Quantum Physics Basics

Page 1 of 35
Quantum Physics Basics Introduction

The following is extracted in the main from the on line eccyclopedia Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org and is intended to give a simple overview. In some cases this is by analogy and this should not be taken as any lack of robustness to the concept. For non English speakers the on line Wikipedia has an automatic translation facility. There is also a listing of Quantum Physics and Quantum Biology related books available in Biofeedback Resource Books.pdf available on http://imune.net/index/downloads.html Introduction..................................................................................................................... 1 Thermodynamics............................................................................................................. 2 Entropy............................................................................................................................ 3 Quantum biology ............................................................................................................ 4 Quantum World: Instant Expert...................................................................................... 4 The birth of an idea ............................................................................................. 4 Quantum weirdness............................................................................................. 5 Uncertainty rules................................................................................................. 5 Secure networks .................................................................................................. 6 Quantum gravity ................................................................................................. 6 Economies of scale ............................................................................................. 7 Quantum Mechanics ....................................................................................................... 7 Background ................................................................................................................. 8 Old quantum theory .................................................................................................... 9 Planck's constant ......................................................................................................... 9 Bohr atom.................................................................................................................. 10 Wave-particle duality................................................................................................ 10 Development of modern quantum mechanics........................................................... 11 Schrdinger wave equation....................................................................................... 12 Uncertainty Principle ................................................................................................ 12 Quantum entanglement ............................................................................................. 14 Interpretations- the quantum micro and the newtonian macro world. ...................... 15 Consciousness causes collapse ................................................................................. 15 Quantum Electrodynamics............................................................................................ 16 Physical interpretation of QED................................................................................. 16 History....................................................................................................................... 17 Butterfly effect .............................................................................................................. 18 Fractal ........................................................................................................................... 20 History....................................................................................................................... 20 The fractional dimension of the boundary of the Koch snowflake........................... 22 Generating fractals .................................................................................................... 22 Classification of fractals ........................................................................................... 23 Fractals in nature....................................................................................................... 23
E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc
Page 2 of 35 Chaos theory ................................................................................................................. 24 History....................................................................................................................... 25 Bifurcation theory ......................................................................................................... 26 Extended Consciousness................................................................................................. 27 Bell's theorem ............................................................................................................... 27 Importance of the theorem ........................................................................................ 28 Bell's thought experiment ......................................................................................... 28 Notable quotes .......................................................................................................... 29 Bell test experiments................................................................................................. 29 Implications of violation of Bell's inequality............................................................ 30 Locality (Local Universe) ............................................................................................. 31 Nonlocality.................................................................................................................... 32 Tao ................................................................................................................................ 33 Some characteristics of Tao ...................................................................................... 34 Subspace- Hyperspace (science fiction) ....................................................................... 35 Subspace (Star Trek)................................................................................................. 35
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics (from the Greek thermos meaning heat and dynamis meaning power) is a branch of physics that studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of their particles using statistics. Roughly, heat means "energy in transit" and dynamics relates to "movement"; thus, in essence thermodynamics studies the movement of energy and how energy instills movement. Historically, thermodynamics developed out of the need to increase the efficiency of early steam engines. The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations are the laws of thermodynamics, which postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work. They also postulate the existence of a quantity named entropy, which can be defined for any system. In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts of system and surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, which in turn are related to one another through equations of state. Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes. With these tools, thermodynamics describes how systems respond to changes in their surroundings. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering, and materials science to name a few.
Page 3 of 35
Entropy
In a system made up of quantities of matter, its pressure differences, density differences, and temperature differences all tend to equalize over time. The system's entropy, which increases with this process, is a measure of how far the equalization has progressed. For example, take a system consisting of a cup of hot water in a cool room. Over time the water will tend to cool and evaporate, and the room will warm up slightly. The system's heat has become more evenly distributed, and thus the entropy of the cup of water and the room has increased. Entropy is often described as "a measure of the disorder of a thermodynamic system" or "how mixed-up the system is". Such statements should be approached with care, as the terms "disorder" and "mixedupedness" are not well defined. The "disorder" of the system as a whole can be formally defined (as discussed below) in a way that is consistent with the realities of entropy, but note that such a definition will almost always lead to confusion. It is only if the word is used in this special sense that a system that is more "disordered" or more "mixed up" on a molecular scale will necessarily also be "a system with a lower amount of energy available to do work" or "a system in a macroscopically more probable state". The entropy of a thermodynamic system can be interpreted in two distinct, but compatible, ways: From a macroscopic perspective, in classical thermodynamics the entropy is interpreted simply as a state function of a thermodynamic system: that is, a property depending only on the current state of the system, independent of how that state came to be achieved. The state function has the important property that, when multiplied by a reference temperature, it can be understood as a measure of the amount of energy in a physical system that cannot be used to do thermodynamic work; i.e., work mediated by thermal energy. More precisely, in any process where the system gives up energy E, and its entropy falls by S, a quantity at least TR S of that energy must be given up to the systems surroundings as unusable heat (TR is the temperature of the systems external surroundings). Otherwise the process will not go forward. From a microscopic perspective, in statistical thermodynamics the entropy is envisioned as a measure of the number of microscopic configurations that are capable of yielding the observed macroscopic description of the thermodynamic system. A more disordered or mixed up system can thus be formally defined as one which has more microscopic states compatible with the macroscopic description, however this definition is not standard and thus prone to confusing people. It can be shown that this definition of entropy, sometimes referred to as Boltzmanns postulate, reproduces all of the properties of the entropy of classical thermodynamics. An important law of physics, the second law of thermodynamics, states that the total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system tends to increase over time, approaching a maximum value. Unlike almost all other laws of physics, this associates thermodynamics
Page 4 of 35 with a definite arrow of time. However, for a universe of infinite size, which cannot be regarded as an isolated system, the second law does not apply.
Quantum biology
Quantum biology is the science of studying biological processes in terms of quantum mechanics. In exploring quantum mechanical explanations for biological phenomena, the nascent science of quantum biology represents one of the first efforts to apply quantum theory to systems much more macroscopic than the atomic or subatomic realms generally described by quantum theory. The following biological phenomena have been studied in terms of quantum processes:

the absorbance of frequency-specific radiation (i.e., photosynthesis and vision); the conversion of chemical energy into motion; magnetoreception in animals.
Quantum biological research is extremely limited by computer processing power; the analytical power required to model quantum effects increases exponentially with the number of particles involved.
Quantum World: Instant Expert

