ca vic xy dng h thng kim tra theo di cht thi l trin khai s dng cht thi. S ny cho php tnh ton cn bng khi lng mt cch nh lng cho u vo v u ra ca qu trnh cng ngh. S ny cn cn thit cho vic xy dng c s ca chng trnh gim thiu cht thi. Nu khng c s ny th h thng theo di cht thi s khng chnh xc. xy dng s dng cht thi, cn phi c kin thc v cng ngh, hiu bit v tnh cht ha hc, vt l ca nguyn liu.
Nghin cu hot ng
S nh tnh
Pht trin thng tin quy trnh
S dng nh lng
Trnh t trin khai s dng cht thi. M hnh qun l cht thi nguy hi:
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Bng cch xc nh r ngun gc v khi lng cht thi v cc cht khc trong quy trnh cng ngh, ta c th thit k c m hnh qun l cht thi. M hnh ny cn phi nh c cn bng khi lng c dng tng qut theo mi quan h sau:
u vo = sn phm + lun chuyn nguyn liu + x b cht thi + tiu tn cht thi
Mi quan h cn bng khi lng cn c trin khai cho tng bc trong m hnh qun l cht thi.
Nguyn liu
Mua nguyn liu Nguyn liu Ti ch S dng nguyn liu Cht thi Tch ly cht thi Ti s dng Cc sn phm
X b
Qun l cht thi ti ch
Tiu tn
Qun l cht thi bn ngoi nh my
X b
Tiu tn
S nguyn l ca m hnh qun l cht thi. Cc mi quan h trong h thng qun l cht thi c hiu nh sau: Mua nguyn liu: - Tm kim ngun nguyn liu - Vn chuyn, bo qun - Phn phi S dng nguyn liu: - Quy trnh sn xut, ti ch - To ra cht thi Tch ly cht thi: - Thu gom v tn tr - Ti s dng, ti ch
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Qun l cht thi ti ch: - X l, x b - Tiu tn Qun l cht thi bn ngoi nh my: - Vn chuyn v tn tr - X l, x b - Tiu tn. Th d v m hnh qun l cht thi i vi h thng xi m.
Nh c/c ha cht Mua Bc d Cha kho Phn phi Cha ca hng
Nc thi
Hot ng xi m
Ti ch
Tch ly nc thi
Ti s dng
X l nc thi ti ch
Ch ra bn ngoi
Tiu tn Ti ch X b
Bn ch Ti ch
Tch ly bn
Ti s dng
X l bn ti ch
Vn chuyn ra bn ngoi
Tiu tn
Lun chuyn
Cha tm thi
X l bn ti ch
Lun chuyn
Cha tm thi
X l nc thi bn ngoi
X b
Tiu tn X b Tiu tn
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Trao i trc tuyn ti:

