2J6

DYNASTIES THt ,\,1IDr)L[ OtTERIOD ancl its .rnate rvcre both cast by a sculptor namccl Sivanase in the year 744 (Vikrana crA), cqulvalclttto A.D.6117.21 Both irlages are vcry 1arge, one illustretcdreachinge total hciglrt the of r37 centirreters inclutlingthc pedcstal. Although it is oftcn diflicult to cliscr.rss stylistic licatures Jaiu inages clueto drc grc:Ltdcgrcc of in abstraction, this case,becausc inregesare in the of the Svctanbara (Whitc Drcscd) typ" ,r,il 1r",r. drapery. thcy arc nore cesily rrceteclthen thc nudc. urainlyDigambara(Sky Clad), types.The drapcry hcre is soft and clingy, rs it sccmsmoldecl to thc lcg, and virtually transp:uent cxcept lbr the lolds ol the left ieg. Closc tiesin this rcpect [o Gr]ptr traditiot arc scen.Thc increasedstilfncssof the figurc, contrasted for.exarnple l,ith thc Chausa (Fia. to.4z) is an indicationof pieccs adv rccddarc;inJain art, afterthe Guptaperiocl, incleasccl gconctrization and abstraction becor-r-res rule. Thc elongatccl thc amrs, lvhoscshapc rcsembles nictaphorically the trunk of an clep l t . . r ' r '. , p r c . c ro n . o f t l ' c " l r r c k 1 i g n s ' n f r l t c t rr ' -flras, lvhose rrms rcach do*,n to their knces,in a corlcepr sinilar to that of Buddhist figtr.es. Thc sniling facc appears stilf radrer tnan natural or spontancous, again characteristic of postGupta Jaiu imagery, end the torso has an :rlnrosttrialqular shape,latcr to bc complctely gconrctrized rvestem in lnclianJain art.

nanxbxd il thc Sincl is onc of tirc rllasrcrpleccs of South Asiu mctal sculpturc. Thc lour-headcd dcity is dcpicted r,vith trvo erurs. Although his legs arc not llcxed arrdhc stancls fror.Ltally posecl, r gc[t]cness pcrvadcs thc figure bccauscof the slighdy clorvncasthcaclsand cyes, ancl the firll, Ilcshy lornrs of thc body, r,hich give a softness and rraturllness thc in1:rge. to Thc herit:rscof thc rvestcrntradirion in thc nortlrrvcst rcqions of South Asia persists srronsly in thc rrticulation of thc folms of the torso aucl in the Iirrc lincs of the drapcry bctwccn thc legs. In many rcspects, this irnage lorcshaclorvs stylcsthat developccl rhe in Kainrir fiom arouncl the scvcnth centur.y, 'Western for thcrc the influcncc persistcd in thc art. Sincc tlis rather llcdry. softly nodclccl figrrre seems closer to Gupta modes than thc devcloped Kaimiri sryles, approirnate datc of an the sirth ccrtury night bc snggestecllor its execunoll. Thc ancicnt sitc of Vasantegadhi[ Rajasthan lus yiclclcd ir.xcliptions of thc sevcnrh centur,,, r h r r r , r , , t o t . n r p l , - . r r t l r c . i r c . f r r r r J r c ra n . iruportant hoarcl of bronzc inrgcs was discoveleclil the cellar of an old Jain templc therc in thc eariy part o[ this ccntury. Two virtuai]y idcnticel irrragesof Jir ttrthaikaras wcre among the sculpturcs foutd. An inscriptionon onc of thenr. illnstlrtcd hc.rc (Fiq. rr.r9). rcveals th:rt it

CoNcLUSIoN

Thc Gupta periocl :Lncl drc pcriod of fraguicntetiorr thet follol'cd it er-coltcn lookc'cl upou:rs a rvetershed the history of- Intlic rrt, ;iftcr in lvhich thc charactcr of thc rrt treditior.Ls sairi is to lrrve cirengccl clreniaticalLy. This tr:rdiriorlxl vic'n'rvorrklscclnto be sLrpporrcd b1.rncs.,.",rr,ing cvidcncc, for inclecd.afic'r thc "post-GLrpta" period, South Asian er-tistic dcvclopmcntsar-c rotablc lor rhcir highlv clistinctivcr.egionrl styles,rvhich wcre not so:lpparerltprior to thc G[pta pcriod. To a qrcrt crrcllr. rhc be]icf ili rhis change of clnracter is dre rcsLrlto[ thc i n , r c . ' ' c . r r . i b i l i r ro f l e 3 i o n . ' , 1 , * r i n c r . oirrrr, l ' xrt cllrc to thc greatcr survivll rltc lftcr Grrptl tinrcs,rvhcn thc uscofstonc becarnc lncr-cxsulgry prevalent. Sirnply, rvith more rvorks oi ert

prcscrvccl, is casier notc rhcir nltural groupit to rngs and to categodzc t]1cn1irlto clrstcrs of stylcs. Matv stylcs th:rt secnl t(r erllergc ir! irlly nuturc srrgcs aftcr.posr-Gupra rines, such a\ thc tcurplc forrrs crcatedby thc E:rrl1,Wcstcrn Calukv:rs(Chap. 15) or rhosc of rhc pelhvas ( C I r . p . r a ) . I , i u ' - r r . , \ el r . u l l o n r r . r r r r .rr . ' g < , rvhich par:rlle1edthc Gupte atd post-Gupta o c r r ' ' d . .l l r . ' r l l r r l r r . c c u r r r o l o r r q - rb c r r u c , . d cluc to the loss of such lronlllncnrs, it rr-rust bc inlcrred that distinctive rcqional styles l,ele alrcrcly prcsentar:lii earlier d:rtc than usually belicvcd,althoLrgh rhcir charrctercan only bc supposecl. Thc ernergeDcc of clistrnctrvc :ut styleslrouncl thc scventhccntury irr legions of South Asia u'hcrc Gupta dourin:rncc \v;rs ncver

THX GUPTA AFTEP.MATTI2'7 f, sculPtor krama era), ies are very rotal height '.-ral, crss stylistic at dcgrce of rmagesare pe and have eJ than the felt castsfurther doubt on the validiry of seeing this period as universally infuential in changing the characteroflndic art itselfl In spite of these limitations, it does appear that the Gupta period and its aftermath represent a true, natural breakpoint in the development of Indic civilization. From a religious point of view, most ofthe surviving art of the pre-GuPta Deriodis -Further,Buddhist. while most later art is Hindu. although wood, brick, and other fragile materials continued to be used in the creation of South Asian art after this tirne, stone bccame an increasingly popular building and carving material. In contrast to the comparatively timid use of stone up through the Gupta period, later works are often enormous, rernarkably ambitious, and technically complex achievements virruority in that revealtlre South Asianartisrs' dealing with this material.

The . rypes.
emsmolded ercePt for r this repect reased stiF ample with ndication of upta period, raction be* hoseshape of an eleiens" of the :ir knces,in hisr figures. *ran natural ic of postno has an completely
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CHAPTER TWELVE

BuddhistCaveArchitecture Centuries) (Fifth Through Seventh

AJ A l.rTA Concurrent with the emergence of the production of Hindu structural temples throughout the Gupta domains,MahayanaBuddhistsentered into an extraordinarily activc period of cave excavation at a number ofsites, primarily in the western Ghat mountains of the Deccan. The of initial resurgence cave monastery excavations occurred under the Vekatakas. Under their (r. king, Hariser.ra ca. ambitious and successful 46o-478),1 these princelings of central India became powerful contenders in the constant struggle for political supremacy. The king was probably not a Buddhist, and it is not known whether or not he actively patronized the creation of monastic establishments,but his minister and some of his feudatory princes were devoted lay followers (upasakas)who lavishly provided {or the sathgha. Haris.e4a, having secured much of the western Dcccan, establisheda peaceful set of conditions for a brief but spectacularflorcscenceat the site of Aja4ga, wherc nore than twenty cavcs, nany of them n.njor achievenents of arclitecturc, sculpture, and painting in their own right, wcre cxcavatedduring the Vakagakaperiod. Dramatically cut into the curved mountain wall above the Waghora River (Fig. rz.r), the cavesconcnrirics.insrirutevirtrrally conrpletenronastic cluding living quarters, dcvotional areas, and assemblyhalls. Although the ephemeral objects used by the monks in their daily lives are gone, the cavesprovide important insights into Buddhist theory, practicc, and religious exprcssion
i- ^-* ^f *L- ---i^l

Except for the few cavcsbelonging to an early phase of activiry,2 all the cavcs belong to the Vakagaka period. Walter Spink, the leading authority on Aja4ga's later phase, argues con-

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242

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vincingly th.rr otlcr writcr5 .rre erroneottsin their contention that suchextraordinary achievemcnts must havc takcn ruany decades,if not centuries,to producc; instcad, he suggcststhat a brie[. intcn.c period oI lervcnr activitl correspondingprimarily to thc relatively short span of Harise4a'sreign accountedfor the production of all thc later caves.s gencral, the eariiestVakaIn taka artistic activity occtrred near the center of the site (the prc-Vakataka nuclcus) and the latest activity took placc towarcls the two extremes(Fig. rz.z).4 Oniy trvo caityaha,llswere excavatcd during thc Vakataka phaseat Ajanta. Sinceonc ofthcm, Cave r9, was primarily complcted towxrd the beginning of the Vakataka resurgcnceand the other, Cavc 26, toward the end, they nay be used to demonstratethe generalartistic direction during this brief span of tine. Cave 19 is fairly securely dated to the fint part of thc Vaketaka on florescence5 the basisof an inscription on thc veranda of Cave 176that rcfcrs to r gandhakuti (fragrant hall) to thc wcst of it, which must bc Cave 19. Thc Cave 17 inscription also refcrs to Harige4a as tl.reruling prince, cleariy indicating that thc cxcavationsrvere carricd out while he was in full polver, in contrast to the inscription in the later apsiAalcaityahall, Cavc 26, which that HariSe4e's position was considersuggests Thc cpigraph furthcr describcs ably rveekenecl.? the donor's lavish cxpenditure on Cave 17 as "such that littlc-soulcd men [the poor?] could not cvcrl grasp in thcir imaginations," and indeed, this statement might be used in gcneral to describcthc rnunificent patronagethat Ajanta enjoyed during the lattcr halfofthe hfth ccntury. Cave 19 consistsof a courtyxrd witlt accompanying cells as wcll as thc ralri,a hal1itself (Fig. 12.6, left). Its elaboratefacadc(Fig. rz.3) contains a singlc entrance into thc cave, rlarked by a pillared portico that projccts frorn the wall of rock. The largc circular windot' abovc the portico with its rock-cut raftcrs reve:rls the heritage of early caityalnIls tirat had been based on wooclen prototypes; C:ve 9 at tlis vcry sitc must hxyc scrved as a Drodel. Howevcr, thc

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, l c ( n r . r r r o r. ,r . , r r r r . l r , o l , c r r r r r g . , . r i - l r i r . , , r 1 r . . _ to tllc cavc on thc rigirt, a l:rrgc reprcsentatron r t , l l ^ . i ( r , . t r r r , 't l r , " r j . r p . J t I J r c . l . t . . , t .\,..t. . ' r \ l \ ) . | | , r . r , iL J tl'. l l r . r. , t l r r . r r i , ir!l)If,rl r.,_ thit rhe window is in thc liorrn of thc lulll: ,1,,'.,, r',. prul,,r.r Rr,.l,JJr,trn.,.r) r,. ^r undraiala sccrt ficqucntll on C;L,pt',r lIl,,lil." ) , . r f riq r . r . , \ J n trrc r fcvel;lcd . r f l r i . , ,r r .R " l r . r lr, l r _ . j 2 . J ) . . re1rPles. i.1 rl'( o f r l r . , r , , . r l i q . r , r . q r i " Jr ) [.in]c tr:rcc of thc carlicr rairyn hel1 r facecle is . o t . r t ' . ,,rl.^rlli,Rc ' . 1 / h .1 1 , 1 . . .i , i . , , i r . ,o . . , 1 , , _ . . lr , y vlyblc ot1 tj-rc rest ol: thc cxtcrior, horvever, Ibr , . . r r n o f l . r i 1 1 qJ , c r l r n r n r , co l l J . r , l . l l . . , h o , , I rts dccorated pihstcrs, corniccsand othcr 1 1 o \ ! \ c r . l i , r l u . , . \ c .r J r . r , l ,n r i r i ( ol rlr" .,_..,,.. architcctural lcatures crcatc e kincl ofgrid rvithin is not ccrrain. mry dcpictthc Ji,id.:ll,",r.l"r."nt It llurrrerous sculptures, pnrnrrily o1 Ironr. l_raJ,xstrirh(.1, :h:]1 ":. ancJ thus tire promise of l 3 L lti l r , ,l 3 u r e , . l ' . ' . r 1 ' . r r r c . . r pvl . r ,. r . r r r , . r r . r r . l llLrddhahood to the fcual.- i,u,, ,urnJ f l , n t f l , ( . , r , , r c . lr v r n L r o r 'D. j ; . , 1 . ) , . l 1 , ^ . .L , r r . r nlilte__devotce_Utpali. thc first u-ho ras to qrcet thc bealtifully trcssccl, rhc fipurcs ' urggcsr the B d , l l r rr r l , ' nJ r i . . , l .c". r r O r . i r r r , r . 1 r i . (pr(^.r1 hlghcst aclievcrlrcrlrsof fi fth_centur,v air. B.loru. | , r u . U n ,l r J L J L r , l . l l r . B. r , r , l l , . .. , , i , 1 , "r - . . , , , o r " two paIrc]s to cach sidc of che door lre crcatcd p , ' r r r l r . , p r . , ' ,r c . l r . , r J , r J r r r . r r r , . irt1","r",. by.carvecl pilastcrs, tJrc tlvo iIrrrcr corDparrltlents then a youth nerucclSumeclha, that he rvoultl . , t l . I r r , o o r l c r , r r i . i . ,. . r r r i . r r r i r r g r c o r r r p . , , , l - , , attarn Bucldh:rhoocl in a futurc lrtc. ln either b u l l o t i l L n r L r l , L r L , J c i t .\ . " , . . i rJ,, ,,.r,r,rcc