If successful scientific theories can be thought of as cures for stubborn problems, quantum physics was the wonder drug of the 20 century. It successfully explained phenomena such as radioactivity and antimatter, and no other theory can match its description of how light and particles behave on small scales.
th
But it can also be mind-bending. Quantum objects can exist in multiple states and places at the same time, requiring a mastery of statistics to describe them. Rife with uncertainty and riddled with paradoxes, the theory has been criticised for casting doubt on the notion of an objective reality - a concept many physicists, including Albert Einstein, have found hard to swallow. Today, scientists are grappling with these philosophical conundrums, trying to harness quantum's bizarre properties to advance technology, and struggling to weave quantum physics and general relativity into a seamless theory of quantum gravity.
The birth of an idea
Quantum theory began to take shape in the early 20th century, when classical ideas failed to explain some observations. Previous theories allowed atoms to vibrate at any frequency, leading to incorrect predictions that they could radiate infinite amounts of energy - a problem known as the ultraviolet catastrophe. In 1900, Max Planck solved this problem by assuming atoms can vibrate only at specific, or quantised, frequencies. Then, in 1905, Einstein cracked the mystery of the
Page 5 of 35 photoelectric effect, whereby light falling on metal releases electrons of specific energies. The existing theory of light as waves failed to explain the effect, but Einstein provided a neat solution by suggesting light came in discrete packages of energy called photons - a brain wave that won him the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.
Quantum weirdness
In fact, light's chameleon-like ability to behave as either a particle or a wave, depending on the experimental setup, has long stymied scientists. Danish physicist Niels Bohr explained this wave-particle duality by doing away with the concept of a reality separate from one's observations. In his "Copenhagen interpretation", Bohr argued that the very act of measurement affects what we observe. One controversial experiment recently challenged this either/or scenario of light by apparently detecting evidence of both wave- and particle-like behaviour simultaneously. The work suggests there may be no such thing as photons - light appears quantised only because of the way it interacts with matter. Other interpretations of quantum theory - of which there are at least half a dozen - deal with the measurement problem by suggesting even more far-fetched concepts than a universe dependent on measurement. The popular many worlds interpretation suggests quantum objects display several behaviours because they inhabit an infinite number of parallel universes.
Uncertainty rules
For about 70 years, this wave-particle duality was explained by another unsettling tenet of quantum theory - the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927 and recently made more precise, the theory puts an upper limit on knowledge. It says one can never know both the position and momentum of a quantum object - measuring one invariably changes the other. Bohr defeated Einstein in a series of thought experiments in the 1920s and 1930s using this principle, but more recent work suggests the underlying cause of the duality seen in experiments is a phenomenon called entanglement. Entanglement is the idea that in the quantum world, objects are not independent if they have interacted with each other or come into being through the same process. They become linked, or entangled, such that changing one invariably affects the other, no matter how far apart they are - something Einstein called "spooky action at a distance". This may be involved in superconductivity and may even explain why objects have mass. It also holds promise for "teleporting" particles across vast distances - assuming everyone agrees on a reference frame. The first teleportation of a quantum state occurred in 1998, and scientists have been gradually entangling more and more particles, different kinds of particles, and large particles.
Page 6 of 35
Secure networks
Entanglement may also provide a nearly uncrackable method of communication. Quantum cryptographers can send "keys" to decode encrypted information using quantum particles. Any attempt to intercept the particles will disturb their quantum state an interference that could then be detected. In April 2004, Austrian financial institutions performed the first money transfer encrypted by quantum keys, and in June, the first encrypted computer network with more than two nodes was set up across 10 kilometres in Cambridge, Massachusetts, US. But keeping quantum particles entangled is a tricky business. Researchers are working on how to maximise the particles' signal and distance travelled. Using a sensitive photon detector, researchers in the UK recently sent encrypted photons down the length of a 100kilometre fibre optic cable. Researchers in the US devised a scheme to entangle successive clouds of atoms in the hopes of one day making a quantum link between the US cities of Washington, DC, and New York.
Lightning-fast computers
Quantum computers are another long-term goal. Because quantum particles can exist in multiple states at the same time, they could be used to carry out many calculations at once, factoring a 300-digit number in just seconds compared to the years required by conventional computers. But to maintain their multi-state nature, particles must remain isolated long enough to carry out the calculations - a very challenging condition. Nonetheless, some progress has been made in this area. A trio of electrons, the building blocks of classical computers, were entangled in a semiconductor in 2003, and the first quantum calculation was made with a single calcium ion in 2002. In October 2004, the first quantum memory component was built from a string of caesium atoms. But particles of matter interact so easily with others that their quantum states are preserved for very short times - just billionths of a second. Photons, on the other hand, maintain their states about a million times longer because they are less prone to interact with each other. But they are also hard to store, as they travel, literally, at the speed of light. In 2001, scientists managed to stop light in its tracks, overcoming one practical hurdle. And the first quantum logic gate - the brains behind quantum computers - was created with light in 2003.
Quantum gravity
While three of the four fundamental forces of nature - those operating on very small scales - are well accounted for by quantum theory, gravity is its Achilles heel. This force works on a much larger scale and quantum theory has been powerless so far to explain it.
Page 7 of 35 A number of bizarre theories have been proposed to bridge this gap, many of which suggest that the very fabric of space-time bubbles up with random quantum fluctuations - a foam of wormholes and infinitesimal black holes. Such a foam is thought to have filled the universe during the big bang, dimpling spacetime so that structures such as stars and galaxies could later take shape. The most popular quantum gravity theory says that particles and forces arise from the vibrations of tiny loops - or strings - just 10-35 metres long. Another says that space and time are discrete at the smallest scales, emerging from abstractions called "spin networks". One recent theory, called "doubly special relativity", tweaks Einstein's idea of one cosmic invariant - the speed of light - and adds another at a very small scale. The controversial theory accounts for gravity, inflation, and dark energy. Physicists are now devising observations and experiments that could test the competing theories.
Economies of scale
Quantum physics is usually thought to act on light and particles smaller than molecules. Some researchers believe there must be some cut-off point where classical physics takes over, such as the point where the weak pull of gravity overwhelms other forces (in fact, gravity's effect on neutrons was recently measured). But macroscopic objects can obey quantum rules if they don't get entangled. Certainly, harnessing troops of atoms or photons that follow quantum laws holds great technological promise. Recent work cooling atoms to near absolute zero have produced new forms of matter called Bose-Einstein and fermionic condensates. These have been used to create laser beams made of atoms that etch precise patterns on surfaces, and might one day lead to superconductors that work at room temperature. All of these hopes suggest that, as queasy as quantum can be, it remains likely to be the most powerful scientific cure-all for years to come.
Quantum Mechanics
Quantum mechanics is a physical science dealing with the behaviour of matter and waves on the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. It also forms the basis for the contemporary understanding of how large objects such as stars and galaxies, and cosmological events such as the Big Bang, can be analyzed and explained. Its acceptance by the general physics community is due to its accurate prediction of the physical behaviour of systems, including systems where Newtonian mechanics fails. This difference between the success of classical and quantum mechanics is most often observed in systems at the atomic scale or smaller, or at very low or very high energies, or at extremely low temperatures. Quantum mechanics is the basis of modern
Page 8 of 35 developments in chemistry, molecular biology, and electronics, and the foundation for the technology that has transformed the world in the last fifty years. Background Through a century of experimentation and applied science, quantum mechanical theory has proven to be very successful and practical. The term "quantum mechanics" was first coined by Max Born in 1924. Quantum mechanics is the foundation for other sciences including condensed matter physics, quantum chemistry, and particle physics. Despite the success of quantum mechanics, it does have some controversial elements. For example, the behaviour of microscopic objects described in quantum mechanics is very different from our everyday experience, which may provoke an incredulous reaction. Moreover, some of the consequences of quantum mechanics appear to be inconsistent with the consequences of other successful theories, such as Einstein's Theory of Relativity, especially general relativity. Some of the background of quantum mechanics dates back to the early 1800's, but the real beginnings of quantum mechanics date from the work of Max Planck in 1900[1]. Albert Einstein[2], Niels Bohr[3], and Louis de Broglie[4] soon made important contributions. However, it was not until the mid-1920's that a more complete picture emerged, and the true importance of quantum mechanics became clear. Some of the most prominent scientists to contribute were Max Born[5], Paul Dirac[6], Werner Heisenberg[7], Wolfgang Pauli[8], and Erwin Schrdinger[9]. Later, the field was further expanded with work by Julian Schwinger, Murray Gell-Mann, and Richard Feynman, in particular, with the development of Quantum Electrodynamics in 1947.
The interference that produces colored bands on bubbles cannot be explained by a model that depicts light as a particle. It can be explained by a model that depicts it as a wave. The drawing shows sine waves that resemble waves on the surface of water being reflected from two surfaces of a film of varying width, but that depiction of the wave nature of light is only a crude analogy. Early researchers differed in their explanations of the fundamental nature of what we now call electromagnetic radiation. In 1690, Christian Huygens explained the laws of reflection and refraction on the basis of a wave theory.[10] Sir Isaac Newton believed that light consisted of particles which he
Page 9 of 35 designated corpuscles. In 1827 Thomas Young and Augustin Fresnel made experiments on interference that showed that a corpuscular theory of light was inadequate. Then in 1873 James Clerk Maxwell showed that by making an electrical circuit oscillate it should be possible to produce electromagnetic waves. His theory made it possible to compute the speed of electromagnetic radiation purely on the basis of electrical and magnetic measurements, and the computed value corresponded very closely to the empirically measured speed of light.[11] In 1888, Heinrich Hertz made an electrical device that actually produced what we would now call microwaves essentially radiation at a lower frequency than visible light.[12] Everything up to that point suggested that Newton had been entirely wrong to regard light as corpuscular. Then it was discovered that when light strikes an electrical conductor it causes electrons to move away from their original positions, and, furthermore, the phenomenon observed could only be explained if the light delivered energy in definite packets. In a photoelectric device such as the light meter in a camera, when light hits the metallic detector electrons are caused to move. Greater intensities of light at one frequency can cause more electrons to move, but they will not move any faster. In contrast, higher frequencies of light can cause electrons to move faster. So intensity of light controls the amperes of current produced, but frequency of light controls the voltage produced. This appeared to raise a contradiction when compared to sound waves and ocean waves, where only intensity was needed to predict the energy of the wave. In the case of light, frequency appeared to predict energy. Something was needed to explain this phenomenon and also to reconcile experiments that had shown light to have a particle nature with experiments that had shown it to have a wave nature. Old quantum theory Quantum mechanics developed from the study of electromagnetic waves through spectroscopy which includes visible light seen in the colors of the rainbow, but also other waves including the more energetic waves like ultraviolet light, x-rays, and gamma rays plus the waves with longer wavelengths including infrared waves, microwaves and radio waves. We are not, however, speaking of sound waves, but only of those waves that travel at the speed of light. Also, when the word "particle" is used below, it always refers to elementary or subatomic particles. Planck's constant Classical physics predicted that a black-body radiator would produce infinite energy, but that result was not observed in the laboratory. If black-body radiation was dispersed into a spectrum, then the amount of energy radiated at various frequencies rose from zero at one end, peaked at a frequency related to the temperature of the radiating object, and then fell back to zero. In 1900, Max Planck developed an empirical equation that could account for the observed energy curves, but he could not harmonize it with classical theory. He concluded that the classical laws of physics do not apply on the atomic scale as had been assumed.