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Trao i trc tuyn ti: http://www.mientayvn.com/chat_box_hoa.html
CHNG 6.
NGHIN CU NH GI RI RO C HC MI TRNG
6.1. Cc khi nim c bn C hai cch tip cn bo v mi trng v sc kho con ngi. Cch th nht l loi tr cht nhim hoc ngng cc hot ng pht sinh ra cht nhim. Vic gim thiu cht nhim n nng bng khng thng i hi u t ln hoc nh ch cc hot ng kinh t v do , c th gy tr ngi n sn xut, phn phi hng ha, cung cp cc dch v ng gp phc li cho x hi v pht trin kinh t. Cch tip cn th hai da trn quan im ri ro, cho php tn ti mc nhim trong mi trng, gy ri ro thp hoc chp nhn c i vi sc kho con ngi v mi trng, v khng nht thit phi i hi mc nhim t gi tr khng. Cc nghin cu khoa hc ch ra rng, khi nng cht nhim thp hn gi tr ngng th khng xy ra tc ng c hi. C ngha l pht trin kinh t c th c qun l mc ph hp, va cho php bo v sc kho con ngi v mi trng, va duy tr c cc hot ng em li li ch kinh t. 6.1.1. Ri ro mi trng Ri ro l xc sut ca mt tc ng ln con ngi hay mi trng, do tip xc vi mt cht. N thng c biu din qua xc sut xy ra tc ng c hi, tc l t s gia s lng c th b nh hng v tng s c th tip xc vi tc nhn gy ri ro. Ri ro mi trng l kh nng m iu kin mi trng, khi b thay i bi hot ng ca con ngi, c th gy ra cc tc ng c hi cho mt i tng no . Cc i tng b tc ng bao gm con ngi (sc khe, tnh mng), h sinh thi (loi, sinh cnh, ti nguyn,...) v x hi (cc nhm cng ng, cc loi hnh hot ng, ...). Tc nhn gy ri ro, c th l tc nhn ha hc (cht dinh dng, kim loi nng, thuc BVTV,...), sinh hc (vi trng, vi khun gy bnh,...), vt l (nhit , bn ct l lng trong nc, ...) hay cc hnh ng mang tnh c hc (cht cy ngp mn, nh bt c qu mc, ...). Cc i tng b ri ro v tc nhn gy ri ro nm trong mi quan h rt phc tp, nhiu tc nhn c th gy ri ro cho mt i tng, ng thi nhiu i tng c th b tc ng bi mt tc nhn gy ri ro. Nh vy, ri ro ph thuc vo mc tip xc ca i tng i vi tc nhn gy ri ro v mc gy hi tim tng ca cc tc nhn ln i tng. 6.1.2. nh gi ri ro mi trng
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nh gi ri ro c s dng rng ri trong nhiu chuyn ngnh khc nhau v ang c s dng ngy cng nhiu xem xt cc vn mi trng. nh gi ri ro mi trng s dng cch nh gi c tnh khoa hc, da trn cc thng tin c c, nhm xc nh mc ca ri ro i vi sc kho con ngi v h sinh thi, gy ra bi cc tc nhn khc nhau pht sinh t chnh cc hot ng ca con ngi. nh gi ri ro bao gm mt s hay ton b cc ni dung: Xc nh mi nguy hi, nh gi nh hng, nh gi tip xc v c trng ha ri ro. l vic xc nh v nh lng ri ro pht sinh t vic s dng hoc xut hin ca mt ha cht no , bao gm vic m t cc mi quan h gia mc tip xc vi liu lng gy phn ng v xc nh s c th ca i tng. nh gi ri ro c th tin hnh cc mc khc nhau, t nh gi mang tnh nh tnh (do tnh trng s liu hn ch) n nh gi nh lng (khi thng tin cho tnh ton xc sut). nh gi ri ro mi trng l qu trnh lng ha kh nng m tc nhn ri ro gy hi cho i tng quan tm, khi con ngi s dng mi trng t mt mc ch no trong hot ng ca mnh. Kt qu nh gi ri ro mi trng cng tin cy, cng chi tit, th cc nh qun l, hoch nh chnh sch mi trng cng a ra c cc quyt nh cn thit, chnh xc v an ton i vi sc kho. 6.2. L thuyt nh gi ri ro mi trng 6.2.1. Phng php tip cn nh gi ri ro mi trng nh gi ri ro mi trng l mt cng c c hiu qu, gip cc nh qun l ti nguyn v mi trng a ra cc quyt nh hp l nhm ngn nga, gim thiu v loi tr cc tc ng c hi gy ra i vi con ngi, mi trng v x hi ni chung, ng thi m bo mc sn xut hp l; c ngha l to ra c s gip cho cc nh qun l mi trng cn bng gia trch nhim bo v con ngi v mi trng vi s pht trin kinh t. C hai cch tip cn trong nh gi ri ro mi trng: nh gi ri ro hi c (GRRHC) v nh gi ri ro d bo (GRRDB). C hai cch tip cn ny cng c s dng trong mt nh gi ri ro hon chnh. GRRHC l qu trnh xc nh cc nguyn nhn gy ri ro trn c s cc tc ng xy ra, qua xc nh cc tc nhn nghi ng v mi lin h gia chng vi cc tc ng c hi, th hin qua cc chui s liu v bng chng lin quan thu thp c. Ni dung ca GRRHC c th hin qua cc bc chnh sau: Bc 1: Xc nh cc ngun gy ri ro Bc 2: Xc nh ng truyn ri ro Bc 3: Xc nh mc l din/tip xc ca i tng i vi tc nhn
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Bc 4: Xc nh ngng chp nhn ca i tng Bc 5: Xc nh cc tc ng vt ngng i vi i tng.
Ngc li, GRRDB l qu trnh xc nh cc tc ng tim tng gy ra bi cc tc nhn gy ri ro, ang tn ti v s pht sinh trong tng lai. N c th c tm tt trong ba bc chnh sau: Bc 1: Xc nh cc i tng, l din/tip xc vi cc tc nhn gy ri ro Bc 2: Xc nh mc l din/tip xc Bc 3: Xc nh kh nng/mc gy hi ca cc tc nhn gy ri ro n cc i tng.