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BUDDHISTCAVTARCHITTCTURT247 of Buddhahood, a poignant message to the the Ajanta idiom to that seenat Gupta sitessuch monk-worshiper whose life was devoted to as Deogarh. attaining that state. Irr their positions flanling the The inrerior of the cave (Fig. r2.6. left, tz.7) door and facing inward, the figures seem ro appearslavish compared to the stark interiors of offer the samegift-the right to Buddhahoodearly uitya halls. Thick pillars, closely set and to the devotee entering the cave. A crown held carved with vertical or diagonal futes, crowd above the head of each of the two Buddhas the interior, while above, sculpted panelsshowindicates their nature as manifestations of the ing Buddha figures rim the hall. Rafters, still Universal. The figures themselves are graccfully suggestive of the structural protorypes of the posed in relaxed arritudes of the type seen in rock-cut halls, arc carved in the ceiling abovc. Gupta formulations of approximately the same The main object of veneration, the srripa,ditTers date at other sites.Like Buddhas at Samath and greatly in form from those of earlier periods, Mathura, they wear clinging, diaphanous garwhich were generally simple domes atop a ments revealing the forms ofthe bodies beneath. one- or two-stepped drum. Much more vertical Huskier and fuller bodied than their north Indian in appearance and with an almost spherical counterparts, however, these figures reflect a d.orte, the stipa restson a base with ofret sides. westem Deccanconvention and figure type, At the front, a pilastered tora4a encloses a Next to thesecompositionsare reliefsthat also sculpted representationof a standing Buddha, portray comparable although not identical subwhile the remaining surfacesof tlle stipa Me jects. The scene to the right of Rahula's incarved into units that may have once conheritance shows a standing Buddha contained tained painted representations. Above the dome, within a stupa(Fig. rz.3), while that to the left the harmikd contains a depiction of a seated of the facade (Fig. r2.4, left) shows a similar Buddha and above are three chattrasthat in architecturalconstruct containing another standtum support a miniature stupa. Around, the ing Buddha, but in this case, insteadofthe roundhall, the Buddha figures in the frieze and in ed forrn of the stupa above, there is a seated the center of the bracket capitals of the pillars Buddha. This interchangeability or equivalency may represent some of the Buddhas of the between the Buddha and the ttru was seentn various buddhalokas (Buddha worlds) preAndhra Pradesh Nagarjunakonda,wherepaired at sumed by Mahayaniststo exist throughout the caitya halls contained respectively a Buddha and universe (Figure rz.8). Orderly in their ara stfipa(Fig. 9-27).W hile the two inner reliefs on rangement, the figures are part of a highly decthis facade offer the promise of enlightenment orative scheme, elaborately carved with foliate or Buddhahood, the two outer panels deoict and architectural motifs. All of these were the promise fuifilled. enrbodied in the concept originally fully polychromed, as was the entire of the sfipa as a symbol o[ rhe final extincrion, interior of the cavc. or as a Suddha fisure. The decoration of Cave z6 demonstratesthe Other important reliefs on the facadeinclude final burst of exuberance at Ajanla. An inthe representation of a ngat7ja accompanied scription identifies the donor of the cave as the by his two ruglrt consorts (Fig. rz.5). One of .Bll&sll Buddbabhadra, who dedicated it to the the loveliest images at Ajanta, the central figure dcceased Bhawiraja, a minister of the Aimaka implies by his regal pose the comfortable and Gudatories of the Vakalakas.r The referenceto elegant attirude of the Ajanta patrons and the A6makas in the inscription and the lack of sculptors toward the stately liG. Norninally mention of the Vnkatakas suggeststhat while charged with providing for the well-being of theseambitious rivals had perhapsnor yer overthe sathgha, and serving as an object ofdevotion thrown the Vakalakas, they were on ih. b.iok for thosein needof succor.rhe raga king seems of doing so, thus putting the date of the dedicaspJendidlyconfidenr and capableof fulfilling tion of this cave very near to the end ofAjapgai his charge. This figure, perh"p, -o.. rh"n llorescence.e Much larger and more e]aborate othersat the sire, demonstraces closeness the of than Cave t9, Cave z6 anticipatesthe Buddhist

248

DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

CAVE19 Fg r'o 5p 6p

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and Hindu monuments that were created later in westem India during the sixth century with their colossal scale and dramatically ambitious schemes.Spint has shown that the cave itself was only part ofa much grander conception, for it served as the focal point of a scheme that included two upper wings (Cavesz5 and z7) and two lower wings.ro The facadeof Cave z6 hassufferedconsiderable damage, but it is still possible to reconstruct (Fig. rz.9). something of its original appearance portico like that ar Cave t9. a series Instead oFa of stepsleadi up to a low plinth and what would have been a covered veranda (now largely destroycd) serving as a transition between the courtyard preceding the cave and the caitya hall itself (lig. 12.6, right). A can&aiala window and rows of carved figures decoratethe facade and are similar to those elements of Cave r9. The interiors of the two cavesalso reveal maior

dif,erences.Scalealone createsa vastly grander impression on the visito! to Cave 26 (Fig. r2.ro). While the ffeatment of the pillars, carved frieze, and beamed ceiling are higlrly reminiscent of similar features in Cave rg, the grander scale permitted even greater richness. Carved representationsof Buddhas and bodhisattvas and architectural features decoratethe stupa, rn conttast to the plain (but perhaps once o( painted)surfaces rhe stupain Cavc t9. The Buddha on the front of the stipa sits inptalambapadasana, so-called"Europeanpose" characthe terized by the pendent legs(Fig. rz. r r). This pose seems to be associatedwith figures carved toward the end of the Vakataka phase at Ajanta, althoush the reasons behind the introduction of this-form remain unclear.ll It is possible that such figures are depictions of Maitreya, the future Buddha, who is characteristicallyshown in this pose when serving as a major icon.1z

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r2.7. lnterior of Cave 19.Aja4!a, Mah.r.!!ra, India. Vakataka Period. Cr. late fifth ccutury.

I2.8. Interior ol Cavc 19, friczc dereil. Aj:]{rft, Mahartg!ra, India. Vak.taka pcriod. Ca. late frfdr

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BUDDHIST CAVE ARCHITTCTURX 25I

r2.rr. Interiorof Cavc26, detaii rrtof pa. Aja\r , Mxharartra, India.V.katrka period.Ca. lateOfrhcentury.

r2.r2. lnterior of Cavc 26, frieze detail. Ajanta, MaL,rastr., India. Vakrrxka pcriod. Ca. late fifth ccnrury.

?52

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An cxrnrin;rtion ol thc friezc ebovc thc l l . ' . . / l i r . . . ' 1 . , o , t : r . r \ ' l r . , , r c . , r c, . , 1 , r I orilti(xl:urd rlct:ril of this.itvc :rs colnparcLl to rhet ojl Clvc r!. A rclativc rccluction in thir sc:rlcc,f thc llLrrlcLh. frqurts encl tLcir rriclresallottd ft,r grelLtcl mLlltiplicirv of t|c fiqurcs as g ell rs iricrc:rsec1 ornilllcutiiti(rr of thc, surrolrndi.q cl.lrrcrts. I hc q,:rllsof thc lrrrbtrletorv .,, .. l )( l. r, ,l r' . ll( ,.r!, ," I "'r'r,l p l , . l , r . r v i r l r r r r r. . r ' u L r . r \ ' r i \ . r . r , l r r ) ' ! ol- rr'hich probeblr- corrstitute votivc olllrinqs | \ : ' , 1 : \ : l L ,rl , . r , ' r (l i. r:. i). tlr( r...f inrprcrssivcsculpirrrc irr dtc yradal:sinaTatha a ts rcclininq ltqurc shorvurg thc llLrcldira's grcat clccc.rsr.' lporirir rrLna) crtcncLing fbr sevcrr rletcrs rloug rhc lcft siclLr rvrll (Fig. r:.r4). This coiossLrs, surrountlecLbv rrorrrncrs, hes e prolbrrncl cl1Lct on thc visitor to thc crlvc :itrc1enticipercs thc itr, ..;r.gl,. r..r.: r l . ' 1 . . , ' . l , , r r , r r r . . .i e',v , . irchitcctuf,-r of sLlbsccluclitct:nrurics. Arrotirer
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simple conrpositions scc11 Crvc 19, tlis scclrc at is fillcc1 t.itlt nurncrous subsidi,rr-y clcteils. Marr's hostssorrouncl ccntrallJLrclclhr thc fiqulc, rvho is, crLriously, d.-pictcd nith his rislit Lend in lararla tulra, not the crpcctc.l hlttutisyaria.UndoLrbtcc1l,v ruorc costlvthxn Cevc 19, Clvc 16 $'ith its ubiclLritous clrving rurd plcntitudc of rlctril is -tl'. ,.,rir, ir'l t r ' . , 1 i ,r . . rA j . r r . . r ' l r . l , , ' . p ro a closcduc to thc cleciininq broLrghr fbrturrcs oi tlrc V:rkltekasarcl clc:irlyrrot r clirrrinution of vrqor ln thc :irl. Likc thc roiryaheil, tirc rrllrrjro rvas uinsfi)rrrrcd during tfre Vlkttll,e plusc it Aj.rnt:r. contr^sl In to crrly l3uclclhist lilroros, latcr cxrmplcsclisthe plav a ri crlth ofsculpturaierd iconicforms.Thc lnost notl1blcaclditionro tbc t'iharacorccpl is thc crc:rtior-r shrinc :rrr.'as thc rcar ol the of at lilraras thlt cor-rtlLin inrprcssivc inr;rgcs Brrclclhe of figurcs. Ilic incolporarionofthc RLLdrlhl shriuc ' ' r r r , . 1 , i / . , . rla r r ' r r r . ' r r . r ^ r n rrr, L\ , , . \ ' . , r i , . r ) f - . ' , , ' . , . , . 1 , .. l ' . , . ' , . ^ . ^ ' r r o l r l .- t r r o, n.rctaphor ior r lluddhist paradisc irr rvhich r Brrrltllraprcrchcs th lhonn to thc rcsidcnt boclhis:Lttv:is :rc in thc proccss att:rinilg riho of pcrfictior md :rrc :Lu-airing rhcir ilnrl rcLirLlis. - r / . r ' r . :. . . , k ct h - r o r r o[ b " , ] r i . - t r 1 r . l r r r i, ' l ' i r . ! r l ' , i r ^ r r r ' . , r r trinn.rent lluddh;rhoocl of Lrnril scnticr.rt all bcirgs rrc slvc.1) rn,.1proqr-css throLrqh thc verious steqes bodhislrtvlhoocl. of Thc lllrarorse nrrclocosnricvcrsiorro{ p:,rrdiscrvhereinthc moll,s, as bocLhisattv:rs (u,hich thcv hrvc becorne ' r l ' r , r r : ' t 1, 1 r , . . . , , t 1 l r ' - t l , v ' r r 1 . r . ' i . 1 . . 'l lisrr:ninq thc tcrciiirrqsof drc IJucldha. his to
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il thc vcrlrrcl:r inscription of Cevc 16, a r,/lrara, nhich statcs thlr Vlr:rherlcvl, the muristrr oi ''lilc. Hari-scni. rcelizirrg thet lourfr, l'eelth lnd happincss erc tflrlsiforl . . . for thc slkc of his firthcr end nlothcr, cilusc.l to bc rnacic this cxccllcnt clnclling to bc occtLpicclbv drc bcst of escctics. . . (the chvciling) rvhich is rclornc.l - 1.1 11cl. =

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r:.r4. (ion,positc phoro oi lirfi,rn1,.i'd, left sidc nall, ,ntcrior, Crve 16. Aj.tItx, Nl.rh,rr\ir:r, Indir. Vrkrt.rka r. . 1 .f . , . 1 . , r r ..,, t:-., I

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254

DYNASTIES OF THI MIDDIE

PERIOD

in
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thr'c sP,:
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rz.16. Plansof Cavest7, z, and Uppcr 6. Ajant., Mah:ra:!ra, India. Vakelaka pcriod. Ca. late frfrh ccutury.

