Electromagnetic Field Theory

Electromagnetic eld theory for physicists and engineers:Fundamentals and Applications
R. Gmez Martn
Contents
0.1 Prefacio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Electromagnetic eld: radiation and propagation

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3 3 3 6 8 12 14 16 18 19 20 24 25 27 29 29 32 34 38 43 45 50 51 53 55 57 59 63 64
1 Electromagnetic eld fundamentals 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Review of Maxwells equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Physical meaning of Maxwells equations . . . 1.2.2 Constitutive equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 The conservation of energy. Poyntings theorem . . . 1.4 Momentum of the electromagnetic eld . . . . . . . . 1.5 Time-harmonic electromagnetic elds . . . . . . . . 1.5.1 Maxwells equations for time-harmonic elds 1.5.2 Complex dielectric constant. . . . . . . . . . 1.5.3 Boundary conditions for harmonic signals . . 1.5.4 Complex Poynting vector . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 On the solution of Maxwells equations . . . . . . . .
2 Fields created by a source distribution: retarded potentials 2.1 Electromagnetic potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Lorenz gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Solution of the inhomogeneous wave equation for potentials . . 2.3 Electromagnetic elds from a bounded source distribution . . . 2.3.1 Radiation elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Fields created by an innitesimal current element . . . . 2.3.3 Far-zone approximations for the potentials . . . . . . . 2.4 Multipole expansion for potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Electric dipolar radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Magnetic dipolar radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Electric quadrupole radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Maxwells symmetric equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Harmonic variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
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CONTENTS 2.5.3 Fields created by an innitesimal magnetic current element Theorem of uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.1 Non-harmonic electromagnetic eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.2 Time-harmonic elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 65 66 67 69 69 73 74 76 76 78 79 80 81
2.6
3 ??Electromagnetic waves 3.1 Wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Harmonic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Uniform plane harmonic waves . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Propagation in lossless media . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Propagation in good dielectrics or insulators . 3.2.4 Propagation in good conductors . . . . . . . 3.2.5 Surface resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Group velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4 Reection and refraction of plane waves 85 4.1 Normal incidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 4.1.1 General case: interface between two lossy media . . . . . . 86 4.1.2 Perfect/Lossy dielectric interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 4.1.3 Perfect dielectric/Perfect conductor interface . . . . . . . 89 4.1.4 Standing waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4.1.5 Measures of impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.2 Multilayer structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.2.1 Stationary and transitory regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.3 Oblique incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.4 Incident wave with the electric eld contained in the plane of incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.5 Wave incident with the electric eld perpendicular to the plane of incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 5 Electromagnetic wave-guiding structures: Waveguides and transmission lines 101 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 5.2 General relations between eld components . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 5.2.1 Transverse magnetic (TM) modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 5.2.2 Transverse electric (TE) modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 5.2.3 Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) modes . . . . . . . . . 107 5.2.4 Boundary conditions for TE and TM modes on perfectly conducting walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 5.3 Cuto frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 5.4 Attenuation in guiding structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.4.1 TE and TM modes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.4.2 TEM modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
CONTENTS 6 Some types of waveguides and transmission lines 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Rectangular waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 TM modes in rectangular waveguides . . . 6.2.2 TE modes in rectangular waveguides . . . . 6.2.3 Attenuation in rectangular waveguides . . .
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CONTENTS
0.1. PREFACIO
0.1
Prefacio
Asignatura: Electrodinmica 4o C. Fsicas Curso 2006-2007 (Granada)
ii
CONTENTS
Part I
Electromagnetic eld: radiation and propagation
Chapter 1
Electromagnetic eld fundamentals

1.1 Introduction
This chapter starts with a brief review of Maxwells equations, which are the fundamental laws that, together with the theory of electromagnetic behavior of matter, explain on a macroscopic scale the properties of the electromagnetic eld, the relationships of this eld with its sources, and its interaction with matter. The reader is assumed to be familiar with these equations at least at an undergraduate level. Next, after reviewing other fundamental topics such as constitutive parameters and boundary conditions, we apply the energy-conservation law to a bounded volume, limited by a surface S, inside of which there exists a time-variable electromagnetic eld. We shall see that when the energy balance is formulated, there appears a term representing a ow of energy carried by the electromagnetic eld through the surface S that limits V . This term leads us to the denition of Poyntings vector. Similarly, when the law of conservation of momentum is applied to the same region, we nd that the electromagnetic eld also carries a momentum density, which can also be expressed in terms of Poyntings vector.
1.2
Review of Maxwells equations
The general theory of electromagnetic phenomena is based on Maxwells equations, which constitute a set of four coupled rst-order vector partial-dierential equations relating the space and time changes of electric and magnetic elds to their scalar source densities (divergence) and vector source densities (curl) 1 .
1 According to the Helmholtz theorem a vector eld K is uniquely determined by its divergence and curl if they are given throughout the entire space and if they approach zero at innity at least as 1/rn with n > 1. A proof of this theorem is given in Appendix ??
CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD FUNDAMENTALS
Maxwells equations are usually formulated in dierential form (i.e., as relationships between quantities at the same point in space and at the same instant in time) or in integral form where, at a given instant, the relations of the elds with their sources are considered over an extensive region of space. The two formulations are related by the divergence (??) and Stokes (??) theorems. For stationary media2 , Maxwells equations in dierential and integral forms are: Dierential form of Maxwells equations D(r, t) = (r, t) (Gauss law) E(r, t) = (1.1a) (1.1b)
B(r, t) (Faradays law) (1.1c) t D(r, t) (Generalized Ampres law) (1.1d) H(r, t) = J(r, t) + t Integral form of Maxwells equations I D(r, t) ds = QT (t) (Gauss law) IS B(r, t) ds = 0 (Gauss law for magnetic elds) I I
S
B(r, t) = 0 (Gauss law for magnetic elds)
(1.2a) (1.2b) (1.2c)
E(r, t) dl H(r, t) dl
= = Z
B(r, t) ds (Faradays law) t
(J(r, t) +
D(r, t) ) ds (Generalized Ampres law) t (1.2d)
Maxwells equations, involve only macroscopic electromagnetic elds and, explicitly, only macroscopic densities of free-charge, (r, t), which are free to move within the medium, giving rise to the free-current densities, J(r, t). The eect of the macroscopic charges and current densities bound to the mediums molecules is implicitly included in the auxiliary magnitudes D and H which are related to the electric and magnetic elds, E and B by the so-called constitutive equations that describe the behavior of the medium (see Subsection 1.2.2). In general, the quantities in these equations are arbitrary functions of the position (r) and time3 (t). The denitions and units of these quantities are E = electric eld intensity (volts/meter; V m1 )
2 In a stationary m edium all quantities are evaluated in a reference frame in which the observer and all the surfaces and volumes are assumed to be at rest. Maxwells equations for moving media can be considered in terms of the special theory of relativity, as shown in chapter ??. 3 Throughout the book, in most cases, in order to make the notation more concise, we will not explicitly indicate the arguments, (r, t), of the magnitudes unless we consider it convenient to emphasize the dependence on any of the variables.
1.2. REVIEW OF MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
B = magnetic ux density (teslas4 or webers/square meter; T or W b m2 ) D = electric ux density (coulombs/square meter; C m2 ) H = magnetic eld intensity (amperes/meter; A m1 ) = free electric charge density (coulombs/ cubic meter; C m3 ) QT = net free charge, in coulombs (C), inside any closed surface S J= free electric current density (amperes/square meter A m2 ). Three of Maxwells equations (1.1a), (1.1c), (1.1d), or their alternative integral formulations (1.2a), (1.2c), (1.2d), are normally known by the names of the scientists who deduced them. For its similarity with (1.1a), equation (1.1b) is usually termed the Gauss law for magnetic elds, for which the integral formulation is given by (1.2b). These four equations as a whole are associated with the name of Maxwell because he was responsible for completing them, adding to Ampres original equation, H(r, t) = J(r, t), the displacement current density term or, in short, the displacement current, D/t, as an additional vector source for the eld H. This term has the same dimensions as the free current density but its nature is dierent because no free charge movement is involved. Its inclusion in Maxwells equations is fundamental to predict the existence of electromagnetic waves which can propagate through empty space at the constant velocity of light c. The concept of displacement current is also fundamental to deduce from (1.1d) the principle of charge conservation by means of the continuity equation J = (1.3) t or, in integral form, I dQT (1.4) J.ds = dt With his equations, Maxwell validated the concept of "eld" previously introduced by Faraday to explain the remote interactions of charges and currents, and showed not only that the electric and magnetic elds are interrelated but also that they are in fact two aspects of a single concept, the electromagnetic eld. The link between electromagnetism and mechanics is given by the empirical Lorenz force equation, which gives the electromagnetic force density, f (in N m3 ), acting on a volume charge density moving at a velocity u (in m s1 ) in a region where an electromagnetic eld exists, f = (E + u B) = E + J B (1.5)
where J = u is the current density in terms of the mean drift velocity of the particles5 , which is independent of any random velocity due to collisions. The
4 Given that the tesla is an excessivelly high magnitude to express the values of the magnetic eld usually found in practice, the cgs unit (gauss, G) is often used instead, 1T = 104 G. 5 In general, when there is more than one type of particle the current density its dened as J = i i ui where i and ui represent the volume charge density and drift velocity of the charges of class i.
total force F exerted on a volume of charge is calculated by integrating f in this volume. For a single particle with charge q the Lorentz force is F = q(E + u B) (1.6)
Maxwells equations together with Lorenzs force constitute the basic mathematical formulation of the physical laws that at a macroscopic level explain and predict all the electromagnetic phenomena which basically comprise the remote interaction of charges and currents taking place via the electric and/or magnetic elds that they produce. From Eq. (1.6) the work done by an electromagnetic eld acting on a volume charge density inside a volume dv during a time interval dt is dW = f udtdv = (E + u B) udtdv = E udtdv = E Jdtdv (1.7)
This work is transformed into heat. The corresponding power density Pv ( W m3 ) that the electromagnetic eld supplies to the charge distribution is Pv = dP dW = =EJ dv dtdv (1.8)
This equation is known as the point form of Joules law. In applications, Maxwells equations have to be complemented by appropriate initial and boundary conditions. The initial conditions involve values or derivatives of the elds at t = 0, while the boundary conditions involve the values or derivatives of the elds on the boundary of the spatial region of interest. Usually, we consider the initial conditions as a form of boundary conditions and refer to the solution of Maxwells equations, with all these conditions, as a boundary-value problem. Next, we briey describe the physical meaning of Maxwells equations.
1.2.1
Physical meaning of Maxwells equations
Gauss law, (1.1a) or (1.2a), is a direct mathematical consequence of Coulombs law, which states that the interaction force between electric charges depends on the distance, r, between them, as r2 . According to Gauss law, the divergence of the vector eld D is the volume density of free electric charges which are sources or sinks of the eld D, i.e. the lines of D begin on positive charges ( > 0) and end on negative charges ( < 0). In its integral form, Gauss law relates the ux of the vector D through a closed surface S (which can be imaginary; Fig. 1.1), to the total free charge within that surface. Gauss law for magnetic elds, (1.1b) or (1.2b), states that the B eld does not have scalar sources, i.e., it is divergenceless or solenoidal. This is because no free magnetic charges or monopoles have been found in nature (see Section 2.5) which would be the magnetic analogues of electric charges for E. Hence, there are no sources or sinks where the eld lines of B start or nish, i.e., the eld lines of B are closed. In its integral form, this indicates that the ux of the B eld through any closed surface S is null.
r dS
r dS
S
(a) (b)
Figure 1.1: (a) Closed surface S b ounding a volume V . (b) Open surface S b ounded by . The direction of the surface element dS is given by the right-hand rule: thumb of the right hand is p ointed in the direction of dS and the ngertips give the sense of line integral over the contour . Atencin: las dS debe ser ds
closed loop
the the the
Faradays law, (1.1c) or (1.2c), establishes that a time-varying B eld produces a nonconservative electric eld whose eld lines are closed. In its R integral form, Faradays law states that the time variation of the magnetic ux ( B ds) through any surface S bounded by an arbitrary closed loop , (Fig. 1.1), induces an electromotive force given by the integral of the tangential component of the induced electric eld around . The line integration over the contour must be consistent with the direction of the surface vector ds according to the right-hand rule. The minus sign in (1.1c) and (1.2c) represents the feature by which the induced electric eld, when it acts on charges, would produce an induced current that opposes the change in the magnetic ux (Lenzs law).
Ampres generalized law, (1.1d) or (1.2d), constitutes another connection, dierent from Faradays law, between E and B. It states that the vector sources of the magnetic eld may be free currents, J, and/or displacement currents, D/t. Thus, the displacement current performs, as a vector source of H, a similar role to that played by B/t as a source of E. In its integral form the left-hand side of the generalized Amperes law equation represents the integral of the magnetic eld tangential component along an arbitrary closed loop and the right-hand side is the sum of the ux, through any surface S bounded by a closed loop (Fig. 1.1 ), of both currents: the free current J and the displacement current D/t.
1.2.2
Constitutive equations
Maxwells equations (1.1) can be written without using the articial elds D and H, as E(r, t) = all (r, t) 0 B(r, t) t E(r, t) t (1.9a) (1.9b) (1.9c) (1.9d)
B(r, t) = 0 E(r, t) =
B(r, t) = 0 Jall (r, t) + 0 0
where 0 = 109 /(36) (farad/meter; F m1 ) and 0 = 4107 (henry/meter; H m1 ) are two constants called electric permittivity and magnetic permeability of free space, respectively. The subscript all indicates that all kinds of charges (free and bound ) must be individually included in and J. These equations are, within the limits of classical electromagnetic theory, absolutely general. Nevertheless, in order to make it possible to study the interaction between an electromagnetic eld and a medium and to take into account the discrete nature of matter, it is absolutely necessary to develop macroscopic models to extend equations (??) and (??) and to obtain Maxwells macroscopic equations (1.1), in which only macroscopic quantities are used and in which only the densities of free charges and currents explicitly appear as sources of the elds. To this end, the atomic and molecular physical properties, which uctuate greatly over atomic distances, are averaged over microscopically large-volume elements, v, so that these contain a large number of molecules but at the same time are macroscopically small enough to represent accurate spatial dependence at a macroscopic scale. As a result of this average, the properties of matter related to atomic and molecular charges and currents are described by the macroscopic parameters, electric permittivity , magnetic permeability , and electrical conductivity . These parameters, called constitutive parameters, are in general smoothed point functions. The derivation of the constitutive parameters of a medium from its microscopic properties is, in general, an involved process that may require complex models of molecules as well as quantum and statistical theory to describe their collective behavior. Fortunately, in most of the practical situations, it is possible to achieve good results using simplied microscopic models. Appendices ?? and ?? present a brief introduction to the microscopic theory of electric and magnetic media, respectively. To dene the electric permittivity and describe the behaviour of the electric eld in the presence of matter, we must introduce a new macroscopic eld quantity, P (C m2 ), called electric polarization vector, such that D = 0 E + P (1.10)
1.2. REVIEW OF MAXWELLS EQUATIONS and dened as the average dipole moment per unit volume PN v n=1 pn P = lim v0 v
(1.11)
where N is the number of molecules per unit volume and the numerator is the vector sum of the individual dipolar moments, pn , of atoms and molecules contained in a macroscopically innitessimal volume v. For many materials, called linear isotropic media, P can be considered colinear and proportional to the electric eld applied. Thus we have P = 0 e E (1.12)
where the dimensionless parameter e , called the electric susceptibility of the medium, describes the capability of a dielectric to be polarized. Expression (1.10) can be written in a more compact form as D = (1 + e )0 E so that D = 0 r E = E where r = 1 + e and = 0 r (1.16) are the relative permittivity and the permittivity of the medium, respectively. To dene the magnetic permeability and describe the behaviour of the magnetic eld in the presence of magnetic materials, we must introduce another new macroscopic eld quantity, called magnetization vector M (A m1 ), such that B H= M (1.17) 0 where M is dened, in a similar way to that of the electric polarization vector, as the average magnetic dipole moment per unit volume PNv n=1 mn M = lim (1.18) v0 v where N is the number of atomic current elements per unit volume and the numerator is the vector sum of the individual magnetic moments, mn contained in a macroscopically innitessimal volume v. In general, M is a function of the history of B or H, which is expressed by the hysteresis curve. Nevertheless, many magnetic media can be considered isotropic and linear, such that M = m H (1.19) (1.15) (1.14) (1.13)
10
where m is the adimensional magnetic susceptibility magnitude, being negative and small for diamagnets, positive and small for paramagnets, and positive and large for ferromagnets. Thus B = (1 + m )0 H = r 0 H = H where r = (1 + m ) and = r 0 (1.22) are the relative magnetic permeability and the permeability of the medium, respectively, which can reach very high values in magnetic materials such as iron and nickel. The concept of r requires a careful denition when working with magnetic materials with strong hysteresis, such as ferromagnetic media. The phenomenon of hysteresis may also occur in certain dielectric materials called ferroelectric (see Appendix ??). In a vacuum, or free space, r = 1; r = 1, and therefore the elds vectors D and E, as well as B and H, are related by D B = 0 E = 0 H (1.23a) (1.23b) (1.21) (1.20)
Very often the relation between an electric eld and the conduction current density Jc that it generates is given, at any point of the conducting material, by the phenomenological relation, called Ohms law Jc = E
so that
(1.24)
is linearly related to
E trough
medium. Conductivity is measured in siemens p er meter 1
(S m m ) or mhos per meter (mho m ). Media in which (1.24) is valid are called ohmic media. A typical example of ohmic media are metals where (1.24) holds in a wide range of circumstances. However, in other materials, such as semiconductors, (1.24) it may not be applicable. For most metals is a scalar with a magnitude that dep ends on
the temp erature and that, at room temp erature, has a very high value of the order of 107 mho m1 .Then very often metals are considered as p erfect conductors with an innite conductivity. The relations b etween macroscopic quantities, (1.13), (1.20) and (1.24), are called constitutive relations. Dep ending on the characteristics of the constitutive macroscopic parameters
the prop ortionality factor called the conductivity of the 1 1 1
and
, which
are associated with the microscopic resp onse of atoms and molecules in the medium, this
medium can classied as: Nonhomogeneous or homogeneous: according to whether or not the constitutive parameter of
= (r), = (r), or = (r). Anisotropic or isotropic: according to whether or not the response of the medium depends on the orientation of the eld. In isotropic media all the magnitudes of interest are parallel, i.e., E and D; and/or E and Jc ; and/or
interest is a function of the p osition,
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B and H. In anisotropic materials the constitutive parameter of interest is a tensor (see Chapter ??) Nonlinear or linear: according to whether or not the constitutive parameters depend on the magnitude of the applied elds. For instance (E), (H) or (E) en general funcin de E y B?? Time-invariant: if the constitutive parameters do not vary with time 6= (t), 6= (t) or 6= (t) Dispersive: according to whether or not, for time-harmonic elds, the constitutive parameters depend on the frequency, = (), = () or = (). The materials in which these parameters are functions of the frequency are called dispersive6 . Magnetic medium: if 6= 0 . Otherwise the medium is called nonmagnetic because its only signicant reaction to the electromagnetic eld is polarization. Fortunately, in many cases the medium in which the electromagnetic eld exists can be considered homogeneous, linear and isotropic, time-invariant, nondispersive and nonmagnetic. Indeed, this assumption is not very restrictive since many electromagnetic phenomena can be studied using this simplication. In fact, even practical cases of the propagation of electromagnetic waves through nonlinear media (semiconductors, ferrites, nonlinear crystals, etc.) are analysed with linear models using the so-called small-signal approach. Most of this book concerns homogeneous, linear, isotropic and nonmagnetic media, except in Chapter ?? where anisotropic and magnetic materials (ferrites) are considered. The eect of the properties of a medium on the macroscopic eld can be emphasized by expressing E and B in Maxwells equations (1.1a) and (1.1d) by (1.10) and (1.17). Thus we have E B = all 1 = P 0 0 (1.25a)
= 0 Jall + 0 0
P E E = 0 (J + + M ) + 0 0 t t t (1.25b)
6 Eqs (1.12), (1.19) and (1.24) are strictly valid only for nondisp ersive media Eectively, for example, b ecause of the dep endence of the electric p ermittivity with frequency we generally have P () = 0 e ()E(). Thus, according to the convolution theorem, for arbitrary time dep endence this expression b ecomes t
P (t) = 0
e (t t0 )E(t0 )dt0
Similarly for magnetization and Ohms law we have

