FM200 - GI 7/6/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 1

PROPERTIES OF FLUID
SOLIDS AND FLUIDS
A solid can resist a shear force with only a finite deformation. If force is maintained, the
deformation is unchanged
Fixed

U
Solid
TRANSITION
Fluid

A fluid will undergo a continuous deformation due to a shear force.

GAS AND LIQUIDS
Properties : Liquids are more dense
Gases are more compressible
~10
-8
vibrational energy
3.5 10
-10
liquids Gases
repulsion
attraction
distance between molecules (m)
In a liquid, molecules are in their equilibrium distance with respect to intermolecular forces and
the motion due to thermal vibration of the molecules is quite small: about equal to the distance
between molecules. Thus there is some order in the molecular structure.
FM200 - GI 7/6/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 2
~10
-8
m
In gases the spacing is large enough so that intermolecular forces are very small; molecules are
basically oscillating with large amplitudes and collisions are common.
RELATIONSHI P AND TRANSPORT BETWEEN A LIQUID AND A GAS
e.g. CO
2
V
Volume V
vapour pressure
at 31.1C
31.1C
75Atm critical
pressure
liquid
liquid
31C
48C
critical temperature
vapour
gas
vapour liquid
ideal gas law
above 32C remains
a gas at all pressures
A
B
C
D
Pressure
At A, pure gas. As pressure increases, liquefaction commences at B. All gas liquefied by C.
Constant pressure along BC is the vapour pressure. Steepness of curve CD is evidence of the
fact that a liquid is not easily compressed.
Definition. The maximum temperature at which a gas can be liquefied is the critical
temperature, and the corresponding pressure the critical pressure.
E.g. For CO
2
, 31.1C and 75 atmospheres
FM200 - GI 20/11/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 3
VAPOUR PRESSURE
water
P
molecules of water
Suppose the pressure is P kN m
-2
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure
P = P
A
+ P
V
P = total pressure
P
A
= pressure due air (= pressure due to air if it only occupied the space)
P
V
= partial pressure due to water molecules (= pressure if only water molecules occupied the
space)
Now if a particular temperature at equilibrium molecules of water are leaving in equal numbers
to those entering the liquid: the pressure P
V
is then called the saturation vapour pressure.
For water at T = 20C P
V
= 2.34 kN m
-2
If the vapour pressure < 2.34 kN m
-2
then water will evaporate,
If the vapour pressure > 2.34 kN m
-2
then molecules will precipitate or condense out.
Now as the temperature is raised to say 100C then
P
V
= 101.33 kN m
-2
= P
atmospheric
= P at sea level
and the water will boil .
Application: Suppose a wind is blowing over a water surface such as a lake or the ocean then
the heat loss H:
H P P U Wm
VSAT V

( )
2
FM200 - GI 7/6/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 4
where U = wind speed
P
VSAT
= saturation vapour pressure at the temp of the water
P
V
= vapour pressure as recorded by humidity.
THE CONTINUUM CONCEPT
smallest scale of motion
distance between molecules
size (m)
10
-8
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
10
2
10
4
kinetics
mm
meters
10
-8
10
-7
10
-3
10
0
10
2
10
4
Density
Mass
Volume
Density at
the point x
(x, t)
Large V
Fluid Particle
is a volume one
cubic millimetre
x
~

Density, or any other fluid property, at a point is measured over scales large compared to 10
-8
m
but small compared to the smallest scales of fluid motion. Thus we can expect that fluid
properties are continuous functions of position and time in the fluid.
FM200 - GI 7/6/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 5
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF A FLUID
DENSITY OF A FLUID
For small fluid volume dV of mass dm

lim

Density
dV
dm
dV
kgm
0
3
where the size d of the measurement cube (i.e. dV = d
3
) is taken in the sense of the
continuum concept.
We attach to the point x and say: (

, ). x t
SPECIFIC WEIGHT
= g N m
- 3
this is the weight per unit volume
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
S
)

Density of fluid
Density of water at 4 C (1000 kg m
-3
PRESSURE AND COMPRESSIBILITY
Pressure P (= normal force/area)
F
Area A
FM200 - GI 7/6/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 6
Pressure =
F
A
Nm
- 2
or Pascals, P
a
adiabatic
(no heat exchange)
isothermal
(constant temperature)
Pressure
P
Volume
V
The slope of these lines is an indication of the compressibility of the fluid.
Gentle slope "soft" fluid i.e. a gas
Steep slope "hard" fluid i.e. a liquid
BULK COEFFICIENT OF ELASTICITY, E

A measure of the compressibility of a fluid is thus the slope of the lines on the P-V diagram.
E
V
P
V
Nm Pascals
P

( )

2
whe r e

M
V
1
(where is termed the specific volume)
differentiate both sides with respect to
1
2
2

M
V
V
V
V

FM200 - GI 7/6/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 7

thus E
P P P P

( )

1 1
2
Note that E

is analogous to Young's modules in solid mechanics

[ E

] = Nm
-2
i.e. same units as pressure.
At standard atmospheric pressure (usually taken as 101.33 k Pa) and 20C, for water
E

= 2.2 10
9
N/ m
2
Example: If we use

approximate finite difference form
E V
P
V

i.e.
V
V
P
E

For water, if we double pressure over atmospheric, that is P = 100 kPa = 10

5
N/m
2
, then
V
V E


10 10
10
10
5 5
9
4

i.e. Volume change is only 0.01% of V reflecting incompressible nature water.