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ledgcs, statues of the nymphs of, Indra and thc like, which is ornarnented with bcautiful and hasa tcrnpleofthe Buddha pillarsand stairs, inside ... frcscr.nbles]the palaces of thc lord of gods flndra] and is sir.nilarto a cave in the I l o v c l y M n n d a r am o r r n t a i n . " l s h e c o r n p a r i 5 o n of the uiharato a palace,espcciallythat oflndra, which is locatedin Trayastrirh(aheaven,is indeed significant, for the paradisaicalrnetaphor of thc uihardsrs car:.rcd out in their decoration, especially in the painted ceilings. Even within the brief period of the Vakataka forcscence at Ajante, the uihara underwent a nunrbcrof rrrodificrtions.rvc t;. approxiC rnatcly contemporary with Cave 19 on the basis of the Cave 17 inscription and the internal evidenceofstyle, is a standardMahayanavihara, having a pillared verandaasa transition bctween
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B U D D H I S T C A V E A R C H I T I , C IU R E

255

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r2.r7. ShrineBuddha, Cave r7. Ajanta, Meharasrra, India. Veketaka pedod. Ca. late fifth celcury.

the exterior and the interior and a squaredcentral spacesuuounded by cells (Fig. rz.16, top left). The dight irregularity of the disposition of the monks' cells seemsto reflect the cave's chronological position at rhc start of Ajanta's Vakataka phase,as doesthe fact rhat the enshrinedBuddha is completely detached fiom the walls so that it could be circumambulated (Figs. rz.16, top

Ieft, n.ry).
While essentiallysimilar to Cave 17, the plan of the later Cave 2 demonstratesthe modifications that took place during this brief but active period (Fig. rz.16, top right). Here, the arrangement of the cells has become standardizedand the Buddha in the main shrineis now seragainst the rear wall ofthat chamber,precluding circumambulation. Growing complexity, perhaps associated with religious functions, is also seen in the multiplication of cells at the front of the cave where double-chambered shnne areas are

)n. esPecr\ aKataKa

lenvent a aPProxrD rhe basis e intemal ma vihara, l between

createdin place of the single cells asin Cave r7. The culmination of these dcvelopments is visible in the plan of the upper story of Cave 6 (Fig. iz.r6, bottom), which hasthe essential features of Cave 2, but the increasing ritualism in the religion had led to the creation of shrine areas,complete with antechamber and interior cell, in the center of the side walls. Other cells have also been converted into shrines,such as at the right front and right rear of thc hall where sculpted Buddha groups have been added to the ceils although there is no doubling up of cells. The increasedcomplexity of the religious messageis also visible in the main shrine of this cave where, in addition to the central Buddha image and his bodhisattvasand other attendants,r.prisentations of the six man4i Buddhas who preceded Sakyamuni in his final incarnauon are now placed along the side walls of the interior of the shrine so that the devotee is virtually

256

DYNASIIIS Ol: Illll trl]llDLl PFlllon

(jf shrilrc r2.r8. (bnrfo\itc inrclior, lcft, rcir, lrd rieht t.rlls. Cavc 6, Llppcr lcvel. Ajrnt., \'l.rhrxftrr, Lrdir. Vrkrtrka pcriod. C:r. lrrc flfth

r t r . 1 9 . I ] r t c r i o r o l C i I l c : , L r o k r D g r o ( . r r d ] c ] i r c r r . A J x n r a .l \ 4 i r h a r.t!r:r, Inilir. Vrkrlrl,r period. C:r. lxrc tillh.cr)turv.

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r 2 . : o . S l r i n c ' ( J ] t r 3 r r . c . C i l l c r . A . J . r n r r .r U . r h a r a r r3 , r t r ) c t l x .V i k a t : r k r p c r i o d . C r . l r r f t l t r h . c n r L r f \ .

surroLrrclcd 1:rrqc br' IJrJ.llu figur.s (Fis. r2. r 8). r\n irrLcrior r.icl.of Cavc u (Fiq. r:.r9) sLo,,\,s the qcncrll lppc.irilrl( of a Mehaylne r,//rrira er A'1enta. Llvishlv c:rrvcclpili:rrs lrrcl door*,avs .1,,,,... r1 it,r ,,' r,l r..\ ..lr . r.oqrrphic nrcsseqc. rrchitccturel fi'lturcs, inAll clLrdingrr'rlls. ccilings, end pillars l',::rc fullv . p t ' r ' . . I , . r r . 1 . , , . . ' . ' . r , . . l r - . , ' . . or; r r . . l lith prncls c(nrtiiirlinq rrrif/rrran couplcs, rcscmblcs iormet thosclirund orr contcrnporarv ir Hirtdu tcnrplcs.cvc11 rlrc prcscrrce rivcr: to of qocl.lcsscs t1ic. ol clchjerub. Tirc cnshrinccl at top llnrlrlh:r sits in t'airayary snua :rric1,-lispllys atil.'a tlltannatalta nudra. 'l'hc specilic forru o1i thc unlra hx thc tlrunrb rnd lorefrngcrof thc right hurrrllbrrning e circlc thet.loirrs thc:litLlc frnqcr oi rlic lelr halcl. Br. ari:rlogvwirh tmdrasof :t slighdy latcl darc,it nuv bc susgesrcrl th;rt thc litrl: frrrgcr thr-lcft hend poirrtingro rhc cir:clc on lbrliccl in thc riglir indicltcstlrc ibLrrth,or rnorr csotcnc, Jcvclof thc tcacliings.ll Likc othc-r tlLrrjclhlsfrorn AJlnla'slxrc phasc. ligrrrcsuggcsrs thc tics ro Gupte nrodcsat Serlath, Merhuri, and othcr sitcs,bLrthas rhc vc'r1'firll,rourrclcd borlv t;picel of thc ccntral Indien ard |loPorrioDs weslcnl l)cccaD1rrocles.

the prcseirce An interestingfcaturc of Cavc z is sirrincs flrnking thc oi,.-,ltp,.t." g."o.,p' io tlLe

light in and this may have becn to help rcllcct the Prcdonllthe din-Linteriors ln contrast to paintings' thc nancc of earth tones uscd in thc wall '.""" rit aai.i tl'.i"e alo.g thc rearrvall of c'-'l''rcdlhe ,1,. ."itin*' rrc nlore briglrtly ","i"fui-. r2 16,top right; ^lsonotepillarctl . ; ' ; " " i . ' " J p ' r n t f o r t r t s c p i c r c d u r h c c c i l i n g s o d the one et lefi in Fig 12 rq) The pai'ted in a fl:rt r'nncr' with "n,r",r."io I r r F c ;;;' i;"q,t.tt;ly ' h r i r r cL r r l t c r i g S t r c ' r o f l l l e c v e b c L r ' forms thus /f ti,,t".r-aai"g .t shadins,anclthe ''r r C - H " r i L r l ' ) . . u t p , . , 'i , , , ' g . I o ' P r i r c i r ' ' as sill'oueites against.the back" tri.' "f,-rr"ri . , t t i i . t t , , , , J ' 1 , " l " f t ' o r r tr i r r ' [ t 3 r t r ' s f "00.", lt'ragcs' rn tirc uiound. Dircctly abovc irnportant u-i" trltr. Thesc surall shrincsclcnrolstratc otl.rcr spccified i"r..i*ttU".t, ",.,d "t """"itl u""g*,".ttr of the architcctural' sc''rlpttandtli' P^ttents with cont o r t r ' ' t' t r l y in."riortr, -""a ".rt*t"r" , f p ' i , i . ' ' r 'l't'' 't A1 rr'r' . ,",.1i patterns " centric bands of foliated rnd floriated 'virh * " . . , i , " . i ' r * a i r r r ' ' q cf' ' r l t i p o l l ' l r r o n r " r fron.rCavc An cspcciallyfinc cxan.rplc i.t"a. on tl-rc side ,h. ,"rtta o"i,t, .,,.Jit-' t1t" nnrlls "t" the four corners )P li btJ c c t ' z bcers pairs of t'idyadharas:rt r ' , r " ' 1 . ,b | . ' r ' , 1ltr.r l r r ' r ' \ ' l r L I l r \ c lrv (r\r'tl lc (Pl.r). o ' l r tlti' 'in , i , r , " . o ' , , u 1t , . ' , , t l ' ' " c L r l p t t r l t . includes' iit" oronr"- of rvall paintings ttr ' f r q r t r eo r l t h c ' i 'r1 "r v ' p 'i,,,. .J... ,lt. scencs of Buddhas' attcnclants' ' l" lt" e : u r t r e l : r cr r ""iour'."i",, a r r p r o . , . " '"r l. . c r ' t i .i''lr ' c d f t ' t r r ' ',tlrdiatdka tr1cs.In gencral, Buddhas arc reprecre:rtes rtsc ii1,-,sionistic of the paitrtcd *'al1s .n1liat the shrincs' ."rr,la i,t ot t-t"". thJrntcchar-nbcrto the clIect on thc hutrrl visitor to a drar-t-ratic in the r.rain hall A sccne .ttriL" Tutrlr. occur rn shrinc, lvho fecls himself eu :rctive PartlcIPrrnt of 'lcvotcc' ,i,ln,,tt u,''tdlr,' rritlr grotrp' atrct patntcd by i thc clran:r bcingNportr'r,vcc1 the - "*lt'tc t o r l r c : l r r i t r et r C r v e t i o . . , , . . 'r n r l r . . , t t t c c l r . r t ' t b c t' tr rl "r' clt rr tlt t I l l c r ' r r c l l i c l l l l l r g Ll l l c l l r ,a"fO* ' iat"' ' t 'trrcl r7 1Pl.8) 'trqqc'r t ' , r i r ' l r . ' l ' r r t c ' ' r r r ; ' l c t i t r lgr ' divt'iorts L . r " . , r " . 1 y , i , a r ' ' ' "o ' r l r r c . 'r e s i ' r c " l i l c " . , , , t i " - . . " proqran-rs ancl clccor:rtiveschcmcs i."""n.,lpttia . . r l ' ' ' f o r r r r 'o I M ' r i i t t " O , , a a t t *r r r r yb c i J c r r t i f ' c oi thc f:rct of So,.tthAsian lllonulllcnts, ro spite preacl.ingin ,."u"t in Ar",op registcr,he is shorvn that it hnsrarcly bccn prcscrvcd' ir.rthc center' hc is p"t"dl'", T'-ttit^; paintings' it"'ir."t"'ry of Because tire prcservation.ofits anclrvclconing J.piaol d"t.""tli"g frorn Tugita tltc ' u i , , , ,' i l y r r n i q t r ' ' l o c u r n e t t it t t Ai;,;'i into his carth)ypirldise' Ketunati; p i r r r i r . r e l,ii .lc.rotecs l I'i.t"rt ofpr,-l't,''lirrrt'dic rrt Fnortglr Kctunlatl As bclo.v, hc is sccn prelching in t[lt lhc rcttreinsirr'rnen-vof thc cavcsto in{licltc this composipair-Ltings' in nrlr". rt r' "rl,..h"tltbtr fo"u"l than thosc of tl.rc i c u r r o q r ' r p l t t;c r . , e r ' L r rtlf t ' r ' p r i n r i t t v ' , tt'nt" ,l;tr';;o""tt of the ovcr:tll mrin cave ,ou.r'rl*i. ami rn inteerrl prrt of fri"-11ortitu lrilala sccues thc ,tto.. dccoratrvc. ,.ir.,r_r" of thc c,rvc aDd not siDrply. to thclr grcatcr arcl, a fclturc that mty relatc '1''Lcrrrco IPrr'llll):''rlt) b' LightA tt.rtIberJf\l\'" .",ft"t thrn mrr'rtivc fturction '.."i. l i r ' g r l r ' -' v ' r ' . ' r 1 f r e c l ' ^ l ' r g t i r r \ rr l r e ' r r l ? 't. .1",,,."'''' ;",it;. ,,. 'll1qltert .,'f, ,,a ir*, by "' 1 1 1 1 " p r r ' ' t r o r t b c l \ ! ' c l l t l l c u l ) i T ' ,tr.,ltuds rvclc crlplo--vctl thc llrtlsts' t iqo"t Lr,ckrr,'Lrr,'l "n.1 wcrc R"ther tlten inclicltilg thxt the Pxnlnngs ' ' t t e t t d r r r'rr 3 r r r e 'i t 'lr . , t ',-'',i 'iiu ',.- , n , l r h ' r o t r l r r t rhc varicty lt'rc ,lif.."t't pcriids ho'cver' lon. t l A r ) l l l t c r ' " t i n qi ' t L r r ' v t ' i b l c "t . , , i . ' ' ' , . * ' ' " i r' l i ' i r ' r ' ' l ' ' t ' l ' o t t t t ' t is thc ;i othcr Paintings't Ajarlta ;;,.i i; b.trrtc ' ".,n"r.ut landscepc' espccially mountaru 1 t , r ' n a , t "' r , " ' q t " f ' " l l t ' l l f l ' r . ' l l ' c ' c \ i ' t r o r t t t r t ' treatlllent of rtt . " i t i , , " *p ' , , , , i ' , i ' ' r r d r t r l l p r i r r r i r r g ' sirapessillrl:rr to forms, in crvstelline, cubical lc '(ntrtl r in r l l ' l e \ ' c l l r e c l l t t i qt l coLr"ri.,n, 'trlv'vcd ;i;" t""" rpproxir'etcly contcnPorineollsly r i / ' a r nc ' ' l i ' r g ' t l r 'r l t r ' c rnto ., if ,'i ,f', howcver' scefr to Plo1cct l P l 6 ) ( o r r tr I r r r r J sculpture. Thcsc, p . , ' r e . ' i , ' I .l i r r g r i d l i \ i ' P ' r r r c f r r \ rcccdc bchind thc ;i;-tt;"tt".'.' sPaccrather tiran ebstracrrnotifs:rs t'cll ils sorllc an1ll1ilL rchtio'ship florel en.l ;t:t;t. ti,..;"] crcating :i dyna'ric sccncs Thc stylizccl format is probhnr-t-t^o auclthe p:rintedl'orld i,"t..'."titlr" .'i"tt"t "n.1 tt' thc paradis^i''r) reelurs' L:rit1 alranqetl ctrt;i; ;;.fo"tttt In contr:rst to thc molc forrlrll r0 Whitc is ebundurtclivisions thc rvalls o[ t" n".attltt oi tbe ccilings 'rnci r[tcclllnDcrs' "l-ri although not otr thc *'alls' ir'"r.a"J d'" *trttss,