6.2.2. H s ri ro Hay cn c tnh nh l mt ch s nguy hi (Hazard index - HI), l mt trong nhng thng s quan trng s dng trong nh gi ri ro mi trng. Ch s nguy hi (HI) trong trng hp i vi h sinh thi c th c xc nh bng t l gia nng o c/tnh ton c (Measured environmental concentration MEC) hay nng d bo (Predicted environmental concentration - PEC) ca cc nhn t ny trong mi trng v gi tr ngng (Reference Dose - RfD) (c xc nh t cc tiu chun, ch th, quy nh lin quan) hay nng khng gy ra tc ng c hi (Predicted no effect concentration - PNEC) (c xc nh qua s liu thc nghim hoc d on).
HI MEC / PEC RfD / PNEC
Nu gi tr ca h s ri ro nh hn 1, ri ro cn thp v c th chp nhn c; ngc li, nu h s ri ro ln hn hoc bng 1, c th phi trin khai cc chng trnh qun l lin quan. Tuy nhin, s liu o c hoc tnh ton v nng mt cht gy nhim no thng l mt tp hp cc i lng ngu nhin. Tng t, tp hp cc gi tr ngng lin quan (tiu chun quc t, quc gia, a phng khc nhau v s dng cho cc mc ch khc nhau) cng c xem l tp i lng ngu nhin. Do vy, h s ri ro tm c cng s l mt i lng hoc mt tp ngu nhin. iu ny ni ln rng, kt lun a ra v kh nng mt tc nhn c gy ri ro hay khng l kt lun mang tnh xc sut. Cc tnh ton trong l thuyt xc sut, do , cn c s dng nh gi tin cy ca nhng kt lun nh vy. 6.2.3. Qun l ri ro
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Kt qu ca nh gi ri ro mi trng c s dng cho vic Qun l ri ro, bao gm xc nh, la chn v thc hin cc k hoch hnh ng nhm kim sot ri ro, gim s lng v mc (hoc loi b) cc tc nhn gy ri ro. Phn tch chi ph-li ch cn c tin hnh i vi cc phng n qun l, m bo khng ch s an ton cho mi trng, sc khe con ngi, m c hiu qu kinh t. Cc bc chnh trong qun l ri ro c th tm tt nh sau: Bc 1: Xc nh cc ri ro khng chp nhn c Bc 2: Xc nh cc phng n gim thiu cc ri ro Bc 3: Phn tch chi ph-li ch i vi cc phng n Bc 4: a ra quy nh, chnh sch Bc 5: T chc thc hin cc quy nh/chnh sch Bc 6: Quan trc v r sot cc phng n qun l, nu cn th quay v Bc 1.
Trn th gii phng php nh gi ri ro mi trng v ang c s dng rng ri, c bit M, Canaa v cc nc khi cng ng Chu u. Vic nh gi ri ro mi trng c p dng cho eo bin Malacca (chung ca ba nc Singapo, Malaixia v Innxia) nm 1999, a ra cc kt lun quan trng v kh nng ri ro do trn du v cc xut lin quan cho ba quc gia ni trn. i vi Vnh Manila, Philipin, nh gi ri ro mi trng bc u xc nh v lng ha c mc ca cc ri ro chnh i vi mi trng nc ca Vnh. n lc nh gi ri ro mi trng cn c p dng rng ri ti Vit Nam nhm s dng hiu qu hn cc b d liu mi trng thu thp c trong nhng nm qua, hon thin cc chng trnh quan trc mi trng trn c s cc l hng thng tin quan trng c xc nh, tp trung vo nhng vn u tin, c nguy c gy ri ro cao, to thm c s khoa hc tin cy cho cc xut qun l lin quan n gim thiu ri ro mi trng. 6.3. Phng php lun nh gi ri ro, nguy hi ca c cht vi mi trng 6.3.1. i tng v phm vi nh gi Cc th nghim c hc (toxicity test): Xc nh nh hng ca tan b mu mi trng (bao hm cc thnh phn ha hc v cc yu t khc trong mu) ln sinh vt th nghim. Th nghim sinh hc (bioassay): Xc nh ngng gy c ca mt lai ha cht: thng dng i vi cc ha cht tinh khit v xc nh nh hng ca n n mu mi trng.
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Sinh trc (biomonitoring): tng hp p ng ca sinh vt vi cc yu t mi trng. o s tch t sinh hc (bioaccuminalation) qua chui thc n: o hm lng cht c no trong c th sinh vt. o s p ng v sinh ha (biomarkers): c dng nh mt lai th nghim sinh hc nh gi nh hng ca mt cht nhim no . V d nh o s thay i hm lng 1 lai protein no c tng hp trong c th sinh vt khi cho sinh vt sng trong mi trng c cha cht c. Nghin cu trn qun th (community): Khoanh vng nghin cu v xem xt s bin i s lng cc lai.
6.3.2. Phng php xt nghim c t 6.3.2.1. Phm vi nghin cu Qui m phng th nghim. Khoanh vng nghin cu.
6.3.2.2. S hu ch ca phng php c hc o c mt dng hay lai cht c vi cc hnh thi ha hc khc nhau. Xc nh c s lan truyn ca cht c. Cng c phc tho cc quyt nh v qun l mi trng. Quyt nh nhanh cc bc tip theo: c nn phn tch tip hay khng. Kt lun nhanh v v tr xem xt c cn thit phc hi hay khng. Xc nh mc ngun: quyt nh mc phc hi.
6.3.2.3. Mt s hn ch ca phng php Tt c cc th nghim c hc phi i km cc phn tch ha hc v mt s kho st khc. Cn thit quan trc s phc hi (hay dng trong ci to t) Cc yu cu bt buc kht khe: k nng th nghim, tiu chun tin hnh th nghim, qui m tin hnh Cn thit mt s cng c ph tr nh gi: GIS, nh vim thm
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6.3.2.4. Pham vi ng dng nh gi ngun nhim khng im. nhim nc. Vng sinh thi.
6.4. nh gi ri ro, nguy hi ca c cht vi mi trng Vic nghin cu nh gi ri ro c hc mi trng thng qua cc bc ch yu sau: Bc 1: o c cc hp cht c trong mi trng. Cc hp cht c bao gm: Sn phm ha nng: thuc BVTV, phn bn Sn phm ha dc: Cc lai thuc Ha cht cng nghip: sn xut ha cht. Sn phm ph: Sn phm i km vi qu trnh sn xut cc sn phm khc.
