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)(26346
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1386

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 ) (26346 2

.
) ( .
) (

.
.
)( .
- t
) f (t )( ) F ( s s
:
)(1

f (t )e st dt

= )F (s

0+

:
1

}) f (t ) = L {F ( s

)(2

}) f (t ) = L {F ( s

:1 ) f (t ) F ( s ) ( t
. s
:2 }{
)( ] [ .
1

:3 t s
s ) F ( s .
:4 s p ) ( ) F ( s
) f ( s .
) (
) f (t ) (
)( .

Dummy variable

-1 f (t ) = 1

) f (t ) = 1 u (t

: f (t ) = 1 . .

.1 )( )(
= t

t =0 s

e st
dt =

st

L{ f (t )} = L{1} = L{u (t )} = + (1)e

:1 ) . f (t ) = 1
) f (t ) = 1 u (t :
0 t 0
= ) u (t
1 t 0

)(3

f (t ) :

0 + ) ( t 0 . t = 0
)
( f (t ) = 1 ) (
"" " ." " "
) ( .!
2 :
e at t 0
= ) f (t
0
t0

or

f (t ) = u (t ) e at

f (t ) = e at

or

: :
=

s
+
a
= 0

e ( s + a )
( e a ) e s d =
+

0
s+a

= L{ f (t )} = L u (t ) e at

:2 t : t .

 ) (26346 2
:3 .
.
. ) (2 t = 0 !

.2 )( )(

3 ) (ramp ) (
t t 0
= ) f (t
t0
0

or

f (t ) = u (t ) t

or

f (t ) = t

: :
=

1
1

= 2
L { f (t )} = L {u (t ) t} = + ( )e s d = e s ( + 2
0
s s = 0 s

.3 )( )(

:4 ) ( )
( . )( .

4 )( ) ( w
sin ( wt ) t 0
= ) f (t
t0
0

f (t ) = u (t ) sin ( wt ) or

f (t ) = sin ( wt ) or

: ) (:
= (sin ( w ))e s d

= }) L { f (t )} = L {u (t ) sin ( wt

e s

w
= 2
(
s
sin
(
w

)
+
w
cos
(
w

)
= 2

s + w2
s + w2

= 0

.4 )( )(

.
) (know why .
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) (know how . .
) ( .
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: ) (
4

 ) (26346 2
. )
( ! .
.
:
1
2
3 .
4
5
) (
.
) (
1
2
3
4
5 )( F ( s ) Shift
6 )( f (t ) Shift

7 )( ) (
8
.
1 .
)(
. ) (
!
) (Diffeomorphism .
) ( :
}) 1) L{ f1 (t ) + f 2 (t )}= L{ f1 (t )} + L{ f 2 (t
}) 2) L{ f (t )} = L{ f (t



.
)( .
) ( .
)( )( )(
.
)
( .
2 . )(
. )( )(
s
. :
) df (t
)} = L{ f (t )} = sF ( s) f (0
dt

{L

:
df st
e dt
dt
=

= fe st dt

0+

) ( Integration by part

= }) L{ f (t

0+

= = e st df

) ( s )e st f (t )dt = f (0) + sF ( s

0+

0+

) e st f (t

: s ) (
:
) L{ f (t )}= s 2 F ( s) sf (t = 0) f (t = 0

3
2
) L{ f (t )} = s F ( s ) s f (0) sf (0) sf (0

:5 ) sF ( s ) s 2 F ( s ...
) ( ) f (0 ) f (0 n

n s f
f ) ) f (t ) ( F ( s.


.

 ) (26346 2
-5 :

y + 4 y+ 5 y+ 2 y = 2

y (0) = y (0) = y (0) = 0

) y (t .
.
:
:
s 3Y ( s ) s 2 y (0) s y (0) y (0) +
4[ s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y (0)] +
5[ sY ( s ) y (0)] +
2Y ( s ) = 2 / s

:6 ) ( n
.
:7 .
) y ( s s s! ) y (t t = 0

:
)( ) ( y
) y (t ) }) ( L{ y (t :

)s (s + 4s 2 + 5s + 2
3

= ) y (s ) y (s

:8
) y (t ! ) Y ( s
2 .
) y (t ) Y ( s .
.
!
) ) (rational (
) (
.
) (


.

. .
)( :
) (-1 ) (s + 1
. ) (s 3 + 4s 2 + 5s + 2 ) (s + 1 :
)(s 3 + 4s 2 + 5s + 2) = (s + 1)(s 2 + 3s + 2
-2 :
)( s 3 + 4 s 2 + 5s + 2) = ( s + 1) 2 ( s + 2

:
A
B
C
D
+
+
+
s s + 1 ( s + 1) 2 s + 2

2
)s ( s + 1) 2 ( s + 2

2
)s ( s 3 + 4s 2 + 5s + 2

:
A
B
C
D
A( s + 1) 2 ( s + 2) + B ( s + 1)( s + 2) s + Cs ( s + 2) + Ds ( s + 1) 2
+
+
+
=
s s + 1 ( s + 1) 2 s + 2
)s ( s + 1) 2 ( s + 2

:
) =A( s 3 + 4s 2 + 5s + 2) + Bs( s 2 + 3s + 2) + Cs( s + 2) + Ds 2 ( s + 2s + 1
:
( A + B + D ) s 3 + (4 A + 3B + C + 2 D ) s 2 + (5 A + 2 B + 2C + D) s + 2 A 0 s 3 + 0 s 2 + 0 s + 2

:
A = 1
B = 0

C = 2
D = 1

( A + B + D ) = 0
(4 A + 3B + C + 2 D) = 0

(5 A + 2 B + 2C + D ) = 0
2 A = 2

:9 ) ( :
A
B
C
D
+
+
+
2
)s s + 1 ( s + 1
s+2
RH

2
2

)s ( s + 1) ( s + 2

= )Y (s

LH

) ( RH ) ( LH s A
s = 0 :

 ) (26346 2
B
2
C
D
s
= A+
+
+
2
( s + 1) ( s + 2) s =0
s + 2 s =0
) s + 1 ( s + 1
s s s
2

) ( D, C , B .
A ) ( LH s . !
= A A =1

2
)(0 + 1) 2 (0 + 2

D, C :
2

= D D = 1
s =2

= C C = 2
s =1

s ( s + 1) 2
2
)s ( s + 2

B :
2

2
)A( s + 1
D
=
+ B ( s + 1) + C +
( s + 1) 2
)s ( s + 2
s
s+2

s = 1 B . :
...
( s + 2) 2

)+ B+0+ D

)2(...) (...
s2

(= A

)2(2 s + 2
s 2 ( s + 2) 2

: ... ) ( RH
. ) ( LH
.
) ( LH s = 1 :
)2(2 s + 2

=BB=0

s 2 ( s + 2) 2

s =1

:
1
2
1

2
)s ( s + 1
s+2

)!( :
1
) L1{ } = u (t

tet

) 1 } = tet u(t
(s + 1)2

e2t

) L1{ 1 } = e2t u (t
)(s + 2

{L1

2
2

)s ( s + 4 s + 5s + 2

= )Y ( s

)!(
F ( s ) s

f (t )

) (

1
s

) u(t

1
s +

) e t u (t

!n

(s + )n +1

) t n e t u (t

s2 + 2

) sin(t )u(t

s
s + 2

) cos(t )u(t

) ( :

) y (t ) = (1 2te t e 2t )u (t
) y (t ) = (1 2te t e 2t

:10 :
)(1 ) t t( .
)(2
. ) (
!
) (3
!

.

10

 ) (26346 2
) (
. :

C n +1

) (s 2

n 1

C2

) ( s 1

C1

) ( s 1

) N (s
) N (s
=
n
D (s ) ( s 1 ) ( s 2 )m

. i C i
) N (s .
- - s

. ) ( ) i
( :
n

) ( s 1 )( s 2 ) ( s 3
m

an s n + an 1s n 1 +

+ a0

:
n

)(1s + 1)( 2s + 1) ( 3s + 1
m

)
i (.
) -(1 ) ( )
( :
C3
C1
C2
) N (s
=
+
+
) ( s 1 )( s 2 )( s 3 ) ( s 1 ) ( s 2 ) ( s 3

) -(2 ) (
:

C 11
C 22
C 21
+
+
2
) ( s 1 ) ( s 2 ) ( s 2

) N (s
2

) ( s 1 )( s 2

) -(3 ) (
:

C s +C 3
) N (s
C1
=
+ 22
2
( s 1 ) s + bs + c ( s 1 ) s + bs + c

- -:
)( - ) (
.
)( :

11


) -(1 s s .
!
) (2 .
.
)( ) (
. .
)( ) (
.
-6 :

1
L 1
?=
1

s s +


: .

C1
C2
+
1
s
s +

1
1

s s +

) ( C 1 ) s ( C 1
) ( s = 0 :

1
= C1
1

sC 2
= C 1 +

+
s

s =0

1
1

s +
s =0

) ( :
1
=C2
1


:

s +

12

1
1
= 1 s + +C 2
( s ) s = 1 s
s = 1

1
1

s s +

 ) (26346 2
.
:

t
t

1
1

L
=L +
) = u (t ) e u (t ) = 1 e u (t

s s + 1
s s + 1

-7 :

1
?=
L1 2
2
s +
: .
s
s
C1
C2
=
=
+
2
s +
) ( s + j )( s j ) ( s + j ) ( s j
2

:
1
j
= = C1
( jw j ) 2

s
C2
= C 1 +
) ( s + j
) ( s j ) s = j ( s j
s = jw

j
1
= =C2
( jw + j ) 2

C 1

s
=
( s j ) + C 2
) ( s + j ) s = j ( s + j
s = jw

C 1 C 2 ) (
. .

/ .

j .

1
1 1
1
=
+

2
2 s + j s j
s +
1
1
) f (t ) = e j t + e j t = ( cos (t ) j sin (t ) + cos (t ) + j sin (t ) ) = cos (t
2
2
:11
2

= ) F (s

. .
-8 :

s
L1
?=
2
) ( s + 1
13


: .

C2
1

s +

C1

s +

s
2

1
s +

s
2

)( s + 1

C 1 :

= C = 1
1

= C1 + C 2 s +

s
1

s =

C 2 :
: s ! ) ( s = 0
:
C2
C2 = 1 2

0 +

3 +
2

0+

s =0

Or

1
s +

s
2
s =0

)( s + 1

- : s :

3
C 2s
s2
s2
1

= lim
+
C2 = 1 2
Or lim 2
lim
2
2
2

1
1

( s + 1) s
s + s +
s +
s
s

: :
=C2

C 1 C 2
1
+
s +
s = 1
1
1

d 1 s
d
=
2
ds 1 s = 1 ds

s +

3 +
2

s +

s
2

1
s +

s
2

)( s + 1

) (

1
1 3
2 1 3 t
1 2 t
1

) e u (t ) = 1 ( t )e t u (t

L
te +
+
=

2
3
!)(1 1
! ) s + 1 s + 1 ( 2 1

14

 ) (26346 2
-9 :

?=
L
2
2
s s + 2s + 2
: .