Page 10 of 35 Bohr atom The Bohr model of the atom, showing electron quantum jumping to ground state n=1 In 1897 the particle called the electron was discovered. By means of the gold foil experiment physicists discovered that matter is, volume for volume, largely space. Once that was clear, it was hypothesized that negative charge entities called electrons surround positively charged nuclei. So at first all scientists believed that the atom must be like a miniature solar system. But that simple analogy predicted that electrons would, within about one hundredth of a microsecond,[19] crash into the nucleus of the atom. The great question of the early 20th century was, "Why do electrons normally maintain a stable orbit around the nucleus?" In 1913, Niels Bohr removed this substantial problem by applying the idea of discrete (non-continuous) quanta to the orbits of electrons. This account became known as the Bohr model of the atom. Bohr basically theorized that electrons can only inhabit certain orbits around the atom. These orbits could be derived by looking at the spectral lines produced by atoms. Wave-particle duality < Probability distribution of the Bohr atom Niels Bohr determined that it is impossible to describe light adequately by the sole use of either the wave analogy or of the particle analogy. Therefore he enunciated the principle of complementarity, which is a theory of pairs, such as the pairing of wave and particle or the pairing of position and momentum. Louis de Broglie worked out the mathematical consequences of these findings. In quantum mechanics, it was found that electromagnetic waves could react in certain experiments as though they were particles and in other experiments as though they were waves. It was also discovered that subatomic particles could sometimes be described as particles and sometimes as waves. This discovery led to the theory of wave-particle duality by LouisVictor de Broglie in 1924, which states that subatomic entities have properties of both waves and particles at the same time. The Bohr atom model was enlarged upon with the discovery by de Broglie that the electron has wave-like properties. In accord with de Broglie's conclusions, electrons can only appear under conditions that permit a standing wave. A standing wave can be made if a string is fixed on both ends and made to vibrate (as it would in a stringed instrument).
Page 11 of 35 That illustration shows that the only standing waves that can occur are those with zero amplitude at the two fixed ends. The waves created by a stringed instrument appear to oscillate in place, simply changing crest for trough in an up-and-down motion. A standing wave can only be formed when the wave's length fits the available vibrating entity. In other words, no partial fragments of wave crests or troughs are allowed. In a round vibrating medium, the wave must be a continuous formation of crests and troughs all around the circle. Each electron must be its own standing wave in its own discrete orbital. Development of modern quantum mechanics Werner Heisenberg developed the full quantum mechanical theory in 1925 at the young age of 23. Following his mentor, Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg began to work out a theory for the quantum behavior of electron orbitals. Because electrons could not be observed in their orbits, Heisenberg went about creating a mathematical description of quantum mechanics built on what could be observed, that is, the light emitted from atoms in their characteristic atomic spectra. Heisenberg studied the electron orbital on the model of a charged ball on a spring, an oscillator, whose motion is anharmonic (not quite regular). For a picture of the behavior of a charged ball on a spring see: Vibrating Charges. Heisenberg first explained this kind of observed motion in terms of the laws of classical mechanics known to apply in the macro world, and then applied quantum restrictions, discrete (non-continuous) properties, to the picture. Doing so causes gaps to appear between the orbitals so that the mathematical description he formulated would then represent only the electron orbitals predicted on the basis of the atomic spectra. In 1925 Heisenberg published a paper (in Z. Phys. vol. 33, p. 879-893) entitled "Quantum-mechanical re-interpretation of kinematic and mechanical relations." So ended the old quantum theory and began the age of quantum mechanics. Heisenberg's paper gave few details that might aid readers in determining how he actually contrived to get his results for the one-dimensional models he used to form the hypothesis that proved so useful. In his paper, Heisenberg proposed to "discard all hope of observing hitherto unobservable quantities, such as the position and period of the electron," and restrict himself strictly to actually observable quantities. He needed mathematical rules for predicting the relations actually observed in nature, and the rules he produced worked differently depending on the sequence in which they were applied. "It quickly became clear that the non-commutativity (in general) of kinematical quantities in quantum theory was the really essential new technical idea in the paper." (Aitchison, p. 5) But it was unclear why this non-commutativity was essential. Could it have a physical interpretation? At least the matter was made more palatable when Max Born discovered that the Heisenberg computational scheme could be put in a more familiar form present in elementary mathematics. Heisenberg approached quantum mechanics from the historical perspective that treated an electron as an oscillating charged particle. Bohr's use of this analogy had already allowed him to explain why the radii of the orbits of electrons could only take on certain values. It followed from this interpretation of the experimental results available and the quantum
Page 12 of 35 theory that Heisenberg subsequently created that an electron could not be at any intermediate position between two "permitted" orbits. Therefore electrons were described as "jumping" from orbit to orbit. The idea that an electron might now be in one place and an instant later be in some other place without having traveled between the two points was one of the earliest indications of the "spookiness" of quantum phenomena. Although the scale is smaller, the "jump" from orbit to orbit is as strange and unexpected as would be a case in which someone stepped out of a doorway in London onto the streets of Los Angeles Schrdinger wave equation Because particles could be described as waves, later in 1925 Erwin Schrdinger analyzed what an electron would look like as a wave around the nucleus of the atom. Using this model, he formulated his equation for particle waves. Rather than explaining the atom by analogy to satellites in planetary orbits, he treated everything as waves whereby each electron has its own unique wavefunction. A wavefunction is described in Schrdinger's equation by three properties (later Paul Dirac added a fourth). The three properties were (1) an "orbital" designation, indicating whether the particle wave is one that is closer to the nucleus with less energy or one that is further from the nucleus with more energy, (2) the shape of the orbital, i.e. an indication that orbitals were not just spherical but other shapes, and (3) the magnetic moment of the orbital, which is a manifestation of force exerted by the charge of the electron as it rotates around the nucleus. These three properties were called collectively the wavefunction of the electron and are said to describe the quantum state of the electron. "Quantum state" means the collective properties of the electron describing what we can say about its condition at a given time. For the electron, the quantum state is described by its wavefunction which is designated in physics by the Greek letter (psi, pronounced "sigh"). The three properties of Schrdinger's equation that describe the wavefunction of the electron and therefore also describe the quantum state of the electron as described in the previous paragraph are each called quantum numbers Uncertainty Principle Main article: Uncertainty principle In 1927, Heisenberg made a new discovery on the basis of his quantum theory that had further practical consequences of this new way of looking at matter and energy on the atomic scale. In Heisenberg's matrix mechanics formula, Heisenberg had encountered an error or difference of h/2 between position and momentum. This represented a deviation of one radian of a cycle when the particle-like aspects of the wave were examined. Heisenberg analyzed this difference of one radian of a cycle and divided the difference or deviation of one radian equally between the measurement of position and momentum. This had the consequence of being able to describe the electron as a point particle in the center of one cycle of a wave so that its position would have a standard deviation of plus or minus one-half of one radian of the cycle (1/2 of h-bar). A standard deviation can be
Page 13 of 35 either plus or minus the measurement i.e. it can add to the measurement or subtract from it. In three-dimensions a standard deviation is a displacement in any direction. What this means is that when a moving particle is viewed as a wave it is less certain where the particle is. In fact, the more certain the position of a particle is known, the less certain the momentum is known. This conclusion came to be called "Heisenberg's Indeterminacy Principle," or Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle. To understand the real idea behind the uncertainty principle imagine a wave with its undulations, its crests and troughs, moving along. A wave is also a moving stream of particles, so you have to superimpose a stream of particles moving in a straight line along the middle of the wave. An oscillating ball of charge creates a wave larger than its size depending upon the length of its oscillation. Therefore, the energy of a moving particle is as large as the cycle of the wave, but the particle itself has a location. Because the particle and the wave are the same thing, then the particle is really located somewhere in the width of the wave. Its position could be anywhere from the crest to the trough. The math for the uncertainty principle says that the measurement of uncertainty as to the position of a moving particle is onehalf the width from the crest to the trough or one-half of one radian of a cycle in a wave. For moving particles in quantum mechanics, there is simply a certain degree of exactness and precision that is missing. You can be precise when you take a measurement of position and you can be precise when you take a measurement of momentum, but there is an inverse imprecision when you try to measure both at the same time as in the case of a moving particle like the electron. In the most extreme case, absolute precision of one variable would entail absolute imprecision regarding the other. Heisenberg voice recording in an early lecture on the uncertainty principle pointing to a Bohr model of the atom: "You can say, well, this orbit is really not a complete orbit. Actually at every moment the electron has only an inactual position and an inactual velocity and between these two inaccuracies there is an inverse correlation." The consequences of the uncertainty principle were that the electron could no longer be considered as in an exact location in its orbital. Rather the electron had to be described by every point where the electron could possibly inhabit. By creating points of probable location for the electron in its known orbital, this created a cloud of points in a spherical shape for the orbital of a hydrogen atom which points gradually faded out nearer to the nucleus and farther from the nucleus. This is called a probability distribution. Therefore, the Bohr atom number n for each orbital became known as an n-sphere in the three dimensional atom and was pictured as a probability cloud where the electron surrounded the atom all at once. This led to the further description by Heisenberg that if you were not making measurements of the electron that it could not be described in one particular location but was everywhere in the electron cloud at once. In other words, quantum mechanics cannot give exact results, but only the probabilities for the occurrence of a variety of possible results. Heisenberg went further and said that the path of a moving particle only comes into existence once we observe it. However strange and counter-intuitive this assertion
Page 14 of 35 may seem, quantum mechanics does still tell us the location of the electron's orbital, its probability cloud. Heisenberg was speaking of the particle itself, not its orbital which is in a known probability distribution. It is important to note that although Heisenberg used infinite sets of positions for the electron in his matrices, this does not mean that the electron could be anywhere in the universe. Rather there are several laws that show the electron must be in one localized probability distribution. An electron is described by its energy in Bohr's atom which was carried over to matrix mechanics. Therefore, an electron in a certain n-sphere had to be within a certain range from the nucleus depending upon its energy. This restricts its location. Also, the number of places an electron can be is also called "the number of cells in its phase space". The uncertainty principle set a lower limit to how finely one can chop up classical phase space. Therefore, the number of places that an electron can be in its orbital becomes finite due to the Uncertainty Principle. Therefore, an electron's location in an atom is defined to be in its orbital and its orbital although being a probability distribution does not extend out into the entire universe, but stops at the nucleus and before the next n-sphere orbital begins and the points of the distribution are finite due to the Uncertainty Principle creating a lower limit. Classical physics had shown since Newton that if you know the position of stars and planets and details about their motions that you can predict where they will be in the future. For subatomic particles, Heisenberg denied this notion showing that due to the uncertainty principle one cannot know the precise position and momentum of a particle at a given instant, so its future motion cannot be determined, but only a range of possibilities for the future motion of the particle can be described. These notions arising from the uncertainty principle only arise at the subatomic level and were a consequence of wave-particle duality. As counter-intuitive as they may seem, quantum mechanical theory with its uncertainty principle has been responsible for major improvements in the world's technology from computer components to fluorescent lights to brain scanning techniques Quantum entanglement Albert Einstein rejected Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle insofar as it seemed to imply more than a necessary limitation on human ability to actually know what occurs in the quantum realm. In a letter to Max Born in 1926, Einstein claimed that God "does not play dice."[23] Heisenberg's quantum mechanics, based on Bohr's initial explanation, became known as the Copenhagen Interpretation of quantum mechanics. Both Bohr and Einstein spent many years defending and attacking this interpretation. After the 1930 Solvay conference, Einstein never again challenged the Copenhagen interpretation on technical points, but did not cease a philosophical attack on the interpretation, on the grounds of realism and locality. Einstein, in trying to show that it was not a complete theory, recognized that the theory predicted that two or more particles which have interacted in the past exhibit surprisingly strong correlations when various measurements are made on them.[24] Einstein called this "spooky action at a distance". In 1935, Schrdinger
