SSN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KALAVAKKAM- 603 110 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING EE 2257 - CONTROL SYSTEMS LAB

MANUAL Dec 2009-April 2010 Name: _______________________________________ Reg. No.: ________________________ _____________ Year: II Sem: 4 Sec: A/B Dept: EEE

2 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING EE 2257- CONTROL SYSTEMS LABORATORY NAME OF THE STUDENT : ____________________________ REGISTER NUMBER : ____________________________ CLASS ACADEMIC YEAR : II- EEE- A / B : Dec 2009- Apr 2010 TOTAL MARKS : -------- / 10 SIGNATURE OF THE STAFF:

3 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS 1. Determination of transfer function parameters of Armature controlled DC (servo) motor. Determination of transfer function parameters of Field controlled DC (ser vo) motor. Determination of transfer function parameters of an AC servomotor. An alog simulation of type-0 and type-1 systems Digital simulation of first order s ystems Digital simulation of second order systems. Stability analysis of linear systems. DC and AC position control systems. Stepper motor control system Determ ination of transfer function parameters of DC generators. Study of synchros Desi gn and implementation of compensators. Design of P, PI and PID controllers. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. . P = 45, TOTAL = 45

4 INDEX Expt. NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 DATE Title MARKS (10) SIGN. OF THE STAFF Total Marks Signature of the faculty:

5 EXPT. NO.: DATE: TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC SERVOMOTOR AIM: To determine the transfer function of an armature controlled dc servomotor. APPARATUS REQUIRED: THEORY: Transfer function is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of the ou tput variable to the Laplace transform of input variable at zero initial conditi ons. Armature controlled DC shunt motor In this system, Ra = Resistance of armature in La= Inductance of armature windings in H Ia = Arm ature current in A If = Field current in A e = Applied armature voltage in V eb = back emf in V Tm = Torque developed by the motor in Nm

6 J = Equivalent moment of inertia of motor and load referred to motor shaft in kgm2 B= Equivalent viscous friction coefficient of inertia of motor and load ref erred to motor shaft in Nm/(rad/s) In Servo applications, DC motors are generall y used in the linear range of the magnetization curve. Therefore, the air gap fl ux is proportional to the field current. If = Kf If ,where Kf is a constant. ---------------------------- (1) The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportio nal to the product of the armature current and air gap flux. Tm Ia Tm =Ki Ia = K i Kf If Ia , where Ki is a constant --------------(2) In the armature controlled DC motor, the field current is kept constant. So the above equation can be writ ten as Tm = Kt Ia , Where Kt is known as motor torque constant.------ (3) The mo tor back emf being proportional to speed is given by eb d/dt, eb = Kb d/dt, where Kb is the back emf constant.----------------(4) The differential equation of the armature circuit is e = IaRa + La dIa/dt + eb ---------------------------------------- (5) The torque equation is Tm = Jd2/dt2 + B d/dt ----------------------------------------- (6) Equating equations (3) and (6) Jd 2/dt2 + B d/dt = Kt Ia --------------------------------------(7) Taking Laplace transforms for the equat ions (4) to (7), we get Eb(s) = Kb s (s) ------------------------------------------- (8) (s La + Ra ) Ia(s) = E(s) Eb(s). ------------------------------- (9) ( J s2+ B s ) (s) = Tm (s) = Kt Ia(s) ---------------------------- (10) From equations (8) to (10) , the transfer function of the system is obtained as

7 Block diagram Using the above equations, the block diagram for the armature cont rolled DC motor is given below: E(s) + (s) (s) Eb(s) 1/[R +sL ] Kt 1/s[Js+B] s Kb 1. Circuit diagram to determine Kt and Kb

8 2. Circuit diagram to determine Ra: 3. Circuit diagram to determine La: PROCEDURE: i)Load test to determine Kt 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Initially keep all the switches in the off position. Keep all the voltage adjustment knobs in the minimum position. Give connections. Switch on the power and the SPST switche s S1 and S2. Adjust the field voltage to the rated value. Apply the armature vol tage until the motor runs at the rated speed. Apply load and note the armature v oltage, current and spring balance readings. Calculate torque and plot the graph between torque and armature current. Determine Kt from graph.

9 ii)No-Load test to determine Kb. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Initially keep all th e switches in the off position. Keep all the voltage adjustment knobs in the min imum position. Give connections. Switch on the power and the SPST switches S1 an d S2. Set the field voltage to the rated value. Adjust the armature voltage and note the armature voltage, current and speed. Calculate the back emf eb and plot the graph between back emf and Determine Kb from graph. iii) To determine Ra: 1 . 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Initially keep all the switches in the off position. Keep all t he voltage adjustment knobs in the minimum position. Give connections. Switch on the power and the SPST switches S1. Note the armature current for various armat ure voltages. Calculate Ra. iv) To determine La: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Initially keep all the switches in the off position. Keep all the voltage adjustment knobs in the minimum position. Give connections. Switch on the power . Apply ac volta ge to armature winding Note down the current for various input ac voltage . Calc ulate Ra. Tabulation to determine Kt S.No. Armature Armature Voltage Current Va (V) Ia (A) Spring Balance Readings (kg) S1 S2 Torque T = 9.81(S1-S2)r (Nm) Where r is the radius of the brake drum. r = _____________m