t
M(t) =
t
m (t t0 )H(t0 )dt0 (t t0 )E(t0 )dt0
J(t) =
These expressions indicate that, as for any physical system, the resp onse of the medium to an applied eld is not instantaneous.
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In (1.25a) we have explicitly as scalar sources of E both the free charge and the polarization or bounded density of charge, P . Then in (1.9a) we have all = P (1.26)
Similarly, in (1.25b), we have, explicitly as vector sources of B , b esides the free current density J ( which includes the conduction current density Jc = E ), the polarization current P /t (which results from the motion of the bounded charges in dielectrics), the displacement current in the vacuum, 0 E/t and the magnetization current, M (which takes place when a non-uniformly magnetized medium exists). Then in (1.9d) we have
Jall (r, t) = J +
P +M t
(1.27)
In the following we will assume that there is no magnetization current.
1.2.3
Boundary conditions
As is evident from (1.1a)-(1.1d) and (1.13), (1.20), (1.24), in general the elds E, B, D and H are discontinuous at points where , and also are. Hence the eld vectors will be discontinuous at a boundary between two media with dierent constitutive parameters. The integral form of Maxwells equations can be used to determine the relations, called boundary conditions, of the normal and tangential components of the elds at the interface between two regions with dierent constitutive parameters , and where surface density of sources may exist along the boundary. The boundary condition for D can be calculated using a very thin, small pillbox that crosses the interface of the two media, as shown in Fig. 1.2. Applying the divergence theorem7 to (1.1a) we have I Z Z Z Z
D.ds =
D1 .ds +
D.ds +
D2 .ds =
dv
(1.28)
Base 1
Curved surface
Base 2
where D1 denotes the value of D in medium 1, and D2 the value in medium 2. Since both bases of the pillbox can be made as small as we like, the total outward ux of D over them is (Dn1 Dn2 )ds = (D1 D2 ) nds, where these Dn are the normal components of D, ds is the area of each base, and n is the unit normal drawn from medium 2 to medium 1. At the limit, by taking a shallow enough pillbox, we can disregard the ux over the curved surface, whereupon the sources of D reduce to the density of surface free charge s on the interface n (D1 D2 ) = s
p ero puede sup onerse una transicin rpida p ero contnua del medio 1 al 2
(1.29)
7 El teorema de la divergencia requiere que las propiedades del medio varen de forma contnua,
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Medium 1 Medium 2
Pilbox n
dh
Infinitesimal loop dh dl
Figure 1.2: Derivation of boundary conditions at the interface of two media. Pintar solo la n hacia arriba y las ds una Hcia arriba y la de abajo hacia abajo Cuidado pilbox es con dos l Hence the normal component of D changes discontinously across the interface by an amount equal to the free charge surface density s on the surface boundary. Similarly the boundary condition for B can be established using the Gauss law for magnetic elds (1.1b). Since the magnetic eld is solenoidal, it follows that the normal components of B are continuous across the interface between two media (1.30) n (B1 B2 ) = 0 The behavior of the tangential components of E can be determined using a innitesimal rectangular loop at the interface which has sides of lengh dh, normal to the interface, and sides of lengh dl parallel to it (Fig. 1.2). From the integral form of the Faradays law, (1.2c) and dening t as the unit tangent vector parallel to the direction of integration on the upper side of the loop, we have (E1 t E2 t)dl + contributions of sides dh = B ds t (1.31)
In the limit, as dh 0, the area ds = dldh bounded by the loop approaches zero and, since B is nite, the ux of B vanishes. Hence(E1 E2 ) t = 0 and we conclude that the tangential components of E are continuous across the interface between two media. In terms of the normal n to the boundary, this can be written as n (E1 E2 ) = 0 (1.32) Analogously, using the same innitesimal rectangular loop, it can be deduced from the generalized Ampres law, (1.2d), that (H1 t H2 t)dl + contributions of sides dh ! D = + J ds t
(1.33)
14
where, since D is nite, its ux vanishes. Nevertheless, the ux of the surface current can have a non-zero value when the integration loop is reduced to zero, if the conductivity of the medium 2, and consequently Js , is innite. This requires the surface to be a perfect conductor. Thus n (H1 H2 ) = Js (1.34)
the tangential component of H is discontinuous by the amount of surface current density Js . For nite conductivity, the tangential magnetic eld is continuous across the boundary. A summary of the boundary conditions, given in (1.35), are particularized in (1.36) for the case when the medium 2 is a perfect conductor ( 2 ). General boundary conditions n (E1 E2 ) = 0 (1.35a) (1.35b) (1.35c) (1.35d)
n (H1 H2 ) = Js n (D1 D2 ) = s n (B1 B2 ) = 0
Boundary conditions when the medium 2 is a perfect conductor ( 2 ) n H1 n D1 n B1 n E1 = 0 = Js = s = 0 (1.36a) (1.36b) (1.36c) (1.36d)
1.3
The conservation of energy. Poyntings theorem
Poyntings theorem represents the electromagnetic energy-conservation law. To derive the theorem, let us calculate the divergence of the vector eld E H in a homogeneous, linear and isotropic nite region V bounded by a closed surface S. If we assume that V contains power sources (generators) generating currents J, then, from Maxwells equations (1.1c) and (1.1d), we get (E H) = H E E H = H B D E E ( E + J) (1.37) t t
where J represents the source current density distribution which is the primary origin of the electromagnetic elds8 , while the induced conduction current density is written as Jc = E (1.24).
8 The source current may b e maintained by external p ower sources or generators (this current is often called driven or impressed current).
1.3. THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. POYNTINGS THEOREM
15
As the medium is assumed to be linear, the derivates with respect to time can be written as D 1 E 1 2 E = = E = E ED (1.38a) t t t 2 t 2 B 1 H 1 H = H = H 2 = BH (1.38b) t t t 2 t 2 By introducing the equalities (1.38a) and (1.38b) into (1.37), integrating over the volume V , applying the divergence theorem, and then rearranging terms, we have Z I Z Z 1 2 E dv (E H) ds (1.39) J Edv = (E D + B H)dv t V 2 V V S To interpret this result we accept that Uev = and 1 DE 2 (1.40)
1 BH (1.41) 2 represent, as a generalization of their expression for static elds, the instantaneous electric energy density, Uev , and magnetic energy density, Umv , stored in the respective elds. Thus according to (1.8) the left side of (1.39) represents the total electromagnetic power supplied by all the sources within the volume V . Regarding the right side of (1.39), the rst term represents the change rate of the stored electromagnetic energy within the volume; the second term represents the dissipation rate of electromagnetic energy within the volume; and the third term represents the ow of electromagnetic energy per second (power) through the surface S that bounds volume V . Dening Poyntings vector P as Umv = P =EH we can write I (W/m2 ) I (1.42)
(E H) ds =
P ds
(1.43)
This equation represents the total ow of power passing through the closed surface S and, consequently, we conclude that P = E H represents the power passing through a unit area perpendicular to the direction of P. This conclusion may seem questionable because it could be argued that any vector with an integral of zero over the closed surface S could be added to P without aecting the total ow. Nevertheless, this is a natural interpretation that does not contradict any experience. Only when we try to particularize (1.39) to steady elds do we nd ambiguous results, because, in static, the location of the electric and magnetic energy has no physical signicance.
16
Note that Eq. (1.39) was deduced by assuming a linear medium and that the losses occur only through conduction currents. Otherwise the equation should be modied to include other kinds of losses such as those due to hysteresis or possible transformations of the electromagnetic energy into mechanical energy, etc. When there are no sources within V , (1.39) represents an energy balance of that owing through S versus that stored and dissipated in V .
1.4
Momentum of the electromagnetic eld
As we have seen in the previous section, when we apply the law of conservation of electromagnetic energy to a nite volume V bounded by a surface S, it is necessary to include a term that, by means of the Poynting vector P, takes into account the ow of power through S. We shall now see that when an electromagnetic eld interacts with the charges and currents in V , it is also necessary to consider a momentum associated with the electromagnetic eld in order to guarantee the conservation of momentum. To calculate this momentum, we will begin by expressing, only in terms of the elds, the Lorentz force density, (1.5), exerted by the electromagnetic eld on the distribution of charges and current, which we assume to be in free space. For this purpose, let us consider Maxwells equations (1.1a) and (1.1d) to express and J as = D J so that D f = E + J B = D E B ( H) + B t D t B (D B) + D = t t (D B) D ( E) t (1.46) = H (1.44) D t (1.45)
which, taking into account that B
(1.47)
becomes f = ( D)E B ( H) (D B) D ( E) t (1.48)
By adding the term H( B) = 0 to this equality to make the nal expressions symmetrical, and by reordering, we can write the Lorentz force density as f = E( D) D ( E) + H B B ( H) (D B) (1.49) t
1.4. MOMENTUM OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
17
The component of Lorentz force density can be written, taking into account the denition of the Poynting vector P, as 1 1 1 f = o E E E 2 + 0 H H H 2 2 P (1.50) 2 2 c t where is the Kronecker delta ( = 1 if = and zero if 6= ) and the indices , = 1, 2, 3 correspond to the coordinates x, y, z, respectively, and we have made use of the Einsteins summation convention (i.e., the repetition of an index automatically implies a summation over it). To obtain (1.50) we have made use of the following equalities 1 2 E D D ( E) = o E E E 2 1 2 H H H = 0 B B B ( H) 2 P = (1.51) D B c2 The rst two summands in (1.50) constitute the component of the divergence of a tensor quantity, T em , such that ( T em ) =
em T
(1.52)
Therefore, from (1.50) and (1.52), we have
where T em is a symmetric tensor, known as the Maxwell stress tensor, dened by 1 1 em 2 2 T = o E E E + 0 H H H (1.53) 2 2 1 P c2 t
em Txy em Tyy em Tzy
f = T em with T em
(1.54) em Txz em Tyz em Tzz
em The components of the electromagnetic tensor T can be written as
T em xx em Tyx = , , x y z em Tzx
(1.55)
1 1 em e m T = T + T = D E E D + B H H B 2 2
(1.56)
m e where T and T represent, respectively, the electric and magnetic tensors dened by e T m T
1 = D E E D 2 1 = B H H B 2
(1.57) (1.58)
18
Integrating (1.50) over the volume V the total electromagnetic force F exerted on the volume is Z Z Z Z 1 F = (E + J B)dv = Pdv (1.59) f dv = fs ds 2 c t V V V S where fs is the force per unit of area on S fs = T em n and we have applied the theorem of divergence to the tensor T em i.e. Z Z Z Z T em dv = T em ds = T em n ds = fs ds
V S S S
(1.60)
(1.61)
Thus
Note that the term
1 fs ds = F + 2 c t S 1 c2 t Z
P dv
(1.62)
Pdv
(1.63)
is not null even in the absence of charges and currents. Since the only electromagnetic force possible due to the interaction of the eld with charges and currents is F , the term (1.63) must represent another physical quantity with the same dimensions as a force, i.e., the rate of momentum transmitted by the electromagnetic eld to the volume V . This is equivalent to associating a momentum density g with the electromagnetic eld, given by 1/c2 times the Poynting vector, P g= 2 (1.64) c which propagates in the same direction as the ow of energy. Thus, Eq. 1.62 represents the formulation for the momentum conservation in the presence of electromagnetic elds. The momentum of an electromagnetic eld, which can be determined experimentally, is inappreciable under normal conditions and its value is often below the limits of the measurement error. However, in the domain of atomic phenomena, the momentum of an electromagnetic eld can be comparable to that of particles, and plays a crucial role in all the processes of interaction with matter. The transfer of momentum to a system of charges and currents implies a reduction in the eld momentum, and the loss of momentum by the system, for example by radiation, leaves to an increase in the momentum of the eld.
1.5
Time-harmonic electromagnetic elds
A particular case of great interest is one in which the sources vary sinusoidally in time. In linear media the time-harmonic dependence of the sources gives rise
1.5.
TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
19
to elds which, once having reached the steady state, also vary sinusoidally in time. However, time-harmonic analysis is important not only because many electromagnetic systems operate with signals that are practically harmonic, but also because arbitrary periodic time functions can be expanded into Fourier series of harmonic sinusoidal components while transient nonperiodic functions can be expressed as Fourier integrals. Thus, since the Maxwells equations are linear dierential equations, the total elds can be synthesized from its Fourier components. Analytically, the time-harmonic variation is expressed using the complex exponential notation based on Eulers formula, where it is understood that the physical elds are obtained by taking the real part, whereas their imaginary part is discarded. For example, an electric eld with time-harmonic dependence given by cos(t + ), where is the angular frequency, is expressed as 1 ~ ~ ~ E = Re{Eejt } = (Eejt + (Eejt ) ) = E0 cos(t + ) 2 ~ where E is the complex phasor, ~ E = E0 ej (1.66) (1.65)
of amplitude E0 and phase , which will in general be a function of the angular frequency and coordinates. The asterisk indicates the complex conjugate, and Re {} represents the real part of what is in curly brackets. Throughout the book, we will represent both complex phasor magnitudes ~ ~ (either scalar or vector) by symbols in bold, e.g. E = E(r, ), and = (r, ). In this way, time-dependent (real) quantities, which are represented by mathematical symbols not in bold, such as E = E(r, t), and = (r, t), can be distinguished from complex phasors which do not depend on time. In general, as indicated, these complex phasors may depend on the angular frequency. The real time-dependent quantity associated with a complex phasor is calculated, as in (1.65), by multiplying it by ejt and taking the real part.
1.5.1
Maxwells equations for time-harmonic elds
Assuming ejt time dependence, we can get the phasor form or time-harmonic form of Maxwells equations simply by changing the operator /t to the factor j in (1.1a)-(1.2d) and eliminating the factor ejt . Maxwells equations in dierential and integral forms for time-harmonic elds are given below. Dierential form of Maxwells equations for time-harmonic elds ~ D ~ B = (Gauss law) = 0 (Gauss law for magnetic elds) ~ = j B (Faradays law) (1.67a) (1.67b) (1.67c) (1.67d)
~ E ~ H
~ ~ = J + j D (Generalized Ampres law)
Integral form of Maxwells equations for time harmonic elds
20
~ D ds = QT (Gauss law)
(1.68a)
~ B ds = 0 (Gauss law for magnetic elds) (1.68b) Z I ~ ~ E dl = j B ds (Faradays law) (1.68c) S Z I ~ ~ ~ H dl = (J + j D) ds (Generalized Ampres law) (1.68d)
S S
For time-harmonic elds, expressions (1.25a) and (1.25b) become 1 all ~ ~ = P (1.69a) E = 0 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ B = j0 0 E+ 0 J all = j0 0 E + 0 (J + j P + M )
(1.69b)
1.5.2
Complex dielectric constant.
Over certain frequency ranges, due to the atomic and molecular processes involved in the macroscopic response of a medium to an electromagnetic eld, there appear relatively strong damping forces that give rise to a delay between ~ ~ the polarization vector P and E (a phase shift between P and E), and consequently between E and D, and to a loss of electromagnetic energy as heat in overcoming the damping forces (see Appendix ??). At the macroscopic level this eect is analytically expressed by means of a com plex p ermittivity, c as ~ ~ D = c E
with
(1.70) (1.71) (1.72)
where
cr
c = 0 j00 = 0 cr cr = 1 + ce = 0 j00 r r
In general both and present a strong frequency dependence and they are closely related to one another by the Kramer-Kronig relations as is shown in Appendix ??, where the dependence with the frequency of the dielectric constant is studied. Similar processes occur in magnetic and conducting media, and, within a ~ ~ given frequency range, there may be a phase shift between E and J c or between ~ and H which, at the macroscopic level, is reected in the corresponding ~ B complex constitutive parameters c = 0 j 00 and c = 0 j00 . For a medium with complex permittivity, the complex phasor form of the displacement current is ~ ~ ~ ~ j D = jc E = 00 E + j0 E (1.73a)
0 00 is the relative complex p ermittivity and ce = cer jcer is the com plex electric susceptibility. 0 00
1.5.
21
J r = j '
Ji
d
E
J d = e E
Figure 1.3: Induced current density in the complex plane. while the sum, of the displacement and conduction current, called total induced ~ current, J i , is ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ J i = E + jc E = ( + 00 )E + j0 E = J d + J r ~ where J d , called the dissipative current, ~ ~ J d = ( + 00 )E (1.75) (1.74)
~ in phase with the electric eld, is the real part of the induced current J i (Fig. ~r , called the reactive current, 1.3) while J ~ ~ J r = j0 E (1.76)
is the imaginary part of the induced current which is in phase quadrature with the electric eld. The dissipative current can be expressed in a more compact form as ~ ~ J d = e E (1.77) where e is the eective or equivalent conductivity e = + 00 (1.78)
which includes the ohmic losses due to and the damping losses due to 00 . Thus the induced current, (1.74), can be written as ~ ~ ~ ~ J i = e E + j0 E = ec E where ec is the complex eective conductivity, dened as ec = e + j0 (1.80) (1.79)
Thus a medium with conductivity ec and null permittivity is formally equivalent to one with conductivity and permittivity, and c , respectively.
22
On the other hand, the phase angle d between the induced and reactive currents, (Fig. 1.3), is called the loss or dissipative angle, and its tangent (i.e., the ratio of the dissipative and reactive currents) is called the loss tangent tan d = e 0 (1.81)
and the induced current, (1.79), can be written in terms of the loss tangent as e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ J i = ec E = j0 (1 j 0 )E = j0 (1 j tan d ) E = jec E where ec is dened as the eective complex permittivity ec = 0 (1 j tan d ) = 0 er and er = (1 j tan d )0 r denotes the eective relative permittivity. Thus, according
ductivity e , or as a dielectric medium of eective p ermittivity eective conductivity ec . In summary, this p ossibilities are can b e formally considered alternatively either as a medium of p ermittivity
(1.82)
(1.83)
(1.84)
to (1.79) and (1.82), a medium 0 and eective conor as a conducting medium of
ec
Original medium Equivalent medium 1 Equivalent medium 2 Equivalent medium 3
Permittivity c = 0 j00 0 ec = 0 j(00 + ) 0
The loss tangent is equal to the inverse of the quality dimensionless quantity dened as
Conductivity e = + 00 0 ec = + 00 + j0 (1.85) factor Q of the dielectric which is a
Q =
Maximun energy stored per unit volume Wv = 0 Time average power lost per unit volume Pdv (1.86)
0 The average power dissipated per cycle and unit volume, Pdv , due both to the Joule eect and to that of dielectric polarization, is given, according to (1.8), by
0 Pdv
= =
1 T 1 T
Z Z
0 T
E Ji dt =
1 T
E0 cos t ( e E0 cos t + 0 E0 sin t)dt 1 T Z

