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Soap Manufacturing Technology

Luis Spitz (Ed.), AOCS Press, Urbana, IL/USA. 2009, 476 pages, 65 tables, 315 figures. Hardbound + CD-ROM. ISBN 978-1-893997-61-5

It is a great pleasure to review this book for the SOFW Journal because the S in the journals title stands for Soap (O, F, W for Oils, Fats and Waxes) and sometime has passed since such a comprehensive and up-to-date volume on the oldest surface-active agent of mankind has been available. Today the bar soap industry is thriving in much of the world, especially in the developing countries. There, toilet and laundry bar soaps are produced in large quantities, and many manufacturers exist beside the large multinational firms. In the rest of the world boutique soap manufacturers are producing elite bar soap for a select group of healthy-conscious green consumers. The book is based on three previous sources, two of them books that are out of print, and the third unpublished lectures from two SODEOPEC conferences (2006 and 2008). This mnemonic means Soap, Detergents, Oleochemicals and Personal Care Products. The new book is organized into 16 chapters and written by 15 competent authors. The most substantial Chapter 1 (81 pp.) is dedicated to The History of Soaps and Detergents. It covers a span of 4,500 years from the famous Sumerian clay tablet on the washing of wool through the first European centers for soap manufacture in Marseilles, Savona and Castilla, and the oldest living brands such as Yardley and Pears up to the modern brands of the big soapers of today. Beside a list of the former laundry bar soaps and soap powders the development of leading soap brands, U.S. powder and liquid detergents is well docu-

mented up to 2008 or even 2009, as well as the advertising story over the years. Chapters 2 and 3 (32 and 20 pp.) focus on important basics of soap, namely the Implications of Soap Structure for Formulation and User Properties and Soap Structure and Phase Behavior. Especially the coherent understanding of the structure and phase behavior of soap that emerged over the last century has moved soap production from an art to a science. Nevertheless, many questions are still open. Examples are the behavior of solid soap at very low water levels before mush formation begins, and, industrially more important, the influence of a particular set of process conditions on soap bar properties. The application-oriented Chapters 4 to 6 comprise the Formulation of Traditional Soap Cleansing Systems (17 pp.), the Chemistry, Formulation, and Performance of Syndet and Combo Bars (37 pp.) and Transparent and Translucent Soaps (11 pp.). The formulation of soap bars has become more complex over the years due to an ever-increasing number of soap bases that incorporate an increasing number of additives. The green and natural market segments have led to soap products from new materials. Traditional soaps were designed for cleaning skin and clothes, but as time passed soap came to be used as a delivery system for perfumes and superfatting agents. Thus, the cleansing aspect now seems almost secondary to the effects of the various additives. As with any drug or cosmetic products, matrix effects must be considered when devel-

oping soap formulas. Among these are additive-base and additive-additive interactions, pH effects, fragrance effects, and processing effects. The use of soap preservatives, colorants, fragrances and numerous other additives is discussed in some detail. The disadvantages of classical soaps, mainly their alkaline properties that affect the skins natural protection mantle and their failure in hard water conditions, have been important drivers for the development of dermatologically recommended syndet bars based on synthetic surfactants (soap-less soaps). When surfactants are used in combination with soap the products are called combo or combi bars. Differences in the surfactant choice between Europe and the U.S. are cited, as well as the specific processing of syndet bars in contrast to that of combo and conventional soap bars. Beside various formulations, important ingredients and the need for mildness are presented. Milder, environmentally friendly formulations with enhanced skin-care properties that are targeted to offer an aesthetic, consumer-appealing appearence are set to become a major trend in the future. Also of interest is the market development with its focus on Europe and the U.S., which shows a clear trend to more liquid soaps. However, a global overview on soap markets, e. g. in the emerging countries, is missing. For transparent and translucent soaps, which make up a good proportion of soap bars sold in the marketplace a coherent understanding of the relationships and interdependencies between optical clarity, bar composition, processing route and processing parameters is provided. Furthermore, the difference between the manufacturing processes for transparent and translucent soaps is made clear. Translucent soaps are manufactured by energetic working, which easily lends itself to mass production on a modified standard soap manufacturing line. In contrast, transparent soaps are manufactured by preparing and casting a melt, followed by cooling and solidification and sometimes by additional aging, a process that cannot be used in a standard soap finishing line. Chapters 7 to 12 give comprehensive insight into soap-related technologies: from