25E

DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDIE

PERIOI)

BUDDHIST CAVEARCHITECTURE259

light in xedominintings,
ed. lne

: ceilings rr, with rms thus he backr:rges, ln specified ith conpattems om Cave r comers ludes, in tendants, re fePree shrines, A scene devotees : in Cave ngement divisions. r of Maiaching in rter, he is elcoming ietumati; nati. As composie of the lxUn Cave ir greater n. Lightthe dark the Budfigures is ible here qta is the Eountain imilar to reously in oject into rhind the lationship rld. rngenent : salls of

the main halls are alive with very free-flowing compositignsand figures arrangedin asymmetrical, crowded groupings.Earth tones,many of which were derived from local minerals found in the region around Aja+te, harmonize the forms and provide the main tonality. Severalmeansof creating form seemto have For beenavailable the Ajalle artists. example, to the body of the bodhisatwato the right of the to entranceto the antechamber the main shrine in Cave r (?1. 9) is created primarily by the useof modulation of colors rather than through use of line. Highlighting of certain areas,such as the nose or brow, helps to bring forth the form from the dim interior although light and shadoware not usedin what might be called a scienti{ic manner or to elucidate three-dimensionality. That is, shadingand highlighting were their creausedat will by the artiststo enhance tions without regard for light asa phenomenon ofthe physicalwo d, subjectto cenainempirical laws. Even the forms of the bodhisattva'sbody are beyondthe rulesof the materialworld, and indeed,by freeing the figures from suchregulaof tion, fie artists seemto capture the essence the Buddhist religion, with its skepticism toward phenomenal existence-While clearly human in inspiration,the parts of the bodhisatwa'sbody are likened to other objects;his biow, for example, takes the shape of the and archer's bow, his eyesare like lotus petals, his torso is shapedlike that of a lion. Such and metaphorsappearin textual descriptions into visual were often ouite literallv translated used terms. Similar rnet"phois are sometimes in the creation partsof the body of Buddha of {igures. jttoP4 t{les are represented the on Numerous walls of the Aja4ta cives. Some,which must have been important in the specificsectarian are beliefs of the monks in residence, repeated a number of times in the various cavesand many of them treat human rather than anirnal incarnationsof Sa&yamuniBuddha. Often, stories shown, are from specific several episodes although theseare generallynot arrangedin seouence the walls.A detailfrom the Mahaon jaiaha jatahodepicted Cave r (Pl. ro) shows in surroundedby a bery of Prince Mahajanaka

beautiful women, crowned and bejeweled, and thus representing the epitome of princely life and possibly reflectingconternporary patternsof dressand life during Gupta and Vekalaka times. However, the Buddhist message the story is of clear, since Mahajanaka relinquishes his princely liG in favor of the life of a recluse. With his hands in a sesture of discourse simllar to dharmacal<ramuita, he is depicted announcing his intention to give up his kingdom. The facial features of the figures, with the highly arched brows and elongated lotiform eyes, resembles the treatment of the bodhisattva at the rear of the cave (P1.9) and may reflect an ideal based on contemporaneous concepts of beauty. The forms of the body are here outlined with a darker chroma of the samehue as the body itself. ofthe figures The animatedpositions and stances lend a liveliness to the composition, typical of the jatuka representations Ajanta in general. at Often, scenesat Ajagla take on an almost secularcharacter,although all may be justified as bang part of a jata&aor other Buddhist context. A woman on a swing in Cave z (Pl. ir) belongs to a depiction of the Vidhurapaltlito jatuka and may be identified as lrandati, the z?grr princess central to the story. Here, the highlighting technique used freely at Aja+te creates the impression of a glow over the surface of her skin. The narrow waists, full breasts,and hips of the women in the composition display the same feminine ideal that is found throughout most Deliods aqd stvles of Indic art. As is true throulhout most oi the Aja41a paintings, the three-quarter facial view is preferred in this composition, creating a suggestionof depth and volume for the forms. The brownish red background strewn with flowers scrvesas a conventionalized landscape in this and other scenes, but, as in nost of South Asian art, the artist depends on the {igures to tell the story, to create a senseof life, and to carry the mood; architectural and landscape elements are employed only to add a setting or structure to the scene,not to create an ambiance or to simulate the ohvsical world. in addition to walls and ceilings, virtually eyery portion ofthe caveswas painted, including doorframes and pillars. Flat surfaces without

260

OF DYNAST]ES THE MIDDLEPERIOD availableto was simply one o[ the rechniques artists to use as they chose. The skill of the Ajanre artisr as dr"ftsman is evident in comoositions such as this. ' A, rrital documents of Buddhist art, the Aja4qa caves can hardly be overestimated. In sho.t burst of incredible artistic activity, the " patrons, together with the sculptors, Painters, and iconographers, provided a concise illustration ofthe generaltendency in Indic art towards embellishment and elaboration of the highest quality.

carving were often completed in paint, which, *h"n Iort, leadsus to forget that these portions were important Parts of the decorative scheme' A pillar from Cave t7 shows a pair of musicd*".u., inlrabiting the square base *"iir,g pl. rz). Different in treatment from the figures these dwarves are created by alreadv discussed, the use ofa prominent black outline that defines the contour; and details of their forms. Such line drawings are found throughout the Ajalte in appearing composirions paintings, sonretimes ihrt -rk. use of rhe shadingand highJighting tecbniques,and thus it seemsthat such a method

.{*.
A closelv related and contemporaneousgrouP of caves at Bagh provides further evidence of

Although some Mahayanacave architecture.

-F tlr "-l

rz.zt. Plan of Czve z. Bagh, Madhya Pradcsh,India. v*elaka period. Ca. late fifch cegtury.

BUDDHIST CAVEARCHITECTURE26' arailable to *ill of the nl tn combr art, the dmated. Lr rtiviry, the rs. painters, cise illustraert towards rle highest than purely,coincidental since, according to the Daiakumaracarita (The Ten Princes) written by Dandin in the seventh century, the Vekttaka king Harigena had a son who ruled over the Bagh region. Spink claims that this son must for by that time, one have ruled prior to 486,17 Maharaja Subandhu, who is known from a copperplate inscription found at Bagh,i8 was ruliag the region and the Vakdfaka line had collapsed. Spink estimatesthe period of llorescence at Bagh to have occurred between 47o and a8o. and rock Much ruined due to water seepage falls affecting the soft, friable sandstone, the caves preserve little of their former beauty. In plan, Cave 2 greatly resembles Mahayana uiharas at Ajar11a, although four central pillars are present,undoubtedly included for structural purposesdue to the weaknessof the rock (Fig. rz.zr). The central pillars, much more massive appearing than pillars at Ajalte, are treated diferently from others in the cavc, having a spiraled fluting and being round rather than being square or consisting of square and round sections(Fig. tz.zz). The spaciousantechamber to the shrine bears sculptures of Buddhas and bodhisattvas on the sidc and rear walls (Fig. rz.4). ln style, these figures are part of the broadly de{ined Gupta mode, but differ from their Ajaqtd counterparts in their rnore slender bodies and more attenuatedappearance. Instead, they seem more closely allied to northern and north-central Indian stylesof the Gupta period. This is not surprisingconsideringBegh's location nearerto the epicenterofthe Gupta art traditions. , A very important characteristicof this, and other caves at Begh, is the presenceof a stupa rather than a Buddha image as the main object of veneration in the shrine. This Gature has led some scholars to conclude that the Bash

le-'-, architaities with sruch more

12.22. lntedor of Cave 2, vierv from front Ieft corner, Bagh, Madhya Pradesh, India. VakegakaperiodCa.late {ifth century.

262

DYNASTIES oF TIIE MIDDTE PFRToD

F
:

h
I
I2.23. Shrine a!1tcchanlber, left wall, Cxvc 2. B.gh, Madhya Pradcsl,, IDdia. V.kalaka period. Ca. lere fifth cenrury.

excavations prcdatcd thosc ei A.jrnte and tlut they reprcsent a stage of tratrsition between thc usc of a srlpa antl that of a I3uddha iruagc asen obiect of vencration. Horvever, ir is clear f'otl inose, l;,,,.]t xs that in rhe slrrine of Cave r I at Aianta. rvhcrc the rear of the iruagc brrotrtrs t stfipa, or thosc of Cavcs r9 ancl z6 't Ajxntt' o.rh"r" ..1tr"r.ttr"tion of thc Bucldh'r is larr of " r srtp,r, thei the sytubols rre iclcntical ancl intcrheve chronoand charrgcablc do not ncccssarily

at iogical implications, leastby tlis date, when lrorlt tudilhnt ancl sfrtpas abuncluntly survive as part of tl-rcstandard artistic vocabulary' lhc u.,intinq. rl BJql). klroun todey onry rn fr rqnrcrrl.,i,l [r.'r'r lopi.'. ['c tr r grc.,t deel of reseltiblancc to thcir contenPorary counrcrprrts xt Aj.rnta. Indced' Subrndhrls inscriptioir foutt.l ii thc dcbris of Cave z calls thc (Abodc of Art)' suggesting Kala-vena rllonastery of thc oriqill:rlsplcndorof thc site' sonlcthing

KTNHEItI

Durins drc iate fifth ancl silth ccntLuies,xrtistlc activit;' xt Kanhcri lvas resumetl A t"turber of ttcl ctca,,l,ler cevcs .vcre uro.lificd rnci tr at-ty brineiug thc totel nttltrbcrof vationswere bcgutr, anclmakilg clves :rt the site to over one hunclrecl extensivecavc site ilr India' Kltheri the urost of It is likcly thrr the resurgeuce xrtisticactivtty b1'thcTraiLutakes' initirtccldueto patronauc r,vas who caue into control of thc region upou the oftheir fomrer ovcrlords'dlc VakaLekas' collepsc inscription foun'1 tn front of ", "'.opp".pi"r" clatabicto etorrld 494 suegcstsre C".'" i "n.i onc A pair ofcolosselBuclclhas' rt cithcr cnd of

thc vclrnd:r of this grcat secotrd-ccuturycaifl'a hrll. u'es parr of thc rcfurbishingof that cavc .l,r.i,ro tL l:rtc fiftir cclltur-v' a clatc suggesrcd bv thc stylc of the irnagcsas nt'ell as the palcoir.rscriptionrcfcrri:rg to associatccl g,"phy nf "tt Morc thau s{lvcl1llleters onc sttch dcdic:rtion in hcight, cach figure stauclsin an arch rvitl-r ,idyarli,oro, bc:trinu garlarttls abovc' rncl erch .li,i,l"v, ,nrn,Jn ,,utia' t1''" ecsture of giftlr"rrurt"l o. offcring, rvl-richuuy be interprcte'd as an invitation to enlightcnnlen!(Fig Iz z4) full thc figurcs rellcct thc urassivc' Stylistically, rcPrcscntatio'sancl it is fniur of ih. A.jxlld

BUDDHIST cAvE ARcHITrcruRE

26ji

,,

ira:nber, left ,\ladhya Praa period. Ca.

date, when dv survive

rz.z4. Colossal Buddha,left end of veranda, Cave3. Ktrheri, Maharattra, India.Traikutaka period.Ca.late lifth century.

