Engg Seismology

ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Engineering Seismology is a branch of geology which deals with the study of earthquakes and the sources producing them. An Earthquake is a sudden movement of earths crust or lithosphere at or below the surface. Seismologists are a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves. Seismology is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth. The field also includes studies of earthquake effects, such as tsunamis as well as diverse seismic sources such as volcanic, tectonic, oceanic, atmospheric, and artificial processes (such as explosions). A related field that uses geology to infer information regarding past earthquakes is paleoseismology. A recording of earth motion as a function of time is called a seismogram. Earthquakes are the earths natural means of releasing the stress. About 90% of the earthquakes result from tectonic events, primarily movements on the faults. The remaining is related to volcanism, collapse of subterranean cavities or man made effects. Tectonic earthquakes are caused when the accumulated strain energy exceeds the shearing strength of rocks. The two general types of vibrations produced by earthquakes are surface waves, which travel along the Earth's surface, and body waves, which travel through the Earth. The first indication of an earthquake is often a sharp thud, signalling the arrival of compressional waves. The vibrations produced by earthquakes are detected, recorded, and measured by instruments call seismographs. The zigzag line made by a seismograph, called a "seismogram," reflects the changing
U V C E, BANGALORE UNIVERSITY
intensity of the vibrations by responding to the motion of the ground surface beneath the instrument. From the data expressed in seismograms, scientists can determine the time, the epicentre, the focal depth, and the type of faulting of an earthquake and can estimate how much energy was released. The severity of an earthquake can be expressed in several ways. The magnitude of an earthquake, usually expressed by the Richter scale, is a measure of the amplitude of the seismic waves. Earthquakes with a Richter value of 6 or more are commonly considered major; great earthquakes have magnitude of 8 or more on the Richter scale. Earthquakes of large magnitude do not necessarily cause the most intense surface effects. The effect in a given region depends to a large degree on local surface and subsurface geologic conditions. An area underlain by unstable ground (sand, clay, or other unconsolidated materials), for example, is likely to experience much more noticeable effects than an area equally distant from an earthquake's epicentre but underlain by firm ground such as granite. In general, earthquakes east of the Rocky Mountains affect a much larger area than earthquakes west of the Rockies. An earthquake's destructiveness depends on many factors. In addition to magnitude and the local geologic conditions, these factors include the focal depth, the distance from the epicentre, and the design of buildings and other structures. The extent of damage also depends on the density of population and construction in the area shaken by the quake. Elastic rebound theory provides the physics involved behind the earthquake genesis.
This report includes elastic rebound theory, plate tectonics, earthquake size, earthquake frequency and energy, seismic waves, local site effects on the ground motion characteristics, interior of the earth and seismicity of India.
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES
EARTH QUAKES are classified into two following types 1) Natural earthquakes. 2) Man-Made earthquakes. Natural earthquakes includes the tectonic earthquakes, the volcanic eruptions (fig 1.0), collapse of the cavity, rock falls, micro seism, Man-made earthquakes include the nuclear explosions,
construction of reservoirs, mining activities, traffic, noise... The type of earthquake depends on the region where it occurs and the geological make-up of that region. The most common are tectonic earthquakes. These occur when rocks in the earth's crust break due to geological forces created by movement of tectonic plates. Another type, volcanic occurs in conjunction with volcanic activity. Collapse earthquakes are small earthquakes in underground caverns and mines, and explosion earthquakes result from the explosion of nuclear and chemical devices. We can measure motion from large tectonic earthquakes using GPS
because rocks on either side of a fault are offset during this type of earthquake.
Fig 1.0: Volcanic eruption.
Formation of Earth and its Interior