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Kettle Saponification: Computer Modeling, Latest Trends, and Innovations (19 pp.) and Continuous Saponification and Neutralization Systems (26 pp.) through Semi-Boiled Soap Production Systems (17 pp.), Soap Drying Systems (36 pp.), Bar Soap Finishing (45 pp.), and Manufacture of Multicolored and Multicomponent Soaps (28 pp.). The review on kettle saponification (Chapter 7) is characterized by the presentation of computer modeling to achieve a high degree of accuracy in process control for a full-boiled kettle soap making process. This development is successfully used to manufacture high-quality soap of many different compositions. The author invites interested parties to pave the way for a new wave of kettle soap innovations. The next five chapters captivate especially by a plethora of technological drawings and schemes that contribute to a clear understanding of the state-of-theart of continuous saponification, neutralization, soap drying, bar soap finishing, and manufacture of multicolored and multicomponent soaps. Continuous soap making (Chapter 8) dates back to the 1940s with the development of hydrolysis of fats and oils to fatty acids and glycerine under high pressure and temperature. After removal of the glycerine, the fatty acids are continuously neutralized. Today the globally most widely used process of soap manufacture is this con-

tinuous or full-boiled saponification. The chapter provides fundamental principles of operation, an overview of equipment and systems technology, and a review of commercially available systems. Semi-boiled saponification (Chapter 9) is a glycerine removal-free process which produces neat soap with all the glycerine that is contained in the starting fats and oils. While the traditional market for semi-boiled products has been for laundry soaps, recently, semi-boiled soap manufacturing has also gained importance for toilet soaps. This process offers savings in energy consumption and reduced capital investment as advantages over other systems. Drying is a very important processing step in soap manufacturing. The most widely used process for toilet and laundry soap applications is the very flexible and simple-to-operate vacuum spray drying (Chapter 10). Liquid neat soap with water content ranging from 28-34% can be dried to several different grades in terms of moisture content (MC): toilet soap pellets (noodles) normally 12-15% MC, special soap pellets (translucent or multipurpose) 18-22% MC, and laundry soap pellets/bars 22-30% MC. Bar soap finishing (Chapter 11) includes mixing the main dry soap base, mostly in pellet form, with minor amounts of liquid and solid ingredients, refining the fully formulated mixture into a uniform, homo-

geneous product, extruding the finished product into a compact slug of predetermined shape and size (billet), cutting the extruded slugs into individual lengths as required by the soap press model used, stamping the cut slug (billet) into a specified weight and shaped bar (tablet), and packaging the finished stamped bars. Multicolored and multicomponent soaps are classified into marbleized, striped, speckled, and two-tone types. These soaps offer potential marketing (aesthetic) advantages over single-color soaps with or without additives. In the case of multicomponent soaps ingredients can claim to enhance product performance. Chapter 12 describes and illustrates the manufacturing system for each type. Chapter 13 (21 pp.) summarizes Soap Making Raw Materials: Their Sources, Specifications, Markets, and Handling for the three main ingredients, triglyceride fatty matter, caustic soda, and glycerine. Global production data, sources, grades and users, characteristics, specifications and analytical methods, market data and price trends, transport, storage and handling procedures (including oil bleaching) are given. Glycerine is also discussed in the context of biodiesel production. Minor soap-product ingredients, process materials or packaging components have not been covered.

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The Analysis of Soap and Related Materials and Soap Bar Performance Evaluation Methods are the content of Chapters 14 (18 pp.) and 15 (19 pp.). The first one is a guide to the two most important reference sources Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists Society (AOCS, 2009) and Annual Book of ASTM Standards of the American Society for Testing and Materials, Vol. 15.04 (ASTM, 2008). For instrumental methods like gas chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography, the relevant journals are recommended. A lot of the chemical and physical characteristics of soap raw materials, the analysis of soap and minor ingredients including antibacterial additives, chromatographic methods, and evaluation of soap color and translucency are clearly reviewed. Formal governmental standards for product performance and for methods of testing soap bars exist only in a few countries, namely India, Bangladesh and Kenya. In these countries, a mandatory certification scheme intends to protect consumers against substandard, low-quality products on the market. In the rest of the world, consumer acceptance is the only criterion for judging the performance of marketed bars and their commercial success. Nevertheless, some of the more common procedures, such as lather evaluation, rate of wear and mush, wet crack-

ing, wet bar feel, mildness to skin, fragrance anticipation, user panel evaluations, bar hardness determination, and rheological characterization are surveyed. Chapter 16 (19 pp.) delivers useful Soap Calculations, Glossary, and Fats, Oils, and Fatty Acid Specifications. It is considered a special added value service to the practitioners in the soap industry as are the definitions and calculations included in Chapter 8 and the appendix to Chapter 9. The great strength of this book is the inspired combination of theory, technology and commercial status of soap making. More than 140 flow sheets and apparatus drawings clearly depict the various technical solutions. Another almost 80 figures illustrate the history of soap making, the where we come from and where we are going in an impressive manner. An appropriate 18-page index and a lot of references are also included. The only missing issues are an up-todate presentation of environmental and toxicological aspects of soap and its wide spectrum of commercial products with different additional ingredients, as well as life cycle analyses and sustainability aspects. Only in Chapter 5 you can find a section on mildness evaluation methods which are related to toxicology. For further editions, some specialties such as floating soap or shaving-soap should be considered.

The book is warmly recommended to everyone active in the soap, detergent and cosmetics industries, in R&D, application, production, engineering and marketing, as well as analysis, quality control, and raw material (oil and fat) concerns. Furthermore, it delivers special value for students who are interested in consumer products. And much more, the book encourages future development and innovation. Hermann G. Hauthal, Leuna, Germany