T 0
2 e E0 cos2 tdt =
E Jd dt =
2 e E0 2
(1.87)
1.5.
23
where T = 2/ is the period of the signal. Note that only the dissipative part of Ji contributes to the average power. Of this power, the part corresponding to polarization losses is 1 T Z
T 2 00 E0 cos2 tdt = 0 2 00 E0 2
(1.88)
The maximum electric eld energy stored per unit of volume is Wv = 1 0 2 E0 2 (1.89)
Thus, dividing (1.89) by (1.87), we have Q= 1 0 = e tan d (1.90)
Although both dimensionless quantities, Q and tan d , can be used to dene the characteristics of a dielectric, we will use the loss tangent throughout this book. Depending on whether the reactive or the dissipative current is predominant at the operating frequency, a medium is classied as a weakly lossy or a strongly lossy medium respectively. Thus for weakly lossy media, usually called good dielectrics or insulators, we have, 0 >> e , so that tan d = Or, if = 0, e << 1 0 (1.91)
00 << 1 (1.92) 0 If e = 0 (i.e. tan d = 0), the medium is termed a perfect or ideal dielectric, in which case the reactive current coincides with the displacement current, and the dielectric is characterized by a real permittivity . If the medium is strongly lossy we have 0 << e , so that tan d = tan d = e >> 1 0 >> 1 (1.93)
which for good conductors where 00 = 0; 0 = simplies to tan d = (1.94)
being practically = 0 . If = (i.e. tan d = ) the medium is termed a perfect conductor. For a homogeneous conducting medium where 0 and e do not depend on the position, Gauss law (1.1a) and the continuity equation (1.3) can be writen as E = /0 (1.95)
24 and
e E = respectively. Hence we have
(1.96)
e + =0 0 t
(1.97)
so that the expression for the decay of a charge distribution in a conductor is given by 0 = 0 e(e / )t (1.98) where 0 is the charge density at time t = 0. The characteristic time = 0 e (1.99)
required for the charge at any point to decay to 1/e of its original value is called the relaxation time. For most metals = 1014 s, signifying that in good conductors the charge distribution decays exponentially so quickly that it may be assumed that = 0 at any time. In terms of the relaxation time, the loss tangent can be written as (1.100) = ( )1 Thus the classication of a medium as a good or poor conductor depends on whether the relaxation time is short or long compared with the period of the signal. tan d =
1.5.3
Boundary conditions for harmonic signals
For harmonic signals the boundary conditions of the normal and tangential components of the elds at the interface between two regions with dierent constitutive parameters , and , (1.35a)-(1.36d), become General boundary conditions ~ ~ n (E 1 E 2 ) = 0 ~ ~ ~ n (H 1 H 2 ) = J s ~ n (D1 D2 ) = s ~ ~ n (B 1 B 2 ) = 0 ~ n E1 ~ n H1 ~ n D1 ~ n B1 ~ (1.101a) (1.101b) (1.101c) (1.101d)
Boundary conditions when the medium 2 is a perfect conductor ( 2 ) = 0 ~ = Js = s. = 0 (1.102a) (1.102b) (1.102c) (1.102d)
1.5.
25
1.5.4
Complex Poynting vector
In formulating the conservation-energy equation for time-harmonic elds, it is convenient to nd, rst, the time-average Poynting vector over a period, i.e. the time-average power passing through a unit area perpendicular to the direction of P. From (1.65) we have n o 1 ~ ~ ~ = Re Eejt = Eejt + (Eejt ) 2 n o 1 jt ~ ~ ~ H = Re He = Hejt + (Hejt ) 2 Thus, the instantaneous Poynting vector (1.42) can be written as E P ~ ~ = E H = Re{Eejt } Re{Hejt } 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ = Re{E H + E He2jt } 2 (1.103a) (1.103b)
(1.104)
where we have made use of the general relation for any two complex vectors A and B 1 ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Re{A} Re{B} = ( A + A ) (B + B ) 2 2 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ = (A B + A B) + (A B + A B ) 4 4 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ = + AB + AB AB+ AB 4 4 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ = (1.105) Re{A B + A B} 2 The time-average value of the instantaneous Poynting vector can be calculated integrating (1.104) over a period , i.e., Z Z T 1 T 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ Re{E H + E He2jt }dt Pdt = Pav = T 0 2T 0 1 1 ~ ~ (1.106) Re{E H } = Re{Pc } = 2 2 ~ ~ since the time average of E He2jt vanishes. The magnitude ~ ~ Pc = E H (1.107) is termed the complex Poynting vector. Thus the time-average of the Poynting vector is equal to one-half the real part of the complex Poynting vector For a more complete view of the meaning of the complex Poynting vector, let us again formulate Poyntings theorem particularized for sources with timeharmonic dependence. From Faradays law, (1.67c), and from Ampres general law, (1.67d), in its conjugate complex form, we have ~ E ~ H ~ = jH ~ ~ ~ = jE + J + E (1.108a) (1.108b)
26
2 2 ~ ~ ~ ~ where it has been taken into account that H H = H0 and E E = E0 , with H0 and E0 being the amplitude of the two harmonic elds. After dividing (1.109) by 2 we get 2 2 2 1~ ~ = 2j H0 E0 E0 1 J E ~ ~ EH (1.110) 2 4 4 2 2
~ where J represents the complex conjugate of the current supplied by the ~ sources. Performing a scalar multiplication of Eq. 1.108a by H and of Eq. ~ 1.108b by E, and subtracting the results, we get ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ EH = H EEH 2 2 ~ ~ ~ = j H0 E0 E (J + E ) (1.109)
2 2 The terms H0 /4 and E0 /4 represent, respectively, the mean density of the 2 magnetic and electric energy, while E0 /2 is the the mean power transformed 9 into heat within V , since the mean value of the square of a sine or cosine function is 1/2. By multiplying Equation (1.110) by the volume element dv, integrating over an arbitrary volume V and applying the divergence theorem, we obtain the complex version of the Poynting theorem Z Z Z 2 2 2 H0 E0 1 ~ ~ E0 J E dv = dv 2j dv 2 4 4 V 2 V ZV 1 ~ ~ (1.111) E H ds S 2
which is the expression corresponding to (1.39) in complex notation and where the rst member represents the power supplied by external sources. By separating the real and imaginary parts, we obtain the following two equalities Z Z Z 2 E0 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ Re (J E)dv = Re (E H ) ds (1.112a) dv 2 2 2 V V S Z Z Z 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ H2 E2 ~ Im (J E)dv = 2 Im (E H ) ds 0 0 dv 2 4 4 2 V V S (1.112b) The rst member of (1.112a) Pa = Z 1 ~ ~ Re (J E)dv 2 (1.113)
represents the active mean power supplied by all the sources within V . On the right-hand side of (1.112a) the rst integral, as commented above, gives the
9 Expression (1.112b) can b e easily extended to the case of lossy dielectric just substituting by the equivalent conductivity e dened in (1.78)and by 0 dened in (1.71).
1.6. ON THE SOLUTION OF MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
27
power transformed into heat within V , while the surface integral represents the mean ow of power through the surface S. Regarding to expression (1.112b), the rst member Z 1~ ~ Pr = J E dv Im (1.114) 2 V is called the reactive power of the sources. On the right-hand side the rst summand is 2 times the dierence of the average energies stored in the electric and magnetic elds, while the second represents the ow of reactive power that is exchanged with the external medium through S. If the surface integral in (1.112a) is non-zero, the external region is said to be an active charge for the sources within V . Similarly, if the surface integral of Eq. (1.112b) is nonzero, the external region is said to be a reactive charge for the sources within V . In general, both of these surface integrals are non-zero and the external region becomes both an active and a reactive charge for the sources.
1.6
On the solution of Maxwells equations
Despite their apparent simplicity, Maxwells equations are in general not easy to solve. In fact, even in the most favorable situation of homogeneous, linear and isotropic media, there are not many problems of interest that can be analytically solved except for those presenting a high degree of geometrical symmetry. Moreover, the frequency range of scientic and technological interest can vary by many orders of magnitude, expanding from frequency values of zero (or very low) to roughly 1014 Hertz. The behavior and values of the constitutive parameters can change very signicantly in this frequency. range. Conductivity, for example, can vary from 0 to 107 S m1 . It is even possible to build articial materials, called metamaterials, which present electromagnetic properties that are not found in nature. Examples of such as metamaterials are those characterized with both negative permittivity ( < 0) and negative permeability ( < 0). These media are called DNG (double-negative) metamaterials and, owing to their unusual electromagnetic properties, they present many potential technological applications. Another important factor to study the interaction of an electromagnetic eld with an object is the electrical size of the body, i.e., the relationship between the wavelength and the body size, which can also vary by several orders of magnitude. All these circumstances make it in general necessary to use analytical, semi-analytical or numerical methods appropriate to each situation. In particular, numerical methods are fundamental for simulating and solving complex problems that do not admit analytical solutions. Today numerical methods make up the so-called computational electromagnetics, which together, with experimental and theoretical or analytical electromagnetics, constitute the three pillars supporting research in Electromagnetics. Of course, both the development of analitycal, numerical or experimental tools, as well as the interpretation of the results, require theoretical knowledge of electromagnetic phenomena
28
Chapter 2
Fields created by a source distribution: retarded potentials