,rlrry. todayonly
r great deal rar)' counru's inscrip: calls the , suggesflng f the site. possiblethat artists who had worked at Aja4ta, or their descendants, had moved to Kanheri to begin work there. While architecturally many of the new caves excavated during this phase at Kanleri are rather plain, a number of extrenely important imageswas produced, serving asvital documents of developmentsin the Buddhist religion. Cave 90, a monument of perhapsthe early to middle sixth century is a simple, single chamber with only a srnall veranda, but its interior walls are abundantly carved with sculptures; the disordered arrangement indicates that the cave's Pulpose was to serveas a place where sculptures could be donated for merit rather than as a hall for initiations or rituals. The original shrine images are lost, but on the side walls two important sculptures show in graphic form the conplqx hierarchicaliconographic arrangements that had been developing for a long time. On the viewer's left wall is a Buddha scene (Fig. rz.z5), while on the dght wall is a depiction of Avalokite(vara as protector of the faithful

(Fig. rz.z6). As an iconographic statement,each marks a significant departurefrom earlierexamples. Properly speaking, the composition of the Buddha sceneis a ua4/ala, a specific schematization through which rhe religiouspractitioncr achieves both undersranding and reintegr.rrion with the Universal. In this case, the central figure demonstrates thc dharnakaya aspect of Buddhahood, the Universal, and is perhaps properly called Sarvavid (Universal Knowlcdge) Vairocana. This identification does not negate the interp.retationof this figure as the historical Buddha Sakyamuni as well, since the two are identical in the ultimate sense. the four corners In ofthe composition, four smaller imagesidentical to that in the center represent the {ot.r jinas who, together with the central Buddha, comprise the five jinas of the fwe jixa (paftcajixa) 'fhese maqr.dala. Buddhas are the personifications ofthe knowledge (jiiaaa) essence the Universal of who emerge from the four quarters (that is, all directions) to impart knowledge to the initiate. They representthe so-called sanbhogakaya (BIiss Body), which together with the nbnfitlal<aya and the dhatnakaya comprise the three kayas o{ the Buddhit tuikaya systern. As imparters of knowledge, they representthe teachingmodality

nttry caitya ,i that cave . suggested s che paleoreferring to :\'en metefs L arch with '. and each :: of giftinrerpreted Frg. rz.z4). r:ssive, full -. and it is

rz.z5. Buddha ma41a1a left wzll, Cave 90. KaDleri, on MaheEttra, India. Ca, early-to-mid sixth ccntury.

"64

r)yNASrIES oI: tIiE MrDDII ?ERIOD

r2.26. Litany of Avalokiteiverr rs lrotcctor of thc Frithiul, right Maha\.l'.rll, Clave 9lr. Kirficri, rastr:!, India. Ca. early-to-nrid sixdr century.

.*

-tl
{

,i I

lr

-_' i!, ';.r,f

,f .i'
rz.u7. lleven-headed Av:rlokitc(- !> vara tu Crve 4r. Karircri, Ma-

-7t
a-

x:
,

,,'

of lluddhisD. These Rudclhrs, iD irrcr arr dillt-rcntiatecl by spccific tnudras a:r'tl uahatas, are Aksobhye (cest), I{rtnrs:rnbheve (south), Anitablu (rvest),and Aruoehesi.ldhiborth), cach shorln ltete it dharnnmkra rudra rtd
tl. P/ 4t atl t 04pda dsd11 A l o n g e . . c 1 r . r r ' . . r 1 . i , 1 . o f 1 l 1 .q o ; p s 5 1 1 1 , , 1 1 i.

a rorv oflbur llucldhls, toqcthcr reprcsetrting tht' eight rrrarrrrsl tsLrclcllres. nlanaLal'a, thc vlo rc cherqccl rvith thc rcsponsibilitl- tcachiugrhc of JlLrddhisr rcligiou to the bcinqsof thc nrulchne rvorlcl.Bc1rclt]r ccntrll fiqutc. rttcrrcling the the' stelk upon l'hich his lotu\ pedc'ltrl rcsts. xrc clc'pictionsof In.lre rntl Rr:rllnl ri'ith fi'rl:rle consorts. :rncl /r-.qdsxnd rlglrri-r bclou-, both groups shorvnxs csscntirlly suborclinatcs the of lrr:iiDfrqlrrc. Flankitg the Ilutidha is e pair of boclhis.rttvas. clch also heving e fi'urlle corlpanion. Bv rhc sixth ccutury, fenrale irurgcs had emergedrs an iruportrnt perr oli tsucldhist Mahavtru icorroqrlphiccorrccptiolls, Kanhcri xt ast.cll asat nulllcrousothcr sitcsin South Asia. l r r R r ' . 1 , r ' rri .)rc ^ - \ ' - r ' r ' ' r , l c r c r ' . r r L f i sr,h c . conceptof /rdJli-, or treuscen.lentel knol4cclge, rvhilc thc milc clclrotcs rrl.rayo,thc practicc ncccssalrto lc:rclthc practirioncrto thc :rttairl|,r',,r '1 I".'., ^ r r r l ,L . , t i o ,r f i r the nvo is thc Budclhistcnliqhtcnmc.nt, s1.m-

bolizcclirr later Dud dlisnbv yuganaddh(scxually n joirrcci) couples. Thus, rhc co:nceptof uithuta, rvhich hrd long bccl :L nlotif in Butldhist art, is intcgratccl into an cxpression of onc of thc most cssr-l1tial ancl ftrndanental belicfs in thc rclision. Thc icorr of Avalokitcivara as protcctor of drc f.rithlirl(Fiq. rz.:6) is ofa typc that occurs l.idcly il thc wcstcrn cavesin a similar fomrat. Horvevcr, this vcrsion is rniclue in that it depictsAvelokitc(r'rrx as protector lgxinst rcn pcrils (rethcr thrn thc usual eigl.rt)encl incluclcs rllrllrcroussubsidilrv figures. Abovc thc head of tirc ccotr;rlfiqLrr:c thc prinoqenenc source is of tlrc crrtirc icoq tltc dlnntakiya, in this case Vairocane. attcnrlccl two bodhisattvas. b,v Avalokitciv:rrais flnkcd bv his tu o lim:ile consorts, Trrr (to his riglit) ud Blrrkuti (to his lcfr).Tara, rr'hosc narle rreans "Star," and thc North Star implicitlv, rcprcsclrtsthe fixecl point of universllitl' torvards rvlLich the rlevotee progresses, n hilc l]lrrkr-rti's naure," lAbr-urdaltly] Full Hall," rclcls to the achievementoithe fully enliglrtcnc.l nrincl. Lr this litany, Av:Llokitc(v:rla offcrs the rlevotecpronrisc of salvatiol fron-rthe various
, , . . t \ L ., , , - J /(..r. r l,! .,, ,1.-.i t^ ^4.t,^ aolllPo\lrloll.

itclucling ettack bv elcphants.1ions,robbcrs, an,:{sinrihr disrstcrs. Whilc thc lay r.u-orshiper

BUDDHTST ancnrTlctunr cavr

relokiteivara rirhlill, right heri, Mahaarlr-to-mid

265

i[mataYan

danger representing potenrial hindranceon a his path to Buddhahood. wild elephant. The for example,would be seenas the wilJ mind in need of tamjng, that is, the rnental discipline necessary achievethe Buddhist qoal. Such to litany scenes servedasprototypesFoi examples -rhe in t -".r Asia, China, Japan. and !.rn!
reglons.

Aralokite5- ) loheri, Mat Eith-early

la (sexually f nithuna, ddhist art, ne of the bE in the otector of hat occurs hr format. in that it galnst ten d includes the head ric source l this case as. Avalo: consorts,

might accept these perils in a literal serue and invoke AvalokiteSvara for protection against the specific *ueat, an advancedpracritioner wouJd understand these on a meraphorical level, each

A r.p.es"ntition of a highly unusual form of AvalokiteSvara attending a seated Buddha in Cave 4r indicatesadvanced and esotericBuddhist practices at Kanheri (Fig. iz.z7). Dating frorn approximately the late fifth or early sixth century, the irnage shows the bodhisatwa in an eleven-headed (ehadalanuhha\ form which, while found frequently in later Buddhist art outside of South Asia as in Nepal, Tibet, China, and Japan, is not kaown in the Indic realm except at a rather late date in Kaimir and the eastem regions. This image is thus the only artistic documentation. for the view that this iconographic rype originated in India. It may be inferred from art as weli as lirerature rhai the eleven heads, consistinq of ren bodhisartva heads topped by a Buddlia head, represenrthe daiabhtmikas,or rhe ten st"ges of "ihievement ofthe bodhisattvaalong with-the final attainment of Buddhahood.

AunrNcrl,to Nor far from Ajante. at Aurangabad. number a of Buddhisr caves were carved durins several different periods. While two of these-caves (r and 3) belong to the Vakataka period and weie excavated contemporaneously with the late Mahayana phase at Aja4ge, others were created in the latter half of the sixrh century and thus lepresem a stylistic_ and iconographic advancement trom rhe earlier monumenls. Spink sug_ gests that these caves(A,7, and,9) were carved when the region had come under rhe conrrol of the Kalacuris, whom, he believes,were also responsible for the major Hindu excavatrons at Jogeivari, Mandape3vara and Elephanta.z0 Cave 7, datin$ from around J6o, sebms to combine the ritual need for circumambulation seenin the early Vakagakaphaseat Aja41a with

leli).Tara,
*iorth Star of univerDrogresses, h:ll Hall," ightened offers the le varrous nposition, , robbers, s-orshiper

thc preGrence for placing the shrine Buddha against rearwall of the chamber creating the by an ambulatorypassage aroundthe entireshrini (Fig. rz.z8).zrThe sidewalls of the passageway open into a series cellswhile the rear wall of containstwo subsidiaryshrines.The ground plan suggests that the principal shrine had simply been moved forward into the main hall of a typical Mahayanaviharu, ahhotgh this may not in fact be the way in which tiis forrn evolved. The shrinesat the rear of the ptadaksinapatha, well as the primary shrine, as each contain a sculptureof a Buddha seated in pralambapadasaxa displayingdharmacakra and The cavesof the post-Vakalaka phase show an increased of sculpturalpanelsto carry use

266

DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDIE

PTRIOD

ll

-F\//-

CTI
rug<l

/ .:

tT\\

ULLl l lt

l
12.29. LilaDyof Avalokiteivara left of ccnrral to door on vermda,Cave 7. Aurangabad, Mahirastra. India. Ca. mid-sixth century.

a-_

I2.28.Planof Cave7. Auraugabad, Maharallra, India. Ca. mid-sixthcerltury.

out thc iconographic progran and larger, rnore nonumental figures. The front wall leading into the circuman-rbulatory passagc from thc veranda, for cxar.nple, bearsa sizablcpancl of a litany of Avalokitcivara to the left of the central door (Fig. rz.z9) and of another bodhisattva to the right. These figures demonstrate a stylistic departure from the earlier Vekataka style, having a uew tautnessto the contours of their bodics, fullcr shoulders,and sweliing hips. They are best compared to figures such as the rirarapalas {rorn Mandasor (Fig. rr.z), the sculptures at Elephanta(Figs. 13.5-8) or others of thc sixth century. The hair style of Avalokiteivara, rvith its tendrillikc curls and ligh, piled-up appearance, is characteristic of sixth-ccntury convcntions, further showing departure from Gupta and Vekttaka trends. In addition, the treatrncnt of the lintel of the doorway with its multitude of miniature shrines anticipates tire architectural claboration seen in several later north Indian regional styles.

Sinilar stylistic development may also be seen in the treatment of Gmale figures, as in the important panel to the left of the door to the central shrine (Fig. rz.3o) or the figure group inside the shrine, along thc left wall (Fig. rz.3r). The voluptuous figures arc full breasted, round hipped, and have swelling thighs. In thc group inside thc shrine, tle figures seemliGlike, a feeling cnhancedby the suggested movement and animation of their poscs,which marks a departure fion the quietude of figures in the Gupta and Vakagakaperiods and anticipates the active, dynamic figures of subsequent centuries. The elaborate coiffurcs are again c h . r r r c t c r i s roc r h e ' i x r h c e n r r r r y l.r m a y b e iI noted thrr rhe uidyadharas (fig. r.z.jo) are set against clouds that are indicated by a scalloped form that is seenwidely throughout the Deccan in the sixth century and is especially characteristic of Early Western Calukya sculptures.In somc respectsthe fernale figures are also very close to lhoseseenin Early Wesrerrr Calrrkyaart.

BUDDHIST CAVE ARCHITECTURE 267

rz.3o. Female group to left of central shrine door, Cave 7. Aurangabad, MaherasFa, India. Ca. midsixth century.

r2.3r. Dancerand musicians, along left wall, inside shrine,Cave 7. Aurangabad, Maharaggra, India. Ca. mid-sixth century.

cEnrfal door zrrra. India.

,\' also be ures, as in re door to rle figure left wall x are full : swelling the figures : suggested res, which of figures urd anticiiubsequent are again lr may be 1o) are set r scalloped he Deccan aracteristic i. In some sery close
I-aa.