C3
C5
C1
C2
C4
+
+
+
+
2
2
) s (s + 1 j ) (s + 1 j ) (s + 1 + j ) (s + 1 + j

s s + 2s + 2
2

C 1 :

2 = C1

{ = C1 + s

2
s =0

s 2 + 2s + 2

C 2 :

1+ j = C 2

} {

) = C 2 + (s + 1 j

2
s =1+ j

) s (s + 1 + j

) (
C 3 ) ( s + 1 j
2

} {

) = C 2 + C 3 (s + 1 j ) + (s + 1 j

8
2

) s (s + 1 + j

d
2
{ ) s +1 j
(
ds

=C3 +
s =1+ j

2
) 0 8 ( s + 1 + j ) + 2s ( s + 1 + j

4
2
) s (s + 1 + j

.
) ( s + 1 j . C 3
:

1 + 2 j = C 3
C 4 C 5 C 2 C 3
:

, C 5 = C 3 = ( 1 + 2 j ) = 1 2 j

C 4 = C 2 = (1 + j ) = 1 j

2
1+ j
1 + 2 j
1 j
1 2 j
+
+
+
+
2
2
) s (s + 1 j ) (s + 1 j ) (s + 1 + j ) (s + 1 + j

15

8
2

s s + 2s + 2
2


:12 .

s 2 + 2s + 2 .

( )

(( )

( )

+ 2s + 2 s 2 + 2s + 2 + 1 1 = s 2 + 2s + 1 + 2 1 = ( s + 1) + 1
2

(s

3 : ) F ( s
) f (t ) f (t .
) lim f (t ) = lim s F ( s
s 0

:13 !
4 : ) F ( s ) f (t

) f (t = 0 f (t ) t =0 .
) lim f (t ) = lim s F ( s
s

t 0

1
:14 1 ) u (t
s
) f (t . ) f (t ) sF ( s ) t 0

) F ( s

( s ) t ( s 0 .

5 : )(
) ) ( F ( s !

) {e f (t )} = F (s +
t

1
:15
s
1
1
= )) F (s
) f (t ) = u(t
s +
s
( ) . f (t ) = e t u (t

6 : ) s ( e d s
) (Dead Time ) (Transportation lag ) (Time Delay )(
.
)L { f (t d )} = e d s F ( s

16

 ) (26346 2
:16 e d s

) ( ) (
. :
1

re j = r (cos + j sin ) , j

r = 1:
e j = 1

) ( ) ( e j
1

) ( 1 !

7 )( . .
. a ) (duration b
) 5 (:
] )pulse [ a, b ] (= f (t )) = au (t ) + (au (t b)) = a [u (t ) u (t b

.5 .

:
1
pulse , h dt = 1
h

17

= ) (t

.6 .
1

h

1
h

h ) ( )(

. 1
1
h

) .( h = 1 ) :
6 (
] )(t ) = lim( 1 ) [u (t ) u (t h
h
h 0

] )L { (t )} = L lim [u (t ) u (t h
h 0 h

1 1 e hs 0
se hs

= lim
= , L ' Hopital = lim

=1
h 0 h
s 0
h 0 h

8 . :
s

) f (t ) dt = F ( s

}) . F ( s ) = L{ f (t

18

 ) (26346 3

:

.
-
- )
( . -
.
.
) 1 (.

- .
) (Logic ) (Heuristics
) (Rule-Based ) (Sup-star Algebra .
. .

)(
. ) (

.


. )
( ) Nu Re ( Pr
.
) (
. )(

.
) (Governing Equation ) (
) ( .

) ) ( z , y, x ) ( ( z , , r

) (Distributed
) (Lumped .
) (bulk .

.1 .

) (state space
) (Marcov .
) (Finite Impulse Response - FIR ) (Finite Step Response - FSR
.
/ ) ( .
) ( )) (s
( ) (t
.
) ( .


.

: )(Mechanistic
:

 ) (26346 3

)(
) ) (T(1,ss ) ) (T( 2,ss
) (Tm
...
:
1

) (Lupmed ) (Tm
) (Tm .
) (Tm .
2 ) ( (d / dt ) n .
.
. )(


.
3
)( .
4 .
5 .
6 ) ( .
) ( )
(:
t

Tm

t + t

Tm

hA(T Tm ) = mC p lim t 0

) (Lupmed :

d Tm
) = hA(T Tm
dt
:1 y, x, , r . ) (Lupmed.
mC p

:2 ) (t.
:3 .
T .
m, C p , h, A ) ( T
) ( Tm.

:4
.
.

. :
= 0

dt

hA(T ,ss Tm,ss ) = 0 T ,ss = Tm,ss

:

, T = T T , ss

T m = Tm Tm , ss

d Tm
) = hA(T Tm
dt

mC p

mC p

/
hA
) ( m, C p
) ( h, A.
:5 ) "" ( !
:

d Tm
d Tm
= (T Tm )
+ Tm = T
dt
dt
) ( t .

) (

Tm = T

. :

)sTm ( s) + Tm ( s) = T ( s

:6 ) Tm (t = 0
Tm .
:

)T m ( s
1
=
) G p ( s
T ( s) s + 1
.
! . ) Tm ( s
) ) T ( s ( ) G p ( s
) Tm (s :

 ) (26346 3

) Tm ( s ) = G p ( s ) T ( s
:7 G Gain .
:8 G ! .
:9 ) G p (rational ) (Transfer Function
). (Transform
:10 . . s ) 1 (
) s ( .
. 2 .

.2 .

k
1
s +1
. ) (First Order Lag

.
2
.!
3 . .
) (batch !
4 ) ( ) Y ( s) = G p ( s) u ( s ) G p ( s . ) u ( s
) Y ( s .
5 s .
) (
) ( .
6 ) (Superposition
:

) u ( s ) = a1 u1( s ) + a 2 u 2( s
:

) Y ( s ) = G p ( s ) u ( s ) = a1 Y 1( s ) + a 2 Y 2( s
Y 1 Y 2 u1 u 2.
Dc
Dc
)( 10 5

.
7 : )( :
u (t ) = 1 uG (t ) u ( s ) = A / s

k

s +1

= ) G p ( s ) ( :

k
kA
= ) u(s
s +1
)s ( s + 1

= ) Y ( s

k
)Y (s
=
) s + 1 u(s

= )G p ( s

) (
:
) L 1{Y(s)} = Y (t ) = Ak (1 e t /

) ( 3

 ) (26346 3

.3 .
:
(
.
( ) Y (t 63.2% .
) ( t = 4 ) Y (t 98% . 4 5

.
( ) Y (t
t = ! ) 4 (.

.4 .
( ! ) 5 (.

.5 .

( ) Y (t :
) Y (t

= lim

ss , new

Y Y Y ss ,new Y ss ,old
=
=
u u u ss ,new u ss ,old
:

= )(D.C.Gain

Ak (1 e t / ) Ak
Y ss ,new 0 Y ss ,new
=
= limt
=
=k
A
A
A0
A
k G p .
=

) ) ( Ak (1 e t / !
) Y (t :

kA
Y = limt sF ( s) = sY ( s ) = s s ( s + 1) = kA
s =0
k.

 ) (26346 3

) ( A = 1
) ) ( G p (s :

Y
)= G p (0
u

k /
s + 1/

= )Y ( s

u(s) = 1

= )Y (s

s +1
1
Y (t ) = L {Y ( s )} = (k / )e t /

6 .

.6 .

k
k
= s
= sY ( s ) step Y (t ) impulse = d (Y (t ) step ) / dt
)s ( s + 1
s +1
!

= Y ( s ) impulse

9 :
k
A
2
s +1 s + 2
s +
A k t /
A k
Ak
cos( t ) + 2 2
) sin( t
Y (t ) = L1{ Y ( s )} = 2 2
e
2 2
+1
+1
+1
= )Y ( s

= )u (s

) u (t ) = A sin( t

) p cos( A) + q sin( A) = r sin( A +

tan = p / q

r = p2 + q2

A k t /
Ak
e
+
) sin( t +
2 2
+1
1 + 2 2
) = tan 1 (
= ) Y (t

:
) : (
) sin( t +

Ak
1 + 2 2

) Y (t

(
1 + 2 2
(
. .
( !

10

 ) (26346 4

.

.
) ( ) ( .

.
-
.
. ) (
) (.
- ) (
)( .
- . :

(
. ...
!
:

.1 .

.
.
=
:1 .
:2 .
:3 ) ( h
)( ! .
:

: qin .t

: qout t

t +t

: v

dv
dh
=A
dt
dt

= qin qout

) h ( ) qin (
qout ) ( h .
.
)( :
qout = cv h
:4 ) (

cv g

qout :
dh
+ cv h = qin
dt
)( - .
A

. :
( x x0 ) 2 + ...

x = x0

1 d2 f
x = x0 ( x x0 ) +
2 dx 2

df
f ( x) = f ( x0 ) +
dx

 ) (26346 4

( y y0 ) +

x0 , y0

f
y

( x x0 ) +

x0 , y0

f
x

f ( x, y ) = f ( x0 , y0 ) +

1 2 f
2 f
2 f
(
()
)
( y y0 ) 2 + ...
x

x
y

y
+
2 x0 , y0 ( x x0 ) + 2
x0 , y0
0
0
2 x0 , y0
2 x
xy
y
x

x y .
1

h 2 :

) (h hss

h = hss

)d( h
dh

h = hss +

) (:

) cv (h hss
dh
= qin
A dt + cv hss + 2 h
ss

0 + c h + 0 = q
v
ss
in , ss

qin =qin - qin , ss

h = h hss

) (:
cv
2 hss

 c

dh
+ ch = qin
dt

:
k p = 1/ c

p  A / c

) (:

kp
) h( s
=
qin p s + 1
:5 k p ) h ( L ) q ( L3T -1 .
.
:6 k p ) ( p hss .
:7 .
:8
. ) (
) (batch !

2 .
)( .
3

: cin qin .t

: cout qout t

Vcout

t +t

:Vcout

-=
:

dVcout
dt

= cin qin cout qout

.2 .
:
cout
cin ) ( cout
cin

. cin cout . qin

cout :
cout = G11 cin + G12 qin

:
cout
qin

 G12

cout
cin

 G11

) 1 2 ( G11 G12
cout qout !

) ( MIMO) : 2 : (3:

 ) (26346 4

cout G
G12
11
cin
qout = G21 G22
q
G
G32 in
T 31
) 3 : (3:

G13 cin

G23 qin
G33 Tin

cout G
G12
11
qout = G21 G22
G
G32
T 31

) qout ( h qout .

qout .
.
cin cout :

dcout

cin q cout q = V
=q
dt
cin , ss q cout , ss q = 0

p  V / q :

qin = qout

cout
1
=
cin p s + 1

:9 !
:10 V . q
. q V !
RC

vc vg

.3 .

) ( :

1
idt
c

vg = Ri +

vc q ) : c (.

q
c
dq

dt

= vc

= i :

dq 1
) + q (t
dt c
dv
= Rc c + vc
dt

vg = R

vc = vc vc , ss
vq = vq vq , ss
:

, p  Rc

) vc ( s
1
=
vq ( s ) p s + 1

:11 . RC
!
!

.

.
:

dh1
+ c1 h1 = qin
dt
dh
Second Tank: A 2 2 + c2 h2 = qout ,1 = c1 h1
dt
qin ) (h1 , h2 .
: A1

First Tank

. h1 h2
. ) ( h1 .

 ) (26346 4

.4 .
:

d h1
+ c1 h1 = R1 qin
A1

dt

A d h2 + c h = c h
2 2
1 1
2 dt
:

p,1  A 1 R1

: R 1  1/ c1

p,2  A 2 R2

: R 2  1/ c2

d h1
+ h1 = R1 qin
1
dt

d h 2 + h = R2 h
2
1
2 dt
R1

h1 !
) 1sH 1 ( s ) + H 1 ( s ) = R1 Qin ( s

R2

) 2 sH 2 ( s ) + H 2 ( s ) = R H 1 ( s
1

}"{L

:
) H1 ( s
R1
R1
=
= ) H1 ( s
) .Q ( s
1s + 1 in
Qin ( s ) 1s + 1

) H1 ( s ) H 2 ( s ) Qin ( s :
)H 2 (s
1
R
=
. 2
Qin ( s ) 1s + 1 2 s + 1

H 2 ( s ) R2 / R1
:12 ) H1 ( s ) H 2 ( s
=
H1 ( s ) 2 s + 1

H1
H
H
R1
R /R
R2
)H ( s
1 :

) )( 2 ) = ( 2
= 2 1
) 1s + 1 2 s + 1 ( 1s + 1)( 2 s + 1
) Qin ( s
Qin
H1
Qin

6 5 7 . ) (damp
!