Example: Sound is a translational wave
C
(C, E

, ) = 0
Viscosity is assumed not be important. Expect C = function (, E

)
FM200 - GI 7/6/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 8
Now C ms
E pascals kgms m kgm s
kgm



[ ]
[ ]

[ ]

1
2 2 1 2
3

Note that
E
m s

1
]
1



2 2
i e C k
E
.

Air 20C = 1.205 kg m

-3
E

= 1.406 10
5
kg m
-1
s
- 2
k = 1 C = 341.6 m s
-1
= 948.92 km hr
- 1
SPECIFIC HEAT
Piston
Force F
If piston is kept stationary, then addition of small quantity of heat will lead to an increase in
temperature . A measure of the effectiveness of heating is
C
H
Jkg C

_
,


constant volume
1 1
Alternatively, if force F was kept constant
C
H
Jkg C
p

_
,

constant pressure
1 1
H = heat per unit mass.
FM200 - GI 7/6/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 9
COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION

_
,

1 1
1
constant pressure
fractional change in volume per unit temperature rise
C
VISCOSITY
Measures the resistance to shearing motion
z
x
U
h
Stress
F
A
U
h

at steady state
=
U
h

[ ]

1
]
1

F
A
h
U
kg ms m
m ms
kg m s
2
2 1
1 1
Pa s
and the coefficient of proportionality is the absolute viscosity.
Now in the limit h 0

u
z
u
+d

F ma
z
u
t

FM200 - GI 7/6/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 10
Substitute for



[ ]

2
2
2
2
1 1
3
2 1
u
z
u
t
u
t
u
z
kg m s
kg m
m s







kinematic viscosity
SURFACE TENSION
The attraction between like molecules results in a film capable of resisting tension at boundary
between liquid and air say.

Force per unit length =
[ ]

. kg ms m kg s Nm
2 1 2 1
CAPILLARITY

= contact angle - can be positive or negative.

FM200 - GI 7/6/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 11
Example
r
Water
h

Upward force due to surface tension = weight liquid in tube

2
2
2
r g r h
i e h
gr
( )
( )

cos
. .
cos
For ater Nm at C
r m
h m
w , .

.

0 0 0728 20
10
1 48 10
1
3
2
FM200 - GI 20/11/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 12
EQUATION OF STATE
AIR
Air follows the perfect gas law very closely

=
P
R
P = absolute pressure (Nm
-2)
R = gas constant = 287 m
2
s
-2
K
-1
= absolute temperature = (273.15 + ) K
= density (kg m
-3)
Coefficient of expansion (definition)

, . .
=

= [ ] =

1 1
1
2
1
P
R
P
P
R
i e C
Isothermal Bulk Modules
E
P
R
=
=

constant
Adiabatic Perfect Gas Behaviour
P
C
k
C
C
k
p

:
= =
=
constant
Ratio of specific heats.
E
P
k C
k C
k P
adiabatic
adiabatic
k
k

( ) =

=
=
=

1
FM200 - GI 7/6/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 13
i.e the greater the pressure the higher the bulk modulus.
This is relevant to sound propagation and other "fast" processes where heat adjustments do not
have time to take place.
PROPERTIES OF WATER
CONDUCTIVITY OF WATER
A
Water
+ Salt
LL
Measure the resistance R ohms (Siemens)
Conductivity
C
R
siemens

1
1
Specific conductance


CL
A
Siemens m
1
The higher the specific conductance the higher the concentration of salts i.e. the higher the
salinity (i.e. the higher the density).
Also for a fixed concentration of salts as the temperature increases the mobility of the electrons
increases leading to an increase in the conductance.
SALINITY OF WATER
S absolute salinity
H
.
mass of dissolved material
mass of solution
Difficult to measure.
FM200 - GI 7/6/02 PROPERTIES OF FLUID 14
DENSITY OF SEA WATER
Density = (S, , P) and calculated using UNESCO tables valid in range
0 < S < 42 psu ; - 2 < < 40C ; 0 < P < 1000 bars
Ex: S = 35 psu, = 10C, P = 100 bars

. / . 1027 4044
3
kg m