In this chapter, we introduce the scalar electric and magnetic vector potentials as magnitudes that facilitate the calculation of the elds created by a boundedsource distribution, paying special attention to the radiation eld. Finally, we extend Maxwells equations, in order to make them symmetric, by introducing the concept of magnetic charges and currents.
2.1
Electromagnetic potentials
A basic problem in electromagnetism is that of nding the elds created for a time-varying source distribution of nite size, which we assume to be in a nonmagnetic, lossless, homogeneous, time-invariant, linear and isotropic medium. Figure 2.1 represents such a distribution, where, as usual, the coordinates associated with source points, J = J(r0 , t0 ), = (r0 , t0 ), are designated by primes, while those associated with eld points or observation points P (r, t) are without primes. In the following, we will assume the medium surrounding the source distribution to be free space, i.e. = 0 , = 0 , although of course all the resulting formulas remain valid for media of constant permittivity and permeability, provided that 0 is replaced by r 0 and by r 0 . While the expressions for the elds can be derived directly from their sources, the task can often be facilitated by calculating rst two auxiliary functions, the scalar electric potential = (r, t) and the magnetic vector potential A = A(r, t) (Fig. 2.2). Once the potentials are obtained, it is a simple matter to calculate the elds from them. In this section, we formulate the general expressions for these potentials. Since, according to (1.1b), the divergence of the magnetic eld B is always 29
30CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL
r r r J (r ', t ); (r ', t )
V'
r R
r r'
r
dV '
r r
O
Figure 2.1:
Time-varying source b ounded distribution
V0
dinates associated with source points of currents and charges resp ectivelly are designated by primes, while the associate primes.
of maximun dimension l. The coorJ = J(r0 , t0 ), and = (r0 , t0 ), with eld p oints, P (r, t), are without
( r ', t ), J ( r ', t )
r r
r r E; B
r , A
Figure 2.2: Quitar o poner argumentos pero unicar
2.1. ELECTROMAGNETIC POTENTIALS
31
zero, we can express it as the curl of an electromagnetic vector potential A as B =A Inserting this expression into (1.1c) we get E + A =0 t (2.1)
(2.2)
Since any vector with a zero curl can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function , called the scalar potential, we can write E+ or E = A t (2.4) A = t (2.3)
where A/t is the nonconservative part of the electric eld with a non-vanishing curl. When the vector potential A is independent of time, expression (2.4) reduces to the familiar E(r) = (r). According to the relations (2.1) and, (2.4) the elds B and E are completely determined by the vector and scalar potentials A and . However, the elds do not uniquely determine the potentials. For instance, it is clear that the transformation (2.5) A = A0 + where = (r, t) is any arbitrary, single-valued, continuously dierentiable, scalar function of position and time that vanishes at innity, leaves B unchanged B = A = A0 + = A0 Inserting (2.5) into (2.4), it follows that A0 E = + t t (2.6)
(2.7)
so that the value of E, obtained from A0 , also remains unchanged provided that is replaced by the scalar potential 0 = + t (2.8)
Thus dierent sets of potentials A and give rise to the same set of elds1 B and E. The joint transformation (2.5) and (2.8) leaves the electromagnetic eld
1 The liberty to select the value of A is understandable taking into account that by (2.1) the magnetic eld xes only A. However, Helmholtzs theorem posits that, to determine the (spatial) behavior of A completely, .A (which is still undetermined) must also be specied. Thus, we can choose it in any way we consider suitable for facilitating the calculation of the electromagnetic elds.
32CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL invariant. The dierent forms of choosing the potentials A and leaving the elds unchanged are called gauge transformations, and the function is called the gauge function. The degree of freedom provided by the gauge transformations facilitates the calculation of the potentials and hence of the elds because, once the potentials are known, the elds are easily derived by dierentiation from (2.1) and (2.4). An example of gauge transformation is the Lorenz gauge, also called the Lorenz condition.
2.1.1
Lorenz gauge
Inserting (2.1) and (2.4) into the generalized Ampres law, (1.1d), and Gauss law, (1.1a), using (??) and rearranging terms, we get two, coupled, second-order partial-dierential equations 2A 2 0 0 2 A = 0 J A + 0 0 t t 2 2 + A + 0 0 0 0 2 = t 0 t t (2.9a) (2.9b)
These equations could be considerably simplied if we could force (without changing the elds) the potentials to satisfy the auxiliary relation A + 0 0 = 0 t (2.10)
called the Lorenz gauge (or Lorenz condition)2 . Fortunately, as we will show below, we can always take advantage of the freedom in choosing the potentials so that they full the Lorenz condition and consequently simplify Eqs (2.9) to the inhomogeneous Helmholtz wave equations 2A 2 A = 0 J t2 2 0 0 2 2 = t 0
0 0
(2.11a) (2.11b)
The advantage of having applied the Lorenz condition is that the equations (2.11) for the potentials are uncoupled and each one depends on only one type of source. This makes it easier to calculate the potentials than the elds (see Section ??). It remains to be shown that it is always possible to force the potentials to satisfy the Lorenz condition (2.10). To this end, let us consider two potentials, A0 and 0 , which full Equations (??) and (??) and check whether it is possible
2 A very interesting prop erty of the Lorenz condition is that, as shown in (??), it is covariant, i.e., if it holds in one particular inertial fram e then it automatically holds in all other inertial frames.
2.1. ELECTROMAGNETIC POTENTIALS
33
to select them so that they satisfy equations (2.11). By inserting (2.5) and (2.8) into (2.9) and by rearranging, we get 2 A0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 A0 t2 2 0 t2 0 2 = 0 J + A0 + 2 + 0 0 0 0 2 t t (2.12a) 0 2 = A0 + 2 + 0 0 0 0 2 0 t t t (2.12b)
and, given that the scalar function is arbitrary, we can choose it as the solution to the dierential equation 2 0 0 2 0 = A0 0 0 t2 t (2.13)
Thus (2.12a) and (2.12b) become (2.11a) and (2.11b), respectively, meaning that A0 and 0 full the Lorenz condition. Expressions (2.11a) and (2.11b) are the inhomogeneous wave equations for the potentials, and their solutions, which are provided in the next section, rep resent waves propagating at the velocity c = 1/ 0 0 ' 3 108 m/s of light in free space. They take the form 2 A 1 2A c2 t2 1 2 2 2 2 c t = A = 0 J = = 0 (2.14a) (2.14b)
where the symbol represents the DAlembertian operator dened by 2 1 2 c2 t2 (2.15)
The Lorenz gauge (2.10) for harmonic elds simplies to ~ j A+ 2 =0 c such that = while (2.14a) and (2.14b) simplify to ~ 2 A + 2 ~ ~ A = 0 J c2 2 2 + 2 = c 0 (2.18a) (2.18b) ~ jc2 A (2.16)
(2.17)
34CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL In addition to Lorenzs gauge, other gauge conditions may sometimes be useful. For instance, in quantum eld theory, where the potentials are used to describe the interaction of the charges with the electromagnetic eld instead of being used to calculate the elds, it is useful to use Coulombs gauge, in which A = 0. By taking the divergence of (2.4) and the curl of (2.1), and taking into account the generalized Ampres law and Gauss law , we can easily see that with Coulombs gauge the expressions for the potential wave equations are 2 = 2 A 1 1 2A 2 2 t2 c c t 0 (2.19) (2.20)
= 0 J
As can be seen from (2.19), in Coulombs gauge the scalar potential is determined by the instantaneous value of the charge distribution, using an equation similar to Poissons expression in electrostatics. The vector potential, however, is considerably more dicult to calculate. According (2.19), a time change in implies an instantaneous change in . This fact denotes the non-physical nature of since real physical magnitudes can change only after a delay determined by the propagation time between the perturbation and the measurement point. In this book we will use only the Lorenz condition, but it should be made clear that the E and H elds calculated from the potentials with the Coulomb or Lorenz gauges must be identical. The complete solutions of the inhomogeneous wave equations for the potentials (2.14) are linear combinations of the particular solutions and of the general solutions for the corresponding homogeneous wave equations. The next section is devoted to nding these particular solutions, which express the potentials in terms of integrals over the source distributions J and .
2.2
Solution of the inhomogeneous wave equation for potentials
Let us now calculate the expression of the potentials created by an arbitrary bounded source distribution (charges and currents) in an unbounded homogeneous, time-invariant, linear and isotropic medium of conductivity zero that we assume to be free space (Fig. 2.1). From (2.14) we see that the scalar potential as well as each of the three components Ai , (i = 1, 2, 3), of the vector potential A satisfy inhomogeneous scalar wave equations with the general form (r, t) = 2 (r, t) 1 2 (r, t) = g (r, t) c2 t2 (2.21)
where the operator acts on the coordinates r, t of the eld point, while the sources coordinates are r0 , t0 . To facilitate the solution of this equation, we can use, owing to the linearity of the problem, the superposition principle and consider a source distribution
2.2.
SOLUTION OF THE INHOMOGENEOUS WAVE EQUATION FOR POTENTIALS35
g (r, t) as constructed from a sum of weighted space-time Dirac delta function sources, i.e., Z t Z g (r, t) = g (r 0 , t0 ) (r r 0 )(t t0 )dv 0 dt0 (2.22)
t0 = V0
where V 0 is a volume containing all the sources. Thus, (2.21) can be solved in two steps, using Greens method in the time domain, as follows. a) The rst step is to calculate the response, G(r, r 0 , t, t0 ), generated by the space-time Dirac function source, (r r 0 )(t t0 ), located at position r 0 and applied at time t0 which obeys the inhomogeneous wave equation 1 2 G(r, r 0 , t, t0 ) = (r r 0 )(t t0 ) c2 t2 (2.23) and satises the boundary conditions of the problem. The function G(r, r 0 , t, t0 ) is called Greens free-space function, which, because of the homogeneity of the space, must be a spherical wave centred at position r 0 at time t0 . This function depends on the relative distance, R = |r r 0 |, between the point source and the observation or eld point and on the time dierence = t t0 . Thus G(r, r 0 , t, t0 ) = G(R, ) and (2.23) can be written, using spherical coordinates, as 1 2 (RG) 1 2G G(R, ) = 2 = (R)( ) (2.24) 2 R R c 2 where, (??), G(r, r 0 , t, t0 ) = 2 G(r, r 0 , t, t0 ) 2 G = 2G 2 = 1 2 (RG) R R2 2G t2 (2.25a) (2.25b)
b) The second step is to nd (r, t) from Greens function. Owing to the linearity of the problem and, from (2.22), if the solution of (2.23) is G, then the solution of (2.21) is 3 Z t Z = g (r 0 , t0 ) G(R, )dv 0 dt0 . (2.26)
t0 = V0
Because G fulls the boundary conditions, so too does (r, t). To nd the Greens function let us consider rst a general point R 6= 0 such that equation (2.24) simplies to G(R, ) = 1 2 (RG) 1 2G 2 = 0. 2 R R c 2 (2.27)
Multiplying this equation by R and dening G0 = RG we have the homogeneous wave equation 1 2 G0 2 G0 2 =0 (2.28) 2 R c 2
3 Note that Eq. (2.27) represents the spatial and temp oral convolution of g(r, t) and G(r, t)
36CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL The general solution of the above expression, as can be veried by direct substitution, is (2.29) G0 (R, ) = f ( R/c) + h( + R/c) where f ( R/c) and h( + R/c) are two arbitrary functions of their respective arguments and they represent waves propagating along R in the positive and negative directions, respectively. Therefore G(R, ) = f ( R/c) h( + R/c) + R R (2.30)
The potential that results from substituting Greens function h( + R/c)/R in (2.26) is termed the advanced potential and is a function of the value of the sources at the future observation instant. This advanced potential is clearly not consistent with our ideas about causality, according to which the potential at (t, r) can depend only on sources at earlier times. Thus, in (2.30) we must consider only the retarded f ( R/c)/R solution as physically meaningful. To determine f ( R/c)/R, we integrate the dierential equation (2.23) in a very small volume around the singular point R = 0. Thus, taking into account that for R 0 the function G behaves as f ( )/R, we have 1 2 G(R, ) dv 0 2 G(R, ) 2 c 2 V0 R0 Z f ( ) 1 2 f ( ) 2 2 2 dv 0 = R c R V0 Z = (r r 0 )( )dv 0 = ( ) Z
V0
(2.31) (2.32) (2.33)
or, since 2 (1/R) = 4(R) and dv 0 = 4R2 dR, Z 4f ( )(R)dv 0 +