-5 .

-6 .
:12 7 .
:13 R1 1 .
:14 h2 h1 )(
. .

 ) (26346 4

-7 .

-8 .
:15 . 7
0+ .
) ( 45D .
.

:16 n

Damp

. 9 .

) (convolution ) ( Stage Wised

) ( .

-9 .

)(
10 . ) (
. :

dh1
+ qout ,1 = qin
dt
dh
Second Tank: A 2 2 + c2 h2 = qout ,1
dt

: A1

First Tank

10

 ) (26346 4

-10 .
qout ,1:
) (:
) (:

qout ,1 = c1 h1
qout ,1 = c1 h1 h2

) ( c2 h2 :

1
h2
2 h2, ss

h2 h2, ss +

:
) ( h1 h2
) ( h1 h2
h1,ss , h2 ,ss ( h1 h1, ss ) +
) h1,ss , h2 ,ss ( h2 h2, ss
h1
h2
) : (

h1 h2 h1,ss h2, ss +

d h1
c1
c1
h1
h2 = qin
+
A1
dt 2 hss
2 hss

) A d h 2 + c2 h = c1 (h h
1
2
2 dt 2 h 2 2 h
ss
ss

hss  h1, ss h2, ss

:

C2
2 h2, ss

1
=
R2

C1
2 h1, ss

1
=
R1

d h1 h1 h2
+
= qin
A1
dt
R1

A d h 2 + 1 h = h1 h2
2
2 dt
R2
R1

11

q in )(
h 2 .

)H 2 ( s
R2
=
Qin ( s ) s 2 + ( + + R2 ) s + 1
1 2
1
2
1
R1
:17 :
)H 2 ( s
R2
=
2
Qin ( s ) 1 2 s + ( 1 + 2 + ) s + 1

( R2 / R1 ) 1

) ( A1 R2 s . )

( ) ( .
:

A1 = A2 = A , R1 = R2 = R , 1 = 2 =

:
)H 2 (s
R
R
= 2 2
=
)Qin ( s ) s + 2 s + 1 ( s + 1)( s + 1

)H 2 (s
R
R
= 2 2
=
)Qin ( s ) s + 3 s + 1 (0.382 s + 1)(2.618 s + 1
: .

:18 :

)Ginteracting ( s = 0) = Gnon interacting ( s = 0

:19 11 .

-11 .

12

 ) (26346 5

.

)( . 1 .

.1 .
) ( . )
(
. M
:

) Fi =M dt (= Ma
dv

:
) = Ma (t

Ky (t )

) Cv(t
Damper Force

Spring Force

) F (t
External Force

) y ( :

dv d 2 y
= 2
dt
dt

=, a

=v

dy
dt

M d 2 y C dy
) F (t
+
=+y
2
K dt
K dt
K
) ( y y

. ) (:
) F (t
K

= ) , u (t

C
K

= , 2

M
= 2
K

:
dy
) + y = u (t
dt

+ 2

d2y
2

dt

:
1

s + 2 s + 1
2 2

)y(s
)u (s

:1
!
, mn

) ( s + z1 )( s + z2 ) ( s + zm
) ( s + p1 )( s + p2 ) ( s + pn

, mn
, mn

+ b0

s m + b1s m 1 +

+ a0

s + a1s

)( m s + 1
)( n s + 1

n 1

= )G( s

= )G( s

)(1s + 1)( 2 s + 1
)(1s + 1)( 2 s + 1

G( s) = K

s
s 3 .
.

:
1

1
1
y(s) = 2 2
s s + 2 s + 1

= )u(s

:
1
1
1
A
B
C
= )y ( s

= +
+
s s p1 s p2 s s p1 s p2

2 1

p1 , p2 =
2

p1 p2 :
-1 1 p1 p2 .
) ( . S .
overdamped .
-2 = 1 ) ( .
)!( .
critically damped . .
-3 1 .
. underdamped .
. 1

) ( C 2 K : .
) ( .
) ( .

 ) (26346 5

)( !
:
: 1

: = 1

y (t ) = 1 e t / cosh 2 1 +
sinh 2 1
2

t
y (t ) = 1 (1 + )et /

: 1

1 2
t
sin 1 2 + tg 1

1 2

e t /

y (t ) = 1

:2 1 :
gain

s + 2 s + 1
2 2

)y(s
)u (s

) ( )
( .
:3

1 2
tg 1

. .

:4 / . ) ( et /
. ) 1/ ( .
/ . :
C

C
M

C/K
C
=
M /K M

2
2

2 = M / K

2 = C / K

M .

)
( )( .

.
.

.
)( ! 2
. .

.2 .
) : (overshoot .

A
B

A
B

100

overshoot = exp
1 2

:5

1 2

2 1 1

.
:6 1 0 .
100% . 1

. 16% ) ( = 0.504
( = 0.404 ) 25%.
:7 ! )

M /K

 ) (26346 5

) : (undershoot
.
D
100
B

D
B

= ) (

) : (decay ratio ) (
.
C
100
A

C
A

= ) (

2
1 2

= exp

:8 : 50% .
) : (rise time .

1 2

tg 1

1 2

) : (peak time :.

1 2

= trise

= t peak

) : (settling time .
95 ) 5% ( 98 ) 2%
( .
for 5
for 2

3 /
tss
4 /

:9 ) ( trise ) tss ( tsettling .

: :

1 2

wt

w ) ( f ) ( :
1 2
2

= f

) ( w = 2 f

1 2

=w

) ( :
1
2
=
f
1 2

:10 !

=T

) ( .
. :
1

Tnatural = 2

= f natural

1 2

=0

= wnatural

:11 0.2 .
= 1 2

f
f natural

) ( 1
:

{ L1

s + 2 s + 1
2 2

u (s) = 1

= ) y ( s ) = G ( s )u ( s

1 2
e t / sin

1 2

= ) y (t

:
) y1 ( s ) = G ( s)u1 ( s
) u ( s ) = 1/ s ( step input
, 1

y
(
s
)
=
G
(
s
)
u
(
s
)
) (impulse input
2
2
u2 ( s ) = 1
) y1 ( s ) = ( step response
d y1
= ) y2 ( s ) = sy1 ( s ) y2 (t

dt
) y2 ( s ) = (impulse response

.
:12

) ( :
, k = 0,1, 2,

k
1 2

= t

1 2

t = k

t = 0

1 2
sin

: k = 0
=0

dt t =0

d y1

k =0 t=0

t = 0 )( !
k = 1 :
t peak

1 2

= k =1 t

k = 2 :
2
1 2

=k=2 t

 ) (26346 5

.
k = 3 .
3
1 2

= k =3 t

= 1 = 1
:
t /
e

t
= ) y (t

. 1 1
:

2 1
1
e t / sinh
= ) y (t
t
2 1

:13 .
:14 .
:15 .

1

:

{ L1

Aw

s + w s + 2 s + 1
2 2

= ) y ( s ) = G ( s )u ( s

1 2
t + C2 sin

Aw
2

s +w
2

= ) u (t ) = A sin ( wt ) u ( s

1 2

y (t ) = B sin ( wt + ) + e t / C1 sin

C1 C2
t ) ( e t /
.
) y (t ) = B sin ( wt +

) t (

2 w
, = tg 1

1 w2 2

A
2

=B

1 w2 2 + 4 2 w2 2

:16 ) ( B A .
B A 1 )!(

.
:17 180
90.
:18
) ( .

=1

 ) (26346 6

.
.
.
)(pure gain
) ( .
.
) ( .
) y( t ) ( ) (
:
) y (t ) = K u (t

:
y (s) = K u (s) G (s) = K

K .
RTD .
.
:1
. ) (
) ( .
)(pure capacitiy

)( ) (
.
:
K
s

= )G( s

)(lead/lag
:
s +1
s +1

G( s) = K

.
) (strictly proper )(rational
) G(S .

) ( .
:
A
s +1

= K A0 + 1
s +1
s +1

G(s) = K

= , A1 = 1 = 1

= A0

:
K

) y ( s ) = G ( s ) u ( s ) = K + (1
)u ( s
+ 1

:
-1 ) y ( s .
-2 ) y ( s ) ( 1
. ) (lead-to-lag-ratio.
) (1 lead-lag .
V . FA A FB
) B ( .
B
A . CB,out
) A (FA:
= (1 ) FB CB , feed FA + (1 ) FB CB ,tank

.1 .

dCB ,tank
dt

: B

 ) (26346 6

) ( )
( :
FA + (1 ) FB CB ,tank + FB CB , feed
= CB ,out
FA + FB

A B ) (FA>>FB

V
=
FA

:
FA + FB FA + (1 ) FB FA

) ( :
dCB ,tank (1 ) FB
CB , feed CB ,tank
=

dt
FA

FB
C
B ,out = CB ,tank + F CB , feed
A

ss

FB
F
CB , feed B CB , feed
= u
F
FA
A

CB ,out y = CB ,out CB ,out ss

x = CB ,ank CB ,tank
ss

:
) d x (t
) = (1 ) u (t ) x (t

dt
) y (t ) = x (t ) + u (t

:
1

) x (s) = s + 1 u ( s

) y ( s ) = x ( s ) + u ( s ) = + 1 u ( s

s + 1

) ( ) (:

y (s) s + 1
=
u ( s) s + 1

2
) (2 . :
) (


) ( s z1 )( s z2 ) ( s zm
) ( s p1 )( s p2 ) ( s pn

)( m s + 1
)( n s + 1

G( s) = K

= )G( s

bm

s m + b1s m 1 +

an

s + a1s

n 1

)(1s + 1)( 2 s + 1
)(1s + 1)( 2 s + 1

G( s) = K

) (

m n n-m .
- .
)1 (1 ) (
) ( )1 (2 .
) (rational
. )1 (2
:
)K (1s + 1
)y ( s
=
)u ( s ) (1s + 1)( 2 s + 1

= )G( s

:
A
)K (1s + 1
A1
A2
1
=K 0 +
+

(1s + 1)( 2 s + 1) s
s 1s + 1 2 s + 1

= )y (s

:
) 2 ( 2 1
2 1

= A2

) 1 (1 1
1 2

= A1

A0 = 1 ,

y :
t
t
y (t ) = K 1 1 1 e 1 2 1 e 2
1 2

2 1

) (2 ) (1 = 0 ) ( 1
:

t
2 t 2
y (t ) = K 1 1 e 1

e
1 2

2 1

1 !
1 2 1 < 2
1 :
1 > 2 : K
!

) y (t

!
1 = 2 : 1 = 1 ) (
)1 (2 ) (1 . 1 2 .

 ) (26346 6

0 < 1 < 2 :
) 1 ( . 1 1
.
1 = 1 2 = 4 K = 10 1 2 .

.2 )1.(2
)(Inverse-reponse systems
)( )(
.
.
)
( ) G ( s :
) G ( s ) = G1 ( s ) G2 ( s

. ) ) ( G2 ( s
) ) ( G1 ( s . ) G1 ( s ) G2 ( s .
3 :
K2

K1

1s + 1 2 s + 1

= )G( s

)(

K1 K 2 K1 K 2

.3 .
1 2
.
) ( .
y () = G (0) = G1 (0) G2 (0) = K1 K 2

:
K 2

K1 . :
K
K
dy dy
= 1 2
= 1 2
dt t =0 1 2
dt

t =0

dy
dt

k1 k1
2
1
) 4 ( . ) ( k1 k > 1 2 < 1
2

2 1

1
2

1) 1

K
( 1
K2

K2

.4 .