Phng php o c th dng phng php phn tch ha hc hay sinh hc. Bc 2: nh gi cht c theo nhng phng php lun khc nhau. Cu to cht c, cc phn ng c th xy ra trong mi trng. Xem xt qu trnh tip xc cht c trong mi trng Nhng p ng ca sinh vt vi cht c Tm ra c trng v cht c: c tnh gy ra do thnh phn cht c hay cc nguyn nhn khc.
Bc 3: Mc ch ca vic nh gi ri ro c tnh. Khi nh gi ri ro c hc, ngi ta cn t c 2 mc tiu: (1) Tin an c nh hng ca cht c i vi mi trng. (2) Xem xt ngc li cc qu trnh xy ra rt ra bi hc cnh bo. Mc tiu 1 cng c xem l mt mc tiu trong qun l hp cht mi khi a vo mi trng. Thay v phi c nhng bin php kim sat gt gao, cc nh qun l mi trng cn phi hp, gn nh khuyn khch cc nh sn xut thc hin cc bin php nh:
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Nn khuyn co trc cc kh nng ri ro c th xy ra v c bin php gim thiu nh hng ti thiu ti mi trng. Gim bt s tip xc Cc dch v phc v Khuyn khch cc nh sn xut t nguyn gim sn lng ha cht. D thc hin nht i vi nhm ha cht th 3
Cc Bo v Mi trng M (USEPA) a ra quy trnh nh gi ri ro i vi c cht theo 4 bc: (1) Xc nh cc iu kin tip xc vi cht c (con ng tip xc, tn sut, thi gian v liu lng cht c a vo c th). (2) Xc nh liu tham chiu (Reference Dose - RfD) ph hp vi mi iu kin tip xc. (3) nh gi mc tc hi ca c cht hay kh nng u c ca cht nhim thng qua ch s nguy hi (HI), c tnh bng t s gia liu cht c v gi tr RfD la chn. (4) Kt hp c tnh i vi nhiu loi cht c v con ng tip xc qua ch s nguy hi chung. 6.5. nh gi an ton ca c cht Trn thc t, vic d on nng khng gy ra tc ng c hi (PNEC) thng kh chnh xc. Do vy, gi tr ny ch c th c xc nh da vo phn tch s liu dch t hc khi th nghim trn ng vt. Theo cch ny, vic nh gi tc hi ca cht c thng da theo liu cao nht vn cha gy tc dng i vi ng vt th nghim. Liu lng ny c gi l mc tc dng khng quan st c (No Observed Effect Level - NOEL), hay cn c hiu l mc tc hi khng quan st c (No Observed Adverse Effect Level NOAEL). Mc tc dng nh nht c th quan st c (Lowest Observed Effect Level LOEL) c nh ngha l liu nh nht c tc dng gy c n mc c th quan st c. Da trn cc gi tr NOEL (hay NOAEL) v LOEL (hay LOAEL), c th xc nh c c tnh ca tng loi cht c v so snh mc c gia chng vi nhau, ng thi y cng l c s xy dng cc tiu chun an ton trong thc phm.
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i vi sc kho con ngi, xy dng cc tiu chun v an ton thc phm, ngi ta xc nh liu lng tip nhn vo c th hng ngy ca ha cht, m liu lng ny, cht cha th gy nh hng xu n sc kho hay cn gi l liu tip nhn hng ngy c th chp nhn c (Acceptable Daily Intake - ADI). ADI ca tng cht c tnh da theo NOAEL ca cht bng cch chia gi tr NOAEL cho h s an ton K:
ADI NOAEL K
Theo quy c quc t: K = K1 * K2, trong K1 = 10, l h s th hin nhy cm khc nhau gia cc c th v K2 = 10, l h s ngoi suy t ng vt thc nghim n con ngi. Ngoi vic xy dng cc tiu chun trong thc phm, ADI cn dng tnh ton lng c t hay d lng thuc BVTV m con ngi tip nhn hng ngy thng qua thc n, nc ung. Vic so snh tiu chun ADI tham chiu vi ADI thc t xc nh c ca tng cht, s cho ta kt lun chnh xc v mc tn lu v gy c ca c t trong thc phm. Gi tr ny c tnh nh sau:
ADIa L.E .H W
Vi: L E H W
: Mc n hng ngy theo tiu chun ca Vin Dinh dng : D lng thc t ca thuc BVTV : H s loi tr d lng thuc trong qu trnh ch bin : Trng lng trung bnh ca ngi tiu th.
6.6. Tiu chun gii hn c cht m bo an ton cho sc kho ngi lao ng Trong cc c s cng nghip, ngi lao ng thng xuyn phi tip xc vi cc ri ro c trng ca ngnh cng nghip. bo v quyn li, sc khe cho ngi lao ng, cc c quan qun l hat ng trong lnh vc mi trng cn thit phi ban hnh nhng qui nh v mc gii hn tip xc cho php c trng cho tng ngnh cng nghip gi l OEL (occupational exposure limit). 6.6.1. Khi nim OEL OEL ch ra gi tr m ngi lao ng tip xc trong mi trng lm vic.
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OEL c t ra trn nn tng tp trung kin thng nht ca mt nhm cc nh khoa hc mi trng, bc s, nh ha hc, nh sinh hc, cho nhng mi trng lm vic c th. 6.6.2. C s thit lp gi tr OEL 6.6.2.1. C s thit lp Khi lm ra mt gi tr OEL, ngi ta phi nghin cu cc vn ch yu sau: Cc dng gy c ca cht c trc tin, sau l qu trnh gy c v cc yu t cng hng gy c trong mi trng. Cch thc tip xc ca cht c (h hp, da) Cc c s d liu v cu to ca cht c Tnh cht l ha ca cht c (mu, mi, p sut, nhit bay hi) Cc nghin cu v gy c cp tnh v nh hng c cp qua da, ming. N c xem nh gi tr u tin thit lp OEL. Hin tng v tn thng trc tip ca cht c qua da, h hp. Tnh n nhy cm ca mt s ngi. Tnh tan n cc phn ng trao i cht, tch t sinh hc, sn phm trao i cht v i khi cn phi tnh n hin tng gy c mang tnh di truyn Trong mt s trng hp c bit phi tnh n s nghin cu qu thi th nghim ln mt s ng vt c v nh chut, th, kh Cc hp cht gy c ln thn kinh gy c mn tnh