V0
4 c2
R
V0
2 f ( ) dR = ( ) 2
(2.34)
As R 0, the second integral can be eliminated and therefore f ( ) = ( ) 4 (2.35)
As the function f depends on R/c and f ( ) = f ( R/c)|R=0 , we have f ( R/c) = and the solution of (2.24) is given by G(R, ) = ( R/c) (t t0 R/c) = 4R 4R (2.37) ( R/c) 4 (2.36)
2.2.
SOLUTION OF THE INHOMOGENEOUS WAVE EQUATION FOR POTENTIALS37
This is Greens time-dependent retarded function, which takes into account the time needed for the electromagnetic perturbation to reach the observation point from the point source. Substituting this function in (2.26), we have Z t Z ( R/c) 0 0 (r, t) = g (r 0 , t0 ) (2.38) dv dt . 4R t0 = V 0 and, integrating in t0 , we nally nd that, under the assumption of causality, the solution of the inhomogeneous wave equation for potentials is given by Z Z 1 1 g (r 0 , t R/c) 0 [g] 0 (2.39) (r, t) = dv = dv . 4 V 0 R 4 V 0 R R (2.40) ) = g(r 0 , t0 ) c is the value of the source densities evaluated at the retarded times t0 = t R/c, which in general are dierent for each source point, R/c being the delay time due to the nite propagation velocity of the electromagnetic perturbations. In the following the physical magnitudes evaluated in retarded times are shown in brackets. By analogy with (2.39) the solutions to the inhomogeneous equations for the potentials are Z 1 [] 0 (r, t) = (2.41a) dv 40 V 0 R Z [J] 0 0 A (r, t) = (2.41b) dv 4 V 0 R [g] = g(r 0 , t where the bracket symbol [ ] indicates that the enclosed magnitude must be evaluated at the retarded time t0 = t R/c. That is [J ] = J(r , t ) = J(r , t R/c) [] = (r 0 , t0 ) = (r 0 , t R/c)
0 0 0
where
(2.42) (2.43)
are the charge and current densities, respectively, evaluated in the retarded times t0 . Expressions (2.41a) and (2.41b), which are called retarded potentials, indicate that the potentials created by a distribution at the eld point P are determined, at a given time t, by the values of the the charge and current densities at the source points evaluated at previous times t0 , which generally dier for each source poin. It is easy to check that these potentials, together with the continuity equation, verify Lorenzs condition (2.10). It should be noted that (2.39) is a particular solution of (2.21), to which a complementary solution of the homogeneous wave equation (r, t) = 0 can be added in order to arrive at other possible solutions of (2.39). Thus, other conditions must be imposed to ensure that the only possible solution of (2.21)
38CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL is (2.39). These conditions, establishing the uniqueness of (2.39), can be found in Appendix ??. For sources with time-harmonic dependence (r 0 , t) = Re (r0 )ejt ) (2.44) ~ (2.45) J(r 0 , t) = Re{J(r 0 )ejt } the expressions of the retarded potentials and A simplify to Z o 1 ~ 0 j(t R ) 0 ~ c dv J(r )e A(r, t) = = Re{A(r)ejt } (2.46a) Re 4 V0 R Z 1 1 0 j(t R ) 0 c dv (r, t) = Re = Re (r)ejt (2.46b) (r )e 4o V0 R ~ A(r) = (r) = Z o 1 ~ 0 jkR 0 J(r )e dv 4 V 0 R Z 1 1 (r 0 )ejkR dv 0 4o V 0 R (2.47a) (2.47b)
where
where k = /c = 2/ is the wavenumber in the unbounded medium and is the wavelength in the medium. For harmonic signals the time delay R/c, when multiplied by , becomes a phase shift given by kR.
2.3
Electromagnetic elds from a bounded source distribution
The elds created by a bounded source distribution (charges and currents in free space) of arbitrary time dependence can be determined by inserting (2.41a) and (2.41b) into (2.1) and (2.4). Next, we nd the expression for the magnetic eld rst and for the electric eld afterwards4 . Magnetic eld Starting from the equation B =A= o 4 Z [J] 0 dv R (2.48)
V0
and transforming the integrand by the vector analysis formulas (??) and (??) of Appendix ??, with = 1/R and A = J, we can directly nd the magnetic eld equation h i J Z [J] R 1 t R 0 o + dv (2.49) B(r, t) = 4 V 0 R3 c R2
4 An alternative way of obtaining the electromagnetic elds is indicated in Section ??.
2.3. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS FROM A BOUNDED SOURCE DISTRIBUTION39 h i where [J] is the retarded current density at the source point r 0 and J/t =
[J]/t0 = [J]/t is its time derivative at the instant t0 = t R/c. Expression (2.49) can be written as the sum of the two components B = Bbs + Brad , which are dened below. The Biot-Savart term, Bbs : Bbs = o 4 Z [J] R 0 dv R3 (2.50)
which is formally analogous to the Biot-Savart expression of magnetostatics, although here with the sources evaluated at the retarded times. As this term decreases with 1/R2 , its contribution is appreciable only at short distances. The radiation term, Brad : = o 4c Z h
J t
Brad
V0
R2
dv 0
(2.51)
which depends on 1/R, and consequently its contribution to the magnetic eld predominates at long distances from the sources. At the static limit, when the sources do not change with time (i.e., for a stationary current distribution) equation (2.49) simplies to the Biot-Savart expression of magnetostatics Bbs = o 4 Z J R 0 dv R3 (2.52)
Electric eld From (2.4) and (2.41) we see that 1 E= 40 Z [] dv 0 0 R 4 0 V Z [J] 0 dv t R (2.53)
Taking into account that /t0 = /t and that (R) = (d/dR)R we have ! [] R [] 1 1 R = [] + [] = [] 3 + 2 (2.54a) R R R R R R [] [] dt0 1 = = (2.54b) R t0 dR t c ! [] R R = [] 3 (2.54c) R R cR2 t
40CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL which, when substituted in (2.53), and taking into account the continuity equation J = /t, gives h i J Z [] R 1 t R h 0 i 0 1 2 dv (2.55) 2 J E(r, t) = 40 V 0 R3 c R R c
To get the exact form of the radiation term, which depends on the distance as 1/R, we need to transform the integrand of this expression by developing 0 [J] as5 R[ J ] t [0 J ] = 0 [J ] (2.56) cR thus we can rewrite the third term on the right-hand side of (2.55) as Z Z Z R h 0 i 0 R 0 J dv = [J]dv 0 + 2 R2 c V0 R c V0 h
J t
V0
c2 R3
R R
dv 0 (2.57)
The calculation of the rst term on the right-hand side can be facilitated by calculating just one component, for example the x component Z Rx 0 [J]dv 0 R2 c Z Z Z [J] Rx 0 2 dv 0 c R [J] Rx 0 2 dv 0 c R Z Rx [J] dv0 R2 c
= =
V0
V0
V0
where we have used (??), applied the divergence theorem, and integrated over an external surface that encloses the sources in which [J] = 0. Therefore, generalizing to three dimensions and inserting the result in (2.55), we get Z Z 2 [J] R R [J] R R [] R 0 dv0 + dv + 4o E = R3 cR4 0 0 V V h i J Z R R t 1 dv 0 (2.59) + 2 c V0 R3
[J] = (0 J)t0 + Thus
5 0 [J] t0
Z [J] [J] 1 0 0 = Rx Rx dv + 0 2 dv 0 2c c R V0 R V0 Z 2 [J] R Rx [Jx ] + dv 0 = (2.58) 2 cR cR4 0 V
0 t0 = (0 J)t0
R t0 cR
[J]
[J] t0
t0 = (0 J)t0 +
R cR
[J] t0
(0 J)t0 = [0 J] = 0 [J]
2.3. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS FROM A BOUNDED SOURCE DISTRIBUTION41 which can be expressed as the sum of the three components E = Ec + Ei + Erad , which are dened below. Coulombs term, Ec , Z 1 [] R 0 dv (2.60) Ec = 4o V 0 R3
This term is similar to the static Coulombs expression except concerning the time delay. Induction term, Ei , Z 2 [J] R R 1 [J] 0 dv (2.61) Ei = 4o V 0 cR4 cR2 Because of their dependence on 1/R2 , the contribution to the eld of the terms (2.60) and (2.61) decrease quickly with distance. Radiation term, Erad , h i h i J J Z Z R R R R t t 1 dv 0 = 0 dv 0 Erad = 4o c2 V 0 R3 4 V 0 R3 (2.62)
This term, which depends on 1/R, is the electric eld component that predominates for long distances. Together with (2.51), this component is of interest in radiation phenomena (see next subsection) . At the static limit, expression (2.59) simplies to Coulombs expression of electrostatics Z 1 R 0 E= dv (2.63) 4o V 0 R3 Alternatively, the electric eld can be expressed only in terms of the current density, by using the continuity equation. In fact, from (2.56) we have ! Z t Z t R[ J ] 0 0 0 t [ J ]dt = (2.64) [J ] [] = dt0 cR Inserting (2.64) into (2.59) and operating in a similar way to (2.58), we obtain another alternative expression for the electric eld created by a bounded source distribution Z Z t 3 [J] R R [J ] 1 E = 3 dt0 dv 0 4o V 0 R5 R Z 3 [J] R R 1 [J] 0 dv + 4o V 0 cR4 cR2 h i J Z R R t 1 1 + dv 0 (2.65) 4o c2 V 0 R3
42CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL Fields created by a time-harmonic source distribution For time-harmonic dependence of the sources, the eld expressions (2.4) and (2.1) simplify to ~ B ~ E ~ = A
(2.66a) (2.66b)
~ = j A
and equation (2.49) for the magnetic eld becomes ~ B= o 4 Z ~ (J R) 1 jk + 2 3 R R ejkR dv 0
V0
while the dierent expressions for the electric eld, (2.55), (2.59) and (2.65) become, respectively, ~ E = ejkR R 0 dv + R3 V0 ! Z ~ jk R J(r 0 ) ejkR 0 (2.68a) dv 4o V 0 R c R Z Z ~ 2 J R R ~ 1 1 J jkR 0 R jkR 0 = e e dv + dv + 4o V 0 R3 4o V 0 cR4 cR2 Z ~ J R R jk ejkR dv 0 (2.68b) + 4o c V 0 R3 Z ~ 3 J R R ~ j J ejkR dv 0 + = 4o V 0 R3 R5 Z ~ 3 J R R ~ J jkR 0 1 e dv + 4o V 0 cR4 cR2 Z ~ J R R jk ejkR dv 0 (2.68c) + 4o c V 0 R3 1 4o Z Z
~ E
~ E
and the radiation elds (2.51) and (2.62) become ~ B ~ E = jo 4c jo 4 ~ J R jkR 0 e dv R2 ~ J R R ejkR dv 0 R3 (2.69a)
V0
(2.69b)
V0
2.3. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS FROM A BOUNDED SOURCE DISTRIBUTION43
2.3.1
Radiation elds
is fullled for any of the innitesimal volume elements into which the source can be subdivided. For time-harmonic elds, this condition becomes R >>
Examining the total elds (2.49) and (2.65) generated by a bounded distribution of sources with arbitrary time dependence, we nd that in general the near-zone terms, which depend on 1/Rn (n > 1), are negligible compared to the radiation terms, (2.51) and (2.62), which depend on 1/R, when the condition [J] R >> c (2.70) d[J]/dt (2.71)
Hence, the radiation term predominates when distances from the sources are great compared to any wave-length involved. The zone where the radiation elds predominate can be called by several names: far zone, wave zone and Fraunhofer zone. Note that the far zone is farther away from the sources at lower time dependence (i.e., at lower frequencies) and there is no far zone at the static limit. Let us select the reference origin close to or within the source distribution, (Fig. 2.1). If the eld point is far away from any source point such that r >> r0 , or equivalently r >> l, where l is the largest dimension of the source distribution, then it is possible to make some general approximations in the expressions (2.51) and (2.62) which greatly simplify the calculations. To conrm this, let us write R in Fig. 2.1 as 1/2 R = |r r 0 | = r2 2r r 0 + r02 (2.72)
Since the reference origin is close to or within the source distribution, we can calculate the radiation elds at distances r >> r0 by expanding the binomial (2.72) as a series in powers of the small parameter r0 /r and take only the linear terms of the expansion 1/2 r02 r r0 r r0 =r R = r 12 2 + 2 + ... ' r r 0 r = r r 0 cos r r r (2.73) where is the angle between r and r0 . This approximation is equivalent to considering that, far away from the sources, r and R become parallel. Thus, as r0 /r << 1, in the expressions (2.51) and (2.62), we can make the approximation R'r (2.74) in the denominator. This is equivalent to ignoring, in the modulus of the contribution of each source point to the total eld, the dierence in the distance
44CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL travelled by the signal. Thus (2.70) becomes [J] r >> c d[J]/dt and (2.71) becomes r >>
(2.75)
(2.76)
In the retarded time, t0 = t R/c, the approximation (2.74) is not valid because the sources can be very sensitive to small changes in the delay time R/c. Thus, for the delay time, at distances r >> r 0 we need to keep at least the two linear terms of the expansion (2.73). Therefore t0 = t R r 0 cos r r0 r =t + = t0 + 0 c c c c (2.77)
where t0 = t r/c. 0 Therefore, from (2.77), the retarded time has two components. One, r/c, is the time needed for the electromagnetic eld to reach the eld point from the origin of the coordinates. The other, r 0 r/c, represents the time necessary for the propagation of the electromagnetic perturbation within the geometric limits of the source distribution. This term, given that the largest dimension of the source distribution is l, (Fig. 2.1), has a magnitude of r 0 r/c l/c << r/c (2.78)
Hence, using the approximations (2.74) and (2.77) the integrands of the radiation elds (2.51) and (2.62) simplify to Brad Erad = =
r J(r 0 , t0 + r c ) 0 rdv 0 t V0 ! 0 Z r J(r 0 , t0 + r c ) 1 0 r rdv 0 4o c2 r V 0 t
o 4cr
(2.79a) (2.79b)
or, for time-harmonic dependence, Z jo ~ ~ E rad = J r r ejkR dv 0 (2.80a) 4r V 0 Z Z jo jk o ~ ~ ~ B rad = J r ejkR dv 0 = J r ejkR dv 0 (2.80b) 4cr V 0 4cr V 0 A comparison of Eqs. (2.79a) and (2.79b), shows that the radiation elds are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. They are related by (2.81) E = 0H r