10 Tabulation to determine Kb S.No. Armature Voltage Va (V) Armature Current Ia (A) Speed N (rpm) Eb= Va-Ia Ra (V) = 2N/60 (rad/sec) Tabulation to determine Ra S.No. Armature Armature Voltage Current Ia (A) Va (V) Ra () Calculation by least square method Ra = [V1I1 +V2I2 +V3I3+V4I4 ] / (I12+I22+I32+ I42) Tabulation to determine Za S.No. Armature Armature Current Voltage Va (V) I a (A) Za () Average Za = ________

11 MODEL GRAPH To find Kt Torque (Nm) Eb( V) To find Kb Ia(A) (r d/sec) MODEL CALCULATION Ra = ..Ohms Za = .. Ohms La = (Za2 Ra2 ) / 2 = . H f = 50 Hz J = kg/m2, B = 0.001Nm/rad/sec From Graph, Kt = Torque constant = T / Ia = Nm / A Kb = Back emf constant = Eb / = . V/(rad/s) RESULT: INFERENCE:

12 EXPT. NO.: DATE: TRANSFER FUNCTION OF FIELD CONTROLLED DC SERVOMOTOR AIM: To determine the transfer function of a field controlled dc servomotor. APP ARATUS REQUIRED: THEORY: The transfer function is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of th e output variable to the Laplace transform of input variable at zero initial con ditions. Armature controlled DC shunt motor In this system, Rf = Resistance of the field winding in Lf= Inductance of the field windings in H Ia = Armature current in A If = Field current in A e = Applied armature voltag e in V eb = back emf in V ef = Field voltage in V

13 Tm = Torque developed by the motor in Nm J = Equivalent moment of inertia of motor and load referred to motor shaft in kgm2 B= Equivalent viscous friction co efficient of inertia of motor and load referred to motor shaft in Nm/(rad/s) In Servo applications, the DC motors are generally used in the linear range of the magnetization curve. Therefore the air gap flux is proportional to the field cur rent. If = Kf If ,where Kf is a constant. -------------------------------- (1) T he torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to the product of the armatu re current and air gap flux. Tm Ia Tm =K Ia = K Kf If Ia = Km Kf If , where Ki is a constant ----(2) Appling Kirchhoffs voltage law to the field circuit, we have Lf dIf/dt + RIf = ef ------------------------------------------------- (3) Now the shaft torque Tm is used for driving the load against the inertia and frictional torque. Hence, Tm = Jd2/dt2 + B d/dt ------------------------------------------(4) Taking Laplace transforms of equations (2) to (4), we get Tm(s) = KmKf If (s ) ----------------------------------------------- (5) Ef(s) = (s Lf + Rf) If(s) -------------------------------------------- (6) Tm(s) = (J s2+ B s) (s) ------------------------------------------- (7) Solving equations (5) to (7), we get the transfer function of the system as

14 1. Circuit diagram to determine KmKf 2. Circuit diagram to determine Rf 3. Circuit diagram to determine Lf

15 PROCEDURE: i)Load test to determine KmKf 1. Initially keep all the switches i n the OFF position. 2. Keep all the voltage adjustment knobs in the minimum posi tion. 3. Give connections. 4. Switch ON the power and the SPST switches S1 and S 2. 5. Apply 50% of the rated field voltage. 6. Apply the 50% of the rated armatu re voltage. 7. Apply load and note the field current and spring balance readings . 8. Vary the field voltage and repeat the previous step. 9. Calculate torque an d plot the graph between torque and field current. 10. Determine KmKf from graph . ii) To determine Rf 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Initially keep all the switches in the O FF position. Keep all the voltage adjustment knobs in the minimum position. Give connections. Switch ON the power and the SPST switch S2. Note the field current s for various field voltages. Calculate Rf. iii) To determine Lf 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Initially keep all the switches in the OFF position. Keep all the voltage adjustment knobs in the minimum position. Give connections. Switch ON the power . Apply AC voltage to field windings Note the currents for various input AC volt ages. Calculate Lf.

16 Tabulation to determine KmKf S.No Field Current If (A) Spring Balance Reading s (kg) S1 S2 Torque T = 9.81(S1-S2)r (Nm) Where r is the radius of the brake drum. Tabulation to determine Rf S.No. Field Voltage Ef (V) Field Current If (A) r = _____________m Rf () Calculation by least square method Rf = [V1I1 +V2I2 +V3I3+V4I4 ] / (I12+I22+I32+ I42) Tabulation to determine Zf S.No. Field Voltage Ef (V) Field Current If (A) Zf () Average Zf = ________

17 MODEL GRAPH To find KmKf Torque (Nm)

If (A) MODEL CALCULATIONS 1. Rf = ..Ohms 2. Zf = .. Ohms 3. Lf = (Zf2 Rf2 ) / 2 = . f = 50 Hz 5. J = 0.074 kg/m2, B = 0.001Nm/rad/s 6. From Graph, KmKf = T / I = Nm / A RESULT: INFERENCE:

18 EXPT. NO: DATE : DETERMINATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION PARAMETERS OF AC SERVO MOTOR AIM: To derive the transfer function of the given AC servomotor and experimental ly determine the transfer function parameters. APPRATUS REQUIRED: FORMULA: 1. Motor transfer function (s) Km = Eo (s) s (1+s.m) Motor gain constant Km = Motor t ime constant m= K1 K2 + B J K2 + B 2. 3. Where K1 = slope of torque - control phase voltage characteristics K2= slope of torque -speed characteristics J = Moment of inertia of load and the rotor B= vis cous frictional coefficient of load and the rotor THEORY When the objective of a system is to control the position of an object, then the system is called a servomechanism. The motors that are used in automatic contro l systems are called servomotors. Servomotors are used to convert an electrical signal (control voltage) into an angular displacement of the shaft. In general, servomotors have the following features. 1. Linear relationship between speed an d electrical control signal 2. Steady state stability 3. Wide range of speed con trol