Page 15 of 35 published a paper explaining the argument which had been denoted the EPR paradox (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen, 1935). Einstein showed that the Copenhagen Interpretation predicted quantum entanglement which he was trying to prove was incorrect in that it would defy the law of physics that nothing could travel faster than the speed of light. Quantum entanglement means that when there is a change in one particle at a distance from another particle then the other particle automatically changes to counter-balance the system. In quantum entanglement, the act of measuring one entangled particle defines its properties and seems to influence the properties of its partner or partners instantaneously, no matter how far apart they are. Because the two particles are in an entangled state, changes to the one cause instantaneous effects on the other. Einstein had calculated that quantum theory would predict this, he saw it as a flaw and therefore challenged it. However, instead of showing a weakness in quantum mechanics, this forced quantum mechanics to acknowledge that quantum entanglement did in fact exist and it became another foundation theory of quantum mechanics. The 1935 paper is currently Einstein's most cited publication in physics journals. Bohr's original response to Einstein was that the particles were in a system. However, Einstein's challenge led to decades of substantial research into this quantum mechanical phenomenon of quantum entanglement. This research clarified by Yanhua Shih points out that the two entangled particles can be viewed as somehow not separate, which removes the locality objection[25]. This means that no matter the distance between the entangled particles, they remain in the same quantum state so that one particle is not sending information to another particle faster than the speed of light, but rather a change to one particle is a change to the entire system or quantum state of the entangled particles and therefore changes the state of the system without information transference. Interpretations- the quantum micro and the newtonian macro world. As a system becomes larger or more massive (action >> h ) the classical picture tends to emerge, with some exceptions, such as superfluidity. The emergence of behaviour as we scale up that matches our classical intuition is called the correspondence principle and is based on Ehrenfest's theorem. This why we can usually ignore quantum mechanics when dealing with everyday objects. Even so, trying to make sense of quantum theory is an ongoing process which has spawned a number of interpretations of quantum theory, ranging from the conventional Copenhagen Interpretation to hidden variables & many worlds. There seems to be no end in sight to the philosophical musings on the subject; however the empirical or technical success of the theory is unrivalled; all modern fundamental physical theories are quantum theories. Consciousness causes collapse Consciousness causes collapse is the speculative theory that observation by a conscious observer is responsible for the wavefunction collapse. It is an attempt to solve the Wigner's friend paradox by simply stating that collapse occurs at the first "conscious" observer. Supporters claim this is not a revival of substance dualism, since (in a ramification of this view) consciousness and objects are entangled and cannot be
Page 16 of 35 considered as distinct. The consciousness causes collapse theory can be considered as a speculative appendage to almost any interpretation of quantum mechanics and most physicists reject it as unverifiable and introducing unnecessary elements into physics
Quantum Electrodynamics
Quantum electrodynamics (QED) is a relativistic quantum field theory of electromagnetism. QED mathematically describes all phenomena involving electrically charged particles interacting by means of exchange by photons, whether the interaction is between light and matter or between two charged particles. It has been called "the jewel of physics" for its extremely accurate predictions of quantities like the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron, and the Lamb shift of the energy levels of hydrogen. Physical interpretation of QED In classical physics, due to interference light is observed to take the stationary path between two points; but how does light `know where it's going'? That is, if the start and end points are known, the path that will take the shortest time can be calculated. However, when light is first emitted, the end point is not known, so how is it that light always takes the quickest path? The answer is provided by QED. Light doesn't know where it is going, and it doesn't always take the quickest path. According to QED light does not have to it simply goes over every possible path, and the observer (at a particular location) simply detects the mathematical result of all wave functions added up (as a sum of all line integrals). In fact, according to QED, light can go slower or faster than the speed of light to get there[1]. Physically, QED describes charged particles (and their antiparticles) interacting with each other by the exchange of photons. The magnitude of these interactions can be computed using perturbation theory; these rather complex formulas have a remarkable pictorial representation as Feynman diagrams [1]. QED was the theory to which Feynman diagrams were first applied. These diagrams were invented on the basis of Lagrangian mechanics. Using a Feynman diagram, one decides every possible path between the start and end points. Each path is assigned a complex-valued probability amplitude, and the actual amplitude we observe is the sum of all amplitudes over all possible paths. Obviously, among all possible paths the ones with stationary phase contribute most (due to lack of destructive interference with some neighboring counter-phase paths) this results in the stationary classical path between the two points. QED doesn't predict what will happen in an experiment, but it can predict the probability of what will happen in an experiment, which is how it is experimentally verified. Predictions of QED agree with experiments to an extremely high degree of accuracy: currently about 1012 (and limited by experimental errors). This makes QED the most accurate physical theory constructed thus far.
Page 17 of 35 Near the end of his life, Richard Feynman gave a series of lectures on QED intended for the lay public. These lectures were transcribed and published as Feynman (1985), QED: The strange theory of light and matter, a classic nonmathematical exposition of QED from the point of view articulated above. See also QED (book). Much of Feynman's discussion springs from an everyday phenomenon: the way any sheet of glass partly reflects any light shining on it. (The book's cover featured a beautiful photograph of an iridescent soap bubble, another striking example of an interferencebased phenomenon (illustrating addition of wave functions, a central principle of QED). Feynman also pays homage to Isaac Newton's struggles to come to terms with the nature of light. History Quantum theory began in 1900, when Max Planck assumed that energy is quantized in order to derive a formula predicting the observed frequency dependence of the energy emitted by a black body. This dependence is completely at variance with classical physics. In 1905, Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by postulating that light energy comes in quanta called photons. In 1913, Bohr invoked quantization in his proposed explanation of the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom. In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed a quantum theory of the wave-like nature of subatomic particles. The phrase "quantum physics" was first employed in Johnston's Planck's Universe in Light of Modern Physics. These theories, while they fit the experimental facts to some extent, were strictly phenomenological: they provided no rigorous justification for the quantization they employed. They are collectively known as the "old quantum theory." Modern quantum mechanics was born in 1925 with Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and Erwin Schrdinger's wave mechanics and the Schrdinger equation. Schrdinger subsequently showed that these two approaches were equivalent. In 1927, Heisenberg formulated his uncertainty principle, and the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics began to take shape. Around this time, Paul Dirac, in work culminating in his 1930 monograph, joined quantum mechanics and special relativity, pioneered the use of operator theory, and devised the bra-ket notation widely used since. In 1932, John von Neumann formulated the rigorous mathematical basis for quantum mechanics as the theory of linear operators on Hilbert spaces. This and other work from the founding period remains valid and widely used. Quantum chemistry began with Walter Heitler and Fritz London's 1927 quantum account of the covalent bond of the hydrogen molecule. Linus Pauling and others contributed to the subsequent development of quantum chemistry. The application of quantum mechanics to fields rather than single particles, resulting in what are known as quantum field theories, began in 1927. Early contributors included Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli, Weisskopf, and Jordan. This line of research culminated in the 1940s in the quantum electrodynamics (QED) of Richard Feynman, Freeman Dyson, Julian Schwinger, and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, for which Feynman, Schwinger and
Page 18 of 35 Tomonaga received the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics. QED, a quantum theory of electrons, positrons, and the electromagnetic field, was the first satisfactory quantum description of a physical field and of the creation and annihilation of quantum particles. QED involves a covariant and gauge invariant prescription for the calculation of observable quantities. Feynman's mathematical technique, based on his diagrams, initially seemed very different from the field-theoretic, operator-based approach of Schwinger and Tomonaga, but Freeman Dyson later showed that the two approaches were equivalent. The renormalization procedure for eliminating the awkward infinite predictions of quantum field theory was first implemented in QED. Even though renormalization works very well in practice, Feynman was never entirely comfortable with its mathematical validity, even referring to renormalization as a "shell game" and "hocus pocus". (Feynman, 1985: 128) QED has served as a role model and template for all subsequent quantum field theories. One such subsequent theory is quantum chromodynamics, which began in the early 1960s and attained its present form in the 1975 work by H. David Politzer, David Gross and Frank Wilczek. Building on the pioneering work of Schwinger, Peter Higgs, Goldstone, and others, Sheldon Glashow, Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam independently showed how the weak nuclear force and quantum electrodynamics could be merged into a single electroweak force.
Butterfly effect
The butterfly effect is a phrase that encapsulates the more technical notion of sensitive dependence on initial conditions in chaos theory. Small variations of the initial condition of a dynamical system may produce large variations in the long term behavior of the system. This is sometimes presented as esoteric behavior, but can be exhibited by very simple systems: for example, a ball placed at the crest of a hill might roll into any of several valleys depending on slight differences in initial position. The phrase refers to the idea that a butterfly's wings might create tiny changes in the atmosphere that ultimately cause a tornado to appear (or, for that matter, prevent a tornado from appearing). The flapping wing represents a small change in the initial condition of the system, which causes a chain of events leading to large-scale
Page 19 of 35 phenomena. Had the butterfly not flapped its wings, the trajectory of the system might have been vastly different. Recurrence, the approximate return of a system towards its initial conditions, together with the sensitive dependence on initial conditions, are the two main ingredients for chaotic motion. They have the practical consequence of making complex systems, such as the weather, difficult to predict past a certain time rangeapproximately a week, in the case of weather. Sensitive dependence on initial conditions was first described in the literature by Hadamard and popularized by Duhem's 1906 book. The term butterfly effect is related to the work of Edward Lorenz, who in a 1963 paper for the New York Academy of Sciences noted that "One meteorologist remarked that if the theory were correct, one flap of a seagull's wings could change the course of weather forever." Later speeches and papers by Lorenz used the more poetic butterfly. According to Lorenz, upon failing to provide a title for a talk he was to present at the 139th meeting of the AAAS in 1972, Philip Merilees concocted Does the flap of a butterflys wings in Brazil set off a tornado in Texas? as a title. The concept of the Butterfly effect is sometimes used in popular media dealing with the idea of time travel, usually inaccurately. In the 1952 short story by Ray Bradbury, "A Sound of Thunder", the killing of a butterfly during the time of dinosaurs causes the future to change in subtle but meaningful ways: e.g., the spelling of English, and the outcome of a political election. According to the actual theory, however, the mere presence of the time travelers in the past would be enough to change short-term events (such as the weather), and would also have an unpredictable impact on the distant future. In a Simpsons episode about Homer going back to the time of dinosaurs with a time machine (a la Bradbury's story), Homer commits intentional and unintentional violence in the past, violence which drastically changes the future (i.e., Homer's present). In many cases, minor and seemingly inconsequential actions in the past are extrapolated over time and can have radical effects on the present time of the main characters. In the movie The Butterfly Effect, Evan Treborn (Ashton Kutcher), when reading from his adolescent journals, is able to essentially "redo" parts of his past. As he continues to do this, he realizes that even though his intentions are good, the actions he takes always have unintended consequences. However, this movie does not seriously explore the implications of the butterfly effect; only the lives of the principal characters seem to change from one scenario to another. The greater world around them is mostly unaffected. Another movie which explores the butterfly effect (though not advertised as such) is Sliding Doors. The movie observes two parallel life paths of a woman named Helen, played by Gwyneth Paltrow. These two paths diverge when Helen attempts to catch a commuter train. In one life path she catches the train, and in another she is delayed for
Page 20 of 35 just a few seconds and barely misses the train. This results in two dramatically different sets of events. The Butterfly effect was also invoked by fictional mathematician Ian Malcolm in both the novel and film versions of Jurassic Park. He used it to explain the inherent instability of (among other things) an amusement park with dinosaurs as the attraction - although this interpretation can also be taken to mean that zoo animals will always escape and kill their captors.
Fractal