Long time ago, a huge collection of material masses called as nebulae coalesced to form Earth. A huge amount of heat was released due to fusion reaction. Slowly as earth cooled down, heavier and denser materials settled at the centre and lighter ones rose to top. The differential earth consists of the (FIG 2.0) inner core (radius 1290 km), the outer core (thickness 2200 km), the mantle (thickness 2900km) and the crust (thickness 5 to 40 km). The inner core is solid and consists of heavy metals like nickel, iron... while the crust consists of light materials like basalts and granites.
Fig 2.0: CROSS SECTION OF EARTH
Convection currents develop in the viscous mantle due to prevailing high temperatures and pressure gradients between the crust and the core, like the convective flow of water when heated in a beaker. The energy for the circulations is derived from the heat produced from the decay of radioactive elements in the rocks throughout the earths interior. These convective currents result in a circulation of the earths mass; the temperature difference causes interlayer movement. The hot molten lava rises and cold rock mass sinks into the earth.
FIG 3.0: CIRCULATIONS INSIDE THE EARTH
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

PLATE TECTONICS deals with the study of the motion and deformation of the Earths crust. This type of study is based on the theory that the lithosphere is divided into seven major and several minor plates that are all moving in relation to each other as well as in relation to fixed Hot Spots which are areas of up welling mantle material. Plates move in different direction and at different speeds relative to each other. Plate tectonic theory tries to account for the movement of the crust throughout geologic time. Motion of crust is that of a rigid body, which accounts for the style of deformation we see. Plate tectonic theory is based on several assumptions about tectonic processes: 1) that new material is generated by sea floor spreading at the mid ocean ridges, which once formed become a part of a plate, 2) that surface area is
conserved, therefore plate material must be destroyed through another process, and 3) motion of plates is accommodated only along plate boundaries.
FIG 4.0: TECTONIC PLATE BOUNDARY
Plates are rigid bodies of rock that essentially float atop a region of partial melt called the asthenosphere. The plates comprise the lithosphere, composed of the crust and the solid portion of the upper mantle. The crust is of two basic types, continental and oceanic, that differ on the basis of composition. (FIG 4.0) Continental crust is mostly of granitic composition. This means that the rocks contain an abundance of quartz and feldspars, which are called Felsic minerals. Oceanic crust, on the other hand, is of basaltic composition. Basalts contain minerals such as olivine and plagioclase feldspar, which are
called mafic minerals. The two different types of crust differ in density and thickness as well as in composition--continental crust is much less dense than oceanic crust. Oceanic crust is 710 km thick, while continental crust is 35-70 km thick.
ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

