Logic and Computer Design Fundamentals

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates

Charles Kime & Thomas Kaminski 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
(Edited by Dr. Muhamed Mudawar for COE 202 & EE 200 at KFUPM)

Binary Logic and Gates

Binary variables take on one of two values. Logical operators operate on binary values and binary variables. Basic logical operators are the logic functions AND, OR and NOT. Logic gates implement logic functions. Boolean Algebra: a useful mathematical system for specifying and transforming logic functions. We study Boolean algebra as a foundation for designing and analyzing digital systems!
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Binary Variables
Recall that the two binary values have different names:
True/False On/Off Yes/No 1/0

We use 1 and 0 to denote the two values. Variable identifier examples:

A, B, y, z, or X1 for now RESET, START_IT, or ADD1 later
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Logical Operations
The three basic logical operations are:
AND OR NOT

AND is denoted by a dot (). OR is denoted by a plus (+). NOT is denoted by an overbar ( ), a single quote mark (') after, or (~) before the variable.
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Notation Examples
Examples:
Y = A B is read Y is equal to A AND B. z = x + y is read z is equal to x OR y. X = A is read X is equal to NOT A.

Note: The statement:

1 + 1 = 2 (read one plus one equals two)

is not the same as

1 + 1 = 1 (read 1 or 1 equals 1).

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Operator Definitions
Operations are defined on the values "0" and "1" for each operator: AND OR NOT

00=0 01=0 10=0 11=1

0+0=0 0+1=1 1+0=1 1+1=1

0= 1 1= 0

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Truth Tables
Tabular listing of the values of a function for all possible combinations of values on its arguments Example: Truth tables for the basic logic operations: AND Y Z = XY 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 OR Z = X+Y 0 1 1 1 NOT X 0 1

X 0 0 1 1

X 0 0 1 1

Y 0 1 0 1

Z= X
1 0

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Truth Tables Contd

Used to evaluate any logic function Consider F(X, Y, Z) = X Y + Y Z
X
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

Y
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

Z
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

XY
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

Y
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

YZ
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

F=XY+YZ
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
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Logic Function Implementation

Using Switches
Inputs:
logic 1 is switch closed logic 0 is switch open Switches in parallel => OR

Outputs:
logic 1 is light on logic 0 is light off.

Switches in series => AND

NOT input:

Normally-closed switch => NOT logic 1 is switch open C logic 0 is switch closed
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Logic Function Implementation contd

Example: Logic Using Switches
B C A D

Light is on (L = 1) for A L(A, B, C, D) = (B C + D) = A B C + A D

and off (L = 0), otherwise.

Useful model for relay and CMOS gate circuits, the foundation of current digital logic circuits
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Logic Gates
In the earliest computers, switches were opened and closed by magnetic fields produced by energizing coils in relays. The switches in turn opened and closed the current paths. Later, vacuum tubes that open and close current paths electronically replaced relays. Today, transistors are used as electronic switches that open and close current paths.
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Logic Gate Symbols and Behavior

Logic gates have special symbols:
X Y AND gate Z= X Y X Y OR gate Z= X+ Y X NOT gate or inverter Z= X

And waveform behavior in time as follows:

X Y (AND) (OR) (NOT) X Y X+ Y X 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

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Logic Diagrams and Expressions

Truth Table
XYZ 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 F = X + Y Z 0 1 0 X 0 1 Y 1 1 Z 1

Logic Equation

F = X +Y Z
Logic Diagram
F

Boolean equations, truth tables and logic diagrams describe the same function! Truth tables are unique, but expressions and logic diagrams are not. This gives flexibility in implementing functions.
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Gate Delay
In actual physical gates, if an input changes that causes the output to change, the output change does not occur instantaneously. The delay between an input change and the output change is the gate delay denoted by tG:
1 Input 0 1 Output 0 0

tG
0.5 1

tG
1.5

tG = 0.3 ns Time (ns)

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Boolean Algebra

1. 3. 5. 7. 9. Invented by George Boole in 1854 An algebraic structure defined by a set B = {0, 1}, together with two binary operators (+ and ) and a unary operator ( )
X+0= X X+1 =1 X+X =X X+X =1 X=X

2. 4. 6. 8.