The word "fractal" has two related meanings. In colloquial usage, it denotes a shape that is recursively constructed or self-similar, that is, a shape that appears similar at all scales of magnification and is therefore often referred to as "infinitely complex." In mathematics a fractal is a geometric object that satisfies a specific technical condition, namely having a Hausdorff dimension greater than its topological dimension. The term fractal was coined in 1975 by Benot Mandelbrot, from the Latin fractus, meaning "broken" or "fractured." History A Koch snowflake is the limit of an infinite construction that starts with a triangle and recursively replaces each line segment with a series of four line segments that form a triangular "bump". Each time new triangles are added (an iteration), the perimeter of this shape grows by a factor of 4/3 and thus diverges to infinity with the number of iterations. The length of the Koch snowflake's boundary is therefore infinite, while its area remains finite. For this reason, the Koch snowflake and similar constructions were sometimes called "monster curves." Objects that are now called fractals were discovered and explored long before the word was coined. Ethnomathematics like Ron Eglash's African Fractals (ISBN 0-8135-2613-2) documents pervasive fractal geometry in indigeneous African craft. In 1525, the German Artist Albrecht Drer published The Painter's Manual, in which one section is on "Tile Patterns formed by Pentagons." The Drer's Pentagon largely resembled the Sierpinski carpet, but based on pentagons instead of squares. The idea of "recursive self similarity" was originally developed by the philosopher Leibniz and he even worked out many of the details. In 1872, Karl Weierstrass found an example of a function with the non-intuitive property that it is everywhere continuous but nowhere differentiable the graph of this function would now be called a fractal. In 1904, Helge von Koch, dissatisfied with Weierstrass's very abstract and analytic definition, gave a more geometric definition of a similar function, which is now called the Koch snowflake. The idea of self-similar curves was taken further by Paul Pierre Lvy
Page 21 of 35 who, in his 1938 paper Plane or Space Curves and Surfaces Consisting of Parts Similar to the Whole, described a new fractal curve, the Lvy C curve. Georg Cantor gave examples of subsets of the real line with unusual properties these Cantor sets are also now recognised as fractals. Iterated functions in the complex plane had been investigated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by Henri Poincar, Felix Klein, Pierre Fatou, and Gaston Julia. However, without the aid of modern computer graphics, they lacked the means to visualize the beauty of many of the objects that they had discovered. In the 1960s, Benot Mandelbrot started investigating self-similarity in papers such as How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension. This built on earlier work by Lewis Fry Richardson. In 1975, Mandelbrot coined the word fractal to denote an object whose Hausdorff-Besicovitch dimension is greater than its topological dimension. (Please refer to the articles on these terms for precise definitions.) He illustrated this mathematical definition with striking computerconstructed visualizations. These images captured the popular imagination; many of them were based on recursion, leading to the popular meaning of the term "fractal". Examples
An example of an animated fractal. A Julia set, a fractal related to the Mandelbrot set A relatively simple class of examples is the Cantor sets, in which short and then shorter (open) intervals are struck out of the unit interval [0, 1], leaving a set that might (or might not) actually be self-similar under enlargement, and might (or might not) have dimension d that has 0 < d < 1. A simple recipe, such as excluding the digit 7 from decimal representations, is self-similar under 10-fold enlargement, and also has dimension log 9/log 10 (this value is the same, no matter what logarithmic base is chosen), showing the connection of the two concepts. Additional examples of fractals include the Lyapunov fractal, Sierpinski triangle and carpet, Menger sponge, dragon curve, space-filling curve, limit sets of Kleinian groups, and the Koch curve. Fractals can be deterministic or stochastic (i.e. non-deterministic). Chaotic dynamical systems are sometimes associated with fractals. Objects in the phase space of a dynamical system can be fractals (see Attractor). Objects in the parameter space for a family of systems may be fractal as well. An interesting example is the
Page 22 of 35 Mandelbrot set. This set contains whole discs, so it has a dimension of 2 and is not technically fractalbut what is truly surprising is that the boundary of the Mandelbrot set also has a Hausdorff dimension of 2. (M. Shishikura proved that in 1991.) The fractional dimension of the boundary of the Koch snowflake The following analysis of the Koch Snowflake suggests how self-similarity can be used to analyze fractal properties. The total length of a number, N, of small steps, L, is the product NL. Applied to the boundary of the Koch snowflake this gives a boundless length as L approaches zero. But this distinction is not satisfactory, as different Koch snowflakes do have different sizes. A solution is to measure, not in meter, m, nor in square meter, m, but in some other power of a meter, mx. Now 4N(L/3)x = NLx, because a three times shorter steplength requires four times as many steps, as is seen from the figure. Solving that equation gives x = (log 4)/(log 3) 1.26186. So the unit of measurement of the boundary of the Koch snowflake is approximately m1.26186. [edit] Generating fractals
Even 2000 times magnification of the Mandelbrot set uncovers fine detail resembling the full set.
Three common techniques for generating fractals are: Iterated function systems These have a fixed geometric replacement rule. Cantor set, Sierpinski carpet, Sierpinski gasket, Peano curve, Koch snowflake, Harter-Heighway dragon curve, T-Square, Menger sponge, are some examples of such fractals.
Page 23 of 35
Escape-time fractals Fractals defined by a recurrence relation at each point in a space (such as the complex plane). Examples of this type are the Mandelbrot set, the Burning Ship fractal and the Lyapunov fractal. Random fractals Generated by stochastic rather than deterministic processes, for example, fractal landscapes, Lvy flight and the Brownian tree. The latter yields so-called mass- or dendritic fractals, for example, diffusion-limited aggregation or reaction-limited aggregation clusters. Classification of fractals Fractals can also be classified according to their self-similarity. There are three types of self-similarity found in fractals: Exact self-similarity This is the strongest type of self-similarity; the fractal appears identical at different scales. Fractals defined by iterated function systems often display exact self-similarity. Quasi-self-similarity This is a loose form of self-similarity; the fractal appears approximately (but not exactly) identical at different scales. Quasi-self-similar fractals contain small copies of the entire fractal in distorted and degenerate forms. Fractals defined by recurrence relations are usually quasi-self-similar but not exactly self-similar. Statistical self-similarity This is the weakest type of self-similarity; the fractal has numerical or statistical measures which are preserved across scales. Most reasonable definitions of fractal trivially imply some form of statistical self-similarity. (Fractal dimension itself is a numerical measure which is preserved across scales.) Random fractals are examples of fractals which are statistically self-similar, but neither exactly nor quasi-self-similar. It should be noted that not all self-similar objects are fractals e.g., the real line (a straight Euclidean line) is exactly self-similar, but since its Hausdorff dimension and Fractals in nature A fractal fern computed using an Iterated function system Approximate fractals are easily found in nature. These objects display self-similar structure over an extended, but finite, scale range. Examples include clouds, snow flakes, mountains, river networks, and systems of blood vessels. Trees and ferns are fractal in nature and can be modeled on a computer using a recursive algorithm. This recursive nature is clear in these examples a branch from a tree or a frond from a fern is a miniature replica of the whole: not identical, but similar in nature.
Page 24 of 35 The surface of a mountain can be modeled on a computer using a fractal: Start with a triangle in 3D space and connect the central points of each side by line segments, resulting in 4 triangles. The central points are then randomly moved up or down, within a defined range. The procedure is repeated, decreasing at each iteration the range by half. The recursive nature of the algorithm guarantees that the whole is statistically similar to each detail.
Romanesco broccoli High voltage breakdown A fractal is formed when pullingwithin a 4 block of Fractal branching showing very fine apart two glue-covered acrylic acrylic creates a fractal occurs on a microwave- natural fractals sheets. irradiated DVD Lichtenberg figure.
Chaos theory
In mathematics and physics, chaos theory describes the behavior of certain nonlinear dynamical systems that under certain conditions exhibit a phenomenon known as chaos. Among the characteristics of chaotic systems, described below, is sensitivity to initial conditions (popularly referred to as the butterfly effect). As a result of this sensitivity, the behavior of systems that exhibit chaos appears to be random, even though the system is deterministic in the sense that it is well defined and contains no random parameters. Examples of such systems include the atmosphere, the solar system, plate tectonics, turbulent fluids, economics, and population growth. Systems that exhibit mathematical chaos are deterministic and thus orderly in some sense; this technical use of the word chaos is at odds with common parlance, which suggests complete disorder. (See the article on mythological chaos for a discussion of the origin of the word in mythology, and other uses.) A related field of physics called quantum chaos theory studies non-deterministic systems that follow the laws of quantum mechanics. For a dynamical system to be classified as chaotic, most scientists will agree that it must have the following properties: it must be sensitive to initial conditions, it must be topologically mixing, and its periodic orbits must be dense.
Page 25 of 35
Sensitivity to initial conditions means that each point in such a system is arbitrarily closely approximated by other points with significantly different future trajectories. Thus, an arbitrarily small perturbation of the current trajectory may lead to significantly different future behavior. Sensitivity to initial conditions is popularly known as the "butterfly effect", suggesting that the flapping of a butterfly's wings might create tiny changes in the atmosphere, which could over time cause a tornado to occur. The flapping wing represents a small change in the initial condition of the system, which causes a chain of events leading to large-scale phenomena. Had the butterfly not flapped its wings, the trajectory of the system might have been vastly different. History The first discoverer of chaos can plausibly be argued to be Jacques Hadamard, who in 1898 published an influential study of the chaotic motion of a free particle gliding frictionlessly on a surface of constant negative curvature. In the system studied, Hadamard's billiards, Hadamard was able to show that all trajectories are unstable, in that all particle trajectories diverge exponentially from one-another, with positive Lyapunov exponent. In the early 1900s, Henri Poincar while studying the three-body problem, found that there can be orbits which are nonperiodic, and yet not forever increasing nor approaching a fixed point. Much of the early theory was developed almost entirely by mathematicians, under the name of ergodic theory. Later studies, also on the topic of nonlinear differential equations, were carried out by G.D. Birkhoff, A.N. Kolmogorov, M.L. Cartwright, J.E. Littlewood, and Stephen Smale. Except for Smale, these studies were all directly inspired by physics: the three-body problem in the case of Birkhoff, turbulence and astronomical problems in the case of Kolmogorov, and radio engineering in the case of Cartwright and Littlewood. Although chaotic planetary motion had not been observed, experimentalists had encountered turbulence in fluid motion and nonperiodic oscillation in radio circuits without the benefit of a theory to explain what they were seeing. Chaos theory progressed more rapidly after mid-century, when it first became evident for some scientists that linear theory, the prevailing system theory at that time, simply could not explain the observed behavior of certain experiments like that of the logistic map. The main catalyst for the development of chaos theory was the electronic computer. Much of the mathematics of chaos theory involves the repeated iteration of simple mathematical formulas, which would be impractical to do by hand. Electronic computers made these repeated calculations practical. One of the earliest electronic digital computers, ENIAC, was used to run simple weather forecasting models. An early pioneer of the theory was Edward Lorenz whose interest in chaos came about accidentally through his work on weather prediction in 1961. Lorenz was using a basic computer, a Royal McBee LGP-30, to run his weather simulation. He wanted to see a sequence of data again and to save time he started the simulation in the middle of its
Page 26 of 35 course. He was able to do this by entering a printout of the data corresponding to conditions in the middle of his simulation which he had calculated last time. To his surprise the weather that the machine began to predict was completely different from the weather calculated before. Lorenz tracked this down to the computer printout. The printout rounded variables off to a 3-digit number, but the computer worked with 6digit numbers. This difference is tiny and the consensus at the time would have been that it should have had practically no effect. However Lorenz had discovered that small changes in initial conditions produced large changes in the long-term outcome. Yoshisuke Ueda independently identified a chaotic phenomenon as such by using an analog computer on November 27, 1961. The chaos exhibited by an analog computer is truly a natural phenomenon, in contrast with those discovered by a digital computer. Ueda's supervising professor, Hayashi, did not believe in chaos throughout his life, and thus he prohibited Ueda from publishing his findings until 1970. The term chaos as used in mathematics was coined by the applied mathematician James A. Yorke. The availability of cheaper, more powerful computers broadens the applicability of chaos theory. Currently, chaos theory continues to be a very active area of research. Chaos theory is applied in many scientific disciplines: mathematics, biology, computer science, economics, engineering, philosophy, physics, politics, population dynamics, psychology, robotics, etc.
Bifurcation theory
In mathematics, specifically in the study of dynamical systems, a bifurcation occurs when a small smooth change made to the parameter values (the bifurcation parameters) of a system causes a sudden 'qualitative' or topological change in the system's long-term dynamical behaviour. Bifurcations can occur in continuous systems (described by ODEs, DDEs or PDEs), and discrete systems (described by maps).
Page 27 of 35
Extended Consciousness Bell's theorem