K1

 ) (26346 6

.
. ) ( 2
) y1 (
y2 .
)(pure lag system

.
) (transport delay ) (measurement lag
) (GC . L v
L v ) .(5
.

.5 .
) (5
s s .
d
).(6
e d s
. 8
) (time delay ) 7 8 (.

.6 .

.7 .

.8 .

 ) (26346 6

- Pade
e d s .
Pade :

2 d s
2 +d s

s
s

1+

e d s / 2
+ d s / 2

d s

 ) (26346 7

. )(
) ( .
) (
.
. - .
.
:
.
.
.
-
) (1 . )(
sp
. Tout

-1 )( .

-1 .
)( ) ( . )
( - .

 )(SISO

.
.
. . -
) (PFD ) (P&ID .
.
) PFD (1
.
.
1 ) h Tout ( V qout Ta Tin qin
) Tsat. ( Psat . . Tout
.
- Tout .

. Tout
) ( Tout
sp
( Tout . (
Tout )

Tout ! (
Tout ) ( Ta ) ( Tin(
) ( )(
. Tout ) ( Tin
( (
( . Tout Tin
( ( -
) ( Tout ) ( Tin(
.
- - .
sp
Tout (
)

) ( ) ( .
.
. )
( . . GC

) (on-line 250000
. ) (inferential )

 ) (26346 7

( . ) (
. GC
RTD ) ( .
) ( ( Tout ) Tout ,m .
) (Manipulated Variable
.
qin ) (pairing ) (Tout qin

) ( . ) (Tout qsat.
Tout qsat . .
- ) ( PFD

P&ID . )( .
) (Tout qin qin Tout
.
PFD ) (P&ID .
PFD ) P&ID( .
) (P&ID
) (PFD ) (P&ID
!
...
.
1 .

-2 SISO .

 )(SISO

) -(2 ) ( .
- ) (Tout qsat . Tout

. . Tout
sp
Tout .
qin Tin Ta )(

) ( ) ( .
) -(3 RTD .
) ( qsat.
- ) (Tout Qheater . TIC
Temperature Indicator & Control . P&ID
.

-3 SISO .

) -(4 .
) (Tout qin .
) (# .
) -(5 ) (pairing ) (Tout Tin .
Tin .
) ( qin .
! %10 %10 .

 ) (26346 7

-4 SISO .

-5 SISO .

) -(6 - .
) ( ) (
Tin .
.
sp
( Tout
)

 )(SISO

) ( .
Ta qin Tin .
. ) (MISO
) !( .
.

-6 MISO .

- Tout
. qout LIC Level Indicator & Control .
qout
) (


.
- ) (Tout qsat. ) ( h qin
- ) - ( !

 ) (26346 7

-7 SISO MISO .

P&ID
PFD .
.
8 )( SISO .
)( .
:
-1 y ym . ) (
. Tout.
-2 u u .
.
) qsat . () Qheater ( ) qin ( ) Tin (
.
-3 di n .
.
.
) ( qin Tin Ta.

 )(SISO

-8 .

-4 - )
( . )(

) (deterministic . ) (
.
-5 -
. ysp )
ym ( ysp ym )
ysp (.
:
-1 -
V3
!
) (
.
-2 -
.
) ( .
-3 ) ( -
) (KV .
-4 -

u u ) y ( ym
) ( ysp )( .
: . (setpoint

 ) (26346 7

) tracking ) (servo Mechanism (command

) following u u y ym
ysp . ) (startup
) (shut down ) (batch .
) (load rejection (Disturbance

) Compensation . u u
) ym ( y ) ( ysp .
9 )( )
( . 10 ) ( .

-9 .

-10 .

 (26346) 8

.
:
Instrument Engineers' Handbook, by B. G. Liptak, ehilto, Radnor, PA, 1970
Measurement Fundamentals, by Moore, ISA Publication, Res. Triangle park, NC, 1989

1.
2.

.
) (
.
:
1 )( :
.
2 )( : ) (
.
3 )( :
.
4 ) ( :

) (workstation . ) (Centralized Control )
( ) (Distributed Control System DCS
. )(MIMO
.
5 ) ( : DCS
) (IT DCS
) ( . ) (Bus
) (Data Bus ) (Address Bus
)(Field Bus
) (Process Bus.

) (online .
)( .

 ) (
pH
.
.
.
.
20 200 . .
) ( .
) (
) (Vortex Shedding .

.
)( .
.
) (Thermowell
. ) (
.
0-1300 F .
) (Filled Bulb .
. .
) (Resistant Thermometer Diode RTD .
.
. )(
!

(1 ) (2 (Bourden Tube ) (Bellows (3 .
) ( .

:
1 .
2 ) (
3

 (26346) 8
)(Transmitters ) (
.
.
) (Transducer
.
.
.
:
: 0-1, 0-10, 10, 5
: 4-20 mA
: 3-15 psig
1 .
100 1000 4 20
.
) (range ) ( 100-1000 . ) (span 900
) (zero 100 .

1 .

) (
.
16 900 mA kPa:

 ) (

20 4 mA
16
=
kPa
1000 100
900

= Ktrans.

2 ) (1 ) (
50 250 4 20
. 50 250 F 200 F 50 F .
:

20 4 mA
16
=
kPa
1000 100
900

= Ktrans.

2 )(.

:
K trans

ms +1

= ) Gm ( s

3 P .
.
100 2000 kg hr . P ) (
16 mA100 in water . .

 (26346) 8

3 .

P )( P :
2

2000

PV = 4 + 16 F

pv mA F kg hr .
:
F

32 Fss

( Fmax )2

= PV

FSS Fmax ) .
2000 kg hr(.

.
) (plug ) (stem ) (seat
) 4 .(5 .

.
) ( ) (action
) (characteristics ).(size

 ) (

4 .

5 .

) (
.
.
.
.

 (26346) 8
)( . 4 5
.
) (
)(Air-to-close, AC .
) (
) (Air-to-open, AO .
) ( AO ) (
AC .
)(
. )( )(
. ) (
:

Pv

)F = Cv f ( x

:
: F ) (gpm
: Cv
: x ) (
) : f ( x . ) (
.
: ) (
: Pv ) (psi

. ) (
:
th

Masonielan Handbook for Control Valve Sizing, Dresser Industries, 6 Ed., 1977.

) ( .
.

 ) (
:
:
)(100 gpm :

:
40 psi : PH
150 psi :

) 1 :(
size . case :
) :Case 1 (
) (head ) (.
) :Case 2 (
) (Rangeability .
) %50 (

= 20
psi

150 + 20 +
40
= 210

 


H .Exchanger

) %50 (

Case 1:
Valve

Reservoir

= 80
psi

Case 2:

150 + 80 +
40
= 270

 


H . Exchanger

Valve

Reservoir

:
Pv

Cv,1 = 44.72

20
1

Cv,2 = 22.36

80
1

)F = Cv f ( x

0.50
 

Case 1:

100 = Cv

) (%50 open

0.50
 

Case 2:

100 = Cv

) (%50 open

case 2 case 1.
: f ( x) = 1.0 Fmax Fmax
. . F
:
2

Fmax
PH )max = 40
100

Fmax
=
Fdesign

PH )max

PH )design

 (26346) 8
: :
Pv + PH
Pv = Ptotal PH


 
 

H . Exchanger

= Ptotal

Valve

F
Case 1: Ptotal = 40 + 20 = 60 , Cv = 44.72 Pv ,max = 60 40 max
100
2

Fmax ,1 = 115 gpm

Fmax

100

: Fm ax = ( 44.72 ) (1.0 ) 60 40
Case 2 : Ptotal = 40 + 80 = 120 , Cv = 22.36

Fmax ,2 = 141 gpm

Fmax

100

: Fm ax = ( 22.36 ) (1.0 ) 120 40

: f ( x) = 0.1 ) .
pop (....
2

Fmin,1 = 33.3 gpm

2

Fmin,2 = 24.22 gpm

Fmin
Case 1: Fmin = 44.72 0.1 60 40
100

Fmin
Case 2 : Fmin = 22.36 0.1 120 40

100

: max min
)( turn-down ratio
)( rangeability .
:
:Case 1 : ) (.
:Case 2 : .
: %50
) ( .

:

) ( : .

) :( 20% .

:
1 ) (sizing Fmax .Fmin
2 ) ( ) (

 ) (
: Fmax Fmin Cvalve : ) .( PP
: .
50 gpm . )
( .
. 10 psi )( .
. 2 .
.
2

:
2

Pcoil F
=
10
50

F
Pvalve = Ptotal Pcoil = Ptotal 10
50

Fmax Fmin:
2

150 = Cv (1.0) Ptotal 10 150

5

25
25 = Cv (1.0) Ptotal 10
5

Cv : Ptotal
Cv = 21.3 , Ptotal = 139.2 Ppump = Ptotal + 2 = 139.2 + 2 = 141.2 psi

): f design ( x
f design ( x) = 0.206

50 = 21.3 f design ( x) 139.2 10

: Fmin :
2

Fmax
F
=
C

P
)(1.0
(
)

v
total
h des.
max
Fdes.

F
Fmin = Cv ( f min ) Ptotal (Ph ) des. min

Fdes.

Ptotal (Ph )des. )

( . Fdes. f min .
: Ptotal

2
2
Fmax
Fmin

f min Fmax
Fmin

2
Fdes
.

Ptotal
=
(Ph ) des.

 (26346) 8

: Rangeability
:
f min Fmax
Fmin

=R

R 1 .
:
%40 %50 Ptotal 139/2 202 psi 40
35 Ptotal 355 30 R 1 Ptotal
:
Fmax
50 3
= 0.1
=1
Fmin
50 0.3

R = f min

turn-down ratio 0/1 .

0/1
. split range
full open . .

- ) (plug & seat

. :
f ( x) = x ,
f ( x) = x 1

Linear Trim Valves :

Equal Percentage Trim Valves :

) (Inherent Characteristic 6 .

6 .

 ) (
50 50
) ( = 50 14 .

) (Installed Characteristic
7 ) : PH

Pv

7 ) Equal P. Trim ( Linear Trim

) (.

trim .
trim ) (
.
. .
:
. .
) .
Q = F T
( Q = C p T : Equal p. trim
.
)( .
) ( High Pv ) .( Low PH
:

PH

when flow is high

High
Pvalve des.

Low PH
when flow is low
Pvalve des.

Inherent char. - Installed Char. . ) PH = 0 ( .

 (26346) 8

Valve Positioner

: ) (Sticking
) I/P
( .

) (
.
: positioner .
positioner . positioner

split-range .
: : )
( . 20 40
) . 4 10( )
( Gain .

: .
: ) (.
:
) ( : )(
) ( Transmitter . )(
. ) actuator
( .
: .
.
: ) (discrete .
) ( - 7
. .
)( / ) (bourden
T ) (
.

 ) (

7 .

) ( - 8
.
) (stepper motor ) ( .
.

8 .

 (26346) 8
9 .
)
(I/P .

9 )( .

) (
) ( ) (
) (.
) (proportional :

)(
)( )( .
:
) u (t ) = bias KC ( ysp ym

) u (t :
:Bias ) (
.