X .1 =X X .0 =0 X .X = X X .X = 0

Identity element Idempotence Complement Involution

10. X + Y = Y + X 12. (X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z) 14. X(Y + Z) = XY + XZ 16. X + Y = X . Y

11. XY = YX Commutative Associative 13. (XY) Z = X(YZ) 15. X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z) Distributive DeMorgan s 17. X . Y = X + Y
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Some Properties of Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra is defined in general by a set B that can have more than two values A two-valued Boolean algebra is also know as Switching Algebra. The Boolean set B is restricted to 0 and 1. Switching circuits can be represented by this algebra. The dual of an algebraic expression is obtained by interchanging + and and interchanging 0s and 1s. The identities appear in dual pairs. When there is only one identity on a line the identity is self-dual, i. e., the dual expression = the original expression.
Sometimes, the dot symbol (AND operator) is not

written when the meaning is clear

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Dual of a Boolean Expression

Example: F = (A + C) B + 0 dual F = (A C + B) 1 = A C + B Example: G = X Y + (W + Z) dual G = (X+Y) (W Z) = (X+Y) (W+Z) Example: H = A B + A C + B C dual H = (A+B) (A+C) (B+C) Unless it happens to be self-dual, the dual of an expression does not equal the expression itself Are any of these functions self-dual? H is self-dual (A+B)(A+C)(B+C)=(A+BC)(B+C)=AB+AC+BC
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Boolean Operator Precedence

The order of evaluation is: 1. Parentheses 2. NOT 3. AND 4. OR Consequence: Parentheses appear around OR expressions Example: F = A(B + C)(C + D)
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Boolean Algebraic Proof Example 1

A+AB=A Proof Steps A+AB =A1+AB = A ( 1 + B) =A1 =A (Absorption Theorem) Justification
Identity element: A 1 = A Distributive 1+B=1 Identity element

Our primary reason for doing proofs is to learn:

Careful and efficient use of the identities and theorems of Boolean algebra, and How to choose the appropriate identity or theorem to apply to make forward progress, irrespective of the application.
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Boolean Algebraic Proof Example 2

AB + AC + BC = AB + AC (Consensus Theorem) Proof Steps Justification = AB + AC + BC = AB + AC + 1 BC Identity element = AB + AC + (A + A) BC Complement = AB + AC + ABC + ABC Distributive = AB + ABC + AC + ACB Commutative = AB 1 + ABC + AC 1 + ACB Identity element = AB (1+C) + AC (1 + B) Distributive = AB . 1 + AC . 1 1+X = 1 = AB + AC Identity element
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Useful Theorems
Minimization XY+XY=Y Absorption X+XY=X Simplification X+XY=X+Y DeMorgans X+Y=XY Minimization (dual) (X+Y)(X+Y) = Y Absorption (dual) X (X + Y) = X Simplification (dual) X (X + Y) = X Y DeMorgans (dual) XY=X+Y
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Truth Table to Verify DeMorgans

X+Y=XY
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

XY=X+Y
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

X Y XY X+Y X Y X+Y X Y XY X+Y

Generalized DeMorgans Theorem: X1 + X2 + + Xn = X1 X2 Xn X1 X2 Xn = X1 + X2 + + Xn

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Complementing Functions
Use DeMorgan's Theorem:
1. Interchange AND and OR operators 2. Complement each constant and literal

Example: Complement F = xy z + x y z

F = (x + y + z)(x + y + z)
Example: Complement G = (a + bc)d + e

G = (a (b + c) + d) e
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Expression Simplification
An application of Boolean algebra Simplify to contain the smallest number of literals (variables that may or may not be complemented)

A B + ACD+ A BD+ AC D+ A BCD

= AB + ABCD + A C D + A C D + A B D = AB + AB(CD) + A C (D + D) + A B D = AB + A C + A B D = B(A + AD) +AC = B (A + D) + A C (has only 5 literals)
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Next Canonical Forms

Minterms and Maxterms Sum-of-Minterm (SOM) Canonical Form Product-of-Maxterm (POM) Canonical Form Representation of Complements of Functions Conversions between Representations

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Minterms
Minterms are AND terms with every variable present in either true or complemented form. Given that each binary variable may appear normal (e.g., x) or complemented (e.g., x), there are 2n minterms for n variables. Example: Two variables (X and Y) produce 2 x 2 = 4 combinations:

Thus there are four minterms of two variables.