19 4. Linearity of mechanical characteristics throughout the entire speed range 5. Low mechanical and electrical inertia 6. Fast response Derivation of Transfer Function: Let Tm = Torque developed by the servomotor = angular displacement of the rotor = d / dt = angular speed TL = torque required by the load J = Moment o f inertia of the load and the rotor B = Viscous frictional coefficient of the lo ad and the rotor K1 = slope of the control phase voltage and torque characterist ics. K2 = slope of the speed and torque characteristics.

The transfer function of the AC servomotor can be obtained by torque equation. T he motor developed torque is given by Tm = K1 e c K2 d(1) dt The rotating par d the load can be modeled by TL = J d2 + B.d . (2) dt2 dt At equilibrium, the ual to load torque. Hence, K1 e c K2 d /dt = J d 2 + B d ....(3) dt dt Taking Laplac ransform K1 Ec (s) K2 s (s) = J s2 (s) + B s (s)(4) (s) T.F = Ec (s) K1 Where motor gain constant Km = B + K2 J and motor time constant m = B + K2 = K1 = s (K2+s J+B) Km s (1 +s m)

20 PROCEDURE: I. DETERMINATION OF TORQUE SPEED CHARACTERISTICS 1. Give the connections. 2. Connect voltmeter or a digital Multimeter across the control winding. 3. Apply rated voltage to the reference phase winding and cont rol phase winding. 4. Note the no load speed. 5. Apply load in steps. For each l oad, note the speed. 6. Repeat steps 4,5 for various control voltage levels and tabulate the readings. II. DETERMINATION OF TORQUE CONTROL VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS 1. 2. 3. 4. Make connections. Connect voltmeter or a digital Multimeter across the control p hase winding Apply rated Voltage to Reference phase winding. Apply a certain vol tage to the control phase winding and make the motor run at low speed. Note the voltage and the no load speed. 5. Apply load to motor. Motor speed will decrease . Increase the control voltage until the motor runs at same speed as on no-load. Note the control voltage and load. 6. Repeat steps 5 for various loads 7. Repea t 4-6 for various speeds and tabulate. Torque Speed Characteristics Radius of br ake drum =________ Vc = N rpm Vc = N rpm Vc = N rpm Load g Torque N-m Load g Torque N-m Load g Torque N-m Model Graph Torque N-m Speed (rpm)

21 Torque Control Voltage Characteristics N1 = Vc V N2 = Vc V N3 = Vc V Load g Torque N-m Load g Torque N-m Load g Torque N-m Model Graph Torque N-m Control voltage (Volts) From Graph , K1 = K2 = Given , B= J= From Calculations, Km = m =

22 RESULT: INFERENCE:

23 EXPT. NO: DATE : ANALOG SIMULATION OF TYPE-0 AND TYPE-1 SYSTEM AIM: To simulate the time response characteristics of I order and II order, type 0 and type-1 systems. APPARATUS REQUIRED: THEORY: Order of the system: The order of the system is given by the order of th e differential equation governing the system. The input-output relationship of a system can be expressed by transfer function. Transfer function of a system is obtained by taking Laplace transform of the differential equation governing the system and rearranging them as ratio of output and input polynomials in s. The ord er is given by the maximum power of s in denominator polynomial Q(s) T(s) = P(s) / Q(s) P(s) --- Numerator polynomial Q(s) --- Denominator polynomial Q(s) =ao sn + a1sn-1 + a2 sn-2 + .+ an-1 s + a n If n=0, then system is Zero-Order system. If n=1, then system is First-Order sys tem. If n=0, then system is Second-Order system. Type of the system Type of the system is given by the number of poles of the loop transfer function at the orig in. G(s)H(s) = K P(s) / Q(s) (s+z1) (s+z2) (s+z3) .. = sN (s+p1) (s+p2) (s+p3) .. If N=0, the system is a Type Zero system. If N=1, the system is a Type One syste m. If N=0, the system is a Type Two system.

24 First Order Type 0 system The generalized transfer function for first order Type 0 s ystem is T(s) = C(s) / R(s) = 1/(1+s) -------------------------------------------------------(1) C(s) ---- Output of the system R(s) ----- Reference input to th e system. If input is a Step input R(s) = 1/s ---------------------------------------------------- (2) From eqn (1) 1 C(s) = R(s) (1+s) substituting for R(s), 1 C(s) = s (1+s) 1 ------------------------------------(4) --------------------------------------(3) To find C(t) , Take Inverse Laplace Transform of eqn (4), C(t) = 1 e-t/ PROCEDURE: ------------------(5) 1. Give the connections as per the block diagram in the process control simulato r using the front panel diagram . 2. Set the Input (set point) value using the s et value knob. 3. Observe the Output (process value or PV) using CRO and plot it in the graph. 4. Tabulate the reading and calculate the % error. 5. Repeat the procedure in closed loop condition.