Sliding tectonic plates due to circulation causing an increase in elastic strain energy which gets released along the weaker region (faults). These sudden slip at the fault causes the earthquake. Elastic strain energy is released in huge amount that spreads waves which travel along the surface and through the body of the earth. After earthquake, strain energy build up at the modified interface between rocks starts once again, this stage is termed elastic rebound theory by Mr. Reid. The cyclic process of energy build up and energy release is an ever-ongoing process. Following the great 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Henry Fielding Reid examined the displacement of the ground surface around the San Andreas Fault. From his observations he concluded that the earthquake must have been the result of the elastic rebound of previously stored elastic strain energy in the rocks on either side of the fault. In an interseismic period the earth's plates (see plate tectonics) move relative to each other except at most plate boundaries where they are locked. Thus if a road is built across the fault as in the figure panel Time 1 it is perpendicular to the fault
FIG 5.1: ROADS GETTING DISPLACED WHICH IS BUILT ON FAULT
trace at the point E where the fault is locked. The far field plate motions (large arrows) cause the rocks in the region of the locked fault to accrue elastic deformation, figure panel Time 2. The deformation builds at the rate of a few centimetres per year, over a time period of many years. When the accumulated strain is great enough to overcome the strength of the rocks an earthquake occurs. During the earthquake the portions of the rock around the fault that were locked and had not moved 'spring' back, relieving the displacement in a few seconds that the plates moved over the entire interseismic period (D1 and D2 in Time 3). The time period between Time 1 and Time 2 could be months to hundreds of years, while the change from Time 2 to Time 3 is seconds. Like an elastic band the more the rocks are strained
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the more elastic energy is stored and the greater potential for the event. The stored energy is released during the rupture partly as heat, partly in damaging the rock and partly as elastic waves. Modern measurements using GPS largely support Reids theory as the basis of seismic movement, though actual events are often more complicated.
FIG 5.2: PICTURE SHOWING THE WOOD BUILT COMPOUND DISPLACED ALONG THE FAULT
EARTHQUAKE OCCURANCE
Rocks are elastic materials and so elastic strain energy stored in them during the deformation due to tectonic plate actions in the earth. When rocks along a weaker region in the crust are exceeded by the strength by build up of stress, sudden movement or slips takes place. Slip releases the large strain energy stored in the form of seismic wave causing an earthquake.
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SEISMIC WAVES
Three basic types of elastic waves make up the shaking that is felt and causes damage in an earthquake (fig 6.0). These waves are similar in many important ways to the observed waves in air, water and elastic solids, but only two of these waves propagate within a body of solid rock and soil. The faster of these body waves is appropriately called the primary or P wave. Its motion is the same as that of a sound wave, in that, as it spreads out, it alternately pushes (compresses) and pulls (dilates) the rock. These P waves, just like acoustic waves, are able to travel through both solid rock, such as granite and alluvium, and liquid material, such as volcanic magma and the water of lakes and oceans. The slower seismic wave through rocks and soil is called the secondary or S wave. As an S wave propagates, it shears the rocks sideways at right angles to the direction of travel. Thus, at the ground surface, S waves can produce both vertical (SV) and horizontal (SH) motions. The S waves cannot propagate in the liquid parts of the earth, such as lakes, so that, as expected from the theory, their amplitudes are significantly reduced in partially liquefied soil. The speed of P and S seismic waves depends on the density and elastic properties of the rocks and soil through which they pass. In earthquakes, P waves are felt first. The effect is similar to a sonic boom that bumps and rattles windows. Some seconds later, S waves arrive with their significant component of side to side motion, so that, for upward wave incidence, the ground shaking is both vertical and horizontal.
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The third basic type of earthquake wave is called s surface wave because its motion is restricted to near the Earths surface. Such waves correspond to ocean waves that do not disturb the water at depth. Similarly, as the depth below the ground surface increases, the soil or rock displacements decrease. Surface waves in earthquakes are of two types. The first is called a Love wave. Its motion is the same as that of SH waves as that have no vertical displacement; it moves the ground side to side in a horizontal plane parallel to the earths surface, but at right angles to the direction of propagation. The second type of surface wave is called a Rayleigh wave. Like ocean waves, the particles of rock displaced by a Rayleigh wave move both vertically and horizontally in a vertical plane oriented in the direction in which the waves are travelling. Each point in the rock moves in an ellipse as the waves pass. Surface waves travel more slowly than body waves and love waves travel faster than Rayleigh waves in the same geological formation. It follows that as the seismic waves radiate outward from the earthquake point source into the rocks of the earths crust, the different types of waves separate out from one another in a predictable pattern. However, because large earthquake sources are spacially extended faults, overlapping waves often obscure this separation of wave types. As body seismic waves move through layers of rock in the crust they are reflected or refracted at the interfaces between rock types. To complicate matters further, whenever either one is reflected and refracted; some of the energy of one type is converted to waves of the other type. When the elastic moduli