The presenceof prominent Gmale imagery, kiteivara with Vajrapdd to teach bodhi. In especially females as attendantsto bodhisattvas another sense,the central figure of Tara is not or Buddhas.demonstrates growirg imporrhe different from a Buddha, with garland-bearing tance of sexual symbolism in Buddhism, asdyadharasabove and personifications ofknowlsociated vzith Tantric or Vajrayanic sects. The edge and compassionat her side. group to the left of the central shrine door The spectacularfemale group consisting of a (Fig. iz.3o) shows Tara, the principal consort dancing woman accompanied by six female of Avalokiteivara, accompaniedby two Gmale musicians on the left wall of the main shrine is reflections or aspects herself who are rn tum of dramatic evidence for female and sexual syrnaccompanied by dwarves. The dwarf at the left bolism in Buddhism (Fig. rz.3r). The shrine is very sirnilar to the Saivite dwarves attending is based on the type that developed in the last the Maheivara image at Elephanta(Figs. r3.5-8), phase at Ajaqrpa with the central Buddha figure reinforcing the suggestion of the approximate accompanied by sculpted depictions of the six contemporaneousness the two monuments. of mdruli Btddhas, but goes beyond the earlier This figure. the onJy nralein the enrire composiformulation with the addition of this important tion, has a hair arrangement consisting of five panel and the figures on the opposite wall topknots that represent the five llas (sound coruisting of a bodhisattva, his female comessences) the paficajinama4dala(the nu4d.ala panion, and a dware Ifone accepts musicians of the 'in of the five jina Buddhaq.zaIn both his maleness the group on the left wall at face value, as and his ascetic qualiry, he represents updya, the accompanists to the dancer, the main {igure action necessary attain Buddhahood, and the to that needs interpretation is the dancer herself 'the corollary of compassion (karuna)other Bharatanatyam, the classical form of Indian dwarf, a female to Tara's left, persorifies prajfia dance, was in advanced stagesof development (wisdom), which is part ofjfiaza, the knowledge by the sixth century and already included an needed for Buddhahood. The irnage thus reiterextensive vocabulary of gestures,each with a atesthe basic Mahayana concept, but it is one relatively explicit meaning to be interpreted by srepfurther removed,sincerhe practitioner must the audience. According to Bharatanatyam unite Tara with AvalokiteSvara to achieve literature, the gesture made by the left hand of karu1r.d, and,only then can he integrate Avalothe Aurangabad dancer is ardha pataka, "helf

266

oF DYNASTITS THE MIDDIE PERIOD

In Dractice,sexual activities did become part of flag," with the palm upwards, a sign that has the religious rituals of certain Buddhist and two, a Jual meaning: at one level, it rePresents Hindu slcts, but thesewere kept secretand wetc both, or any sort of duality, but on another, it restrictcd to esotericpracticessinceit was feared svmbolizes a long or tall, slender object that that nooinitiates *ould l""k understaridingand *n.,ld b" koo*o"f.oln the context of the story mieht misinterpret the activities as simple line beirrg portraycd in thc- dance Since the jt [1{5cd' wasrecorfr".tic ple"ru..se-eklng se:ture is directcd toward thc genital area ir ofrhe pathof ,i.trt onc of thc pitfalls iray bc inrendedto suggcctrhe lnale merrtber og"nir.d was yT,gonoddha to sink into a lustful quest for light of nni p"rh"p, rhc sexual ,cr itselI tn DIeasurc. is clear oihe. evidence at the site, it thl, "nd It is appropriatethat rhc lemale figure is that esoteric,Tantric forns of Buddhism were d"n.ine, iin.e. in Tndicthought. dancingis one in in practiceat Aurangabad the sixth century' for of the irts necersary the accomplishedsexual d."u"l ,nt"g"ry. whicl, evcnru'lly culmimrcs Darmer and constitutesone asPeclof scxual o[ in tlre rcprcsentrtion [rgures in intercourse ior.pl"v. The full-frgrrrcdforrn' of the females by (vroanaddha\ Iong rnisunderstood scholwas rlre inteusitl of desire td"g.u"rrtion" of Btrddhist ideals ,useesi th"i, desirability. J.,'". " beiirs likerrcd to the lervor with whiclr the Howevcr, the total emotional and physical qorl should bc puruued ln texts' the religi"ou, involven.rento[ thc individual with the partner as fe--rle prrrne., are described being sixtccn during sexual activity is a rnetaPhor in Indic and in the full bloom of youth' oi u""r, ."lieiJus tho,,q1trflor the rnysticaltrnion with "n" it is cvidcn-tthat the artistsattemPtcd to convey corrrbiningof the malc and rhe"Uniu"rs"l'i,1," such a notion in their sculptures. trnity was seen female into a totally intcgraccd to symbolize the active Path to cnlightennent'

ELLORA

The frnal phasc of development of Buddhist ."vc, in western India is seen at Ellora, a site rrear Ajantt and Aurangabad that had already important Hindu center in the last b".on.ri "n half of the si*lh .ettt,tty. Although the specific of Dxtronaqc the Buddhi't cavcsi' not Lnown' ,h.y tu'.r. probably ercavatcd during thc ,.vcnth .errt.,ry, rvhen the Early Wcstern in Calukvasl.nd achievcdsuprer.nacy the Deccan (Ch"pien r3 and i5), thouglt not nccessarily in this region. A numlber of the Buddhist caves at Ellora scem to recapitulatesone of the basic architcctural and iclnogropltic {ormats found at other sites, but otheri suggest innovative and advanced Buddhist thinking. Cave 5, the earliest Buddhist cavc at Ellora, is a large rectangular hall, about thirty-five rnetbrs in length, withsurrounding srrt"il c.lls; *'iir.ine in the center of the ,."r *Jli, and two other shrine areasin the centcrsof the side walls (Figs. tz.3z, rz'33)''fhe expansion of the two sidc-shrine areasnuy be

seen as a furthcr developrnent of the plan of Cevc o (trpper)rr Alante (Fig rz ro' bottom) althoush lrerc, rhe niairr hall has becomeclong"t.d.-Botlt the rectangular, axial format and ihe addition of cross-axis shrines are features that developcd in Hindu ntonttment' of the preceding centttry. strch as thc Siv'r cave at tl"oh"ntl (fig. r3.r). Thc trcrtmenrof the pillar. with rheir cttshioncapitrls further srrgI ( g c s t s. u c h a c o n n e c t i o n c o n r p a r ei g s l z 3 3 ' r3.3). A kev feature in this cave (found also in a similar c"-re at Kanheri, but preservednowhere else in South Asia) is the double row of stone benchesextending almost the full length of the hall, within the rectangleofpillars Such benches are typical of the seating pattern used in ritual ,".it"tion io later Tantrism and Zen Buddhism outside of lndia and suggestthat benchesmade ofepheneral uraterialsmight posibly have been lsei it t,iharu :Lnd caitya type caves or- frcestanding buildings for centuries, but that their

BUDDIIIST CAVE ARCHITECTURI

269

ne Part of rdhist and : and were i\.asfeafed nding and as simple : was recre path of guest for frgure is ing is one hed sexual of sexual he Gmales ; of desire ,. hich the te\ts, the ng sixteen oi youth. ro convgy

1242. Pler of Cave 5. Ellora, Maharalqa. India. Ca. seventhcentuty.

,t/l//4,

,rr,,

re plan of i. bonom) ome elonrrmat and re features rrs of the 'a cave at nr of the nher sugies. r2.33, r also in a i nowhere n- of stone |grh of the ch benches 'i in ritual Buddhism rchesnade have been > or freeihat their

r'j.,,',,l
12.33.lnterior of Cave 5. Etlora, Maharelfra, India. Ca seventh cenqrry.

27O

DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDTE ?ERIOD

l.
h-I

12.34. Facadeof Cave rz ("Tin Thal"). Ellora, MaharasEa, India. Ca. late seventh or early eighth century.

memory is preserved only in the rock-cut examples at Ellora and Kanheri. The vast scale and ambitiousness of the later Buddhist caves is seen in Cave r2, the so-called Tin Thal, a three-story excavation, each floor of which is larger than any single cave at Aja4ga. Its plain and austerefacade(Fig. 12.34)beliesthe richness of sculptural decoration within. This cave complex, one of the last Buddhist excavations to be carrled out at Ellora, may have been created in the late seventh or even the early eighth century. It is entered through a rock-cut gateway that leads to a spacious courtyard preceding the cave (Fig. 12.35,level r). Each floor of the cave is different in plan and format. The first floor (Fig. 12.35,levei r) .onsists of a rectangular pillared hall entered on the long side with a large pillared antechamber and shrine extending on axis with the entrance to the rear. Small cells are placed at the sides and rear of the main hall. While the second story

is essentially similar in concept (although not in details such as the number of pillars or cells), the cross-axisleading from the front center ofthe cave to the shrine at tJrerear is emphasized by the treatment of pillars and the addition of an extension of that axis towards the 6cade side of the cave (Fig. 12.35, level z). A veranda has also been included along the front of the cave to provide accessfrom the staircaseat the front left to the cenrer of the cave fo. Droper enrrance. The top floor (Fig. 12.35. levei j) has pillars arranged in a transversemamer, lacks subsidiary cells, and has a relatively snall antechamber preceding the shrine. The main shrine on each foor contains the now familiar set of images: a Buddha attended by two bodhisattvas (Avalokiteivara on his right and Vajrapdni or Mafljuvajra, a form of Marijuirr. a bodhisatrvawho personifieswisdom, who carries a vajrd on a lotus, on his lefd, But in addition, the eight bodhisanvas often grouped

BUDDHIST CAVT ARCHITECTURE 27'

r2.3j. Plansof first, second,and third levels, Cave 12 ("Tin Thal"). Ellora, Maherrslu, India. Ca.late seventh or early eighth centlfy.

gh not r cells), r ofthe I by the an exside of Lda has he cave e front

Fo Mo.

t0 i _tp

btr 6p

3) has ; lacks small ins the tended rn his rm of isdorn, ). But ouped

272

DYN^STlts

of THI l\lIl)DLI

PFRIOD

together in a configuratioll knorvn es t]re eightna4lala) ;lso bo;lhisattv. nd1lala (astabodlisattua slrrincs, for.tr on cach sicleof thc rppear iu tl-rc ."ntr^l Bu.ldlt" (Fig. i2.36). Iacl.Lbodhis:rtrva is clcarJyidcntificd by thc rttributc hcld in his Othcr reprcscntationsof the eiqht lcft l.rencl.2a l ir L o , l l r i \ . , t t v . d\t,r r r i 'c i r l r r c , n i n ^ . b u r r ' , k i l g

on r rrrnclr Lrtorcnt4dalic appcilrancc,arc found in othcr locatiotrsin thc cavc (Fig. 12.37).In thcse, thc cight bodlisettvas surround a ccntral Buclclliaitr l nine-sqnarc cliagratn or ofthree stories lcvclsis onc of Thc prescnce thc rlost signifrcanrlcaturesof this cavc. While in carlicr excav:rtions thc rvcstcrn Deccan tlight

rz-3ri. Four bodhisattvas of the drldDodhisattvo naadala, secold 1cvc1, right shmrc *'lll, Ceve 12 ("Tjn Thal"). Ellora, Mahtr,1tra, lndi3. Ca. latc scvcnth or ear11 eighth ccntury.

\ 2 . 3 , 7 . A s t a l ) o d h i s d t l l , an a t t r l a l a , ground lcvel to lcft of cntrance to antccharnber of central shrtuc' Cavc ru ("Tin Th:11") Ellora' lxte Ca lndia. M:rh.r.s!ra, scvcnth or carly cighth ccnturl.

BUDDIIIST Cr\Vr ARCtiITECfURE

..- l

z7J

i:r
.---l

:: iri
.-r-l.r

hlvc hlcl rntrltipic storics, d1c.se rverc not 11cccs sllj]v h:rnuotrizcd irto l singlc schcmc.Crvc 6 . r r \ 1 . , . r . r . L \ . r r| . . c o r . i , . r I \ ' , . 1 . , ' r ' I, crcevetionsthet erc <lilli'rcntin dltc lncl nrlv | ' r , 1 r , , . r r r l .r r . t r r , r . r ' r i L v .L o r t . . . l t 2 ind its ncighbor, Clvc rr. xrc thc rcsult of sintlc, unifiecl, arr.llrgclncnts, pre-planliccl posrib1,vrciatc.l to Ruddhisr practiccsin wlich ' ' t r a . r .! c . r r i q r r b i , l t r r i r r . . r ': r 'r r r i r r , t r . , r . " jntroductory phxsc, :r nlorc aclvancccL prlcticc, . ' , 1 t r r , l l ' . r r L \ r ' . u r t l , r - rr . f J d . o r highiv dcvclopcdspiriturl mestcrs.Such usco[ levcls in erchitectLrre lbuncl iri Ncpali Iludis d ' i r r . . , r ' .i1 ' . 1 r ' ' l ' . ' b 'L ' rL r l ' cN c p . , lp r ' . r , c r i ' c t'ls blscclon ln Inclicprccedent srlchastlus. Thc fLrllrancc of thc icoriogrlphic floqranr rlut is richly cxrvccloD all thrcc lcvcls of the (:xvccin oniy be saDrplcd l bricf survcv such in .isthis; thc conplc\ity end richrrcss an indicais tion ofthe latep)rase Mahiyenx crvc xrclitccof r r - . . ' r d , l ,' . r ' 1 . ' p r . . ' r l r . . 1 . . . r , . r u , c r r . r ' i r , q r 1 r:.j8. Buddhr, in uppcr 1crc1, Cl.rlc r: ("Tnr Thel"). ir.L Lluddhist dic relision. For crrlriplc, thc uppcr- Ellor:r,I\,l:rh,rr\t Lrdir. air- lrtc sc!,eth , or e.rrl! \torv of Cavc 12 hs largc inragcsof DLrclclh:rs cighth ccnrurr.