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XY (both normal) X Y (X normal, Y complemented) XY (X complemented, Y normal) X Y (both complemented)

Maxterms
Maxterms are OR terms with every variable in true or complemented form. Given that each binary variable may appear normal (e.g., x) or complemented (e.g., x), there are 2n maxterms for n variables. Example: Two variables (X and Y) produce 2 x 2 = 4 combinations:

X +Y X +Y X +Y X +Y

(both normal) (x normal, y complemented) (x complemented, y normal) (both complemented)

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Minterms & Maxterms for 2 variables

Two variable minterms and maxterms. x 0 0 1 1 y 0 1 0 1 Index 0 1 2 3 Minterm m0 = x y m1 = x y m2 = x y m3 = x y Maxterm M0 = x + y M1 = x + y M2 = x + y M3 = x + y

The minterm mi should evaluate to 1 for each combination of x and y. The maxterm is the complement of the minterm
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Minterms & Maxterms for 3 variables

x 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 y 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 z 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Minterm m0 = x y z m1 = x y z m2 = x y z m3 = x y z m4 = x y z m5 = x y z m6 = x y z m7 = x y z Maxterm M0 = x + y + z M1 = x + y + z M2 = x + y + z M3 = x + y + z M4 = x + y + z M5 = x + y + z M6 = x + y + z M7 = x + y + z

Maxterm Mi is the complement of minterm mi Mi = mi and mi = Mi

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Purpose of the Index

Minterms and Maxterms are designated with an index The index number corresponds to a binary pattern The index for the minterm or maxterm, expressed as a binary number, is used to determine whether the variable is shown in the true or complemented form For Minterms:
1 means the variable is Not Complemented and 0 means the variable is Complemented.

For Maxterms:
0 means the variable is Not Complemented and 1 means the variable is Complemented.
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Standard Order
All variables should be present in a minterm or maxterm and should be listed in the same order (usually alphabetically) Example: For variables a, b, c:
Maxterms (a + b + c), (a + b + c) are in standard order However, (b + a + c) is NOT in standard order (a + c) does NOT contain all variables Minterms (a b c) and (a b c) are in standard order However, (b a c) is not in standard order (a c) does not contain all variables
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Sum-Of-Minterm (SOM)
Sum-Of-Minterm (SOM) canonical form: Sum of minterms of entries that evaluate to 1 x y z F Minterm
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 m1 = x y z

Focus on the 1 entries

m6 = x y z m7 = x y z

F = m1 + m6 + m7 = (1, 6, 7) = x y z + x y z + x y z
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Sum-Of-Minterm Examples
F(a, b, c, d) = (2, 3, 6, 10, 11) F(a, b, c, d) = m2 + m3 + m6 + m10 + m11 abcd+abcd+abcd+abcd+abcd G(a, b, c, d) = (0, 1, 12, 15) G(a, b, c, d) = m0 + m1 + m12 + m15 abcd+abcd+abcd+abcd
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Product-Of-Maxterm (POM)
Product-Of-Maxterm (POM) canonical form: Product of maxterms of entries that evaluate to 0 x y z F Maxterm
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 M2 = (x + y + z) M4 = (x + y + z) M6 = (x + y + z)

Focus on the 0 entries

F = M2M4M6 = (2, 4, 6) = (x+y+z) (x+y+z) (x+y+z)

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Product-Of-Maxterm Examples
F(a, b, c, d) = (1, 3, 6, 11) F(a, b, c, d) = M1 M3 M6 M11 (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d) G(a, b, c, d) = (0, 4, 12, 15) G(a, b, c, d) = M0 M4 M12 M15 (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d)
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Observations
We can implement any function by "ORing" the minterms corresponding to the 1 entries in the function table. A minterm evaluates to 1 for its corresponding entry. We can implement any function by "ANDing" the maxterms corresponding to 0 entries in the function table. A maxterm evaluates to 0 for its corresponding entry. The same Boolean function can be expressed in two canonical ways: Sum-of-Minterms (SOM) and Product-ofMaxterms (POM). If a Boolean function has fewer 1 entries then the SOM canonical form will contain fewer literals than POM. However, if it has fewer 0 entries then the POM form will have fewer literals than SOM.
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Converting to Sum-of-Minterms Form

A function that is not in the Sum-of-Minterms form can be converted to that form by means of a truth table Consider F = y + x z x y z F Minterm F = (0, 1, 2, 4, 5) =
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 m0 = x y z m1 = x y z m2 = x y z m4 = x y z m5 = x y z

m0 + m1 + m2 + m4 + m5 = xyz+xyz+xyz+ xyz+xyz

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Converting to Product-of-Maxterms Form