 ) (
: K c
. ) (
. K c
.
:
)u ( s
= KC
) e( s
y (t ) y
= ) ym (t
m
m , ss

= ) GC ( s
,

{L

) u (t ) = KC ( ysp ym ) = K C e(t

y (t ) y
= ) ysp (t
sp
sp , ss

u (t ) bias ,
= ) where u (t

Kc .
) (proportional band Kc :
100
KC

= % PB

PB ) Kc( ) (
.
) ( Kc
. ) Kc (PB ) Action Mode
/ ) ( (Reverse/Direct ) Kc (PB :
)u ( s
= KC
) e( s

= ) u (t ) = GC e( s ) or GC ( s

KC .
KC .
KC ) ( ) AC (AO
) ( .
.
) (offset
.
:(bang-bang controller) On/Off :
KC

PB = 0 or

) (limit cycle .
) :(ProportionalIntegral Controllers
) 80( ) (
) ( .
.

 (26346) 8

)( . )
( PI :

0 e( )d = Kc e(t ) + I 0 e( )d = KC e(t ) + K I 0 e( )d
K
, KI = C

KC

u (t ) = KC e(t ) +

KC 1
) e( s
1 1
e( s ) = K c 1 +
e ( s ) = K C e( s ) + K I
s
s
I s

K 1
) s + (1/ I
)u ( s
1
= ) GC ( s
= KC + C = KC + K I = KC
) e( s
s
s
I s

u ( s ) = K C e( s ) +

Kc I .
1 s : : .
PI
.
.

)(ProportionalIntegral-Derivative Controllers
.
.
)( . ) (
PID :
) de(t
dt

0 e( )d + K D

) de(t
= K C e(t ) + K I
dt

0 e( )d + KC D

KC

KC 1
K
e( s ) + K C D se( s ) , K I = C
I s
I

, K D = K C D

u (t ) = KC e(t ) +
u ( s ) = K C e( s ) +

K 1
)u ( s
1
= K C + C + K C D s = K C + K I + K D s
) e( s
s
I s

= ) GC ( s

I Kc D .
)
( ) (.
-
) ( . :
:
) (:

Tin

) (:

qsat .

10 12 PIP PID t = 10 .

 ) (

10 .

11 .

12 .

) (
qsat . .

.

 (26346) 9

1 .
) ( Nested.

.1 .

) ( s Gm Gm
Gm = 1 : .
plant

valve K valve

K valve KC K valve .
comparator ) (
) combiner .(!! summer
.

+

) (Forward path .

) (Feed Forward .+

ym . ) ( ym (t ) = 0.
2.
.
: ) y( ) d ( u

.... y = G p ( Gd d + u ) y = G p Gd d + G p u ...
y
= G p Gd
d
y
= Gp
u

v = Gd d + u

y = G p v

y = G p Gd d + 0

y = 0 + Gpu

: d y
: u y

.2 .

: ) y( ) d ( ysp

y (1 + G p GC ) = G p Gd d + G p GC ysp

ysp

) y = G p Gd d + G p GC ( ysp y

G p GC
1 + G p GC

d+

G p Gd
1 + G p GC

v = Gd d + u

u = GC e
e = y y
sp

=y

3 4
.

.3 )( .

 (26346) 9

.4 )( .

:
minus () for positive( +) feedback
!!! ,
positive(+ ) for minus () feedback

Gi

path from X to Y ), i

Gi

Y ( s ) ( forward
=
X (s) 1

( all blocks in the loop ), i

: ) ( 5 :

?=

)y ( s
)d 2 ( s

)y ( s
) d1 ( s

)y ( s
)ysp ( s

.5 .


:
GC Gv Gd G p
)y ( s
=
ysp ( s ) 1 + GC Gv Gd G p Gm GT
Gd G p
)y (s
=
d1 ( s ) 1 + GC Gv Gd G p Gm GT
Gm GT G p
)y ( s
=
d 2 ( s ) 1 + GC Gv Gd G p Gm GT

: ) Nested (branched
.
) (
.
)(Visualizing system Dynamics

.
.
) (Visualization
.
) (IMC ) ( ...
.
Visual Editing Computer-Aided Software Design CASE.

) (Drag & Drop .
) Simulink
(MATLAB.

. :
1 ) (
.
.
2 ) ( .
3 ) (Task .

 (26346) 9
4 .
5 .
.
6 :
: 1 ) (Summing Points .
: 12 .
) : 13 (
X
1+ X

= Y

Y
1Y

= X

.6 .

.
)(Nested loop
!


: :
: 6
1

13

13

13

: ) .(signal Flow Graphs

Mason

. .
:
Mason, S.J. Feedback Theory: Some Properties of Signal Flow Graph, Proc. IRE, 44, (1965), pp. 920-926.

 (26346) 9

.
- ) ( :

Kp

G p

ps +1

= Gp

) KC ( 0 :
KC K p

Kp

1 + KC K p
s +1

KC K p

p s + 1 + KC K p

1 + KC K p

1 + KC K p

= , cl

ps +1
Kp

ps +1

KC

1 + KC

KC G p
)y ( s
=
=
ysp ( s ) 1 + K C G p

)y (s
K cl
KC K p
= cl
= , K cl
1 + KC K p
ysp ( s ) s + 1

= ) G cl ( s

y ysp ysp :
1
1 + KC K p

KC K p
1 + KC K p

= 1 )(

K p KC ) (
.
p 1 + KC K p 1 + KC K p 1
KC .
:
KC K p s + K I K p
( KC + K I / s ) G p
)y ( s
=
=
2
ysp ( s ) 1 + ( KC + K I / s ) G p p s + 1 + KC K p s + K I K p

 (26346) 10

.
) (Stabilizer .
.
-) (Performance-Oriented -) .(Stability-Oriented
.
. ) (
%16 ) ( . .

)(
) ( ) (
.

.

.

.
) (Sustainability .

. ) (bounded
) (Unbounded
)!(
.
.

) (
:
, mn

+ bm

a0 y ( n ) + a1 y ( n 1) +

+ an 1 y + an = b0u ( m ) +

y )( ) u
( . .
) (
t p e(i + i j )t ) p = 0,1, 2, , n ( .
i i eit
p ) ( p = 0
) . ( p 1

) s ( i + i j

p ) s ( i + i j . ) (
) ( i )( .

) - (
:
C
C
)B( s
= 1 + 2 +
A( s) s s1 s s2

= )G ( s

) B( s s m ) A( s s n:
,
+ an 1s + an

+ bm
+

n 1

B( s) = b0 s m +

A( s) = a0 s + a1s
n

Ci
) (:
s si
1
)
s
C
i e si t si
s si

= ( .

. si si
.
BIBO :
) (Left Half plane-LHP
RHP ) ( .
BIBO
!
2

 (26346) 10

) ( :
:
: .

) :(Decarte's Rule of sign
. :
. ) (
.
.
RHP .
) :( Routh's criteria
. ) (
)( .
: Hurwitz
) (.
: Jury )
( .

Routh
) (
) (RHP .
: :
+ an 1s + an = 0

a0 s n + a1s n 1 +

: :
a0 a2 a4
a1 a3

: .
b3

b1 b2


:
a4

a0

a5

a1
a1

or

a a a a
, b2 = 1 4 0 5
a1

a2

a0

a3

a1
a1

or

a a a a
b1 = 1 2 0 3
a1

: .
: )( .
:
1 ) ( LHP
.
2 RHP .

)( Tips & Tricks

) (
.
. . .
. . .
) (
. . ) ( Pade .
: . .
b0 s 2 + b1
s 4 + 3s 3 + 5s 2 + 4s + 2
: s 4 + 3s 3 + 5s 2 + 4s + 2 = 0 :

:
4

= )G ( s

 (26346) 10
.
si
:
2

s4

1 2
3 0
3

1 5
3 4

s2

s 0 :
5 2

s4

4 0

11

4
0

s
s

11 6

11

s1

:
5 2

4 0

s
s

11 6

26 0

26 6
26

s0

.
: ) KC ( .

:
KC
=0
)( s + 1)(0.5s + 1)( s / 3 + 1

characteristic equation : 1 +

KC
)( s + 1)(0.5s + 1
KC
1+
)( s + 1)(0.5s + 1)( s / 3 + 1

y
=
ysp


( s + 1)(0.5s + 1)(( s / 3) + 1) + KC = 0 s 3 + 6 s 2 + 11s + 6(1 + K c ) = 0

K = 6(1 + K c ) s3 + 6s 2 + 11s + K = 0

1 , KC 10

KC

11

s3

6
66 K
6

2
1

s0

66 K

Stability Criteria : 6
K 0

( KC

KC

10

-1
.
: s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 2 = 0 .
:
1

=2

s
s

s0

) ( .
: ) (
) ( .
: )( jw w
:
( jw)3 + 2( jw) 2 + ( jw) + 2 0 + 0 j

: = jw
Hurwitz .

2
w = 1
2 w + 2 0

3
w = 0
w + w 0

 (26346) 10
-2 :
: s 3 3s + 2 = 0 .
! 3 .
:
s 3 3s + 2 = ( s 1) 2 ( s + 2) = 0

:
s3

0
2
3

s1

s0

! : s1 0
1 .
) (RHP .
s = +1 .
- 3 )(
. .
) ( ) (Auxiliary polynomial
. ) ( ) (
s . .
:

s 5 + 2s 4 + 24s 3 + 48s 2 25s 50 = 0

! ) -50 25
(.
:
25

1 24

2 48 550
0

s5
4

s3

s 4
) dp ( s
= 8s 3 + 96s
ds

p ( s ) = 2 s 4 + 48s 2 50 = 0


) dp ( s

ds

) ( s3 :
Auxiliary Polynomial

25

24

s5

50

48

96

50

24

112.7

50

s0

Derivative Coeff . of Auxiliary Polynomial

s
s
s

.
:
s 5 + 2 s 4 + 24 s 3 + 48s 2 25s 50 = ( s + 1)( s 1)( s + 5 j )( s 5 j )( s + 2) = 0

: :
p ( s ) = 2 s 4 + 48s 2 50 = 0 s 2 = 1 , s 2 = 25
s = 1 , s = 5 j

.
. p1 = 1 p1 = 10 :
A
) A (
)( s + 1)( s + 10

= )G ( s

) ( et e10t .
) ( e t 0.37 e 10t 4.5 10-5

. 8150 .
) ( .
)!( .
5
. damp
) (Dominant Pole .
.
) (PID ) (Tuning
) ( .
3 PI ) (
. .
KC . KC

 (26346) 10

) ( .
Load
) ( .

. ) ( ) (
)!( .
) ( ) ( .
.

.
) (steady state
. .
-
:

N ) ( ) .(SN
. N=0 N=1
1 . 1/S
PI ) (
. ) (N=2
...
- :
) e( s
)y(s) H (s
1
= 1
=

)1 + G ( s) H ( s
)ysp ( s
) ysp ( s
)sysp ( s

ess = lim e(t ) = lim se( s) = lim

) t 1 + G ( s ) H ( s

y
)G (s
=
)ysp 1 + G ( s) H ( s
s 0


:(static Position error constant) K P
:

ysp = 1
1
)1 + G (0) H (0

= ess

K P
1
1+ KP

= K P = G(0) H (0) ess

.
:
1
1+ K

= ess

)K (b0 s + 1) (bm s + 1
=K
)(an s + 1
)s 0 ( a0 s + 1

= ess = 0

)(bm s + 1
)(an s + 1

)K (b0 s + 1
)S (a0 s + 1
N

type 0

K P == lim

K P == lim

type 1 ) ( N 1

s 0

) (
.
: (static Velocity error constant) KV
:
s
1
1
2 = lim
s 0 1 + G ( s) H ( s ) s
)) s 0 s (1 + G ( s ) H ( s

ess = lim

KV

)KV = lim sG ( s) H ( s
s 0

)sK (b0 s + 1) (bm s + 1

1
= = 0 ess
=
)(an s + 1
KV
)s 0 ( a0 s + 1
1
1
=
KV K

1
=0
KV

= ess

KV == lim

KV == lim

type 1

KV == lim

type 2 ) ( N 2

)sK (b0 s + 1) (bm s + 1

=K
)(an s + 1
)s 0 s ( a0 s + 1

= = ess

type 0

)(bm s + 1

)sK (b0 s + 1

)( an s + 1

N
)s 0 s ( a0 s + 1

.
.