25 TABULATION FOR FIRST ORDER SYSTEM: (a)Type Zero system Loop type Set Point SP (V) Process variable PV (V) Settling Time (s) Error SP-PV (V) % Error SP-PV x 1 00% SP Open Loop Closed Loop (b)Type One System Loop type Set Point SP (V) Process vari able PV (V) Settling Time (s) Error SP-PV (V) % Error SP-PV x 100% SP Open loop Closed loop TABULATION FOR SECOND ORDER SYSTEM (a)Type Zero system Loop type Set Point SP (V ) Process variable PV (V) Settling Time (s) Error SP-PV (V) % Error SP-PV x 100% SP Open loop Closed loop (b)Type One system Loop type Set Point SP (V) Process vari able PV (V) Settling Time (s) Error SP-PV (V) % Error SP-PV x 100% SP Open loop Closed loop

26 RESULT: INFERENCE:

27 EXPT. NO: DATE : DIGITAL SIMULATION OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS (i) Digital Simulation of first order Linear and Non Linear SISO Systems AIM: To digitally simulate the time response characteristics of Linear and Non L inear SISO systems using state variable formulation. APPARATU REQUIRED: A PC wit h MATLAB package. THEORY: SISO linear systems can be easily defined with transfe r function analysis. The transfer function approach can be linked easily with th e state variable approach. The state model of a linear-time invariant system is given by the following equations: X(t) = A X(t) + B U(t) State equation Y(t) = C X(t) + D U(t) Output equation Where A = n x n system matrix, B = n x m input ma trix, C= p x n output matrix and D = p x m transmission matrix, PROGRAM/ SIMULIN K MODEL:

28 PROGRAM:

29 RESULT: INFERENCE:

30 (ii) Digital Simulation of Multi-Input Multi-Output Linear Systems AIM: To digitally simulate the time response characteristics of MIMO Linear syst em using state-variable formulation. APPARATUS REQUIRED: THEORY: State Variable approach is a more general mathematical representation of a system, which, along with the output, yields information about the state of the system variables at some predetermined points along the flow of signals. It is a direct timedomain a pproach, which provides a basis for modern control theory and system optimizatio n. PC MATLAB Package. u1(t) u2(t) . . Controlled system State variables (n) y1(t) y2(t) . . U Controlled system Y um(t) . ....... x1(t) x2(t) xn(t) . yp(t) X X(t) = A X(t) + B U(t) State equation Y(t) = C X(t) + D U(t) Output equation The state vector X determines a point (called state point) in an n - dimensional sp ace, called state space. The state and output equations constitute the state mod el of the system.

31 PROGRAM:

32 RESULT: INFERENCE:

33 Expt. No.: Date: DIGITAL SIMULATION OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS AIM: To digitally simulate the time response characteristics of second order lin ear and non-linear system with saturation and dead zone. APPARATU REQUIRED: A PC with MATLAB package. PROGRAM / SIMULINK MODEL:

34 SIMULINK MODEL: RESULT: INFERENCE:

35 Expt. No.: Date: STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS AIM: To analyze the stability of linear system using Bode plot/ Root Locus / Nyq uist Plot. APPARATUS REQUIRED: A PC with MATLAB package. THEORY: A Linear Time-Invariant Sy stems is stable if the following two conditions of system stability are satisfie d When the system is excited by a bounded input, the output is also bounded. In the absence of the input, the output tends towards zero, irrespective of the ini tial conditions. PROCEDURE: 1. Write a Program to obtain the Bode plot / Root lo cus / Nyquist plot for the given system. 2. Determine the stability of given sys tem using the plots obtained. PROGRAM:

36 RESULT: INFERENCE:

37 EXPT. NO: DATE : CLOSED LOOP DC POSITION CONTROL SYSTEM AIM: To study the operation of closed loop position control system (DC Servomoto r) with a PI controller. APPARATUS REQUIRED: THEORY: A pair of potentiometers is used to convert the input and output positio ns into proportional electrical signals. The desired position is set on the inpu t potentiometer and the actual position is fed to feedback potentiometer. The di fference between the two angular positions generates an error signal, which is a mplified and fed to armature circuit of the DC motor. If an error exists , the m otor develops a torque to rotate the output in such a way as to reduce the error to zero. The rotation of the motor stops when the error signal is zero, i.e., w hen the desired position is reached. 1/T1 KP Chopper Motor Gear + Position Sensor Fig. 1 Block Diagram

38 Fig.(2.).Front Panel PROCEDURE: 1. Switch on the system. Keep the pulse release switch in OFF positio n. 2. Vary the set point with the pulse release switch in the ON position and no te the output position. 3. Note SP voltage , PV voltage, P voltage and PI output voltage. 4. Calculate KP using the formula KP = P/(SP-PV).