A function that is not in the Product-of-Minterms form can be converted to that form by means of a truth table Consider again: F = y + x z x y z F Minterm F = (3, 6, 7) =
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0

M3 M6 M7 =
M3 = (x+y+z)

(x+y+z) (x+y+z) (x+y+z)

M6 = (x+y+z) M7 = (x+y+z)
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Conversions Between Canonical Forms

x
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

y
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

z
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

F
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1

Minterm
m1 = x y z m2 = x y z m3 = x y z

Maxterm
M0 = (x + y + z)

M4 = (x + y + z) m5 = x y z M6 = (x + y + z) m7 = x y z

F = m1+m2+m3+m5+m7 = (1, 2, 3, 5, 7) = xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz F = M0 M4 M6 = (0, 4, 6) = (x+y+z)(x+y+z)(x+y+z)

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Algebraic Conversion to Sum-of-Minterms

Expand all terms first to explicitly list all minterms AND any term missing a variable v with (v + v) Example 1: f = x + x y (2 variables) f = x (y + y) + x y f=xy+xy+xy f = m3 + m2 + m0 = (0, 2, 3) Example 2: g = a + b c (3 variables) g = a (b + b)(c + c) + (a + a) b c g=abc+abc+abc+abc+abc+abc g=abc+abc+abc+abc+abc g = m1 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7 = (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
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Algebraic Conversion to Product-of-Maxterms

Expand all terms first to explicitly list all maxterms OR any term missing a variable v with v v Example 1: f = x + x y (2 variables) Apply 2nd distributive law: f = (x + x) (x + y) = 1 (x + y) = (x + y) = M1 Example 2: g = a c + b c + a b (3 variables) g = (a c + b c + a) (a c + b c + b) (distributive) g = (c + b c + a) (a c + c + b) (x + x y = x + y) g = (c + b + a) (a + c + b) (x + x y = x + y) g = (a + b + c) (a + b + c) = M5 . M2 = (2, 5)
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Function Complements
The complement of a function expressed as a sum of minterms is constructed by selecting the minterms missing in the sum-of-minterms canonical form Alternatively, the complement of a function expressed by a Sum of Minterms form is simply the Product of Maxterms with the same indices Example: Given F(x, y, z) = (1, 3, 5, 7)

F(x, y, z) = (0, 2, 4, 6) F(x, y, z) = (1, 3, 5, 7)

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Summary of Minterms and Maxterms

There are 2n minterms and maxterms for Boolean functions with n variables. Minterms and maxterms are indexed from 0 to 2n 1 Any Boolean function can be expressed as a logical sum of minterms and as a logical product of maxterms The complement of a function contains those minterms not included in the original function The complement of a sum-of-minterms is a product-ofmaxterms with the same indices
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Standard Forms
Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP) form: equations are written as an OR of AND terms Standard Product-of-Sums (POS) form: equations are written as an AND of OR terms Examples: SOP: A B C+ A B C + B POS: (A + B) (A+ B + C ) C These mixed forms are neither SOP nor POS (A B + C) (A + C) A B C +A C (A +B)
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Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)

A sum of minterms form for n variables can be written down directly from a truth table.
Implementation of this form is a two-level network of gates such that: The first level consists of n-input AND gates The second level is a single OR gate

This form often can be simplified so that the corresponding circuit is simpler.
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Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)

A Simplification Example:

F( A, B, C) =

Writing the minterm expression: F = A B C + A B C + A B C + ABC + ABC Simplifying: F = A B C + A (B C + B C + B C + B C) F = A B C + A (B (C + C) + B (C + C)) F = A B C + A (B + B) F=ABC+A F=BC+A Simplified F contains 3 literals compared to 15
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(1,4,5,6,7)

AND/OR Two-Level Implementation

The two implementations for F are shown below

A B C

It is quite apparent which is simpler!

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SOP and POS Observations

The previous examples show that:
Canonical Forms (Sum-of-minterms, Product-of-Maxterms), or other standard forms (SOP, POS) differ in complexity Boolean algebra can be used to manipulate equations into simpler forms Simpler equations lead to simpler implementations

Questions:
How can we attain a simplest expression? Is there only one minimum cost circuit? The next part will deal with these issues
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