2.3. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS FROM A BOUNDED SOURCE DISTRIBUTION45 where the ratio 0 is dened as 0 = E H = (o /o ) 2 = 120
1
(2.82)
and is called the intrinsic impedance of free space. According to Poyntings theorem the total radiated energy passing through the unit area perpendicular to the direction of the vector Erad Hrad is given by Z
t
Prad dt =
(Erad Hrad )dt
(2.83)
and the total ow of power passing through the closed surface S situated in the far-eld zone is Z
t
Prad dsdt =
(Erad Hrad ) dsdt
(2.84)
In summary, the assumptions involved in using (2.79) and (2.80) to calculate the radiation elds created by a bounded source distribution in the far-eld zone are: a) r >> (c |[J]| / |d[J]/dt|) or, equivalently, r >> for any wavelength of the radiation spectrum which allows us to neglect 1/r2 terms. b) r >> l , where l is the largest dimension of the source distribution which allows us to make the approximations (2.74) and (2.77).
2.3.2
Fields created by an innitesimal current element
The simplest case of a bounded source distribution is that of an innitesimal current element i(t), which is assumed to be oriented on the z axis (Fig. 2.3) and to have arbitrary time dependence. This current is mathematically dened, in terms of the Dirac delta function, as z z < z0 < 2 2
z J(r, t) = i(t)(x0 )(y 0 )
(2.85)
The elds of this current element can be easily calculated by substituting (2.85) in (2.49) and (2.65). Thus, we have
H E
z / 2
i (t )
z / 2
x
Figure 2.3: Innitesimal current element solo campos de radiacion falta la r del radio vector del punto campo
Fields created by an innitesimal current element with arbitrary-time dependence:
H(r, t) =
E(r, t) = z 1 d [i] ( ( z )) = r r 4o c2 r dt
z 1 d [i] [i] z + 2 ( r) = 4 cr dt r z 1 d [i] [i] (2.86a) + 2 sin 4 cr dt r Z t z [i] 1 [i] dt + 2 (3 ( r) r z ) + z 4o r3 cr Z t [i] 1 z [i] dt + 2 (2 cos r + sin ) + 4o r3 cr z 1 d [i] sin (2.86b) 4o c2 r dt
For time-harmonic dependence of the current element, i = Re Iejt , equations (2.86a) and (2.86b) simplify to
where [i] = i(t r/c).
2.3. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS FROM A BOUNDED SOURCE DISTRIBUTION47
Figure 2.4: Radiation eld separates from the source and propagates to innity Dibujar el dipolo. Note that there is not radiation in the direction in which the current element is pointing. pp 259 del panofsky : -Como puede verse en la gura las lineas de campo de raciacin representa una familia de lazos, atravezados por las lneas de campo magntico, que se propagan hacia el innito ( i.e. waves see chapter tal)
Fields created by an innitesimal current element with time-harmonic dependence:
~ H(r) = ~ E(r) =
jkr Iz 1 e jk 1 + sin 4 jkr r ! 1 ejkr Iz 1 jk 0 1 + sin + 2 4 jkr (kr) r ! 1 ejkr Iz 1 jk 0 cos r 2 2 jkr (kr) r
(2.87a)
(2.87b)
These expressions can be also derived directly from the vector potential (2.41b), which in this case simplies to Z
A=z
0 4
z 2
z 2
[i] 0 [i]0 dz ' z z r 4r
(2.88)
Thus, the magnetic eld is given by6
48CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL H = 1 1 1 1 A= (A) = z (A z + A( z )) = A z 0 0 0 0 (2.89)
where we have applied the vector identity (??) and taken into account that the curl of a constant vector is zero. Hence, using spherical coordinates, we get H = = 1 z [i] A z = rz 0 4 r r z 1 d [i] [i] z 1 d [i] [i] 2 rz = + 2 sin 4 cr dt r 4 cr dt r
(2.90)
which of course coincides with (2.86a). The electric eld (2.86b) can be calculated from (2.90), taking into account that from (1.1d), in source-free regions, we have7 Z 1 t H(r, t) dt (2.93) E(r, t) = 0 From the relation between the charge and current, i(t) = dq(t)/dt, we have i4z = dq dp 4z = =p dt dt (2.94)
where p = q 4 z is the dipole moment of a time-varying electric dipole8 , the so-called Hertzian dipole, formed by two point charges with values of +q(t)
6 For a given vector eld A, the eld lines are dened by the condition that, at any p oint, the line element dl and the eld are parallel i.e. dl A = 0. For the eld created by a current element, from Eqs (2.87a), the magnetic eld has only comp onent and consequently their eld lines are closed around the Z axis. The radiation electric eld has and r components, although the radiation electric eld has only comp onent which b ecomes null in the region 0. Then in this region predominates the Er = E r comp onent and consequently the electric eld lines close( see Fig 2.4) as would b e exp ected from M axwells equations since, outside the sources, there only exist curl sources. 7 Note that once calculed H = 1/ A we can obtain E using (1.1d) or (1.67d) and taking 0 into account that, in source-free regions, we have
E=
or
1 0
H dt = c
( A) dt
(2.91)
E=
1 1 H = ( A) j0 jk
(2.92)
for arbitrary or harmonic time dep endence respectively. Thus we do not need necessarily to calculate to obtain the elds. 8 The time varying electric dip ole is dened as two time varying charges of opp osite m agnitude q(t) separated by a constant distance z much less than the eld p oint r. The dipole moment p(t) is given by the magnitude of the charge times the distance z b etween them and the dened direction is toward the positive charge i.e. p(t) = q(t)z .. Alternatively it would b e p ossible to model the oscillating dip ole as two constant p oint charges of opp osite sign separated by oscillating distance z(t). However, the elds created for such accelerated charges need from the theory develop ed in Chapter ??.
2.3. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS FROM A BOUNDED SOURCE DISTRIBUTION49 and q(t) and the dot indicates dierentiation with respect to time. Thus the time-varying current element is equivalent to i(t) = or, for time-harmonic dependence, I= jp 4z (2.96) 1 dp 4z dt (2.95)
Introducing (2.95) into (2.86a) and (2.86b), and (2.96) into (2.87a) and (2.87b), we get the eld created by an innitesimal current element (hertzian dipole) in terms of its dipole moment as: Fields created by a Hertzian dipole with arbitrary-time dependence: 1 [p] [] p + sin 4r r c [p] [p] [] 1 p + + 2 sin + 4r0 r2 rc c [p] [p] 1 + cos r 2ro r2 rc
H E
= =
(2.97a)
(2.97b)
Fields created by a Hertzian dipole with time-harmonic dependence: ~ H ~ E jp 4 p 40 p 2o jkr 1 e + jk sin r r jkr jk 1 e + k2 sin + 2 r r r jk ejkr 1 + cos r r2 r r
= =
(2.98a)
(2.98b)
The radiation elds created by an innitesimal current element can be expressed, from (2.86a) to (2.87b), in terms of its current amplitude or of its equivalent dipolar moment. Radiation elds created by an innitesimal current element: For arbitrary-time dependence Hrad Erad = = z 1 d [i] sin 4 cr dt z 1 d [i] sin 4o c2 r dt (2.99a) (2.99b)
50CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL For time-harmonic dependence ~ H rad ~ E rad = = Iz ejkr jk sin 4 r ejkr Iz jk 0 sin 4 r (2.100a) (2.100b)
and from (2.97a) to (2.98b), we have the radiation elds in terms of its equivalent Hertzian dipole: Radiation elds created by an electric dipole: For arbitrary-time dependence Hrad Erad = = 1 [] p sin 4r c 1 [] p sin 4r0 c2 (2.101a) (2.101b)
For time-harmonic dependence ~ H rad ~ E rad = = pk ejkr sin 4 r pk2 ejkr sin 40 r (2.102a) (2.102b)
More details about this elemental radiators and how they can be physical approximated are given in subsubsection ?? of chapter ??.
2.3.3
Far-zone approximations for the potentials
The general expressions (2.49) and (2.59) for the elds due to an arbitrary source distribution of nite size are of theoretical and sometimes of practical interest. However, except for the case of the innitesimal current element, it is much easier to calculate the elds created by a given source distribution via the potentials, as indicated in Fig. 2.2. This can be seen simply by comparing the complexity of the expressions for these elds, (2.49) and (2.59), with those for the potentials (2.41a) and (2.41b). Because of the vector product in the integrand of (2.51) and (2.62), this argument continues being true even when we are interested only in the radiation elds. In the far zone, we can make the approximations (2.74) and (2.77) for the potentials. Hence, the integrands of the retarded potentials (2.41) simplify to Z Z 1 (r 0 , t0 ) 0 0 1 r0 r (r, t) = (r 0 , t0 + dv ' )dv 0 40 V 0 R 40 r V 0 c (2.103a) Z Z 0 0 0 0 J(r , t ) 0 0 r r A (r, t) = J(r 0 , t0 + dv ' 0 )dv (2.103b) 0 4 V 0 R 4r V 0 c
2.4. MULTIPOLE EXPANSION FOR POTENTIALS The magnetic eld can now be calculated from (2.1), using (??), as B = A= = 0 4 Z
V0
51
0 4
J(r 0 , t0 + 0 r
J(r 0 , t0 + 0 r
r 0 r c ) 0
r 0 r c )
dv 0 Z J(r 0 , t0 + 0 r0 r 1 ) dv 0 c r (2.104)
dv 0 4
V0
where, if we are interested only in the radiation eld, the second term can be ignored since it depends on 1/r2 , and therefore 1 A = H= 0 4 Z J(r 0 , t0 + 0 r
r 0 r c )
dv 0
(2.105)
V0
Furthermore, from (??), we have J () = dJ/d with = t0 +r 0 r/c. 0 Thus, it follows that J(r 0 , t0 + 0
r r0 r r J(r 0 , t0 + r c ) 0 ) = c c t 0 r J(r 0 , t0 + r c ) r 0 = c t
0
(2.106)
and therefore H = 1 A r 0 c t (2.107)
which, as would be expected, leads to (2.79a). If the time variations of the sources are harmonic the expressions (2.103a) , (2.103b) and (2.107) become Z 0 1 jkr (r 0 )ej kr dv 0 (2.108a) e = 40 r 0 Z V 0 0 jkr ~ ~ J(r 0 )ej kr dv 0 (2.108b) A = e 4r 0 V j ~ H = rA ~ (2.108c) 0 c The radiation electric eld can be calculated from (2.107) or (2.108c) simply using (2.81).
2.4
Multipole expansion for potentials
In many cases, such as the study of most antennas, in order to calculate the radiation elds, we cannot make any approximation concerning the potentials other than those assumed above. For example, we need to carry out the integration in (2.103b) or (2.108b) in order to calculate the vector potential. However, if we assume that the charge distribution does not change appreciably over time
52CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL l/c, we may expand the integrands of (2.103) in a Taylor series about t0 in terms 0 of the parameter r 0 r/c. For example, for the vector potential, we have r0 r J(r 0 , t0 ) r0 r ) = J(r 0 , t0 ) + + ... (2.109) J(r 0 , t0 + 0 0 0 0 c c t0
t =t0
r where we have omitted higher-order terms in r 0 /c. Thus after inserting (2.109) in (2.103b), we can write A as the power-series expansion A ' A1 + A2 + ... = Z Z 0 J(r 0 , t0 ) 0 J(r 0 , t0 )dv 0 + 0 0 4r V 0 4cr V 0 t0
t
=t0 0
r 0 rdv 0 + ... (2.110)
If the time dependence of the sources is sinusoidal the condition that the source distribution does not change appreciably over time l/c is equivalent to assuming that l/c << T (where T is the period of the signal) or equivalently l/ << 1, i.e., that the dimension of wavelength is much greater than that of the source distribution >> l (2.112) In this case, we can perform the series expansion
0 1 r 0 ej kr = ejkr 1 + jk r 0 k2 ( r 0 )2 + ... r r 2
Therefore the rst two terms of the expansion (2.110), A1 and A2 , are given by Z 0 A1 = (2.111a) J(r 0 , t0 )dv 0 0 4r V 0 Z J(r 0 , t0 ) 0 A2 = r 0 rdv 0 0 0 4cr V 0 t0 t =t0 Z 0 0 0 0 0 = (2.111b) J(r , t )r rdv 0 4cr V 0 t t0 =t0
0
(2.113)
which, after substituting in (2.108b), leads to ~ ~ ~ A = A1 + A2 + ... where ~ A1 ~ A2 Z 0 ejkr ~ J(r0 )dv 0 4 r 0 V Z ejkr ~ r J(r0 ) r 0 dv 0 = jk 0 4 r 0 V = (2.115a) (2.115b) (2.114)
2.4. MULTIPOLE EXPANSION FOR POTENTIALS which are the Fourier transforms of (2.111a) and (2.111b), respectively. Of course, there are analogous expressions for the terms of = 1 + 2 + ... Z Z 1 1 (r 0 , t0 ) 0 0 0 = (r , t0 )dv + r 0 rdv 0 + ... 40 r V 0 40 cr V 0 t0 t0 =t0
0
53
(2.116)
where 1 2 = =
Note that, since the contribution of each point source to the integral in (2.117a) is evaluated at the same time t0 , this integral represents the total 0 charge of the source distribution. Thus, if the net charge of the distribution is zero, we have 1 = 0. If the net charge is not zero, the constant, the electrostatic potential 1 created by that charge depends on r2 and consequently it does not contribute to the radiation. The expansion (2.110) allows us to decompose the electromagnetic eld created by a time-varying source distribution of nite dimension in terms of elementary time-varying source distributions, called electric and magnetic multipoles, located at the origin. This is similar to the well-known multipolar expansion of the electrostatics (or magnetostatics) to decompose the eld created by a stationary source distribution of charge (or current) in terms of electric (or magnetic) multipoles. However, now the original distribution is time-varying and produces both electric and magnetic elds. Thus, as result of the expansion, we will obtain both, electric and magnetic multipoles. To verify this, we next analyze the rst two terms, (2.111a) and (2.111b), of (2.110).
Z 1 (r 0 , t0 )dv0 0 40 r V 0 Z (r 0 , t0 ) 1 r 0 rdv 0 40 cr V 0 t0 t0 =t0