Tm li, b OEL lp ra cho bit ngng v gii hn cho nhng lao ng bnh thng chim i a s khi phi tip xc vi cht c trong mi trng lm vic thng xuyn. 6.6.2.2. Cc dng tip xc Trong khi lm vic th cht c trong mi trng c th xm nhp vo c th ngi qua 2 con ng chnh: qua ng h hp v tip xc qua da. Qua ng h hp: Theo ng h hp ca con ngi, cc cht nhim trong khng kh c ht qua mi. Cc ht bi kch thc 1-5m s b gi li nh lng mi v s bm vo dch nhy. Mi nhn bit c mi ca mt s lai ha cht c mi c trng.
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Nhng ht c kch thc nh hn 1m tip tc qua mi i qua kh qun v vo phi. Trong phi cha nhng ti kh vi din tch b mt rt ln. Nhng cht ha hc dng kh, hi s khuych tn vo cc ti phi. Nu bit nng hi kh c hi trong khng kh s tnh c lng kh hp th v khuych tn vo c th theo cng thc sau: M (mg) = C x 10 Trong : + M (mg): lng kh c hp th v khuych tn vo c th 1 ngy. + C (mg/m3): nng hi kh c hi trong khng kh + 10 (m3): trong 8 ting lm vic, mt ngi trung bnh ht vo c th 10m3 khng kh Tip xc qua da: Cu to lp biu b bn ngai da dy trung bnh 0.2mm bao gm nhng t bo cht c thay th lin tc v cc dch tiu ha ca c th. Nhng ha cht tan trong nc v m u c kh nng thm qua lp biu b v th m c th c th nhn rt nhiu cht qua ng da. Ty cc lai da m ha cht khc nhau i vo da cng khc nhau. Nhng ngi hay b d ng ha cht l nhng ngi c lm da nhy cm, c phn ng mnh vi cc lai ha cht. Mt s ngi c lm da d b n mn, kh nng hp th cc cht c qua da ca h cao hn nhng ngi c ln da bnh thng. Mt s ngi pht sinh bnh da liu (bnh ngai da) khi tip xc vi cht c thng xuyn nhng li cng c nhng ngi khi tip xc vi ha cht c li xy ra hin tng quang phn lm da c cm gic nng rt (bng da kh). 6.6.3. Mc tiu v gii hn OEL 6.6.3.1. Mc tiu Khi a ra mt qui nh v gi tr OEL, ngi ta phi cn c vo nh hng gy ra ca cht c hi i vi a s nhng ngi bnh thng. Gi tr OEL phi an tan cho ngi lao ng, tc l khng gy mt du hin bt thng no cho ngi lao ng. Du hiu ny c th l tc th (acute) hay nh hng di lu (chronic). 6.6.3.2. Gii hn
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Khi lp OEL, c nhng thng s khng tnh tan c trn con ngi mt cch trc tip v d v kh nng gy ung th ca cc cht c. Do khng nht thit l phi tin tng v p dng mt cch tuyt i. Cc gi tr cn phi c cp nht lin tc. V nghin cu cc hp cht gy ung th, theo b tiu chun ca ACGIH cho ti 3 ngng: A3: ngng gy ung th cho th vt A2: ngng nghi ng gy ung th cho ngi A1: ngng gy ung th cho ngi
B OEL phi ch n cc gi tr NOEC v cc yu t th hin ngng cao nht v thp nht c th gy nh hng n sc khe con ngi. 6.6.4. Gii thiu mt s c s d liu tham kho Hin trn th gii c cc t chc khc nhau a ra cc tiu chun gii hn cc cht c m bo an tan sc khe cho ngi lao ng. Tiu biu nh : T chc OSHA (Occupational Safety & Heath Administration www.osha.gov), T chc ACGIH (American Conference of Industrial Hygienne www.acgih.gov), Vin NIOSH ( The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Heath www.cdc.gov), Hip hi AIHA (The American Industrial Hygenne Association www.aiha.gov), Hip hi FDA (Food and Drug)
ACGIH quan tm ti vn v sinh cng nghip, sc khe ngh nghip v mi trng vi gi tr t ra l TLV t nm 1942. C khang 700 gi tr ngng TLV. TLV da trn cc tiu chun phi xt l theo thi gian lm vic (trung bnh thi gian lm vic ca 1 ngi lao ng theo ACGIH l 40 nm, 8h/ngy v 5ngy/tun). V gi tr TLV s c iu chnh nu ngi lao ng c tng hay gim ca lm vic. OSHA lp b gi tr gii hn l PEL ln u tin vo nm 1968 v nm 1989 c chnh sa ci tin cho ph hp vi xu th. PEL c khang 400 gi tr mang ngha tham kho l chnh v chng ch c th p dng cho cc nc cng nghip pht trin. NOISH l mt Vin Quc gia nghin cu xut ra gi tr REL, c khang 400 gi tr REL c xut. c bit i vi nhng hp cht gy ung th th b tiu chun ca
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NOISH rt nghim ngt. Nhng ni c ch lm vic 10h/ngy th hay s dng b tiu chun ny. NOISH xut bn b tiu chun di dng b ti nn rt thun li cho ngi lao ng. AIHA l mt t chc ca t chc v sinh cng nghip M. FDA l c quan thuc EPA (M) c b TSCAA (Toxic Substance Control Act) t ra cc gi tr mi kim sat c hc mi trng. Ngai ra mt s nh sn xut tm c cng c nhng gi tr ngh lm gi tr tham kho cho nh chc trch nh tp an Norvatis, Nestle H cng c nhng nghin cu bi bn trong nhng phng th nghim ti tn hn c ca Lin bang.
Trao i trc tuyn ti:

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CHT C DIOXIN VIT NAM V TRN TH GII Poison Dioxin in Vietnam and all over the world Phan Trung Qu
SUMMARY Chemical and Physical characteristic of Dioxin. The effects of herbicides agent oranger for Vietnamese by war. Key words: Dioxin, war, agent oranger Dioxin l thut ng dng ch mt loi ho cht c c trong thnh phn ca cc loi cht pht quang v dit c mu da cam (Agent orange), gm khong 75 ng phn ca Polyclodibenzo-paradioxin (PCDD), trong ng phn 2,3,7,8-Tetraclodibenzo-p-dioxin l c hm lng v c tnh cao nht. Khi c a vo c th ngi v ng vt, do ho tan km trong nc nn dioxin ch yu tp trung trong cc m m, trong gan v l lch, c chu k bn phn hy di t 5-6 nm. Dioxin c trong cc loi ho cht cha vng thm v clo, c sinh ra trong mt s ngnh cng nghip nh sn xut nha PVC, sn, sn xut xi mng, nhit in, v.v...Cht c da cam m quc M ri xung ng dng trong thi gian t 1962- 1970 cha mt lng ln dioxin, ring Vit Nam lng ha cht c ri xung l 72.316 000lt. Hu qu ca n i vi con ngi v mi trng rt ln, li di chng nng n, c tnh 4,3 triu ngi b nh hng (s liu t Hi Hu ngh Vit M).
1. I CNG V DIOXIN Dioxin l thut ng dng ch mt loi ho cht c c trong thnh phn ca cc loi cht pht quang v dit c mu da cam (Agent orange). Dioxin l tn chung gm khong 75 ng phn ca Polyclodibenzo-para-dioxin (PCDD), trong ng phn 2,3,7,8-Tetraclodibenzo-p-dioxin l c hm lng v c tnh cao nht nn thut ng dioxin dng ph bin hin nay l nhm ch ng phn ny. Cng thc cu to: Cl O Cl
Cl
Cl
Cng thc phn t: C12H4O2Cl4 Khi lng phn t: 321, 93 Nhit nng chy: 3050c Nhit si: 421,20c Nhit bt u phn hu ( clo ho): 7500c Nhit phn hu hon ton: > 12000c Dioxin t ho tan trong nc ( 250c tan l 0,2 ppb), nhng kh nng hp th vo t li kh cao. Khi xm nhp vo t, dioxin kt hp vi cc cht hu c bin thnh cc phc cht v rt t b ra tri, do vy nhng vng t c mn cao l ni tch t dioxin nhiu nht. Dioxin c th b di di n cc ni xa khi vng t nhim dioxin b xi mn. Cy ci ht cc cht dinh dng trong t s ht lun c dioxin v a i khp cc b phn ca cy, tuy nhin, nhiu nghin cu cho thy hm lng ca dioxin trong r v l cy l cao hn c, trong
phn ht v qu l rt t. Chnh v vy nhiu nc cm nhp khu da ca Vit Nam (da chnh l phn thn di, r phnh ra) nhng khng cm nhp go v cc loi qu khc. Trong c th ng vt v ngi, do ho tan km trong nc nn dioxin ch yu tp trung trong cc m m, trong gan v l lch. Theo cc nh khoa hc Nga (Fokin v Cusevich), chu k bn hu ca dioxin trong t nhin l 1012 nm. nghin cu s tn lu trong c th ngi, bc s Poiger (M) ung mt lng dioxin c gn ng v phng x Triti, sau nh lng dioxin trong nc tiu v m m v tnh ton cho thy chu k bn hu ca cht c ny trong c th ngi l 5-6 nm. Dioxin khng ch c trong cht c da cam m M ri xung ng Dng, n cn c trong cc loi ho cht cha vng thm v clo, c sinh ra trong mt s ngnh cng nghip nh sn xut nha PVC, sn, sn xut xi mng, nhit in, v.v... Ring ngnh sn xut PVC c hng nm pht thi lng dioxin git cht 30 triu ngi. c bit cc l t rc thi cng sinh ra rt nhiu dioxin. Ti M, ring nm 1985, ngi ta phi ph b hn 300 l t rc v cng ngh km sinh ra dioxin. Vin s Cusevich tha nhn rng th Matxcva cng ang phi i mt vi vn dioxin. Ti hu ht cc nc pht trin, nhiu bin php ang c p dng nhm hn ch vic pht thi dioxin vo mi trng. 2. C TNH CA DIOXIN Dioxin c xp vo nhm 2A ca bng c dc. Tin s Commoner, gim c Trung tm Sinh hc (M) pht biu ch cn 85 gam dioxin cho vo h thng cp nc sinh hot ca New York l git cht ton b dn ca thnh ph ny. Cn cc nh khoa hc Anh gn cho dioxin ci tn st th. Ngoi c tnh cc mnh nh trn, nu khng liu lng cht ngi th ging nh vi rt HIV, dioxin c th xm nhp vo nhn t bo, t gn vo ADN lm bin i gen ca ngi nhim v gy qui thai cho th h th hai, thm ch th h th ba. Nm 1968, WHO quy nh liu lng ti a cho php con ngi c th tip nhn Dioxin l 1 picogam/1kg trong lng c th/1ngy. Theo nh khoa hc M A. Fokin, hu qu ca vic M ri cht c da cam ti Vit Nam tng t nh h nm 2 qu bom nguyn t xung Nht Bn nm 1945. Nm 1972, Thng ngh s Nelson tuyn b trc Quc hi M rng: Bng vic s dng cht c da cam, M