39 TABULATION S.NO. POSITION (degrees) set output Error (set output) in degrees RESULT: INFERENCE:

40 EXPT. NO: DATE : CLOSED LOOP AC POSITION CONTROL SYSTEM AIM: To study the closed loop operation of AC position control system (AC Servom otor) with PI controller. APPARATUS REQUIRED: THEORY: CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS The AC servomotor is a two-phase induction motor with some special design features. The stator consists of two pole pairs (A-B an d C-D) mounted on the inner periphery of the stator, such that their axes are at an angle of 90o in space. Each pole pair carries a winding, one winding is call ed the reference winding and other winding is called the control winding. The ex citing currents in the two windings should have a phase displacement of 90 o. Th e supply used to drive the motor is single-phase and hence a phase advancing cap acitor is connected to one of the phases to produce a phase difference of 90 o. The stator constructional features of AC servomotor are shown in fig.1. The roto r construction is usually of squirrel cage or drag-cup type. The squirrel cage r otor is made of laminations. The rotor bars are placed on the slots and short-ci rcuited at both ends by end rings. The diameter of the rotor is kept small in or der to reduce inertia and to obtain good accelerating characteristics. Drag cup construction is employed for very low inertia applications. In this type of cons truction, the rotor will be in the form of hollow cylinder made of aluminium. Th e aluminium cylinder itself acts as short-circuited rotor conductors. WORKING PR INCIPLES The stator windings are excited by voltages of equal rms magnitude and 90 o phase difference. This results in exciting currents i1 and i2 displaced in phase by 90 o and having identical rms values. These currents give rise to a rot ating magnetic field of constant magnitude. The direction of rotation depends on the phase relationship of the two currents (or voltages). The exciting current shown in fig.2 produces a clockwise rotating magnetic field. When i1 is shifted by 180 o, an anticlockwise rotating magnetic field is produced. This rotating ma gnetic field sweeps over the rotor conductors. The rotor conductor experience a change in flux and so voltages are

41 induced in rotor conductors. This results in circulating currents in the shor t-circuited rotor conductors resulting in rotor flux. Due to the interaction of stator & rotor flux, a mechanical force (or Torque) is developed in the rotor an d the rotor starts moving in the same direction as that of rotating magnetic fie ld. Fig 1 Stator Construction of AC Servomotor Fig 2.Waveforms of Stator & Rotor Excitation Current Fig.3 Basic Block Diagram of AC Position Control System

42 PROCEDURE: 1. Switch ON the system. Keep the pulse release switch in the OFF position. 2. Vary the set point with the pulse release switch in the ON and note the output position. 3. Note the SP voltage, PV voltage, P voltage and PI outpu t voltage. 4. Calculate KP using the formula KP = P/(SP-PV). TABULATION S.NO. SE T OUTPUT POSITION POSITION (degrees) (degrees) ERROR=(set position-output positi on) (degrees) RESULT: INFERENCE:

43 Ex. No: Date: STEPPER MOTOR Aim: To study the Stepper motor Theory: Stepper motors are highly accurate pulse-driven motors that change their angular position in steps, in response to input pulses from digitally controlled system s. A stepper or stepping motor converts electronic pulses into proportionate mec hanical movement. Each revolution of the stepper motor s shaft is made up of a s eries of discrete individual steps. A step is defined as the angular rotation pr oduced by the output shaft each time the motor receives a step pulse. These type s of motors are very popular in digital control circuits, such as robotics, beca use they are ideally suited for receiving digital pulses for step control. Each step causes the shaft to rotate a certain number of degrees. A step angle repres ents the rotation of the output shaft caused by each step, measured in degrees. Figure.1. illustrates a simple application for a stepper motor. Each time the co ntroller receives an input signal, the paper is driven a certain incremental dis tance. Fig.1 In addition to the paper drive mechanism in a printer, stepper motors are also p opular in machine tools, process control systems, tape and disk drive systems, a nd programmable controllers. The Common Features of stepper motors are Brushless Stepper motors are brushless. The commentator and brushes of conventional motor s are some of the most failure-prone components, and they create electrical arcs that are undesirable or dangerous in some environments.

44 Load Independent Stepper motors will turn at a set speed regardless of load a s long as the load does not exceed the torque rating for the motor. Open Loop Po sitioning Stepper motors move in quantified increments or steps. As long as the motor runs within its torque specification, the position of the shaft is known a t all times without the need for a feedback mechanism. Holding Torque Stepper mo tors are able to hold the shaft stationary. Excellent response to start-up, stop ping and reverse. Types of Stepper Motor 1. Permanent-magnet stepper motor The permanent-magnet stepper motor operates on the reaction between a permanentmagnet rotor and an electromagnetic field. Figure shows a basic two-pole PM step per motor. The rotor shown in Figure (a) has a permanent magnet mounted at each end. The stator is illustrated in Figure (b). Both the stator and rotor are show n as having teeth Fig.2 The teeth on the rotor surface and the stator pole faces are offset so tha t there will be only a limited number of rotor teeth aligning themselves with an energized stator pole. The number of teeth on the rotor and stator determine th e step angle that will occur each time the polarity of the winding is reversed. The greater the number of teeth, the smaller the step angle.

45 Fig.3 The holding torque is defined as the amount of torque required to move the rotor one full step with the stator energized. An important characteristic of the PM stepper motor is that it can maintain the holding torque indefinitely when the r otor is stopped. Figure (a) shows a permanent magnet stepper motor with four sta tor windings. By pulsing the stator coils in a desired sequence, it is possible to control the speed and direction of the motor. Figure (b) shows the timing dia gram for the pulses required to rotate the PM stepper motor. 2.Variable-reluctance (VR) stepper motor The variable-reluctance (VR) stepper motor differs from the PM stepper in that i t has no permanent-magnet rotor and no residual torque to hold the rotor at one position when turned off. When the stator coils are energized, the rotor teeth w ill align with the energized stator poles. This type of motor operates on the pr inciple of minimizing the reluctance along the path of the applied magnetic fiel d. By alternating the windings that are energized in the stator, the stator fiel d changes, and the rotor is moved to a new position. The stator of a variable-re luctance stepper motor has a magnetic core constructed with a stack of steel lam inations. The rotor is made of unmagnetized soft steel with teeth and slots. The relationship among step angle, rotor teeth, and stator teeth is expressed using the following equation:

46 = N s Nr 360 Ns Nr ------(1) In this circuit, the rotor is shown with fewer teeth than the stator. This ensur es that only one set of stator and rotor teeth will align at any given instant. The stator coils are energized in groups referred to as phases. According to abo ve Eq., the rotor will turn 30 each time a pulse is applied. Figure (a) shows the position of the rotor when phase A is energized. As long as phase A is energize d, the rotor will be held stationary. Fig.4 When phase A is switched off and phase B is energized, the rotor will turn 30 until two poles of the rotor are aligned under the north and south poles esta blished by phase B.

47 By repeating this pattern, the motor will rotate in a clockwise direction. Th e direction of the motor is changed by reversing the pattern of turning ON and O FF each phase. The disadvantage of this design for a stepper motor is that the s teps are generally quite large (above 15). Multistack stepper motors can produce smaller step sizes because the motor is divided along its axial length into magn etically isolated sections, or stacks. Result:

48 EXPT. NO.: DATE: DETERMINATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION OF SEPRATELY EXITED DC GENERATOR AIM: To determine the transfer function of separately exited generator. APPARATU S REQUIRED: Ammeter MC (0-1A), (0-10A) Ammeter MI (0-5A),(0-50mA) Voltmeter MC ( 0-300V) Voltmeter MI (0-300V) Rheostat 1000 / 1A Rheostat 50 / 5A Auto Transform er 1 230V/270V THEORY: The transfer function of a separately excited generator ca n be represented in block diagram format as shown below The transfer function is IL(s)/Vf(s) = Kg /(Rf+sLf)(Rl+sLa) Where Vf(s)- Excitation Voltage Rf, Lf - Field resistance & Inductance If(s) - F ield Current Kg Induced emf constant in V/Amp Ll Total load Inductance Rl Total load resistance Kg can be obtained by conducting open circuit test Rf, Lf, Ra, L f can be found out by voltmeter- Ammeter method

49 DC GENERATOR Circuit Diagram DETERMINATION OF Ra : Circuit Diagram Tabulation S.No Va (V) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ifa (A) Ra =Va/Ia( ) Mean value of Ra =

50 DETERMINATION OF Rf : Circuit Diagram Tabulation S.No Vf (V) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 If (A) Rf ( )=Vf/If Mean value of Rf =

51 Determination of La Circuit Diagram Determination of Lf Circuit Diagram Open circuit characteristics

52 PROCEDURE: Determination of Kg: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. The connections are m ade as shown in fig. DPST switch is closed The motor is started with help of sta rter The motor is brought to the rated speed by adjusting the motor field rheost at. The drives the generated at rated speed. Note down the field current If and the open circuit voltage Eo. By adjusting the Rf, the field current is increased in convenient steps up to the rated field current. In each step the readings of Eo and If are noted. Throughout the experiment the speed is maintained at const ant A plot of Eo Vs If is drawn by taking If on X axis and Eo on Y-axis. A tange nt to the linear portion of the curve is dran through the origin. The slope of t his line ,Eo Vs If gives Kg. V-A method to obtain Ra, Rf, La & Lf 1. Give the connection as shown in fig to m easure Ra & Rf and note down the V & I 2. To measure La &Lf give the connection as shown in fig. 3. Apply an AC voltage & measure the field reactance Zf & armat ure reactance Za. 4. Calculate Lf= Sqrt(Zf2 Rf2) /2f 5. Calculate La = Sqrt(Za2 R a2) /2f Where f= supply frequency (50Hz) RESULT:

53 EXPT. NO.: DATE: STUDY OF SYNCHROS AIM: To study the characteristics of Synchros. APPARATUS REQUIRED: THEORY: A Synchro is an electro-magnetic transducer used to convert an angular p osition of a shaft into an electrical signal. It is commercially known as a Sels yn or an Autosyn. The basic element of a synchro is a synchro transmitter whose construction is very similar to that of a 3 phase Alternator. The stator is of c oncentric coil type, in which three identical coils are placed with their axis 1 20 apart, and is star connected. The rotor is of dumb bell shaped construction an d is wound with a concentric coil. AC voltage is applied to the rotor winding th rough slip rings. Fig.1 Constructional Features of Synchro Transmitter The constructional features and schematic diagram of a synchro transmitter and receiver is shown in fig.1. Let an AC voltage Vc(t) = Vr Sin be applied to the rotor of the synchro transmi tter. The applied voltage causes a flow of a magnetizing current in the rotor co il, which produces a sinusoidal time varying flux directed along its axis and di stributed nearly sinusoidally in the air gap along the stator periphery. Because of transformer action, voltages are induced in each of the stator coils. As the air gap flux is sinusoidally distributed, the flux linking any stator coil is p roportional to the cosine of the angle between the rotor and stator coil axis, a nd so is the voltage induced in the stator coil. Thus, we see that synchro trans mitter acts like a single-