:ight slrrirre :llon, Ma: :it of earlt

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PERIOD OF 274 DYNASTIES TI{EMIDDLE the Buddhas along the side walls rePresenting (four cardinaldirectioru' if;. ,"n directions "i points)i""i.i., *lit. -a ,hefour intermediate to literature the .r ,JJ..J t.f.t.".e ir Buddhist come to an of uuiversaliry BLlddhahood-who jrit-g abhiseka ("head sprinkling"' or '-J"i. on bi m'25 inii"i.ttl to ."onf.,1aa'o(kttowledge) figure' a rypical O* .*"*p1. (rig. i2.38)shows In tne rouno' deeplycarvedso that it is almost including r"tt"t"a"a by a tableau of figures Increasingly' after i-,,d uidyadharas' tliiJ,""t was used at ifr" *i""a caves Aja![a, sculpture who was on the devotee gr"","t ,o "ff"ci "r'."r" "

literally surroundedby human-sizeand nrt'ch moved through larger religious inlages a' he ,o"h either To "".r"r. side of the entrance to the shrne of antechamber are representations the mottu5i 'Buddhas (Fig ,r.39). In tontt"tt to the earlier 'a."pi.r;on,' tl,.st figut"t have a stiff' vat "q"tl" of quality characreristic much of d.v, lr,*i*"," tt't"h:'ya"a sculpture at Ellora' thus ihi'1",., the crystallizationof forrn that reDresentinq ch'aracterizlsnrany Post-GuPta arristic idionrs' indi"",iog thai perhaps something lrad been "nd sacrificedin ih" f"tno. to achieve gigantic scale'

Corct-ustolt structure activity With Caverz at Ellora,Buddhistartistic cavesrnust Buddhisn as documented in these virtual halt' in the westernDeccancarneto a perlttpt fosteredrich. i"u. b..n 9y,1t two over "**.^"ly and nttrturedby the sultaole The developments the periodof about activelay patronagc Vakalaka tr""ar"a *a fifty years from the and context created in the monasof Cave lz at Ellora "nvironmint ,"*r*"n"" to the cre"tion over ttne was alone' tedes themselves.The tendency dt"*atic' In theshrincarea *"r""r"pid in to in"lo.{" greater and greater specificity "od from a simplei'rage in the changed ,h" i;;" and bclieG' doctrines image .ont,nunl..,i""g BLrddhisr to ofa center shrinel onewherethe central les to the intcrpretation of ,fl", i"r"i"g le"r, "nd -"1-ou"a a ttt" .earwall of the cell' additional the practitioner. shrine Boldh", *"r" btooght into the shrine'the for s'olJhirt t itt"tfdid not die out at this tine' secby itr"lf -", surrounded a pradak5i4opotha' as the eastern parts of South Asia, such imagerybecame in other female appeared, ondaryshrines ^finally, of Bibar' a nrajor tradjtion was Just of a series caveswas resion pro*i*ot, and, in thc wesr' posibly group of bodhi- l.?i-it'n. Bt,t soutetlring nt* tti irrr"g.a " lftlnt, such tG rise ol: thc staunchly "."i."tly lf these o"ii,t."f "s l"i,u"', *", introiuced into rhe shrine' lasting efect ilinJ" nutrt"t ot"t, had a great and fashion'it *.r" spreadout in a linear tutu prrcticcs witlrin the "h"ng", t."" ih", o" a average' significant on o",.o,irn. "nd J*f,, s" were "'.' Sorrrc of the rttonastcrics .eligion irr.'if. thifiy -o?in"",lott occurredabout once every inhabited rlthot'gh new cx'',nd'oub,.dlystill lor Respon"ibility rhe deci'ionto make years. at least for thc Budpresid- .l""alo"t *"t. not bcgun, wirh che lif-,.ft""d" .ur, h"ut resided "fh" rock-cr'rt iradition itsclf' however' .ltri,tr. and ir may be 'rG*.r,.i i"n *orri of the nronasterics' most irnpressive [anriliar w", h"rdly o,r.., for soureofthe became thatasonegencration werc yct to bc creatcd n-tonunlents oI itt pttttptott' it became ofall rock-cut *if, ,h. in the serviccof tlie Hindu rcligion' "ro,.ri.it-, the esoteric to oorribl" ot evendesirable make in the fabric of the monastic iJi,iot , visible itself. Clearly, the developments in

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Detailof 13,2.

nents in ves must rps by an : suitable ) monasime was

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

Hindu Rock-cut Architectureof the Deccan (Kalacuriand Early WesrernCalukya phases)

6ciry in I beliefs,
adon of dme, for : easaern ras just possibly eunchly lg efect hin the es were Ie\v EX. rc Budpressivc created

Ananda K. Coomaraswamy.the distinguished perGctlyunderstood. However,the fact remains historian ofSouth Asianart, noted that,.ofover that many bold experirnents rock-cut forms in twelve hundred 'cave' temples in India not were carried out by the Hindus before their man] more than a hundred are Brahmapical, eventual abandonment the medrum,rangrng of while nine hundred are Buddhist and the re_ from the early Gupta excavations Udayigii at mainder Jaina."r Although these nurnbers are (Figs.ro.33.) to_the highly ambitioustemfles appronmate, it is evident that cave architecture created under_ the Early Kalacuri and Eirly was,especially. appropriareto the needsof the Westem Calukya dynasties be considerej to tluddhJstsaitgha,and considerablylessso to the here, and under the pallavas and the pendvas Hindus and Jains. The reasonsfor this are im_ (Chap.ra), and rhe Rastrakutas (Chap.rO). T H E E A R L YK e r a c u n r p r a r o o The Early Kalacuri dynasry. which rose in Maharasrra upon the collapse the Vakataka of line, is more understood foi its place in hisiory and for its religious developmeirt than for its art. Becoming prominent around 5zo and remaining a major force in the Deccan until around 6oo, when the expanding dynasry ofthe Xarly Western Calukyas of Kaqrdpka eclipsed their power, the Kalacuris fostered rehq]ous movemcn$, primaril y pa:iupataSalvism, r,v-hch had lasting effectsin the Deican aswell as other regions of South Asia. Ahhough no inscrip_ tronal or other documentaryevidencehas yer beenfound that tiesthe Kalacuristo monumental

275

276

DYNASTIES OT THE MIDDIE PERIOD

_"'{

f= -irul

tttr
I lr I

r3.r. Plan ofsiva cave.Elephanta,Mahlreslra, India. PossiblyKalacrri oeriod. Ca. mid-sixth centurv.

architecture, it is clear that a number of major caveswere excavatedduring the period of their control of the westem Deccan. For example, the Buddhist caves6 and 7 at Aurangabad were probably createdduring this period (Figs. rz.z83r). In addition, severalBrahmanical cavesthat reveal certain essentialsimilarities in concept, plan, and style were probably excavatedduring the Kalacuri period, namely, the caves of Jogeivari, Mag{apeSvara, Elephanta, and the Dhumar Lena (Cave z9) at Xllora, whicb were created in the order listed. of these, the great cave at Elephantais the finest and may be used to demonstrate the general characteristics of Kalacuri-period Hindu caves. A small island oft- the coast of Bombay, Elephanta was named in fairly recent times by the Portuguese because of a large, carved, stone elephant that was once there. Although there are severalcaveson the island, the most notable is the Great Cave (Cave r), the grandeur of

whose size, scale, and sculptural and architecrank it among the most imprestural conception sive of South Asian art monunents. An inscribed stone found on the island that might have shed light on the dedication, date, and patronage of the cave was rernoved by the Portuguese and subsequentlylost. However, the cave may be dated on a stylistic basisfiom around J4o to JJJ.s Its plan (Fig. r3.r) revealsthe magnitude and complication of the excavation, which measures nearly forty meters from north to south and frorn east to west. In addition, there are side chapelsand courtyards, making the full scheme rather elaborate.In actuality, the main entrance to the cave is on the north, although conceptually, it is on the east. This discrepancy may have resulted from difficulties in adjusting the preconceived eastward-oriented plan to the existing peculiarities of the rock itself, a problem of the type that may have led to the eventual abandonment of the rock-cut method by

Hiicus.

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=arlce LaD( r-irch rhis -ootat. _:e east rri

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ol rertrer ..ail acl:n, :rqanric r ,.-aapa L

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un t :'rration iLallel-er- '

HINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTUREOF THE DXCCAN

277

r3.2. North encranceto Siva cave. Elephanta,Mahtrestra, India. PossiblyKalacuri period. Ca. rnid-sixrh cenrury.

d architecosr impresn inscribed : have sl-red rrronageof lguese and

-- *^-, L)+uru ))).:ritude and h measures louth and re are side

ill scheme
lo entrance I concePrurancy may ;usting the m !o the ) lhe evennethod by

Hindus. If one acceptsthe eastas the main entrance (a norrnal orientation for a Saivite temple, which this is), the organization of the scheme is not at all unusual. The open courtyard on the eastwith a side chapelto its south thus comprisesthe conceptualentranceto the monurnent. At the west, another courtyard with subsidiary chambers parallels that on the east. The main temple consistsof a large, plllated na4dapa and a free-standingsquareshrine at the west end of the hall. Though not defined,the space surrounding the shrine is meant to serve as a clrcumambulatory.passageway. The north-south axis of the temple, while perhapsmainly due to geological rather than rcligious considenrions, not is only acknowledged but is emphasizedby three gigantic niches along the south wall of rhe tna4/apa that contain some of the most compelliug images in all of South Asia. The incorporation of a lateral axis into the temple plan, however, wr. probably not an irurovation here;

it was seenin nascentform in Cave 6 (upper) at Ajanta during the precedingcentury (Fig. rz.16, bottom). The unprepossessing exterior of the cave (Fig. r3.z) scarcelyprepares visitor for the spacious the and majesticinterior. The pillars and reliefsin the cave are gigantic in scale,but they are comfortably enough spaced allow an airy, open fceling to (Fig. 13.3). The pillars have bulbous "cushion" c^pnals (anla) of a type seen as early as the Ajapla cavesbut mainly associated with the Early Kalacuri and Early Western Calukya excavations. The cubical shrine (Fig. r3.4), which conrains a lihga and a l,ozi symbolizing the ultimate unity, has an entrance on each of its four sides and two colossal dfirapdlas attending each of the doors. Gracefully posed and full-frgured, the forms of these attendants clearly derive fiom earlier styles of the western Deccan, such as those of the Buddhist cavesof rhe Veketakas. Although the guardians wear elaborate crowns

27E

l)I\r\STIlis

Of uIts r\llDDLl

PfRIOI)

r 3.3.btcri!' vic$ lookbil $cst' Siva crvc. Elcph.r"r.r.lvirharaitra, hrdir. I\rsibli' Krlacurl Pcrrod Ca. nrid-sixth ccnturr'.

r3.4.Shrincin Sivr crvt Elcph.rnt:l, Mrhxr.rctr.r. lnclia PLxslbL,r'' I{rlrrLrLi pcriod. ala. nlid-slxth -

HINDU ROCK-CUT ARCETTECTURE THE DTCCAN 279 OF

looking west, - ,MaharetFa, acuri period.