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differ from one layer to another, the layers act as wave filters that amplify the waves at some frequencies and de amplify them at others. Marked resonance effects occur at certain frequencies. On P and S waves reaching the surface of the ground, most of their energy is reflected back into the crust, so that the surface is affected almost simultaneously by upward and downward moving waves. For this reason considerable amplification of shaking typically occurs near the surface-sometimes doubling the
Fig 6.0: Seismic waves
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Amplitude of the upcoming waves. This surface amplification enhances the shaking damage produced at the surface of the earth. In deed, in many earthquakes mineworkers below ground report less shaking than do people on the surface. It should be noted that seismic S waves travel through the rocks and soils of the earth with a rotational component. Such torsional components of ground motion are thought to have important effects on the response of certain types of structures. Some building codes now take rotational ground motion into consideration.
FAULTS
Surfaces of the earth along which rocks have fractured and been displaced are called as faults. A fault, in the geologic sense, is a roughly planar fracture in the earths crust along which slip--the relative offset of the two sides--has occurred. Faults can be active, meaning that they currently hold the potential for producing earthquakes, or inactive, meaning that although they once slipped and produced earthquakes, they are now frozen solid. If the tectonic environment of an area changes, however, inactive faults can sometimes be activated. In terms of size, faults can be anywhere from less than a meter to over a thousands of kilometre in length, with a width of a similar scale. The depth of very large faults is constrained by the thickness of that portion of the earths crust and lithosphere in which brittle fracture can occur. Large faults can also produce minor earthquakes, if they rupture only in part, and not along
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their entire length. This is one of the basic connections between faults and the earthquakes they generate. With few exceptions, the size of the fault rupture area is directly proportional to the size of the earthquake produced by the slip along that area. In other words, the greater the fault area that slips, the greater the earthquake produced. Though, the actual rupture area of an earthquake is not always equal to the total surface area of the fault that ruptures--often, only a small fraction of the total area actually slips. Three types of faults are strike slip fault, normal fault and reverse fault. The dip of a fault is the angle that the fault surface makes with a horizontal plane and the strike is the direction of the fault line exposed or projected at the ground surface relative to the north. A strike-slip fault, sometimes called a transcurrent fault, involves displacements of rock laterally, parallel to the strike. If when we stand on one side of the fault and see that the motion on the other side is from left to right, the fault is right-lateral strike slip. Similarly, we can identify leftlateral strike slip. A dip-slip fault is one in which the motion is largely parallel to the dip of the fault and thus has vertical components of displacements. A normal fault is one in which the rock above the inclined fault surface moves downward relative to the underlying crust. Faults with an almost vertical slip are also included in this category.
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Fig 7.1: Three types of fault
A reverse fault is one in which the crust above the inclined fault surface moves upward relative to the block below the fault. Thrust faults belong to this category but are generally restricted to cases when the dip angle is small. In blind thrust faults, the slip surface does not penetrate to the ground surface. In most cases, fault slip is a mixture of strike slip and dip slip and is called oblique faulting. For over a decade it has been known that displacement in fault zones occurs not only by sudden rupture producing an earthquake but also by slow differential slippage of the sides of the fault. The fault is said to be undergoing tectonic creep. Slippage rates range from a few millimetres to several centimetres so that over
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time
they
may
have
critical
engineering
consequences.
Sometimes a seismic slip is observed at the ground surface along or in the vicinity of a ruptured faults that as produced an earlier substantial earthquake. Three main types of faulting characterizes the plate boundary, normal faulting is associated with crustal extension and so can be found at divergent boundaries, reverse faulting is associated with crustal shortening and so can be found at convergent boundaries and strike slip faulting is associated with lateral motion of the crust and so can be found at transform boundaries.
Fig 7.2: Three types of plate boundary
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AN INERTIA FORCES IN STRUCTURES