10

 (26346) 10
:(static Acceleration error constant) K A
2

) ( ysp (t ) = t 2 :
s
1
1
3 = lim 2
s 0 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) s
)) s 0 s (1 + G ( s ) H ( s

ess = lim

ess .
:
Acceleration Input

Ramp Input
ysp (t ) = t

1
1+ K

1
K

type 1

1
K

type 2

ysp (t ) = t 2 / 2

11

Step Input
ysp (t ) = 1

type 0

 (26346) 11

: )(Root locus
.
)(
)( .
) ( ) (
.
. .
1 ) (rational s .
) ( e s .
d

2 .
3
s
) ( .
4 )
( .
5 ) (Spirule )
(MATLAB- Control Toolbox . )
(... ) (... .
: 1 :

) 0

( K C ) ( .

K C K C
. u ysp 1.

K
KC
) ( C
KC
KC + 1
y
= = s +1
=
KC
ysp
s + 1 + KC ( 1 )s + 1
1+
KC + 1
s +1

)( :
) s + (1 + K C ) = 0 Closed loop Pole( s ) = (1 + K C

K C . ) ( .
-1 :

K C : )

1
1 + KC

( y

ysp .
) : (2 )( ) (
:

: :

2KC
)2 K C ( s + 3
)( s + 1)( s + 2
=
2KC 3
( s + 1)( s + 2)( s + 3) + 6 K C
1+
)( s + 1)( s + 2( s + 3

y
=
ysp

:
( s + 1)( s + 2)( s + 3) + 6 K C = 0 s 3 + 6 s 2 + 11s + 6 + 6 K C = 0

) ( ) KC ( K C
:
2

 (26346) 11

KC

-1

-2

-3

-1.15

-1.75

-3.1

0.038

-1.28+0.75j

-1.28-0.75j

-3.45

0.263

-0.45+2.5j

-0.45-2.5j

-5.1

4.42

0.0+3.32j

0.0-3.32j

-6.0

10.0

0.35+4j

0.35-4j

-6.72

16.67

KC
. ) (
.
) (
.

! : KC .
! .

Evans
)( :

)( :
d

Gp
1 + GC G p Gm

ysp +

GC G p
1 + GC G p Gm

=y

) 1 + G ( G = GC G p Gm
. y
)( d ysp .
1 + G = 0 ) (G .
.
: ) (G :
)N (s
)D( s

G = gain rational function = K

) N(s ) D(s :
) ( s zm

K = Const.
) N ( s ) = ( s z1 )( s z2

( s pn ) , m n

) D ( s ) = ( s p1 )( s p2

zi ) ( pi )
( .
:

1+ G = 0

)N ( s
) N (s
=0 K
= 1
)D( s
) D(s

1+ G = 1+ K

 (26346) 11

s 1 + G = 0 )(
) N ( s
) D(s

K -1 . :
j

) s = re = r (cos( ) + j sin(

s = s s

r = s = u 2 + v 2
) s = u + jv (Cartezian

j
v
) ( Polar
s = re
) ( = s = tg 1
u

1 :
1 = (1)e j = cos( ) + j sin( ) = 1 + 0 j
) N ( s
s = 1
) D(s

K
) N ( s
=1
K

) D(s

) N (s
K
= (2k + 1)

) D( s

)( Magnitude Rule
)( Angle Rule

:
m

s zi

) N ( s
s z1 s z2
s zm
K
=K
= K in=1
=1
) D(s
s p1 s p2
s pn

s
p

i =1

) N (s
K
=
s z1 + s z2 + + s zm

) D( s

s p1 + s p2 + + s pn

m
n

= s zi s pi = (2k + 1) , k = 0,1, 2,...

i =1
i =1

})

})

( {
( {

: K s .

) ( :
) (
.
.
: 1 .
: 2 ) ( K = 0 ) . ( K
n m ) (
.


) ( q q .
q ) q (.
: 3 ) (Real
.
: 4 :

zj
pj

) ( poles) ( zeros
j =1
= j =1
=
n
m
relative order

(2k + 1)
= ) = (angle with real axis
relative
order

: 5 )

) (Im :
n
1
1
=
zi i =1 s pi

s
i =1

s pi zi .
: 6 q q :
m
n

(2k + 1) + ( p zi ) ( p p j ) , k = 0,1, 2,..., q 1

q
i =1
j =1

v :

j =1

i =1

1
v

= (2k + 1) + ( z zi ) ( z p j ) , k = 0,1, 2,..., v 1

: 7 - :
D(s ) + K N ( s ) = 0

! : ) (n-m 2 )(
K .
: ) ( ) (SISO .
.
: )( ) ( Evans
. .

.
.

 (26346) 11

: ) (I
) ( .
K 0.5 )( .
= 0.5 16 .

) .

(
K
K
)s ( s + 1)( s + 2
=
= )_ Gcl . ( s
K
(
()1
s
s
+
s + 2) + K
1+
)s ( s + 1)( s + 2

: 1 ) ( .
: 3 1 2 .
)( : :

) = s ( s + 1) ( s + 2
s
s
s
(
()1
)2
+
+

= Gol .

) ( 1 + Gol . ( s ) = 0 Gol . ( s ) = 1

. )(
. s = +2 :
(+2 + 2) = 0

= )( s + 2

(+2 + 1) = 0 ,

= )( s + 1

( +2) = 0 ,

= s

s = +2

. 0

1
. ) (milestones
!


: 4 ( n m = ) 3
:

( poles) ( zeros) = (0 1 2) 0 = 1
=
relative order
3

= (angle with real axis ) = (2k + 1) = , 3 , 5

3
3
3

relative order

)(: ) s ( s :
K
K
) = 0 lim(1 + 3 ) = 0
s

)s ( s + 1)( s + 2
s

1 + Gol . ( s ) = 0 lim(1 + Gol . ( s )) = lim(1 +

s

.
)(2k + 1

: 3 s = (2k + 1) , k = 0,1, 2,... s = angel of asymptotes =

) ( :
: s : s( s + 1)( s + 2) + K = 0 s + 3s 2 + 2s + K = 0
3

( s = ) ( + 1)3 = 0 = 1 s 3 + 3s 2 + 2s + ( s + 1) + ( 0) = 0 ( s + 1)3 = 0

:5 ) : (break-away point -1 :
)( s + 1)( s + 2) + s( s + 2) + s ( s + 1
=0
)s ( s + 1)( s + 2

1
1
1
+
+
s s +1 s + 2

=0

( s 2 + 3s + 2) + ( s 2 + 2 s ) + ( s 2 + s ) = 0 3s 2 + 6s + 2 = 0
3 3
= 1.577, unreasonable

3 9 6 3
=
=
3
3 + 3 = 0.423
3

s1,2

)( : ) (
K .
) ) ( ( :
f ( s ) = D( s ) + KN ( s ) = 0

) f ( s :

)N ( s
=0
) D( s

1 + G ( s) = 0 1 + K

) df ( s
=0
ds

:
. s = s1
=0
s = s1

) ...(

) df ( s
ds

r
) f ( s ) = ( s s1 ) ( s s2 )...( s sn

where r 2

) df ( s
d
) = r ( s s1 ) r 1[( s s2 )...( s sn )] + ( s s1 ) r {( s s2 )...( s sn )} (let s = s1
ds
ds

 (26346) 11

) D ( s
N ( s) = 0
) N ( s

f ( s) = D( s)

) df ( s
) D ( s
= D ( s ) + KN ( s ) = 0 K =
ds
) N ( s

s .
): ( :
dK
) ( = 0
ds

) D ( s
) D ( s

K = N ( s ) f ( s ) = D( s ) N ( s ) N ( s ) = 0 DN D N = 0

charac. eq. : D( s ) + KN ( s ) = 0 K = D ( s ) dK = D N DN

)N (s
ds
N2

:
0.423
dK
= = (3s 2 + 6 s + 2) s
ds
1.577 : unacceptable

) s 3 + 3s 2 + 2 s + K = 0 K = ( s 3 + 3s 2 + 2s

K = 0.385

. K = +0.385 :

:
: Routh

s 3 + 3s 2 + 2s + K = 0
2

3
6K
3
K

s0

K = 6 row s1 : 0 0

if

Auxiliary polynomial

s3
2

s1

p ( s ) = 3s + 0 s + K + 0 = 3s + K = 3s 2 + 6 = 0 s = j 2
2

: s = jw

:
( jw)3 + 3( jw) 2 + 2( jw) + K = 0 ( K 3w2 ) + j (2 w 3w2 ) 0 + 0 j
K =0

for

w=0

K = 6 or

for

w= 2

.
) K ( 16 :
:
1 2
1 2

= ) j r cos( ) + r sin( ) j tg (
= 1.732 = 1.047(rad ) = 60

K )( 60 ) (.

p1,2 =

: ) 60 ( :

s = + j

) K(.
( s ) ( s + 1) ( s + 2) =
( s ) = tg 1 ( ) = x

( s + 1) = tg 1 ( ( + 1)) = y

1
( s + 2) = tg ( ( + 2)) = z
tg ( x + y + z ) = tg ( ) = 0

s + 1 = ( + 1) + j

s + 2 = ( + 2) + j

s = + j

Angel Criteria : tg 1 ( ) + tg 1 ( ( + 1)) + tg 1 ( ( + 2)) =

z

) tg ( x) + tg ( y ) + tg ( z ) tg ( x)tg ( y )tg ( z
=0
) 1 tg ( x)tg ( y ) tg ( x)tg ( z ) tg ( y )tg ( z

= ) tg ( x + y + z

3
+
+

) + 1 + 2 ( + 1)( + 2
= 0 3 2 + 6 + 2 = 2
2
2
2

1
) ( + 1) ( + 2) ( + 1)( + 2

( ) = 1.732 = 1.732

tg 1 ( ) = 120

1
1732

s1,2
= j
:
3
3000
K :

K = s s + 1 s + 2 = 1.037

10

K
=1
)s ( s + 1)( s + 2

 (26346) 12

GC ) (.

-1 .

:
0.03K C
2

=, K

0.03K C
K
=
)(2s + 1)( s + 1) ( s + 0.5)( s + 1

=G

2 .

-2 .


1 ) ( .
2 .
3 K K )
( ) ( ) ( K .
) ( . 3
.

-3 .

:
0.03K C
2

=, K

0.03K C
) K (s + 1 I
1
1 +
=
)(2 s + 1)( s + 1) I s s ( s + 0.5)( s + 1

=G

: PI ) ( .
: 1 2 0,5 1
PI
1 ) (
I = 0.5 new zero = 2

) (-2 4 .

 (26346) 12

-4 - ) .( I = 0.5

: ) (5
. : - 1 K 0,5 1
. ...

5 - ) .( I = 0.5


2 ) ( I 1 0,5 ) : (6

-6 - ) .( I = 4 3

: ! ! !
3 ) ( ) ( 0,5 ) : (7

-7 - ) .( I = 4

 (26346) 12

: ) (.
: ) I = 4 3 ( I = 4 .
8 .

