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Ae1353 Nol
Ae1353 Nol
ANALYSIS
UNIT 1
MEASUREMENTS
Measurement is the estimation of the magnitude of
some attribute of an object, such as its length or weight,
relative to a unit of measurement.
Measurement usually involves using a measuring
instrument, such as a ruler or scale, which is calibrated to
compare the object to some standard, such as a meter or a
kilogram. In science, however, where accurate
measurement is crucial, a measurement is understood to
have three parts: first, the measurement itself, second, the
margin of error, and third, the confidence level -- that is,
the probability that the actual property of the physical
object is within the margin of error.
For example, we might measure the length of an object as
2.34 meters plus or minus 0.01 meter, with a 95% level of
confidence.
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy and precision can not be
considered independently
A number can be accurate and not precise
A number can be precise and not accurate
The use of the number determines the
relative need for accuracy and precision
ACCURACY
Accuracy can be defined as how close a
number is to what it should be.
Accuracy is determined by comparing a
number to a known or accepted value.
PRECISION
The number of decimal places assigned to
the measured number
It is sometimes defined as reproducibility
Accuracy vs. Precision for
Example 1
Each of these statements is more accurate
and more precise than the one before it.
Statement two is more accurate and more
precise that statement one.
Statement three is more accurate and more
precise than statement two.
Example 2:
How long is a piece of string?
Johnny measures the string at 2.63 cm.
Using the same ruler, Fred measures the
string at 1.98 cm.
Who is most precise?
Who is most accurate?
ACCURACY/PRECISION
You can tell the precision of a number
simply by looking at it. The number of
decimal places gives the precision.
Accuracy on the other hand, depends on
comparing a number to a known value.
Therefore, you cannot simply look at a
number and tell if it is accurate
SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity is the study of how the
variation in the output of a model
(numerical or otherwise) can be
apportioned, qualitatively or quantitatively,
to different sources of variation.
RANGE
Range is used to indicate the difference
between the largest and smallest measured
values or set of data.
UNIT 2
EXTENSOMETERS
INTRODUCTION
Extensometer is a device that is used to
measure small/big changes in the length of an
object. It is useful for stress-strain measurements.
Its name comes from "extension-meter". It was
invented by Dr. Charles Huston who described it
in an article in the Journal of the Franklin Institute
in 1879. Huston later gave the rights to Fairbanks
& Ewing, a major manufacturer of testing
machines and scales
TYPES OF EXTENSOMETERS
Mechanical
Optical
Acoustical
Electrical
MECHANICAL EXTENSOMETER
OPTICAL EXTENSOMETER
Acoustical Extensometer
Electrical Extensometer
Electrical Extensometer
A thin plastic base supports thin ribbons of metal,
joined in a zig-zag to form one long electrically
conductive strip. The entire device is typically 10
mm long, with 16 or more parallel metal bands.
When the plastic is stretched the wires become
longer, and thinner. The electrical resistance
therefore increases.
Unit - III
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN
GAUGES
Electrical Resistance Strain Gage
Circuits
Electrical Properties of the Resistance Gage
R=L/A
Where L= Length
= Resistively
A= Cross sectional area
Resistance Measuring Circuits
Constant Current Circuit
Ballast Circuit
Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone Bridge is the most basic of
a number of useful electrical bridge circuits
that may be used to measure resistance,
capacitance or inductance. It also finds
applications in a number of circuits
designed to indicate resistance changes in
transducers such as resistance thermometers
and moisture gages
Wheatstone Bridge circuit diagram
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
Considerations
Temperature Effects in the Cage
Fluctuations in ambient and in operating
temperatures produce the most severe effects
generally dealt with in strain measuring circuitry
The problems arise primarily from two
mechanisms:
(1) changes in the gage resistivity with
temperature
(2) temperature induced strain in the gage
element
Temperature Compensation in the
Bridge Circuit
Temperature compensation of the strain gage
alone does not generally eliminate thermal
problems entirely.
Such compensation is rarely exact and the
differences must usually be eliminated by careful
configuration of the Wheatstone Bridge circuit.
The ability to make such compensation is, in
fact, one of the more desirable features of this
circuit
Half Bridge Configuration:
Quarter Bridge Configuration:
Lead wire Temperature/Resistance
Compensation
R
S
= total resistance of lead wires to gage
BRIDGE BALANCING
CALIBRATION
The output from a strain gage bridge is
proportional to changes in resistance of all of the
arms. In most situations, only one or two arms are
active and it is desirable to be able to provide
some means of assurance that the circuit is
working properly.
The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is ideally
suited for this purpose because it is relatively easy
to affect a change in resistance in one or more
arms that is proportional to a known physical
parameter.
Calibration Circuits
Unit IV
Photoelasticity
Outline
Theroy of Photoelasticty
Example 1: Stress Opticon
Example 2: GFP 1000
Stress Opticon
Natural
Light
Linear
Polarizer
Circular
Polarizer
( wave-
length)
Sample
Circular
Polarizer
Linear
Polarizer
Analyzer
Observer
Natural Light
Ether Particles Vibration
Light Vector (Amplitude, Direction,
Phase Angle)
Components
Plane Polarizer
Nicols Prism:
Double Refraction
o
e
t t i i
n n u u sin sin =
e o
n n =
Calcium
Canada
Balsam
Polaroid:
Energy Loss: damper
Circular Polarizer
Circular Polarizer
nl
V
t
|
2
=
e o
n n =
Phase Angle:
2
t
| | =
e o
When
2
t
u | | < =
e o
?
If
Another 1/4
Colors
When stressed
nl
V
t
|
2
=
V