0
(2.117a) (2.117b)
2.4.1
Electric dipolar radiation
The evaluation of the term (2.111a) of the power-series expansion of A can be R facilitated by calculating just one component of V 0 J(r 0 , t0 )dv0 , for example the 0 x component Z Z Z 0 0 0 0 0 0 Jx (r , t0 )dv = J(r , t0 ) xdv = J(r 0 , t0 ) 0 x0 dv 0 0 V0 V0 V0 Z Z = 0 x0 J(r 0 , t0 ) dv 0 x0 0 J(r 0 , t0 )dv 0 0 0 0 0 V V Z = x0 0 J(r 0 , t0 )dv 0 (2.118) 0
V0
since
V0
0 x0 J(r 0 , t0 ) dv 0 = 0 0
(2.119)
54CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL as can be seen by applying the divergence theorem and by integrating over an external surface, where J(r 0 , t0 ) = 0, that encloses the sources. Therefore, 0 generalizing to three dimensions we have Z J(r
V0 0
, t0 )dv 0 0
V0
r 0 0 J(r 0 , t0 )dv 0 0
(2.120)
and using the equation of continuity 0 J(r 0 , t0 ) = 0 we get Z Z J(r

0
(r 0 , t0 ) 0 t
(2.121)
V0
, t0 )dv 0 0
r0
V0
(r 0 , t0 ) 0 0 dv t
(2.122)
which, when substituted in (2.111a), gives A1 = 0 4r r0

V0
(r 0 , t0 ) 0 0 dv = 0 t 4r t
V0
r 0 (r 0 , t0 )dv 0 0
(2.123)
R The integral V 0 r 0 (r 0 , t0 )dv0 is by denition the electric dipole moment, [p], 0 evaluated at the retarded time t0 , of the time-varying source distribution, i.e., 0 [p] = Thus we have [p] [p] A1 = 0 = 0 4r t 4r The magnetic radiation eld, from (2.107), is given by r [p] [p] sin = = 4rc 4rc

V0
r 0 (r 0 , t0 )dv 0 = 0
r r 0 (r 0 , t )dv 0 c V0
(2.124)
(2.125)
Hrad
(2.126)
where we have assumed the direction of p parallel to the polar z axis. This expression, as might be expected, coincides with the radiation term, (2.101a), of (2.97a). From (2.126), the electric radiation eld, given by (2.101b), can be obtained using (2.81). Of course the corresponding expressions for timeharmonic elds are given by (2.102a) and (2.102b). Therefore, in a preliminary approximation, the original source distribution can be replaced by an electric dipole located at the origin of coordinates.
2.4. MULTIPOLE EXPANSION FOR POTENTIALS
55
2.4.2
Magnetic dipolar radiation
The analysis of the term (2.111b), can be facilitated by expressing the integrand as follows 1 J(r 0 , t0 )( r 0 ) = J(r 0 , t0 )(r 0 r) r 0 J(r 0 , t0 ) r 0 r 0 0 2 1 + J(r 0 , t0 )(r 0 r) + r 0 J(r 0 , t0 ) r 0 0 2 1 1 = r J(r 0 , t0 ) r 0 + J(r 0 , t0 )( r 0 ) + r 0 J(r 0 , t0 ) r 0 0 r 0 2 2 (2.127) Then, substituting in A2 , we get A2 = A2m + A2q where A2m and A2q = 0 8cr t Z = 0 8cr Z r J(r 0 , t0 ) r 0 dv 0 0 t (2.128)
(2.129)
V0
V0
J(r 0 , t0 )( r 0 ) + r 0 J(r 0 , t0 ) r dv0 0 r 0 0 [m] r 4cr t r 0 J(r 0 , t0 ) 0 0 dv 2
(2.130)
The integral (2.129) can be written as A2m = where [m] = Z (2.131)
(2.132)
V0
is by denition the magnetic dipolar moment about O, evaluated at the retarded z time t0 , of the source distribution. Thus, under the assumption that m = m, 0 the magnetic radiation eld given by (2.107) is Hrad
1 1 [m] = sin r ( [m]) = r 4c2 r 4r c2
(2.133)
From (2.81) the electric radiation eld is given by Erad = 0 [m] sin 4r c
(2.134)
For time-harmonic dependence, we have k2 m sin jkr ~ H rad = e 4r (2.135)
56CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL and
k2 m sin ~ E rad = 0 ejkr 4r m= ~ Z ~ r 0 J(r0 ) 0 dv 2
(2.136)
where
(2.137)
V0
These expressions are similar to (2.101a)-(2.102b), which were obtained for the electric eld of the radiation of the electric dipole. In fact, as we will see in the next section, there exists a duality in the analysis of the electric and magnetic dipoles. In the particular case of a current loop of radius a , Fig. ??, for which the current i does not change appreciably over time a/c (or equivalently a << for any frequency involved), (2.132), becomes m=i Z r 0 dl = iS 2 (2.138)
where is the countour of loop and S is the vector area of the surface subtended by the contour . In this expression, Jdv has been changed to idl. The surface vector S is directed normal to the loop according to the right-hand rule for the direction of the current in the loop. Thus, for the circular current loop, the radiation elds (2.133)-(2.136), can be written, for arbitrary time dependence, as Hrad Erad = S [ i] sin 4r c2

(2.139a) (2.139b)
S [ i] = 0 sin 4r c
where i is evaluated at t0 . These equations, for time-harmonic dependence 0 become ~ H rad E rad = = k2 IS sin jkr e 4r 2 k IS sin 0 ejkr 4r (2.140a) (2.140b)
It should be mentioned that the magnetic moment is important only when there exists no radiation of the electric moment of the system. Otherwise the one due to the magnetic moment may be ignored. Eectively, comparing Eqs. (2.101b) and (2.134), and using Ep and Em to indicate the amplitudes of the electric radiation elds from an electric and a magnetic dipole, respectively, we have Eprad c p = (2.141) Emrad m
2.4. MULTIPOLE EXPANSION FOR POTENTIALS
57
P
z r
m
O
R
y
x
Figure 2.5:
Poner
m = iS , poner i en vez de I y el contour .
A circular loop of
current in the x-y plane y dibujar camp os como en el elemento de corriente. Hacer el dibujo igual que el del electrico
or for time-harmonic variation with both dipoles oscillating at the same frequency, cp0 Eprad = (2.142) Emrad m0 Since from (2.137) we have m0 p0 and consequently m0 up0 (2.144) where u is the velocity of motion of the charges. Thus from (2.142) we have, for u << c, (2.145) Eprad >> Emrad i.e., the magnetic dipolar radiation may be ignored in comparison with the electric dipolar radiation. = = Z Z r 0 J0 0 1 dv = 2 2 0 r0 dv 0 Z 0 r0 udv0 (2.143a) (2.143b)
V0
V0
2.4.3
Electric quadrupole radiation
The second term, A2q , of A2 in (2.130), is associated with the electric quadrupole radiation, but to see this we must transform it further. To this end let us
58CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL R consider the x component of the rst summand of the integral V 0 J(r 0 , t0 ) r 0 dv 0 0 r i.e. Z Z 0 0 0 0 0 r r J(r , t0 ) x dv = r r 0 J(r 0 , t0 ) 0 x0 dv 0 0 0 V0 ZV Z 0 0 0 0 0 0 = x ( r ) J(r , t0 ) dv r x0 0 ( r 0 ) J(r 0 , t0 ) dv 0 r 0
V0 V0
(2.146)
where the rst integral is null, as can be seen using the divergence theorem to convert the volume integral in a surface integral with the surface of integration outside of the source distribution. Thus Z Z r r 0 J(r 0 , t0 ) x0 dv 0 = x0 0 ( r 0 ) J(r 0 , t0 ) dv 0 r 0 0 0 V0 ZV = x0 0 ( r 0 ) J(r 0 , t0 )dv 0 r 0 V0 Z x0 ( r 0 ) 0 J(r 0 , t0 )dv 0 r 0
V0
(2.147)
but 0 ( r 0 ) = r r 0 J(r 0 , t0 ) = 0 therefore Z Jx (r 0 , t0 ) r 0 dv 0 0 r (2.148a) (r t

0
, t0 ) 0
(2.148b)
= Z
V0
Z x0 J(r 0 , t0 ) r dv 0 + 0
V0
x0 ( r 0 ) r
(r 0 , t0 ) 0 0 dv t
(2.149)
V0
Generalizing to three dimensions Z Z J(r 0 , t0 ) ( r 0 ) dv 0 = r r 0 J(r 0 , t0 ) r dv 0 + 0 0