Bell's theorem is the most famous legacy of the late John Bell. It is notable for showing that the predictions of quantum mechanics (QM) differ from those of intuition. It is simple and elegant, and touches upon fundamental philosophical issues that relate to modern physics. In its simplest form, Bell's theorem states: No physical theory of local hidden variables can ever reproduce all of the predictions of quantum mechanics. This theorem has even been called "the most profound in science" (Stapp, 1975). Bell's seminal 1965 paper was entitled "On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen paradox". The Einstein Podolsky Rosen paradox (EPR paradox) assumes local realism, the intuitive notion that particle attributes have definite values independent of the act of observation and that physical effects have a finite propagation speed. Bell showed that local realism leads to a requirement for certain types of phenomena that are not present in quantum mechanics. This requirement is called Bell's inequality. Different authors subsequently derived similar inequalities, collectively termed Bell inequalities, that also assume local realism. That is, they assume that each quantum-level object has a well defined state that accounts for all its measurable properties and that distant objects do not exchange information faster than the speed of light. These well defined properties are often called hidden variables, the properties that Einstein posited when he stated his famous objection to quantum mechanics: "[God] does not play dice." The inequalities concern measurements made by observers (often called Alice and Bob) on entangled pairs of particles that have interacted and then separated. Hidden variable assumptions limit the correlation of subsequent measurements of the particles. Bell discovered that under quantum mechanics this correlation limit may be violated. Quantum mechanics lacks local hidden variables associated with individual particles, and so the inequalities do not apply to it. Instead, it predicts correlation due to quantum entanglement of the particles, allowing their state to be well defined only after a measurement is made on either particle. That restriction agrees with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, one of the most fundamental concepts in quantum mechanics. Per Bell's theorem, either quantum mechanics or local realism is wrong. Experiments were needed to determine which is correct, but it took many years and many improvements in technology to perform them. Bell test experiments to date overwhelmingly show that the inequalities of Bell's theorem are violated. This provides empirical evidence against local realism and demonstrates that some of the "spooky action at a distance" suggested by the famous Einstein Podolsky Rosen (EPR) thought experiment do in fact occur. They are also taken as positive evidence in favor of QM. The principle of special relativity is saved by the no-
Page 28 of 35 communication theorem, which proves that the observers cannot use the inequality violations to communicate information to each other faster than the speed of light. John Bell's papers examined both John von Neumann's 1932 proof of the incompatibility of hidden variables with QM and Albert Einstein and his colleagues' seminal 1935 paper on the subject. Importance of the theorem After EPR, quantum mechanics was left in the unsatisfactory position that it was either incomplete in the sense that it failed to account for some elements of physical reality, or it violated the principle of finite propagation speed of physical effects. In the EPR thought experiment, two observers, now commonly referred to as Alice and Bob, perform independent measurements of spin on a pair of electrons, prepared at a source in a special state called a spin singlet state. It was a conclusion of EPR that once Alice measured spin in one direction (e.g. on the x axis), Bob's measurement in that direction was determined with certainty, whereas immediately before Alice's measurement, Bob's outcome was only statistically determined. Thus, either the spin in each direction is not an element of physical reality or the effects travel from Alice to Bob instantly. In QM predictions were formulated in terms of probabilities, for example, the probability that an electron might be detected in a particular region of space, or the probability that it would have spin up or down. However, there still remained the idea that the electron had a definite position and spin, and that QM's failing was its inability to predict those values precisely. The possibility remained that some yet unknown, but more powerful theory, such as a hidden variable theory, might be able to predict these quantities exactly, while at the same time also being in complete agreement with the probabilistic answers given by QM. If a hidden variables theory were correct, the hidden variables were not described by QM and thus QM would be an incomplete theory. The desire for a local realist theory was based on two ideas: first, that objects have a definite state that determines the values of all other measurable properties such as position and momentum and second, that (as a result of special relativity) effects of local actions such as measurements cannot travel faster than the speed of light. In the formalization of local realism used by Bell, the predictions of a theory result from the application of classical probability theory to an underlying parameter space. By a simple (but clever) argument based on classical probability he then showed that correlations between measurements are bounded in a way that is violated by QM. Bell's theorem seemed to seal the fate of those that had local realist hopes for QM. Bell's thought experiment Bell considered a setup in which two observers, Alice and Bob, perform independent measurements on a system S prepared in some fixed state. Each observer has a detector
Page 29 of 35 with which to make measurements. On each trial, Alice and Bob can independently choose between various detector settings. Alice can choose a detector setting a to obtain a measurement A(a) and Bob can choose a detector setting b to measure B(b). After repeated trials Alice and Bob collect statistics on their measurements and correlate the results. There are two key assumptions in Bell's analysis: (1) each measurement reveals an objective physical property of the system (2) a measurement taken by one observer has no effect on the measurement taken by the other. In the language of probability theory, repeated measurements of system properties can be regarded as repeated sampling of random variables. One might expect measurements by Alice and Bob to be somehow correlated with each other: the random variables are assumed not to be independent, but linked in some way. Nonetheless, there is a limit to the amount of correlation one might expect to see. This is what the Bell inequality expresses. Notable quotes Heinz Pagels, in The Cosmic Code, writes: Some recent popularizers of Bell's work when confronted with [Bell's inequality] have gone on to claim that telepathy is verified or the mystical notion that all parts of the universe are instantaneously interconnected is vindicated. Others assert that this implies communication faster than the speed of light. That is rubbish; the quantum theory and Bell's inequality imply nothing of this kind. Individuals who make such claims have substituted a wish-fulfilling fantasy for understanding. If we closely examine Bell's experiment we will see a bit of sleight of hand by the God that plays dice which rules out actual nonlocal influences. Just as we think we have captured a really weird beast--like acausal influences--it slips out of our grasp. The slippery property of quantum reality is again manifested." Bell test experiments Main article: Bell test experiments. Bell's inequalities are tested by "coincidence counts" from a Bell test experiment such as the optical one shown in the diagram. Pairs of particles are emitted as a result of a quantum process, analysed with respect to some key property such as polarisation direction, then detected. The setting (orientations) of the analysers are selected by the experimenter. Bell test experiments to date overwhelmingly suggest that Bell's inequality is violated. Indeed, a table of Bell test experiments performed prior to 1986 is given in 4.5 of (Redhead, 1987). Of the thirteen experiments listed, only two reached results
Page 30 of 35 contradictory to quantum mechanics; moreover, according to the same source, when the experiments were repeated, "the discrepancies with QM could not be reproduced".
Scheme of a "two-channel" Bell test The source S produces pairs of "photons", sent in opposite directions. Each photon encounters a two-channel polariser whose orientation (a or b) can be set by the experimenter. Emerging signals from each channel are detected and coincidences of four types (++, --, +- and -+) counted by the coincidence monitor. Nevertheless, the issue is not conclusively settled. According to Shimony's 2004 Stanford Encyclopedia overview article "Most of the dozens of experiments performed so far have favored Quantum Mechanics, but not decisively because of the 'detection loopholes' or the 'communication loophole.' The latter has been nearly decisively blocked by a recent experiment and there is a good prospect for blocking the former." Implications of violation of Bell's inequality The phenomenon of quantum entanglement that is implied by violation of Bell's inequality is just one element of quantum physics which cannot be represented by any classical picture of physics; other non-classical elements are complementarity and wavefunction collapse. The problem of interpretation of quantum mechanics is intended to provide a satisfactory picture of these non-classical elements of quantum physics. Some advocates of the hidden variables idea prefer to accept the opinion that experiments have ruled out local hidden variables. They are ready to give up locality (and probably also causality), explaining the violation of Bell's inequality by means of a "non-local" hidden variable theory, in which the particles exchange information about their states. This is the basis of the Bohm interpretation of quantum mechanics. It is, however,
Page 31 of 35 considered by most to be unconvincing, requiring, for example, that all particles in the universe be able to instantaneously exchange information with all others. Finally, one subtle assumption of the Bell inequalities is counterfactual definiteness. The derivation refers to several objective properties that cannot all be measured for any given particle, since the act of taking the measurement changes the state. Under local realism the difficulty is readily overcome, so long as we can assume that the source is stable, producing the same statistical distribution of states for all the subexperiments. If this assumption is felt to be unjustifiable, though, one can argue that Bell's inequality is unproven. In the Everett many-worlds interpretation, the assumption of counterfactual definiteness is abandoned, this interpretation assuming that the universe branches into many different observers, each of whom measures a different observation. Hence many worlds can adhere to both the properties of philosophical realism and the principle of locality and not violate Bell's conditions -- the only interpretation that can do this.
Locality (Local Universe)