8 - ) I .( K = 1

) PD ( PID
. K C
. K C = 10
K C = 50 .
:

Pade :
s
s

1+


s

)s

d d
2

=e

d s

: Pade

e s ) (
d

 ) ( 26346 13

) ( :
: 15 .
.
. )(
.

.
: ) ( .
) (Signal Processing ) ( Filter Design
.

.
.

)(Substitution Rule

) .(Amplitude Ratio-AR )
.( Phase Angle: AR ) (
.

 AR ) G(s .
jw s :
)AR = G ( jw

) (

)) = (G ( jw (
) ( s = j
.
:

) Q (s
) P (s

= ) G (s ) A sin(t .

:
A
) Q (s
= P (s ) s + j s j
(
()
)

) Q (s
)
) P (s

A
Y (s ) = G (s ) 2
2
s +

= ) ( G (s ) P (s) (

.
:
C
C
+
) (s + j ) (s j

= ) Y (s

:
A
A
) = G ( j
2 j
2 j
A
A
)= G ( j
)= G ( j
2 j
2j
) = G ( j

s = j

) = ( s + j )Y (s

s = j

) = ( s j )Y (s

s = j

s = j

) C = ( s + j )Y (s

) C = ( s j )Y (s

) Y (t :
AG ( j ) j t AG ( j ) j t
+
= ) Y (t
e
e
2 j

2j

G ( j ) = G ( jw ) e j G ( j ) = G ( jw ) e j :
e j e j t e j e j t
) Y (t
)= G ( j
+

A
2j
2 j

:
) Y (t
) = G ( j ) sin(t + ) , = (G ( jw
A

 ): G ( jw
) G ( s ) ( ) ( s
) ) G ( s ( ) ( . s jw
w . ) ( ) w (
. ) G ( jw .
Bode ) G ( jw ) ( w .
.
Bode Diagram
-10
-15

-25
-30

)Magnitude (dB

-20

-35
-40
0

10

10

10
)Frequency (rad/sec

-1 .

-1

-90

10

)Phase (deg

-45

Nyquist Diagram
1
0.8
0.6
0.4

0
-0.2

Imaginary Axis

0.2

-0.4
-0.6
-0.8

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
-1

Real Axis

-2 .

) G ( jw .
.

 (26346) 14

) ( 26346 14

Bode
: 1
1
s +1

= ) G ( s .

) ( .
) ( ) G ( jw :
1
)1 ( jw
1 ( w) j
1
)( w
=
=
=
+
j
2
2
) ( jw) + 1 (1 + ( jw))(1 ( jw)) 1 + ( w
1 + ( w) 1 + ( w) 2
 
 

Imaginary part

( jw) + 1

= )G ( jw

Real part

= ) G ( jw :
2
2

) ( w
1
1
= ) G ( jw
+
=

2
2

w
w
+
+
1
(
)
1
(
)

1 + ( w) 2

) ( w

)1 1 + ( w
) ) = tg 1 ( ( w
(G ( jw) = tg
1

1 + ( w) 2

:
1
1
)( w
=
+
j = G ( jw) e + ( (G ( jw)) j
+ ( w) 2 1 + ( w) 2
 ( jw) + 1 1

 

Imaginary part

= )G ( jw

Real part

w :
G ( jw) 1 , (G ( jw) 0

90D

, (G ( jw) ( / 2) or

1
w

)G ( jw

w :
w :

) G ( jw ) (G ( jw w semi log log log .

log :
) (1 w ) (2 damp )
( .
1 ) ( AR
log w . :
db = 20 log AR

-1 .

1 + ( w) 2 = 0.5log 1 + ( w) 2

log AR = log

1
2

)1 + ( w

= G ( jw) = AR

) (
)
) ( ) log AR = log ( k ) 0.5log (1 + (0) ) = log ( k

w 0 log AR = 0.5log 1 + (0) 2 = 0

for

w0

for

) (-1 :

) w log AR = 0.5log ( w) 2 = log ( w ) = log ( ) log ( w

for

:
0 = log ( w ) w = 1 w = 1

w ) (corner frequency.
:
0.707

1
2

= AR

) 1 + 12 = (1/ 2 ) log ( 2

log AR = log

 (26346) 14

-2 ) ( w . AR

:
) G ( jw ) Gi ( jw
) AR ( :
} j {(z1 + (z2

z1 z2 = z1 z2 e

z1 = r1e j1 = z1 e j(z1

j 2
j (z 2
z2 = r2 e = z2 e

: AR Modulus.
:
) ( .

: ) (

1
)( s + 1)( s + 5

)(:
) G ( s :
) G1 ( s
1
)(1/ 5
=
=
) ( s + 1)( s + 5) ( s + 1)(0.2s + 1) G2 ( s )G3 ( s
1
)(0.2s + 1

= ) , G3 ( s

1
)( s + 1

= )G( s

= ) G1 ( s ) = (1/ 5) , G2 ( s

= )G( s


) z = G ( jw z2 z1 z3 :
), z1 = G1 ( jw) , z2 = G2 ( jw) , z3 = G3 ( jw

z1
z 2 z3

= )z = G ( jw

) z = G ( jw z2 z1

z3

:
log AR = logAR1 logAR2 logAR3

)(G ( jw) = (G1 ( jw) (G2 ( jw) (G3 ( jw

) ( G1 ( jw) = 1/ 5 ) ( :
logAR1 = log (1/ 5) = log 5

(G1 ( jw) = 0

)
(.

:

1
1
1
() = log
() = log
) ) = log(1) log( 1 + w2 ) = 0.5log(1 + w2
(log AR2 = log
2
1
1
jw
jw
+
+

1+ w

1
w
( ( = )(G ( jw
)) = ((1) ( ( jw + 1) = 0 ( ( jw + 1) = tg 1 ( ) = tg 1 ( w
2
1
jw + 1

1
1
1
() = log
() = log
) ) = 0.5log(1 + (0.2 w) 2
(log AR3 = log
2
+
+
(0.2
)
1
(0.2
)
1
w
j
w
j

)1 + (0.2w

1 0.2 w
1
)(G3 ( jw) = ( ( (0.2 w) j + 1) = ( (1) (((0.2 w) j + 1) = 0 ( ((0.2 w) j + 1) = tg ( 1 ) = tg (0.2 w

:
) log AR = log(1/ 5) 0.5log(1 + w2 ) 0.5log(1 + (0.2w) 2

1
1
)(G ( jw) = 0 tg ( w) tg (0.2w

: 3 .
:
: scale ) ) . ( (
: ) log AR ( AR ) log(gain
scale AR / gain ) (.
log AR : log AR .
: = 1 / .
: .
: -1 .

 (26346) 14

AR1
Bode Diagram

AR3

AR2

-20

AR

)Magnitude (dB

-40

-60

-80
0

-90

)Phase (deg

-45

-135

-180
2

10

10

-1

10

10

-2

10

)Frequency (rad/sec

-3 .

)(
) ( 1 .
:
1

= G ( jw) = AR
2 2
(1 ( w) ) + (2 w) 2
1

G ( s) = 2 2
s + 2 s + 1
) (G ( jw) = = tg 1 ( 2 w

1 ( w) 2

scale . AR

) ( . 4 .
w = 1:
( w) 0 : AR 1 , tg 1 (2 w) or 0
,

1
( w) 2

AR

( w) : AR 0 or

( w) = 1: = tg 1 () = / 2

: w = 1 /2 !
: AR .
: 2.

Bode Diagram
20

=0.2

=2

-40

)Magnitude (dB

-20

-60
-80
0

=0.2

-45

-135

)Phase (deg

=2

-90

-180
2

10

10

10

-1

10

-2

10

)Frequency (rad/sec

-4 )(.

) ( :
( w) = 1: wc = 1/

: AR ) AR (
) ( :

1 2 2

= wr

: < 0,707
!
) ( pure lag
) .(5
G ( jw) = AR = 1

(G ( jw) = = d w

G ( s ) = e d s

 (26346) 14

Bode Diagram
1

0.5

-0.5

)Magnitude (dB

-1
0
-180

-540

)Phase (deg

-360

-720
0

10

10
)Frequency (rad/sec

-5 ) .( d = 1

) ( ) .(6
G ( jw) = AR = K c
G ( s) = K c
(G ( jw) = = 0

Bode Diagram
1

0.5

-0.5

)Magnitude (dB

-1
1
0.5

-0.5
-1
0

10

10
)Frequency (rad/sec

-6 ) .( K c = 1

)Phase (deg


PI
PI -
) .(7

1
G ( jw) = AR = K c 1 +
( w I ) 2

1 1

G( s) = K c 1 +

1
I s
1
(G ( jw) = = tg w
I

: /2
.
Bode Diagram
60
50

30
20

)Magnitude (dB

40

10
0
0

)Phase (deg

-45

-90
2

10

10

10

-1

10

-2

10

)Frequency (rad/sec

-7 - ) .( K c = 1 , I = 1

PD
) 1/(s+1! ) (8
G ( jw) = AR = K 1 + ( w) 2
c
D
) G ( s ) = K c (1 + d s
1
) (G ( jw) = = tg ( D w

 (26346) 14

Bode Diagram
40

30

10

)Magnitude (dB

20

0
90

)Phase (deg

45

0
1

10

10

-1

10

-2

10

10

)Frequency (rad/sec

-8 - ) .( K c = 1 , D = 1

PID
PID -
) .(9

1 2
)
G ( jw) = AR = K c 1 + ( D w

1
Iw

G ( s) = K c 1 +
+d s
1
Is

1
(G ( jw) = = tg D w w
I

Bode Diagram
60
50

30
20

)Magnitude (dB

40

10
0
90
45

-45

)Phase (deg

-90
4

10

10

10

10

10

-1

10

-2

10

-3

10

)Frequency (rad/sec

-9 - - ) .( K c = 1 , I = 10 , D = 0.01

: )( . :

K c = 10 , D = 0.5

: 1 + G OL = 0 ) G OL (
) (
.

) AR1 = 0.5 jw + 1 , 1 = ((0.5 jw + 1

) AR2 = e 0.1 jw , 2 = ( (e 0.1 jw

1
1

) ) AR3 = ( jw + 1) 2 (0.1 jw + 1) , 3 = ( ( ( jw + 1) 2 (0.1 jw + 1

AR1 PD wc = 1 0.5 = 2 .
AR2 )( .
AR3 ) ( :
wc1 = 1 = 1 , wc 2 = 1 = 10
1.0
0.1

10 ARi i .
) dB ( AR) = dB( AR1 ) + dB( AR2 ) + dB( AR3

= 1 + 2 + 3

10

10(0.5s + 1)e 0.1s

)( s + 1) 2 (0.1s + 1

= ) G OL ( s

 (26346) 14

Bode Diagram
50

AR1
AR2

AR

-50

)Magnitude (dB

AR3
-100
180

1
2

)Phase (deg

-180

-360

-540
0

10

10

-1

10

)Frequency (rad/sec

-10 .( K c = 10 , D = 0.5 ) PD

:
. .
K c
) (
) ( .

11


K c .
) ) ( ysp = A sin( wt
) ym ( y .
) (cross-over frequency wco .
K c ) ( y
)( K c ) ( !
) ( y .
) (
) ( ysp .
) ( 180 )
( . )( ) y = B sin( wt +

B
A

= AR ) y = B sin( wt ) = B sin( wt .

ysp .