54 phase transformer in which the rotor coil is the primary and stator coil is t he secondary. Fig .2 Schematic Diagram of Synchro Transmitter Let Vs1, Vs2 & Vs3 be the voltag e induced in the stator coils S1,S2 and S3 with respect to the neutral. Then, fo r the rotor position of the synchro transmitter shown in the fig. 2 where the ro tor axis makes an angle with the axis of the stator coil S2 Vs1 = K Vr Sin Cos ( + 120 ) ---------------------------- (1) Vs2 = K Vr Sin Cos ( ) ---------------------------------(2) Vs3 =K Vr Sin Cos ( + 240 ) ----------------------------( 3) The three terminal voltages of stator are Vs1s2 = Vs1 - Vs2 =3 KVr Sin( + 240 ) Sin -----------------------(4) Vs2s3 = Vs2 - Vs3 = 3 KVr Sin( + 120 ) Sin ---------------------(5) Vs3s1 = Vs3 - Vs1 =3 KVr Sin() Sin ----------------------(6) When = 0, from equations (1), (2) and (3), it is seen that the maximum voltage i s induced in the stator coil S2 , while it follows from the equation (6) from th at the terminal voltage Vs3s1 is zero . This position of the rotor is defined as the electrical zero of the transmitter and is used as reference for specifying th e angular position of the rotor. The input to the synchro transmitter is the ang ular position of its rotor shaft and the output is a set of 3 single-phase volta ges given by equations (4) to (6). The magnitude of these voltages is function o f the shaft position. The outputs of the synchro transmitter are applied to the stator windings of a synchro control transformer. The rotor of the control transfo rmer is cylindrical in shape so that the air gap is practically uniform. The sys tem acts as an error detector. Circulating currents of the same phase but of dif ferent magnitude flow through the two sets of stator coils. This results in the establishment of an identical flux pattern in the gap at the control transformer as the voltage drop in resistances and leakage reactances of the two sets of st ator coils are usually small. The voltage induced in the

55 control transformer rotor is proportional to the cosine of the angle between the two rotors () and is given by E(t) = K1 Vr Cos Sin When =900, the voltage in duced in the control transformer is zero. This position is known as electrical z ero position of the control transformer. Fig. 3 Synchro Error Detector PROCEDURE: Tabulation 1: 1. Give connections as given in the circuit diagram. 2. Vary the input position and note the output position. 3. Plot the variation in output position with respect to the input position. Tabulation 2: 1. Give excita tion to the rotor winding. 2. Measure the output voltage across S1-S2, S2-S3 and S3-S1 of stator windings for different rotor positions. 3. Plot the voltage Vs. angle characteristics.

56 TABULATION: I Sl.No Input Output Error position position (degrees) (degrees) (degrees) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 TABULATION : II S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 RESULT: Input angle (degree) 0 3 0 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 Vs1 - Vs2 (V) Vs2 - Vs3 (V) Vs3 - Vs1 (V ) INFERENCE:

57 EXPT. NO: DATE : DESIGN OF COMPENSATOR NETWORKS AIM: To design a compensator network for the process given in the Process Contro l Simulator. APPARATUS REQUIRED: THEORY: Practical feedback control systems are often required to satisfy design specification in the transient as well as steady state regions. This is not poss ible by selecting good quality components alone (due to basic limitations and ch aracteristics of these components). Cascade compensation is most commonly used f or this purpose and design of compensation networks figures prominently in any c ourse in automatic control systems. In general, there are two situations in whic h compensation is required. In the first case the system is absolutely unstable and the compensation is required to stabilize it as well as to achieve a specifi ed performance. In the second case the system is stable but the compensation is required to obtain the desired performance. The systems which are of type 2 or h igher are usually unstable. For these systems, lead compensator is required, bec ause the lead compensator increases the margin of stability. For type 1 and type 0 systems stable operation is always possible. If the gain is sufficiently redu ced, in such cases, any of three components viz. Lag, Lead, Lag Lead must be use d to obtain the desired performance. The simulation of this behavior of the Lead Lag Compensator can be done with the module (VLLN OI). An electronic Lead - lag network using Operational amplifiers is given figure 1. C2 C1 R2 R1 + R3 + R4 Fig.1 LEAD -LAG NETWORK USING OPERATIONAL -AMPLIFIER

58 The transfer function for this circuit can be obtained as follows : Let Z1 = R1 C1 The second op-amp acts as a sign inverter with a variable gain to compensate for the magnitude. The transfer function of the entire system is given by G(j) = ( R 4 R2/ R3 R1 ) (1+R1C1s) / (1+R2 C2 s) G(j) = ( R4 R2/ R3 R1 ) ( 1+T122) / ( 1+T222 ) where T1 = R1 C1 ; T2 = R2 C2 = angle G(j) = - tan-1(T1) tan-1(T2). Thus steady sta te output is For an input =X sin , Yss(t) =X (R4 R2/ R3 R1) (( 1+T122) / ( 1+T222 ))s in(wt tan-1 T1 tan-1 T2 ) From this expression, we find that if T1 > T2, then tan-1 T1 tan-1 T2 > 0. Thus if T1 > T2 , then the network is a LEAD NETWORK. If T1 < T2 , then the network is a LAG NETWORK. DETERMINATION OF VALUES FOR ANGLE COMPENSATION: Frequency of sine wave = 20 Hz A ngle to be compensated = 70 = tan-1 (2 f * T1) tan-1 (2 f * T2) T1 = 10, then substit uting in above equation 70 - tan-1 (2 * * 20 * 10) tan-1 (2 * * 20 *T2) solving f or T2 T2 = 0.003 . Hence, the values of T1 and T2 are chosen from which values o f R1 ,C1 , R2 and C2 can be determined . For example, T1 =R1 C1 = 10 ; If C1= 1 F, then R1 = 10 M . T2 = 0.003 = R2 C2 then C2 =1 F, and hence R2 = 3 M . These values produce a phas e lead of 70 which is the desired compensation angle. Nominal Value for R1 =1 M R 2 =20 K C1 = 0.1 F C2 = 0.01 F