lm thay i h sinh thi ca Vit Nam v hu qu s cn ko di. Con ngi bit n tc hi ca dioxin t lu, nm 1930, hng lot cng nhn ca cng ty ho cht Hoa K Daw Chemical b bnh bi cht c dioxin c trong thuc bo qun g do cng ty ny sn xut. Nm 1962, mt tp ch khoa hc M c bi vit v cht c ny. Dioxin c th xm nhp vo c th con ngi qua ng h hp, qua da, nhng ch yu l qua ng tiu ho bng vic n ung cc loi thc phm nhim dioxin. Triu chng nhim c dioxin rt a dng v khc nhau gia cp tnh v mn tnh. Triu chng ph bin nht l vim nhim da v nim mc mt, tc ngc, nn ma v kh th. Nu nng, ngi nhim c th cht sau 7-15 ngy, nu nh c th bnh n vi chc nm sau, gy hu qu n th h sau. Vin y hc quc gia Hoa K phn loi nn nhn cht c da cam trong binh s tham chin ti Vit Nam lm hai loi nh sau: Loi 1: Nhng ngi b u limph c tnh, ung th phn mm, ung th phi, thanh qun, au tu v thn kinh ngoi vi. Loi 2: Nhng bnh nhn b thn kinh trung ng, x cng thn kinh, teo c, cc bnh ni khoa bao gm gan, tiu ng, tai bin mch mu no, ng mch vnh, m mu, mt kh nng tnh dc v mt s bnh khc. Nh vy, dioxin c th gy ra trc tip ti 30 bnh nan y. Cho n nay con ngi cha tm ra thuc gii c, tm thi nh bng lng vi cch cha i ph, th ng cho tng bnh.
3. CHT C DIOXIN TRN TH GII V TI VIT NAM Ti hu ht cc nc pht trin trn th gii, u tng xy ra mt hoc nhiu s c ln lin quan n dioxin. Sau y l mt s v in hnh: Vo nm 1957, ti mt nh my sn xut thuc tr su c, tai nn lm 31 cng nhn b thit mng v dioxin. Nm 1963, trong mt v n ho cht ti cng ty Philip Duphar (H Lan), mt khi lng ln ho cht c cha dioxin lm nhim c nhiu cng nhn v ton b khu vc nh my. Hm lng dioxin trong vng t, tng v thit b ton nh my vt qu tiu chun cho php n hng triu ln. Nh my b d b v nhn chm xung bin (?). Nm 1976, s c ti nh my ho cht Seveso (Ytalia) pht thi ra cc vng xung quanh lng ln dioxin, 11 thnh ph xung quanh b nh hng nng n, thit hi v cng ln v lu di khng th thng k c. Ti Vit Nam v Lo, trong cuc chin tranh xm lc, M ri xung hai nc mt khi lng khng l cc loi ho cht lm rng l cy v pht quang rng, trong ch yu l cht c da cam, cht trng v cht xanh, tt c u c cha mt hm lng ng k dioxin.
Bng 1. Khi lng ho cht m M ri xung Min nam Vit Nam (theo tc gi A.H. Westing) n v tnh: Lt Nm Cht da cam Cht trng Cht xanh Tng cng 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 Tng cng 56.000 281.000 948.000 1.767.000 6.362.000 11.891.000 8.850.000 12.376.000 1.806.000 0 0 0 0 2.056.000 4.989.000 8.438.000 3.572.000 697.000 8.000 3.000 118.000 749.000 1.181.000 2.513.000 1.931.000 1.039.000 370.000 64.000 284.000 1.066.000 2.516.000 9.599.000 19.394.000 19.264.000 17.257.000 2.873.000 72.316.000
Bng 2. Khi lng ho cht m M ri xung Lo (theo tc gi A.H. Westing) Thng/nm Din tch b ri Lng ho cht Loi ho cht (hecta) (galon) 12/1965 6.120 41.050 Da cam 1/1966 9.255 59.400 Da cam 2/1966 9.590 62.150 Da cam 3/1966 4.853 29.300 Da cam 4/1966 3.360 21.700 Da cam 5/1966 3.560 23.000 Da cam 6/1966 3.515 12.700 Da cam 7/1966 4.010 26.000 Da cam 8/1966 3.425 22.000 Da cam 9/1966 1.800 11.600 Da cam 10/1966 2.100 13.500 Cht trng
11/1966 12/1966 1/1967 2/1967 3/1967 10/1968 11/1968 12/1968 2/1969 9/1967 Tng cng
3.510 2.100 3.200 1.500 450 720 960 360 480 762 65.990
23.610 12.600 19.300 9.000 2.790 6.000 8.000 2.700 7.000 6.350 418.850
Cht trng Da cam Trng,dacam Da cam Da cam Da cam Cht xanh Da cam Da cam Cht xanh
Hu qu ca cht c dioxin i vi dn tc ta l v cng thm khc. Theo s liu k khai cha y (B Lao ng Thng binh v X hi) s ngi b nh hng ca dioxin khai bo l 164.716 ngi. Tuy nhin, trong thc t con s ny cn ln hn rt nhiu, c ti liu c tnh c nc c ti 4,3 triu ngi b nh hng (s liu ca Hi Hu ngh Vit M). Hin nay, i din ca cc nn nhn cht c dioxin ti Vit Nam ang tip tc tin hnh kin 37 cng ty Hoa K sn xut cc loi ho cht ny nhm i bi thng. Mi chng ta hy c mt hnh ng c th no ng h cc nn nhn, ng h v kin nhm lm gim bt ni au m nhng ng bo ta khng may ang phi gnh chu. Ti liu tham kho Thng tin trn cc trang Web: http://www.vava.org.vn http://www.petitiononline.com