This article is about the principle of locality in physics. In physics, the principle of locality is that distant objects cannot have direct influence on one another: an object is influenced directly only by its immediate surroundings. This was stated as follows by Albert Einstein in his article "Quantum Mechanics and Reality" ("Quanten-Mechanik und Wirklichkeit", Dialectica 2:320-324, 1948): The following idea characterises the relative independence of objects far apart in space (A and B): external influence on A has no direct influence on B; this is known as the Principle of Local Action, which is used consistently only in field theory. If this axiom were to be completely abolished, the idea of the existence of quasienclosed systems, and thereby the postulation of laws which can be checked empirically in the accepted sense, would become impossible. Local realism is the combination of the principle of locality with the "realistic" assumption that all objects must objectively have their properties already before these properties are observed. Einstein liked to say that the Moon is "out there" even when no one is observing it. Local realism is a significant feature of classical mechanics, general relativity and Maxwell's theory, but quantum mechanics largely rejects this principle due the presence of distant quantum entanglements, most clearly demonstrated by the EPR paradox and quantified by Bell's inequalities. Every theory that, like quantum mechanics, is compatible with violations of Bell's inequalities must abandon either local realism or counterfactual definiteness. (The vast majority of physicists believe that experiments have demonstrated Bell's violations, but some local realists dispute the claim, in view of the recognised loopholes in the tests.) Different interpretations of quantum mechanics reject different parts of local realism and/or counterfactual definiteness.
Page 32 of 35
Nonlocality
A Physical theory is said to exhibit strict nonlocality if in that theory it is not possible to treat widely separated systems as independent. The term is most often reserved, however, just for interaction supposed to occure outside the past light cone. Nonlocality does not necessarily imply a lack of causality. For instance, Newtonian gravitation is nonlocal because it involves instantaneous action-at-a-distance but Newtonian mechanics is certainly causal. Effects that appear nonlocal in Quantum Mechanics, some physicists say, actually obey locality; in these cases, the nonlocal interaction affects correlations that are considered within the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics to pertain to states of matter that result from the wave collapse upon measurement of irreal states comprised of the sum of mutually exclsive possibilities, e.g., the singlet state. Einstein criticised this interpretation of quantum mechanics on the grounds that these effects employed "spooky instantaneous action at a distance". This issue is very closely related to Bell's theorem and the EPR paradox. Quantum field theory, on the other hand, which is the relativistic generalization of quantum mechanics, contains mathematical features that assure locality, so that nonrelativistic quantum mechanics should be local as well. Thus, the EPR paradox. In most of the conventional interpretations, such as the version of the Copenhagen interpretation and the interpretation based on Consistent Histories, where the wavefunction is not assumed to have a direct physical interpretation or reality it is realism that is rejected. The actual definite properties of a physical system "do not exist" prior to the measurement and the wavefunction has a restricted interpretation as nothing more than a mathematical tool used to calculate the probabilities of experimental outcomes, in agreement with positivism in philosophy as the only topic that science should discuss. In the version of the Copenhagen interpretation where the wavefunction is assumed to have a physical interpretation or reality (the nature of which is unspecified), the principle of locality is violated during the measurement process via wavefunction collapse. This is a non-local process because Born's Rule, when applied to the system's wave function, yields a probability density for all regions of space and time. Upon measurement of the physical system, the probability density vanishes everywhere instantaneously, except where (and when) the measured entity is found to exist. This "vanishing" would be a real physical process, and clearly non-local (faster-than-lightspeed), if the wave function is considered physically real and the probability density converged to zero at arbitrarily far distances during the finite time required for the measurement process. The Bohm interpretation always wants to preserve realism, and it needs to violate the principle of locality to achieve the required correlations.
Page 33 of 35 In the many-worlds interpretation realism and locality are retained but counterfactual definiteness is rejected by the extension of the notion of reality to allow the existence of parallel universes. Because the differences between the different interpretations are mostly philosophical ones (except for the Bohm and many-worlds interpretations), the physicists usually use the language in which the important statements are independent of the interpretation we choose. In this framework, only the measurable action at a distance - a superluminal propagation of real, physical information - would be usually considered to be a violation of locality by the physicists. Such phenomena have never been seen, and they are not predicted by the current theories (with the possible exception of the Bohm theory). Locality is one of the axioms of relativistic quantum field theory, as required for causality. The formalization of locality in this case is as follows: if we have two observables, each localized within two distinct spacetime regions which happen to be at a spacelike separation from each other, the observables must commute. This interpretation of the word "locality" is closely related to the relativistic version of in physics. In physics a solution is local if the underlying equations are either Lorentz invariant or, more generally, generally covariant or locally Lorentz invariant.
Tao
Tao or Dao refers to a Chinese character that was of pivotal meaning in ancient Chinese philosophy and religion. Its most generic meaning, it refers to the "head path," and is generally translated into English as "The Way". The semantics of vary widely depending on the context, and may variously refer to a concept of religion, morality, duty, knowledge, rationality, ultimate truth, path, or taste. The CEDICT allows several different definition words for , as it varies in translation: direction, way, method, road, path, principle, truth, reason, skill, method, Tao (of Taoism), a measure word, to say, to speak, and to talk. Tao is central to Taoism, but Confucianism also uses it to refer to "The Way," or the "noble way" of personal conduct in life. The philosophic and religious use of the character can be analyzed in two main segments: one meaning is "doctrine" or "discourse"; every school owns and defends a specific Tao or discourse about doctrine. In the other meaning, there is the 'Great Tao', that is the source of and guiding principle behind all the processes of the universe. Beyond being and non-being, prior to space and time, Tao is the intelligent ordering principle behind the unceasing flow of change in the natural world. In this sense Tao gains great cosmological and metaphysical significance comparable to the theistic concept of God; the Greek concept of the logos; or the Dharma in Indian religions. The nature and meaning of the Tao received its first full exposition in the Tao Te Ching of Laozi, a work which along with those of Confucius and Mencius would have a far-
Page 34 of 35 reaching effect on the intellectual, moral and religious life of the Chinese people. Although a book of practical wisdom in many ways, its profoundly metaphysical character was unique among the prevailing forms of thought in China at that time. The religion and philosophy based on the teaching of Laozi and his successor Zhuangzi is known in English as "Taoism." Even though the Tao is often said to be undefinable and unexplainable with words (even Chinese ones), the present article focuses on the Tao of Taoism Some characteristics of Tao There is a flow in the universe, and it is called dao. Dao flows slowly, however; it is never stagnant and is incredibly powerful and keeps things in the universe balanced and in order. It manifests itself through change of seasons, cycle of life, shifts of power, time, and so forth. Dao has a strong and deep connection with cosmology and the natural world, as the most well-known Daoist philosophers Laozi and Zhuangzi agreed. Dao is the law of Nature. When you follow dao, you become one with it. And it is best to also understand chi, because chi and dao go hand in hand. Chi is a Chinese term that is translated as breath, vapour, and energy. Because chi is the energy that circulates the universe, it can be said that dao is ultimately a flow of chi. Being one with dao brings best outcomes, because that way things fall into place that they are meant to be. The concept of Tao is based upon the understanding that the only constant in the universe is change, (ie. I Ching, the "Book of Changes") and that we must understand and be in harmony with this change. The change is a constant flow from non-being into being, potential into actual, yin into yang, female into male. The symbol of the Tao, called the Taijitu, is the yin yang confluently flowing into itself in a circle. The Tao is the main theme discussed in the Tao Te Ching, an ancient Chinese scripture attributed to Lao Tsu. This book does not specifically define what the Tao is; it affirms that in the first sentence, "The Tao that can be told of is not an Unvarying Tao" (tr. Waley, modified). Instead, it points to some characteristics of what could be understood as being the Tao. Below are some excerpts from the book. Tao as the origin of things: Tao begets one; One begets two; Two begets three; Three begets the myriad creatures. (TTC 42, tr. Lau, modified) Tao as an inexhaustible nothingness: The Way is like an empty vessel / That yet may be drawn from / Without ever needing to be filled. (TTC 4, tr. Waley) Tao is omnipotent and infallible: What Tao plants cannot be plucked, what Tao clasps, cannot slip. (TTC 54, tr. Waley)
In the Yi Jing, a sentence closely relates Tao to Yin-Yang or Taiji, asserting that "one (phase of) Yin, one (phase of) Yang, is what is called the Tao". Being thus placed at the conjunction of Yin and Yang alternance, Tao can be understood as the continuity principle that underlies the constant evolution of the world.
Page 35 of 35 Most debates between proponents of one of the Hundred Schools of Thought could be summarized in the simple question: who is closer to the Tao, or, in other words, whose "Tao" is the most powerful? As used in modern spoken and written Chinese, Tao has a wide scope of usage and meaning.
Subspace- Hyperspace (science fiction)