Earthquakes shake the ground. A building resting on it will initially experience motion at its base. From Newtons first law of motion, even though the base of the building moves with the ground, the roof has a tendency to stay in its original position. But since the walls and columns are connected to it, they drag the roof along with them. This is much like the situation that you are faced with when the bus you are standing in suddenly starts; your feet move with the bus, but your upper body tends to stay back making you fall backwards!! This tendency to continue to remain in the previous position is known as INERTIA. In the building, since the walls or columns are flexible, the motion of the roof is different from that of the ground. Consider a building whose roof is supported on columns. Coming back to the analogy of yourself on the bus: when the bus suddenly starts, you are thrown backwards as if someone has applied a force on the upper body. Similarly, when the ground moves, even the building is thrown backwards, and the roof experiences a force, called inertia force. If the roof has a mass M and experiences an acceleration a, then from Newtons second law of motion, the inertia force F1 us M times acceleration a, and its direction is opposite to that of the acceleration. Clearly, more mass means higher inertia force. Therefore, lighter buildings sustain the earthquake shaking better.
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DETECTION AND RECORDING

Earthquakes vary in size. Those that do the most damage are extremely large, but some are so small they are almost undetectable. Geologists use seismographs to record the surface and body waves. Inside a seismograph designed to measure horizontal motion (FIG 8.1), a weight is freely suspended. As waves from earthquakes reach the seismograph the mass stays in relatively the same place, while the ground and support move around it. This movement is recorded on magnetic tape by a pen attached to the mass. In a seismograph designed to measure vertical motion (FIG 8.2), the mass is connected to a spring, so as the ground and support move up and down, the pen on the mass measures the vertical motion. The metal tape which the motion is recorded on is marked with lines that correspond to one minute intervals. When motion is recorded a seismogram is created, which tells about the waves; how big they were and how long they lasted. P waves are recorded first, followed by S waves. While surface waves are the last to reach the seismograph, they last the longest time. Using the information from the seismogram, the epicentre and focus of the earthquake can be determined. The focus is the point on the fault at which the first movement or break occurred. The epicentre is the point on the surface directly above the focus. Once several seismograph stations have determined their distance from the epicentre, the actual epicentre can be located, using triangulation, on a map.
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FIG 8.1: HORIZONTAL SEISMOGRAPH
FIG 8.2: VERTICAL SEISMOGRAPH
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MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES
Seismic intensity is assessed from field observations of damage to works of humans, of changes to the ground surface and of human reaction to the shaking. Because such earthquake intensity assessments do not depend on instruments, but on the actual reporting of the effects in the meizoseismal zone, intensities can be assigned even to historical earthquakes, and in this way, still form a vital part of modern estimates of seismological risk. In the United States, the traditional intensity scale is the Modified Mercalli Scale (MMI) of 1931. Essentially similar scales are used in other countries. MMI (TABLE 1.0) has 12 levels, I through XII, and its description is widely available. An inherent weakness in the MMI and most other scales is the difficulty in inferring wave frequency information of the type critical for engineering resistant design. The instrumental measure of earthquake size began with a definition by C. Richter, whereby the magnitude of a local earthquake was the logarithm to base ten of the maximum seismic wave amplitude in microns recorded on a Wood-Anderson seismograph located at a distance of 100 km from the earthquake epicentre, and has been significantly extended. Thus, one unit increase in magnitude implies a ten-fold increase in the amplitude of the earthquakes waves. Because the fundamental period of the Wood-Anderson seismograph is about 0.8 sec, it selectively amplifies those seismic waves with periods ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 sec. It follows that since the natural period of many building structures is within the range, the local or Richter