B
A

= AR ) (snow ball effect

!
:
)( AR
.
- :

KC
KC
=
= AR
0.5 jw + 1

1 + 0.25w2

G OL
1
0.5w
( ( = ( (e 0.1 jw )
( ) = 0.1w tg 1
)

+
jw
0.5
1
1

) ) ( AR = G OL ( jw ) ) ( = (G OL ( jw
y K e 0.1s
= m = C
ysp 0.5s + 1

w AR w KC .
( w) = .
( w) w= w = :
co

= 0.1w tg (0.5w) =
1

:
f ( w) = 0.1w + tg 1 (0.5w) = 0

12

 (26346) 14

:
) ) tg 1 (0.5wco( prv
0.1

= ) 0.1w + tg 1 (0.5w) = 0 wco( nxt

) wco 17.0 (rad ./ sec..

K C )
( . ) K C ( K Cultimate
.
AR = 1 K Cultimate .
11 .

-11 .

13

KC

 (26346) 15

- !
.
.
. .
.


. .
) (Ziegler & Nichols ) (Taylor Instrument Co.
PI PID ) (lag-dominant .ZN

)(deadtime-dominant
.

) (Phase & Gain Margin

.
: :
) PI PD lead-lag 20 ( ) (
. tuning
Freq Domain Time Domain
)
(1 :
1
M
P.M . = Phase Margin = 180 P

= G.M . = Gain Margin

.
:
) ( :

G.M . 1.7 , P.M . 30

) (:

G.M . 2 , P.M . 45

1 .

G.M . :1 :
1
0.12 K C

= G.M .

= 0.12 K C

KC
2

)1 + 0.25(17

= AR

) ( : G.M . = 1.7 :
1
= 1.7 K C = 4.9
0.12 K C

= G.M .

0.10 0.15 ) %50 ( :

: AR
= 0.83 1

4.9
1 + (0.5 11.6) 2

wco

= ) wco = 11.6 G OL ( jw

K C e 0.15 s
0.5s + 1

= ) G OL ( s

G OL ( jw) =

) K C ( G.M . 50 %
) ( ) (setpoint .
P.M . : 2 : :
) , = 0.1w tg 1 ( 0.5w

KC
2

1 + 0.25w

= AR

 (26346) 15
P.M . 30:
= 0.1w tg 1 ( 0.5w ) w = 12.5

180

150

K C = 6.33

= (180 30 ) = 150
KC

= AR = 1

1 + 0.25(12.5) 2

50 % ) ( :
= tg 1 ( 0.5 12.5 ) + ( 0.15 12.5 ) = 188

w =12.5

) G OL ( s

K C e 0.15 s
0.5s + 1

= ) G OL ( s

detune .
: G.M . P.M . starting point
.
-

.
.
. ) (manual
) (auto .

.
.

.

.
) (PI :
)(PI

)(PI
Integral of Time-weighted Absolute Error - ITAE

t e dt

Integral of Squared Error ISE

Integral of Time-weighted Squared Error - ITSE

te dt

Integral of Absolute Error IAE

dt

e dt

-
.
) ( ) (
) (validation.
) (fine tune .
) (
) (sub-optimal .

-1 ) (.

Controller

Process

0.5

250 K

PI

Dead-time-dominant

4.0

106 K / m

PI

Lag-dominant

0.45

1.8

77 K / m

)PID (non-interacting

0.55

1.5

106 K / m

)PID (interacting

4.0

106 / int .

PI

0.48

1.9

78 / int .

)PID (non-interacting

0.58

1.6

108 / int .

)PID (interacting

0.5

20 K

PI

0.09

0.3

10 K

)PID (non-interacting

0.1

0.25

15K

)PID (interacting

Non-self-regulating

Distributed lags

1
IAE . ) ( K ) ( m
. int .
) (non-self-regulating .

.

 (26346) 15
.
K m int . ) ( 2 .

Res pons e

0.63C

C = K u
m odel
data

int .
m

Tim e

2 .

2 3.

-2 PI ) (.
)

Is

Gc ( s ) = K C (1 +

Proportional-Integral (PI) Controller:

ITAE

IAE

0.586

0.758

a1

-0.916

-0.861

b1

1.03

1.02

a2

-0.165

-0.323

b2

b1

a
K C = 1
K m

) a 2 + b2 ( / m

= I

-3 PID ) (.
1
)+ D s
Is

Gc ( s ) = K C (1 +

ITAE

IAE

0.965

1.086

a1

-0.855

-0.869

b1

0.796

0.740

a2

-0.147

-0.130

b2

0.308

0.348

a3

0.9292

0.914

b3

Proportional-Integral (PI) Controller:

b1

a
K C = 1
K m

m
) a 2 + b2 ( / m
b3

= I

= a3 m
m

) ( -
. .

) (2 .
4 .

) :(PID

. ) (PD
) (PID . PD -
PID :
de

e dt + D dt ) + u ss
de

e dt + D dt ) + C
de
+b
dt

u = K C (e +

100
1
(e +
I
P

K C e + K I e dt + K D

 (26346) 15

de
D . PID
dt
. PID
) ( u
. :

de
dy

dt
dt
. PID

. ) (
.
.
.
:

1
1

= , D ,eff

D
) , I ,eff . = I + D
I

K C ,eff . = K C (1 +

PID ) I ,eff . K C ,eff . ( D,eff . PID

) I K C ( D .
PID .
) (
.

de
dy

dt
dt

PID PI
.
-4 PID - ) ( .

Controller

---

3.5

150 / m

PI

0.63

2.1

75 / m

)PID (non-interacting

0.7

1.8

113 / m

)PID (interacting

ZN )
( . ) ( n
K u Pu 5 .
-5 PID - ) ( .

Controller

---

---

2.0 Pu

---

0.81 n

1.7 Pu

PI

0.11 n

0.48 n

1.3Pu

)PID (non-interacting

0.14 n

0.39 n

1.8Pu

)PID (interacting

 (26346) 16

) ( 26346 16

- ) ( ) G ( jw . w

) - - ( .

. 1 ) ) ( w ( 0, + . )
( AR ) ( .
2 ) ) ( w ( , + .
. ) G OL ( jw :
) (

) (
] )G ( jw) = Re [G ( jw) ] + j Im [G ( jw

) G ( jw

1 )(.

G ( jw) = G ( jw) e

2 )(.

) G ( s :

wj + 1

= ) G ( jw :

AR 1
w0 :
0
AR 0

w :

) (3 ) ( 0 ) .( 0 AR 1
2

) G ( s )( :
AR 1
AR 0
w0 :
, w :
0

) (4 ) ( 0 0.7

3 .

4 .

) G ( s ) ( :
AR 0
AR 1

, w :
w0 :
3

) (5

3
) 0
2

.(

) G ( s ) (6
:
AR = 1 , = d w

 (26346) 16

5 .

6 .

) ( pure capacitive
) (7 :
AR
AR 0
1
1
1

= ) G ) jw
=
j , w :
,
w

s
jw w

2
2

7 .

= )G ( s

8 ) (.

P
) (8 !

9 -

10 -

) PI ( ) PD ( ) PID (
- - - - 10 9
) 11( .

11 - .

 (26346) 16

. :
) G OL ( jw w ) ( 1, 0
) G CL ( s .

.
: ) F ( s z ) ( p )
( s z p
) ) F ( s ) ( F ( s .
: .
.
) y = f ( x x y
x y .
) ( :
) F ( s :
) ( s z1 )( s z2
s p1

= )F ( s

12 .

12 ) F ( s . s

) ( ) F ( s :
F ( s ) = z1 + z2 p1

s ) ( . 2
s z2 . s


2 2 ) F ( s 2 .
) 1 s ( z1 ) F ( s

2 )

( .
) F ( s 2 .
:
) ) F ( s (
) 13 (14 :

13 C N = z p = 3 0 = 3 .

14 C N = z p = 0 2 = 2 ) C(.

F ( s) ) F ( s) = 1 + G ( s .
OL

RPH .
C ) F ( s
) (
s .

 (26346) 16
) 1 + G OL ( s

) F ( s

. ) ) F ( s ( RPH

) F ( s) = 1 + G OL ( s N = z p :

:
: N
: z ) F ( s
: p ) F ( s
:

z=N+p

: ) G ( s ) F ( s) = 1 + G OL ( s
) F ( s ) F ( s ) F ( s :

) F ( s ) = F ( s ) 1 = G OL ( s

. . . ) . . . ( 0, 0 . . . ) . . . ( 1, 0
.
) 1 + G ( s ) G ( s ) ) G ( s 1
) 1 + G ( s
) G ( s ( . : ) F ( s RPH
RPH
RPH .
:
.
s ) F ( s ) G ( s . )) G ( s
( ) ( 1, 0 ) ( N )
) ( 1, 0 N = 0 .( N = 2
RPH )
( G OL = GC G p : P p = 0 .
N P :
) z = N + p (
: )( ) G ( jw ) . G ( jw
s s .
) G ( jw ) G ( jw jw


jw . .
: .
.
)

(.
: 1 ) (
:
KC
( s + 1)3

= ) G OL ( s

: ) ( RPH
p = 0 . s ) .( 15

15 .

CR C+ C C+
s ) CR ( + C
- :
: C+ C+ s s = jw w .
) G ( s :
KC
( jw + 1)3

= ) G OL ( s

) G OL ( jw ) G OL ( jw
! ) 16 (

 (26346) 16
: CR ) ( s s = Re j R /2 /2
s ) G OL ( s : Re j
KC
= 0+0j
( Re j + 1)3

= ) G OL ( Re j

! ) 16 (.
: C C+
s - ) 16 (.

16 .

16 .

16 .

17 . K C
) ( 1, 0 . ) ( 1, 0
K C ) ( 1, 0 . N = 0
p
. K C ) ( 1, 0 N = 2 z = N + p = 2
.

17 ) .( w

K C K C . K C
) ] ( 1, 0 [ :
KC
KC
) K C (1 3w2
)K C ( w3 3w
j
=
=
+
( jw + 1)3 (1 3w2 ) + j (3w w3 ) (1 3w2 ) 2 + (3w w3 ) 2
(1 3w2 ) 2 + (3w w3 ) 2

10

= )G OL ( jw

 (26346) 16
1 + 0 j :
w = 0 intersection with postive sesction
)= 0 ( K C 0) ( w3 3w
w = 3 intersection with negative sesction

)K C ( w3 3w

w 3:
2 2
) (time unit
=
wu
3

= Tu or Pu

wu = 3

w K C ) ( K u :
KC
= 1 K C = 8 = K u
8

= 1
w= 3

) K C (1 3w2
(1 3w2 ) 2 + (3w w3 ) 2

KC = 8
) 8

( KC

).(N =2
: 2 ) ( :
KC
)s ( 1 s + 1)( 2 s + 1

= ) G OL ( s

) (
PI PID .
C+ C

)( s 4 + 2

)( s 2 + 1

j j 4 2 . s
r

) ( r 0 s 1 + G RPH
) .( 18
s C CR C+ : : C

)) G OL ( jw ) :( w ( 0, +

: s = jw as w goes from r to R C+
) ( r 0 & R

:
): G OL ( jw
:
):

: s = jw as w goes from to r C
) ( R

to

: s = r e j where r goes zero and varies from C

K C j
KC
( G OL (r e j ) = lim j
e
= lim
j
j
) r e ( 1r e + 1)( 1r e + 1
r

r 0

11

s = Re j : G Re j = 0

: CR

r 0

18 s .

18 .
K C ) ( 1, 0 .

Ku

:
1

1 2

= , wu

1 + 2
1 2

= Ku

C+
.
.
) ( 1, 0 .
convex concave

. ! ! !
C+ w = 0
= w = w .
. .
) : 3 ( :
)K C ( s + 1
)( 1 s + 1)( 2 s + 1)( 3 s + 1)( 4 s + 1

K C ) ( 1, 0 ) (
) (.

12

 (26346) 16

19 .3

) ( 1, 0

) ( 1, 0

) ( 1, 0

) ( 1, 0

13