In science fiction, hyperspace is any region of space co-existing with our own universe (in some cases displaced in an extra spatial dimension) which may be entered using some sort of energy field or space-altering device. While hyperspace is in some way anchored to the normal universe, its properties are not the same as normal space, so traveling in hyperspace is largely inequivalent to traveling in normal space. This makes for a handy explanation of faster than light (FTL) travel: while the shortest distance between two points in normal space is a straight line, hyperspace allows those points to be closer together, or a curved line in normal space to be straight, etc. Hyperspace is the most common device used for explaining FTL in a science fiction story where FTL is necessary for interstellar travel or intergalactic travel. Spacecraft able to use hyperspace for FTL travel are said to have hyperdrive. Subspace (Star Trek) Subspace is a term used in many different science fiction media to explain many different concepts. Most often, subspace is used as a means to justify faster-than-light transit, in the form of interstellar travel or the transmission of information. Subspace is loosely associated at times with certain ideas expressed in string theory, which state that the Universe is not limited to four dimensions; there may be upwards of ten which we do not readily perceive but affect us summarily. By exploiting these higher dimensions, thus circumventing the limitations of the four we are most accustomed to, FTL speeds are imitated (or potentially achieved). Subspace is also comparable to hyperspace (science fiction); the two ideas are often interchangeable and applied in similar fashion. In most Star Trek series, subspace communications are a means to (usually) establish instantaneous contact with people and places that are light-years away. The physics of Star Trek describe infinite speed (expressed as Warp 10) as an impossibility; as such even subspace communications which putatively travel at speeds over Warp 9.9 may take hours or weeks to reach certain destinations. Once the connection is made, however, communication between the two points often becomes instantaneous.

Quantum Physics Basics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Quantum Physics Basics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Page 1 of 35

Quantum Physics Basics Introduction

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

Quantum World: Instant Expert

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

Extended Consciousness Bell's theorem

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

Locality (Local Universe)

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

Subspace- Hyperspace (science fiction)

E:\IMUNE\Biofeedback Exams\Support materials\Quantum Physics Basics.doc

You might also like