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magnitudes of more than 5.5 before significant damage occurs even the source of the waves. The definition of the magnitude entails that it has no theoretical upper or lower limits. However, the size of an earthquake is limited at the at the upper end by the strength of the rocks of the earths crust. Since 1935, only a few earthquakes have been recorded on seismographs that have had a magnitude over 8.0. At the other extreme, highly sensitive seismographs can record earthquakes with a magnitude of less than -2. Today a variety of magnitude scales based on different formulas for epicentre distance and ways of choosing and measuring appropriate wave amplitude have emerged: Surface wave magnitude(Ms) is based on measuring the amplitude of surface waves with a period of 20 sec. surface waves with a period around 20 sec are often dominant on the seismograph records. Body wave magnitude (Mb) measures the amplitudes of the P waves, which is not affected by the focal depth of the source, where as deep focus earthquakes have no trains of surface waves. Moment magnitude (Mw) scale was devised because of the shortcomings of Ml, Mb, and to a lesser degree Ms in distinguishing between the sizes of great earthquakes. This scale assigns a magnitude to the earthquake in accordance with its seismic moment (Mo), which is a direct mechanical measure of the size of the earthquake source.
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TABLE 1.0: The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale Intensity I II Description Instrumental Feeble Characteristic effects Not felt by people, only detected by seismographs. Felt only by a few people at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. Delicately suspended objects may swing. Felt noticeably indoors; like the vibrations due to a passing truck. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Felt indoors by many people, outdoors by few. Dishes, windows, doors rattle. May awaken some sleepers. Standing cars rocked noticeably. Felt by nearly everyone, many awakened. Some dishes and windows broken; occasional cracked plaster; unstable objects overturned. Some disturbance of trees, poles and other tall objects. Felt by all; many frightened and run outdoors. Some heavy furniture moved; some falling plaster or damaged chimneys. Damage slight. General alarm; people run outside. Walls crack; chimneys fall. Considerable damage in poorly designed structures. Noticed by persons in moving vehicles. Considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned. Changes in well water. Car drivers seriously disturbed. Considerable damage with partial collapse of substantial buildings. Buildings moved off foundations; ground cracks conspicuous. Underground pipes broken. Ground cracks badly; landslides on river banks and steep slopes; rails bent; many buildings destroyed.
III
Slight
IV
Moderate
Rather strong
VI
Strong
VII
Very strong
VIII
Destructive
IX
Ruinous
Disastrous
XI
Very disastrous Broad fissures in ground; major landslides and earth slumps; floods. Few buildings remain standing; bridges destroyed; nearly all services (railways, underground pipes, cables) out of action.
XII
Catastrophic
Total destruction. Ground rises and falls in waves; lines of sight and level distorted. Objects thrown into the air.
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TABLE 1.1: Richter Magnitude Scale
Magnitude
Number of earthquakes per year globally
Typical intensity at epicentre
>8.0
0.1 - 0.2
XII
7.4 - 8.0
XI
7.0 - 7.3
15
6.2 - 6.9
100
VIII - IX
5.5 - 6.1
500
VII
4.9 - 5.4
1,400
VI
4.3 - 4.8
4,800
IV - V
3.5 - 4.2
30,000
II - III
2.0 - 3.4
800,000
I - II
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CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES:
BASED ON LOCATION Interplate: - occurs along the boundaries of Tectonic plates. Intraplate: - occurs within the plate and are due to movement of Pre-existing faults. BASED ON EPI-CENTRAL DISTANCES Local < 1 degree, Regional-1 to 10 degree, Teleseismic >10 degree BASED ON FOCAL DEPTH Shallow depth-0 to 71 km, Intermediate depth-71 to 300 km, Deep depth > 300 km BASED ON MAGNITUDE Micro < 3, Intermediate-3 to 4, Moderate-5 to 5.9, Strong-6 to 6.9, Major-7 to 7.0.
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PROMINENT PAST EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA
FIG 9.0: PROMINENT PAST EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA
A number of significant earthquakes occurred in and around India over the past century. Some of these occurred in populated and urbanized areas, and hence caused great damage. Many went unnoticed, as they deep under the earths surface or in relatively un-inhabited places. Most earthquakes occur along the Himalayan plate boundary, but a number of earthquakes have also occurred in the peninsular region. Four great earthquakes (M<8) occurred in a span of 53 years from 1897 to 1950; the January 2001 Bhuj earthquake (M7.7) is almost as large. Each of these caused disasters, but also allowed us to learn about earthquake and to advance earthquake engineering.
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For instance, 1819 Cutch earthquake produced an unprecedented 3m high uplift of the ground over 100km. The 1897 Assam earthquake caused severe damage up to 500 km radial distances; the type of damage sustained led to improvements in the intensity scale from I-X to I-XII. Extensive liquefaction of the ground took place over a length of 300km during 1934 BiharNepal earthquake in which many buildings and structures went float, when the ground liquefied.
SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA

The varying geology at different locations in the country implies that the likelihood of damaging earthquakes taking place at different locations is different. Thus, a seismic zone map is required so that buildings and other structures located in different regions can be designed to withstand different level of ground shaking. The seismic zone map of 1984 subdivided India into five zones-I, ii, iii, IV and v. The maximum Modified Mercalli intensity of seismic shaking expected in these zones were v or less, vi, vii, viii and ix and higher, respectively. Parts of Himalayan boundary in the north and northeast, and the Kachchh area in the west were classified as zone v. The seismic zone maps are revised from time to time as more understanding is gained on the geology, the seism tectonics and the seismic activity in the country. For instance, the koyna earthquake of 1967 occurred in an area classified in zone I as per map of 1966. The 1970 version of code upgraded the area around Koyna to zone IV. The Killari earthquake of 1993
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occurred in zone I. the current Indian seismic zone map places this area in zone iii. The zone map now has only four seismic zones-ii, iii, iv and v. the areas falling in seismic zone I in the 1984 map was merged with those of seismic zone ii. Also, the seismic zone map in the peninsular region; Madras now comes under seismic zone iii as against zone ii in 1984 map. The national seismic zone map presents a large scale view of the seismic zones in the country. Local variations in soil type and geology cannot be represented at that scale. Therefore, for important projects, such as a major dam or a nuclear power plant, the seismic hazard is evaluated specially for that site. Also, for the purposes of urban planning, metropolitan areas are micronized. Seismic microzonation accounts for local variations in geology, local soil profile,
FIG 10.0: SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF INDIA
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TERMINOLOGIES:
HYPOCENTRE: ALSO CALLED AS FOCUS POINT LOCATED AT SOME DEPTH UNDERGROUND AT WHICH THE SLIP OF AN EARTH QUAKE BEGINS. EPICENTERPOINT ON EARTHS SURFACE DIRECTLY ABOVE THE FOCUS. FOCAL DEPTHDEPTH OF FOCUS FROM THE EPICENTRE. EPTCENTRAL DISTANCE DISTANCE FROM THE EPICENTRE TO ANY POINT OF INTEREST. BEFORE BIG EARTHQUAKE SOME SMALLER EARTHQUAKES WOULD HAVE TAKESN PLACE AND ARE CALLED AS FORESHOCKS AND ONES AFTER ARE CALLED AFTERSHOCKS.
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Conclusion
SEISMOLOGY IS THE STUDY OF GENERATION, PROPAGATION AND RECORDING OF ELASTIC WAVES IN THE EARTH AND OF SOURCES THAT PRODUCE THEM. EARTHQUAKE IS A SUDDEN TREMOR OR MOVEMENT OF EARTHS CRUST WHICH ORIGINATES NATURALLY AT OR BELOW THE SURFACE.
ABOUT 90% OF THE EARTHQUAKE RESENT FROM TECTONIC EVENTS, PRIMARILY MOVEMENTS OF THE FAULTS. EPICENTRE OF THE EARTHQUAKES IS NOT RANDOMLY DISTRIBUTED OVER THE EARTHS SURFACE. BANGALORE FALLS UNDER ZONE II OF SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF INDIA
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References
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN OF STRUCTURE BY PANKAJ AGARWAL AND MANISH SHRIKANDE, IIT, ROORKEE, EDITION MAY 2007, CHAPTER 1.PG:-3-69. FROM THE WEBSITE HTTP://WWW.SEE.LEEDS.AC.UK/STRUCTURE/FAULTS/INTR ODUCTION.HTML.
FROM UPSEIS, AN EDUCATIONAL SITE FOR BUDDING SEISMOLOGISTS HTTP://WWW.GEO.MTN.EDU/UPSEIS/WAVES.HTML.

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ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

Fig 1.0: Volcanic eruption.

Formation of Earth and its Interior

Fig 2.0: CROSS SECTION OF EARTH

FIG 3.0: CIRCULATIONS INSIDE THE EARTH

PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

FIG 4.0: TECTONIC PLATE BOUNDARY

ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

FIG 5.1: ROADS GETTING DISPLACED WHICH IS BUILT ON FAULT

Fig 6.0: Seismic waves

Fig 7.1: Three types of fault

Fig 7.2: Three types of plate boundary

AN INERTIA FORCES IN STRUCTURES

DETECTION AND RECORDING

FIG 8.1: HORIZONTAL SEISMOGRAPH

FIG 8.2: VERTICAL SEISMOGRAPH

TABLE 1.1: Richter Magnitude Scale

Number of earthquakes per year globally

Typical intensity at epicentre

PROMINENT PAST EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA

FIG 9.0: PROMINENT PAST EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA

SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA

FROM UPSEIS, AN EDUCATIONAL SITE FOR BUDDING SEISMOLOGISTS HTTP://WWW.GEO.MTN.EDU/UPSEIS/WAVES.HTML.

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