It
I

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and jewelry, anticipating the sculptural richness of later centuries, the {igures still reflect the simplicity seen throughout the Gupta and early post-Gupta periods. A heavy lower lip and seemingly downcast eyes characterizethe faces ofthese and other figures at Eleplunta. Around the perimeter ofthe cave, set in variousniches,are a number oflarge reliefsdepicting aspectsof Saivite iconography. Undoubtedly, a unified scheme exists, although this has yet to be fully established. One niche shows a representationof Lakul(a, the original teacher of the Paiupata Saiviteswhose cult was favored by the Early Kalacuris, and it is likely that the key to the iconographic program is tied to Pa6upatapractices and beliefs. Many of the reliefs.for example.illustratethe rnonisticview of the Pa(upatas,as given in the Liiga Puraxa, in which seemingly disparateaspects creation of are viewed as uitimatJy unified in Siva. This theme is obvious in the major sculptural group ofthe cave, that along the south wall on an axis with the entrance on the north. The primary image is the famous Maheivara flanked , by similarly sized niches with depictions of Siva Ardhanariivara to the viewerrs left and Siva Gaigadhara to the right (Figs. 13.5-8). Saivite guardians accompanied by dwarves on the pilasters separating thc three reliefs serve as guardians for the central image, the dwarf to the left being reminiscent of one at Aurangabad Cave 7 of approximately the same period (Fig. rz.3o). More than five metersin height and set on an approximately one meter high base, the central multiheaded image (Fig. r3.7) overwhehns the visitor to the Elephanta cave, and its rneaning has generated a great deal of discussionamong scholars. Some have contendedthat although only three facesare shown in this carving, a fourth (at the rear) is inplied, and even a fifth (facing upwards) with the might have been implicit in accordance five facesof Siva describedin a text known as the ViS4udharmottara.Erch of the three faces differs in expressionand/or ornarnentation.That complete on the left showsan angry countenance with bulging eyes and faming rnustache,and those in the center and on the right are both tranquil. However, that on the right is feminine

(in conrrast to the other two) as deduced from the curls of the hair and details of the jewelry and crown. It is likely that tle three facesrepresenr, respectiyely,.Aghora-Bhairava (an a:rgry form of Siva), Siva. and Uma (Parvari), Siva's consorr.3As Siva, Aghora-Bliairava, and umd, the three countenancesmight synbolize the three fundamenral qualirie.(grlras)in operrcion in the universe according to Hindu thought, consisting of two opposing forces and their opposition, These are sottva, the cohesiveforce implying concentrationof energy and a coming togelhera tamas, the opposite of sattta, whicll is the destructive, disintegrating characteristic that prevents concentration and is symbolic of dissolution,nonbeing, or universality; and rajas, which implies activity, especiallymental activity and its rhythmic division of the continuum of spaceand time.a Together, these constitute the forms of power of the universal Brahman, and it is likely that the triple image at Elephanta representsjust such a notion, with J4#ra depicted by the central face, tamas the angry countenby ance, and rajasby thc tranquil face at the dght. Like the dvarupalas of the litrya shrine nearby, the figures suggestthe softly modeled forms of the Gupta and early post-Gupta periods while predicting the highly omate jewelry and detailing charactcristicof the ccnturies to follow. The theme of unity that may be inferred from the main image, since it incorporatesseemingly disparate tendenciesinto a single form, is also suggested the accompanying reliefs. Ardhaby nerisvara (Half-Female Lord), for example, to the viewer's left of it shows the half-male (proper right) and half-female (proper left) forrn of Siva (Fig. 13.6) that epitomizes thc concept of tlre unification o{ puru5a tnd praklti, the dualistic complements present in every form of creation, according to most schools of Hindu thorght. Puruqa,the male half, is inactive but is manifested throttgh prakyti, the Gmale half, and the two are thus inseparable.The Gangadharamurti panel on the opposite side of the central image (Fig. r3.8) also suggests notion the of unity since,by accepting thc Ganges(Gafrga) River in his hair when it descendedfrom the heavensto earth, Siva prevented the dissolution ofthe earth that would have occurred otherwise

260

DYNA5TII-5 OI THT MIDDIL

P]]NTOD

HINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHITTCTURB OT THT DECCAN

2d]

t l . ) . \ ( u . p r u r e d r ' c . . r n . . u r r u r l l . 5 r . r L r v c .F l c p phanta,Mah.rtstra, Indla. Posibly Kahcuri pcriod. Ca. nlid-sixth centurv.

q.6. (belouleJi)Ardhxniriavara, or south wa of Siva cavc. Elcphanta,MaharS:tm, India. Possibly Kalacuri pcrnrd. Ca. mid-sixth century. I j.?. (r, /or"., rr( r) MJhe)\Jl J, un .uurh s rll r "fiiv, c.r e. Elephanta,Mahertstra, India. l,osibly Kalacuri period. Ca. mid-sixth cenrury. 4.8. (helou rgftr) Siva as Cang,dhara, on south wall of Siva cave. Elcphantr, Mahtrastra, India. Possibly p. K , r l . r r u r L r i n d . C , r .r l i d - . x r h , c r r t u r y .

from the force of thc fall, thts effecting a kincl of rarification of heaven and cartl.r.This image also takes on nrale-fenrale(purusa-prabrti)synbolisrn sincethe G:rnges personificdxs a felrule is goddess, Gailga, rvho is considered to be a sccondary wiii of Siva. These reliefs, brin.rming with subsidiary figures in anin.ratcclposes, rypify post-Gupta pcriod developnents in sculpture and foreshadow the exuberant carvings on temple walls drrring subscquent centudes.The sculpturcs arc clearly contained rvithin their architectural scttings and the overali effcct at Elephantais of architcctural unity with relielis in a subsidiary rolc, rather than dominating the architecture as occursin a numbcr oflater schools.The growing complexity ofboth form and iconography typify the sixth-century dcvelopments.

zS2

D\ \A.

I5 ot

r t M r D D II n l u o l ) Cavr. or rHr LArrY WEsrLk\ ( qr L r\As

:IE

Aftcr the fi1l of thc Veketrkes, the Deccan was diviclcd by thcir former fcuclatorics,inclucling the Early llalacuris of Mehlrtstra and thc Kadarnbas Bxrlxvasiin thc I(arnatakasotth. of In turn, the I(acl:rmbes (rvho hacl a tcmplc builc1ing traclition of thcir orvn) rvcr,: snpersedcd by yet anorher polver, thc Caltrlyas of Baclami, rvho, likc thc Kadembas, l'crc Dravidianlanquasc-speaking peoplc. These Calnkyasare known as thc Eerly Western C:rlukyas to distinguish them from othcr brancl.Les the of family.' Con.ring into promincncc l'hcn thcir ruier Pr-rlakeiin sccuredthe land eroLrncl I Bacltrni ( . r ) . i r ' r tV b r J p r ) , r r . lI i i f r . i r r i n a . o . s 4 . 1 . , t l ' c " r t r u t r r \ \ ' \ c \ p . r r rc L l b 1 , r . i . . d i r ' , , r r r . ' r r ( . r r c l rrro t l r . r l . ' r r l ' , n . x r r r r ^ l r .r . l r , , l 1 c . , - . . ftor-n about the micl-sixth centLrry to about L t l ' c r l r r ' l - ( r g l r tc crn t r r r r 'r.l r c f . r l 1 W , . r c r I Caiukyas rulcd much of thc l)ccclru, eftcr which thcy n'crc superseclcdb,v thc Rastra-

karLas. Under thc Early Wcstern Calukyas, rhc Dcccan becanc u inrportant interface region betwccn thc north irtld the south, sharing soine of thc cultural, linguistic,end artistictraclitions of eachbut con-ringto have a distinctivc culture of its orvn. llhc iirrition of'thcsc dcvcloprncnts r i ' . c c ri n r l r , r r r ' ' f l r r < r D c c c . r. l y r n . , r i c , . n L r r l y \ \ , . r , r r r C r rl v . r a r t . 1 , r t \ r o i n r c r . releted but llolrcthclcssclistinctphases:an earlier rock-cutting traclition thet will bc consiclcrccl here and a latcr, apparcntly nrore active, pcriod in rvhich [umcroLls struct[rirl stollc tcaup]cs rl,crc built (Chap. r5). In both phases, Hindu nlonurllcntsprcclominatc. Ceve tcmples of thc Earlv Westeln Calukyas arc founcl et Aihole ancl B-darm, lvhich arc approximatcly twcntvftvc kilomctersapart. Possiblycxcavatccl around 55o, shortly after the E:rrlyWcstcrn Calukyas camc to power, rhe llavena Phacli cavc at Aihole nay bc thc carliest

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r3.9. Frcrdc of lliv:tn.r Ph.rdi cinc. Ajholc, Krrn.t:rkr,Indi.r. Errly Wcsrern Calukva period. Cr. rLlcl sixdr ccnturr -

IIINDU ROCK-CUT ARCI{ITECTIJR,E TIIE DECCAN OI

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llufTas, the 6ce region lrrag some L saditions Eve culture iElopments
D6. two intert: an earlier considered iYe. period ts temPles e- Hindu ple" of the | :t Aihole Ns rwentyforrl.r' after pon-er, the rte earliest

of the series.6Its complicated plan and amply sculpted interior, however, inl&cate that ihe cave did not mark the inception of an artistic tradition but must have been based on earlier art forms, including the already mature schools of Deccan cave architecture. The simple facade (Fig. r3.9) has two piJlarscrearing an entranceway that is fanled by dwarves and by a pair of guardians who are notable because of their Scythian-type clothing. The cave consists of a central hall with two.side-shrine areas and a sanctuary with a, Iiiga at the rear (Fig. r3.ro). Originally, a wall may have screened the sanctuary and created an antechamber before the shrine. The central hall is on a lower level than the side and rear shrines, which are accessibleby smallflights of sreps (Fig. r3.r r). Sculprures fiil the corners of the central hall and much of the wall and ceiling space of the cave. One of the most important of these compositions is that in the shrine at the left of the main hall containing a representationof a multiarmed (iva as

Nataaja (Lord of the Darlce) accompanied by larger than human-size representations of the saptuuaftl?as (Seven Mothei$, three to Siva's ieft and four to his right (Fig. r3.rz). It is likely tlar this sccnespecificallydcpicts rhe dance Siva performed after defeating the demon Andhakasura, for it was at that time that the saotaflaqkas were createdto aid Siva. The striliins treatmenr ofthe garments, especially striateJ rhe incised lines and very high headdresses, well as as the slender bodies, distinguish these figures from the more full-bodied sf,yle of the westem Deccan seenunder the Vakatakasand Kalacuris. While the dim figures and tall hats suggest associations with southem images, or those of the adjacent region of Andhra Pradesh, the sryle in fact has no apparent counterpart in other schools of South Asian art. It is oossible that, from its inception, Early Westem 6alukya art combined features of other traditions yet was marked by a great deal of individuality. The largest,most omare. and mosr impressive

r3.ro. Plan of Revaqra Phadi cave. Aiho-le,Kardtaka, India. Early \Vestem Calukya period. Ca. mid-sixth century.

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il.r2. L)etxil of ,lalrArr ir1 N.l:rrlr_jishrille,Ravara lndia. Errlv Wcstcrn Phadi crvc. Arhole, Kxrntt:rk:r. C:rlukyaperiod. Cia.urid-sixth ccntury. rl.r.l. Exterior of Cevc r. Badanli,Krrlrataka,hrdia. > Errl) Wcstcro Crlrrk,va pcriod. Dcdicrtcd in Sakr cra joo (A.D.578).

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of the E.rrly Wesrcr[ Caltikya c)ic;lvatioDsrs Cavc 3 at Badan.ri (Figs.rj.r3 r8). Fortunatcly, tire datc of this cave is rvcll docunentccl by internal cvidencc.An inscription on a pilasrcr llanking a represenrxtion Varaha(Fig. r3.r8) of statesthat tl-Lis Vaisn:rvitecavc rvas decliclteclby Mar\galeia, a son of Pulakciin. for thc ucrit of his brother, Kirrg Kirtivarman, clurine thc year Saka5oo, cquivalcntto a.l. 578.i This ilscript i o n r , l i r . r o t ] r c L , r , , L l ' c r ' .v irc r u r i o u , , , . r r r i . r r , , r . anci indeecl, Krrtivrrmrn, with thc help of his brother Mangale(a, canle to rulc an cmpire coniprising most of tirc rrca that nolv forns Karn-cxka state,with extensions into Mahdtastre anciAndhra Pradesh.Many other Early Wcstcrn Caltkya monumcnts rcsLlltccl directly lrorn patronage by thc ruling family. Such patronagc distinguishcsthe art of tJris period ancl rcgion from that of many othcrs in ancient hrdia, since,in this casc,the use of a dynastic designal i u n t ' r n o r c r l r . r l . , c h r o n o l o g i c a lo n v c n rn c < c , but suggcststhat the kings and thcir farr.rilics had considerablc cIi-ecton the ert. The placc-

nrcnt of thc royal inscription nexL ro a largc sculptedrcliefshorving Veraharescuingthc crrih goddes (Fig. r3.i8) is probably no rnerccorlcrclcncc. For Veraha, thc clynastic syr.nbol that eppcarcdon the Early Wcstern Calukyl banner, symbolizedthcir roic as protectors thc eardr of anrl may irdicate thet thc kings vicrvcd thcn.rselvesasvirtual incarnetionsof Visnu hiursell Six pillars spacerl lcross the eicadc create sevcnbays(Figs.t3.r3, r3.r4), an clabor.ation of thc modcst entrance of the llavana phacli cavc. The n.Lassivc pillars arc thc oniy dccorationon thc lront of drc c:rvc exccpt lor a friczc bear.ing f c p i c t i o r ro ' p . r i r . o 1 , h r r b b yd r v . L r v er,r . r , c ri e . s i of panelsalong thc lorvcr portior. The stylc of the dlvarves suggcsts tics to the carlier art traclitionsof adjaccntAn.llua, for rclated figures have bccn lound at Nagarjunakonda fro,rr tl.re Iksvaku pcriod. In addition to thc exterior courtyxrd, thc cave consists threc major nnits, the veranda(lvhich of runs the width of thc facadc), a pillared hall (tnandapa), and the snrall slrrinc et tirc rear (Fig.

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