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Hot ho (gim phn cc, tng tnh thn m)

Xm nhp c cht o thi

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Trung tm hat ng ca men cha b phong b

Trung tm hat ng ca men b phong b do cht c

S cha kha v kha trong c ch tng tc cht c v receptor

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cht tch ly (%) 100

log liu lng (mg/kg)

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S Tc dng ca GME n trng lng chut.

Trao i trc tuyn ti:

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Trao i trc tuyn ti: www.mientayvn.com/chat_box_hoa.html

Trao i trc tuyn ti: www.mientayvn.com/chat_box_hoa.html

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5.1.7.2. Khi thi giao thng

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Trao i trc tuyn ti: www.mientayvn.com/chat_box_hoa.html

Trao i trc tuyn ti: www.mientayvn.com/chat_box_hoa.html

Trao i trc tuyn ti: www.mientayvn.com/chat_box_hoa.html

Trao i trc tuyn ti: www.mientayvn.com/chat_box_hoa.html

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Trao i trc tuyn ti: www.mientayvn.com/chat_box_hoa.html

Trao i trc tuyn ti: www.mientayvn.com/chat_box_hoa.html

Trao i trc tuyn ti: www.mientayvn.com/chat_box_hoa.html

Trao i trc tuyn ti: www.mientayvn.com/chat_box_hoa.html

Trao i trc tuyn ti: www.mientayvn.com/chat_box_hoa.html