59 PROCEDURE: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Switch ON the power to the instrument. Connect the individual blocks using patch chords. Give a sinusoidal input as the set value . Measure the amplitude and frequency of the input signal. Measure the amplitude and phase shift of the output signal with respect to the input sine wave using C RO. 6. Draw the magnitude versus frequency plot and phase versus frequency plot. 7. Using the technique explained previously, calculate the values of R1, C1, R2 and C2 to compensate for the phase shift of the output signal. 8. 9. Connect th e components at the points provided. Now include the compensation block in the f orward path before the process using patch chords. 10. Now measure the phase shi ft of the output signal with the input and verify for compensation. 11. Draw the magnitude versus frequency plot and phase versus frequency plot for the designe d compensator. Table 1 (for the process without compensation): S.No. Input Freq (Hz) Output Voltage(V) Gain (dB) 20 log(Vo/Vin) Phase shift ( )

60 Table I1 (for the process with compensation): Vin = V S.No. Input Output Gain (dB) 20 log(Vo/Vin)

Freq (Hz) Voltage(V) A Amplitude of input sine wave (V) F Frequency of the input sine wave (Hz) Phase shift (Degrees) RESULT : INFERENCE:

P Phase shift ( )

61 EXPT. NO.: DATE: STUDY OF P, PI, PID CONTROLLERS AIM: To study the P, PI, PID controller using MATLAB software . APPARATUS REQUIR ED: THEORY: The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damp ed oscillation before reaching steady state value. In specifying the transient r esponse characteristics of control systems to unit step input, it is common to s pecify the following i) Delay Time(Td) ii) Rise time(Tr) iii) Peal time( Tp) iv) Max. overshoot (Mp) v) Settling time( Ts) Proportional control: The output of t he controller is proportional to input U(t) = Kp e(t) E(t) = error signal U(t) c ontroller out[put Kp = proportional constant It amplifies the error signal and i ncreases loop gain. Hence steady state tracking accuracy , disturbance signal re jection and relative stability are improved. Its drawbacks are low sensitivity t o parameter variation and it produces constant steady state error. Proportional + Integral Control: The output of the PI controller is given by t U (t) = Kp [ e(t) + (1/Ti ) e(t) dt ] 0 where Kp is the proportionality constant an d Ti is called the integral time. This controller is also called RESET controlle r. It introduces a zero in the system and increases the order by 1. The type num ber of open loop system is increased by 1

62 It eliminates steady state error. Damping ratio remains same. Increase in ord er decreases the stability of system. Proportional + Integral Control + Differential Control: The output of a PID cont roller is given by t U(t) = Kp [ e(t) + (1/Ti ) e(t) dt + Td de(t)/dt ] 0 The PID controller introduces a zero in the system and increases the damping. This redu ces peak overshoot and reduces rise time. Due to increase in damping, ultimately peak overshoot reduces. The stability of the system improves. In PID controller , all effects are combined. Proportional control stabilizes gain but produces st eady state error. Integral control eliminates error. Derivative controller reduc es rate of change of error. TUNING OF PID CONTROLLERS Proportional-integral-diff erential (PID) controllers are commonly employed in process control industries. Hence we shall present various techniques of tuning PID controllers to achieve c ertain performance index for systems dynamic response. The technique to be adopt ed for determining the proportional, integral and derivative constants of the co ntroller depends upon the dynamic response of the plant. In presenting the vario us tuning techniques we shall assume the basic control configuration, wherein th e controller input is the error between the desired output and the actual output . This error is manipulated by the controller (PID) to produce a command signal for the plant according to the relationship. U(s)=Kp (1+(1/si)+sd) Kp= proportiona l gain constant I= integral time constant. d= Derivative time constant. Where PROCEDURE: 1. Give the step input to the system selected and obtain the response using CRO. 2. For the obtained response (S-shaped curve), draw a tangent at the inflection point and find its intersection with the time axis and the line corresponding t o the steady-state value of the output. 3. Find the dead time L where the tangen t cutting X- axis, and the time constant T which is specified in model graph. 4. From the value of L and T, find the value of Kp, I and d settings by using the fo llowing formulas: Kp = 1.2(T/L) , I = 2L and d = 0.5L. 5. Connect the unknown syst em in closed loop with the help of a PID controller and substitute all those val ues obtained in the previous step.

63 6. Simulate the system with a step input and view the response using CRO. 7. Comment on the response obtained using controller. (I)General Block Diagram (II)Block Diagram for P Controller (III)OP Amp P Controller Using Inverting Amplifier

64 (IV) Block Diagram For PI Controller (V) PI Controller Using Op-Amp (VI) Block Diagram Of PID Controller

65 Block Diagram Of Closed Loop Control Using PID Controller M(s) R(s) E(s) PID(KP,Ti,Td ) Transfer Function C(s) C(s) RESULT: INFERENCE:

66