V0
V0
r 0 ( r 0 ) r
(r 0 , t0 ) 0 0 dv t (2.150)
and therefore, substituting in (2.130), we have Z 0 2 r 0 ( r 0 ) (r 0 , t0 )dv 0 r A2q = 0 8cr t2 V 0 The magnetic radiation eld, given by (2.107), is Z 1 3 r 0 ( r 0 ) (r 0 , t0 )dv 0 r H2qrad = r 3 0 8c2 r t V 0
(2.151)
(2.152)
2.5.
MAXWELLS SYMMETRIC EQUATIONS
59
Note that, since r rr02 = 0, the added term do no aect to the value of the integral. The advantage of including this term is that, now, the integrand can be written as the product of a second rank tensor Q, called electric quadrupolemoment tensor of the source distribution, and the vector r Z 0 r r (2.154) 3r ( r 0 ) rr02 (r 0 , t0 )dv 0 = [Q] 0
V0
The above expression can be written in a more useful form by adding the term rr02 (r 0 , t0 ) to the integrand 0 Z 0 1 3 H2qrad = r (2.153) 3r ( r 0 ) rr02 (r 0 , t0 )dv 0 r 3 0 2r 24c t V 0
The elements of [Q] are
[Q ] =
V0
and [Q] is a vector with components r X [Q ] r
0 0 3x x r02 (r 0 , t0 )dv 0 0
(2.155)
(2.156)
Therefore the radiation magnetic eld from a varying electric quadrupole is given by ... 1 1 3 [Q] r = H2qrad = r r [Q] r (2.157) 24c2 r t3 24c2 r or, for, time-harmonic dependence, jck 3 j(tkr) ~ H 2qrad = r Q r (2.158) e 24r The radiation electric eld can be calculated as usual by (2.81). It can be shown that quadrupole radiation elds are of the same order as the magnetic dipole moment and thus much less than that corresponding to the Hertzian dipole (Ejercicio).. Of course, if we continued analyzing other terms in the expansion tal, we would nd other multipole moments, such as magnetic quadrupole radiation, electric octupole radiation, etc. However, for this, other more complex mathematical methods provide the results more systematically.
2.5
Maxwells symmetric equations
It can be observed from (1.1a)-(1.1d) that Maxwells equations present a certain symmetry that, except in free space and with no source terms, is not complete because of the absence of magnetic charges and currents. Indeed, despite many experimental attempts, no free magnetic charges or monopoles have been found
60CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL in nature nor, therefore, would magnetic currents be created9 . Nevertheless, from a purely theoretical standpoint, nothing prevents us from assuming the existence of magnetic monopoles; therefore, to complete Maxwells equations we must add the necessary magnetic source terms in order to achieve complete symmetry between electric and magnetic quantities. To this end, we can reformulate Faradays law (1.1c) and Gauss law for magnetic elds (1.1b) by introducing, on their right-hand side, hypothetical magnetic current densities Jm (V m2 ) and magnetic charge densities m (Wb/m 3 ), respectively, as additional source terms. With these new quantities included, we can rewrite Maxwells equations for the case that both, electric as well as magnetic sources, exist in free space, in the following completely symmetric manner: Dierential form of Maxwells symmetric equations D B E H = = m = Jm 0 = J + 0 E t H t (2.159a) (2.159b) (2.159c) (2.159d)
Integral form of Maxwells symmetric equations I D ds = QT IS B ds = Qm S Z I Z E dl = Jm ds B ds t S Z S I Z H dl = J ds + D ds t S S
(2.160a) (2.160b) (2.160c) (2.160d)
It should be emphasized that the symmetrization of Maxwells equations is a powerful mathematical tool which greatly facilitates the solution of many practical problems such as the radiation and scattering from aperture antennas or permeable bodies. Taking the divergence of (2.159c) and using (2.159b) E = Jm B =0 t (2.161)
9 It should b e emphasized that, although there is no exp erimental evidence for the existence of magnetic charges, such existence does not violate any known principle of physics. In fact, from a purely theoretical viewp oint, Dirac showed [P.A.M . Dirac, Proc Roy. Soc.Lond. A133, 60 (1931)] that the existence of magnetic monop oles with magnetic charge g would explain the quantization of the electric charge e. We refer to the magnetically charged particles as magnetic monopoles or simply monopoles.
2.5.
61
we get the equation of continuity Jm = m t (2.162)
which expresses the conservation of magnetic monopoles and has the same form as that for the electric charges (1.3). In linear media, we can apply the superposition principle and split each one of the eld quantities, E, D, H and B, into the sum of two components D B = De + Dm = 0 Ee + Em = 0 E = Be + Bm = 0 He + Hm = 0 H (2.163a) (2.163b)
where the quantities with the e subscript depend only on the true electric sources and J while the quantities with the m subscript depend only on the hypothetical magnetic sources m and Jm . In this way, we divide Maxwells equations into two groups corresponding to the eld components associated with the electrical and magnetic sources, respectively; that is De Be Ee He = = 0 He t Ee = J + 0 t = 0 (2.164a) (2.164b) (2.164c) (2.164d)
Dm Bm Em Hm
= 0 = m = Jm 0 = 0 Em t Hm t
(2.165a) (2.165b) (2.165c) (2.165d)
Note that the sum of each expression (2.164), added to its equivalent (2.165), gives (2.159) and that the set (2.164) coincides with the conventional Maxwells equations (2.159), and that Eqs. (2.164) are formally identical to Eqs. (1.1a)(1.1d) and therefore can be solved as in the previous sections by means of the scalar and vector potentials and A. Thus, from (2.4) and (2.1), we have Be Ee = A = (2.166) A t (2.167)
62CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL where A + 0 0
=0 t
(2.168)
and where A and full the wave equations (2.14a) and (2.14b) 2 A 0 0 2A t2 2 2 0 0 2 t = 0 J = 0 (2.169) (2.170)
the solutions to which are the retarded potentials (2.41a) and (2.41b) Z 1 [] 0 (2.171) = dv 40 V 0 R Z 0 [J] 0 A = (2.172) dv 4 V 0 R The elds created by the magnetic sources m and Jm can be deduced by observing that equations (2.164) are transformed into (2.165) and vice versa with the simultaneous replacement of the following quantities, called duals Ee He 0 0 J dual dual dual dual dual dual of Hm of Em of 0 of 0 of m of Jm
(2.173)
The elds Ee and He associated with the electric sources can be calculated from the magnetic vector potential A and the electric scalar potential by means of (2.171) and (2.172). To calculate the elds Hm and Em we can use the same formalism dening two new potentials, termed electric vector potential F and magnetic scalar potential , such that A Hence F = = Z 1 [m ] 0 dv 40 V 0 R Z 0 [Jm ] 0 dv 4 V 0 R (2.175) (2.176) dual of dual of F (2.174)
which are the dual expressions of (2.171) and (2.172).
2.5.
63
By substituting the magnitudes in the rst column of (2.173 and 2.174) for their duals in the equations from (2.166) to (2.172) we get Dm Hm F + 0 0 t = o Em = F = = 0 F t (2.177a) (2.177b) (2.177c)
in which and F satisfy wave equations that are analogous to (2.169) and (2.170): 2 F 0 0 2F t2 2 2 0 0 2 t = 0 Jm = m 0 (2.178) (2.179)
Thus, by the superposition principle, if both current densities J and Jm exist simultaneously in a region of free space, the total eld E produced at any point is the sum of Ee and Em given by (2.167) and (2.177a). Hence E = Ee + Em = 1 c2 Z Adt A 1 F = t 0 (2.180)
A 1 F t 0
where Lorenz gauge Eq. (2.10) has been used to express E in terms of A and F. The total eld H is determined analogously from (2.166) and (2.177b) H = He + Hm = 1 F + A t 0 (2.181)
In practice, it is not necessary to use the latter expression, because once E has been calculated using (2.180), by substituting the result in (2.159c), with Jm = 0 we obtain H.
2.5.1
Boundary conditions
It is easy to show, ejercicio, that the boundary conditions corresponding to Maxwells symmetric equations are a logical extension of (1.35); that is, n D1 D2 (2.182a) = s n B1 B2 (2.182b) = sm n E1 E2 (2.182c) = Jsm n H1 H2 (2.182d) = Js
64CHAPTER 2. FIELDS CREATED BY A SOURCE DISTRIBUTION: RETARDED POTENTIAL in which n is the normal unit vector that goes from region 2 to region 1. Equa tions (2.182b) and (2.182c) show the additional eects of the imaginary surface magnetic charges and currents, sm and Jsm , at the interface. According to (2.182c) and (2.182d), the tangential components of the elds on a real or imaginary surface S can be written in terms of surface distributions of electric currents n H = Js (2.183)
S
and magnetic ones
2.5.2
Harmonic variations
~ D ~ B
n E = Jsm
S
(2.184)
For harmonic variations, the symmetric equations (2.159) simplify to = = m ~ ~ = Jm j0 H (2.185a) (2.185b) (2.185c) (2.185d)
~ E ~ H
~ ~ = J + j0 E
and the wave equations for the magnetic scalar potential , the electric vector potential F , and the Lorenz relations are (2.186a) 2 + 2 0 0 = m 0 ~ ~ ~ 2 F + 2 0 0 F = 0 Jm (2.186b) ~ j F = (2.186c) 0 0 with the solutions to (2.186a) and (2.186b) being Z 1 m ejkR 0 = dv 40 V 0 R Z ~ jkR Jm e ~ = 0 F dv0 4 V 0 R
(2.187) (2.188)
~ while for the total eld H we have 1 c2 ~ ~ ~ ~ A. H = j F j F + 0

where
~ ~ ~ The total eld E produced at any point is the sum of E e and E m , and is given by c2 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ E = E e + E m = j A j A F (2.189) 0 (2.190)
A is
given by (2.47a).
2.6. THEOREM OF UNIQUENESS
65
2.5.3
Fields created by an innitesimal magnetic current element
From (2.86a) and (2.86b), using the dual equations (2.173), we deduce that the elds generated by an innitesimal magnetic current element, Jm (r, t) = im (t)(x0 )(y 0 ) z are given by, (Fig. 2.6), E H = = 1 d [im ] [im ] (2.192a) + 2 sin cr dt r Z t [im ] 1 z 1 d [im ] z [im ] dt + 2 (2 cos r + sin ) + sin 4o r3 cr 4o c2 r dt (2.192b) z 4 z z < z0 < 2 2 (2.191)
or, for time-harmonic variation ~ E ~ H = = jkr zI m 1 e jk 1 + sin (2.193a) 4 jkr r jkr jkr 1 1 e 1 1 I m z e I m z j0 1 + 2 2 sin + j0 2 2 + cos r 4 jkr k r r 2 k r jkr r (2.193b)
Comparing the radiation terms of these equations to (2.139a)-(2.140b), we nd that di im z = 0 S (2.194) dt or for time-harmonic dependence. I m z = j0 IS (2.195)
2.6
Theorem of uniqueness
Whenever we have to resolve a dierential equation, it is desirable to know the conditions that must be fullled in order to state that a unique solution is possible. In our context, this means to seek the conditions for which we can state that there exists a single electromagnetic eld that satises, simultaneously, Maxwells equations and the given boundary conditions. Next, we establish these conditions for non-harmonic and time-harmonic electromagnetic elds.
E H
z / 2
im (t )
z / 2
x
Figure 2.6: solo los campos de radiacion se representan
2.6.1
Non-harmonic electromagnetic eld
A non-harmonic electromagnetic eld that varies in a linear region V bounded by a surface S is uniquely determined from an initial time, t = t0 , if the following are known: i) The values of the sources at each point and at each time for every t > t0 within the region. ii) The values of the electromagnetic eld (E and H) at each point of V at the initial time t = t0 . iii) The tangential components of the electric eld E or of the magnetic eld H on the entire the surface S for all t > t0 , or, alternatively, the tangential components of the electric eld E in any part of S and of the magnetic eld H in the remaining part of S, for all t > t0 . Proof This theorem can be proven by a reduction to absurdity that is, by showing that to assume the opposite of what is postulated would lead to a contradiction. Let us assume that having dened the three above conditions within a volume V , there exist two dierent electromagnetic elds, (E1 and H1 ) and (E2 and H2 ), respectively, which are solutions to the problem. Given the linearity of Maxwells equations, any linear combination of these two solutions must in itself be a solution. In particular, the dierence between the two aforementioned elds, i.e. the eld dened by (E 0 = E1 E2 and H 0 = H1 H2 ), must also be a solution to the problem. Given that, from the hypothesis, the sources are the same for the elds (E1 and H1 ) and (E2 and H2 ), the eld (E 0 , H 0 ) is source-free in V. Thus, if we apply the Poynting theorem (1.39) to (E 0 , H 0 ), we
2.6. THEOREM OF UNIQUENESS get 0= t Z 1 0 (E D0 + B 0 H 0 )dv + 2 Z E dv +

V 02
67
(E 0 H 0 ) ds
(2.196)
It is straightforward to show that if the tangential components of the electric eld E and/or of the magnetic eld H are uniquely determined on surface S, the nal term in (2.196) is null. By integrating this expression with respect to the time from t0 to t and, taking into account that the initial values for t = t0 are dened for all V , we nd that Z Z t Z 1 0 0= E 02 dv dt (2.197) (E D0 + B 0 H 0 )dv + V 2 V t0 As both of the terms on the second member in (2.197) are positive, this equality can be fullled only when both E 0 and H 0 are null (i.e. when E1 = E2 and H1 = H2 ), which is what we set out to prove.
2.6.2
Time-harmonic elds
In the case of harmonic variations, the uniqueness theorem states that a eld in a lossy ( 6= 0) 10 region is uniquely determined by the sources within the region together with the tangential components of the electric eld E or of the magnetic eld H on S, or, alternatively, the tangential components of the electric eld E in any part of S and of the magnetic eld H in the remaining part of S. Proof By a reasoning similar to that used for the above case, but using the expression (1.111), we get Z Z 02 02 02 H0 E0 E0 0= dv + 2j dv (2.198) 2 4 4 V V By making the real and the imaginary parts equal to zero, we see that these 0 0 two equalities imply that H0 and E0 are both equal to zero only if 6= 0. This is why we started from the premise that the medium occupying the volume has a conductivity that may be arbitrarily small but which is non-zero at all points. The eld in a lossless region can be considered the limit to the lossy case when such losses tend to zero.
1 0 The reason why we need the extra condition of the space to be lossy for time-harmonic signals is that, by denition, a pure harmonic signal has an innite duration.
Chapter 3
??Electromagnetic waves
In chapter 2 the elds created by a bounded time-variyng source distribution were calculated and in particular we found that the radiation eld propagates energy far away from the sources. Of all the possible solutions for the wave equation, we will examine primarily the properties of their plane-wave solutions, i.e., waves for which the wave-front are planes1 . Plane waves constitute a good approximation to actual waves in many situations because at suciently large distances from the sources, in a suciently small region, any wave front can be treated as a plane wave. For example, a great deal of optics is founded on the plane-wave approximation and, similarly, in radiocommunications the radiated eld at sucient distance from the antenna can be considered to be a plane wave. M oreover, it is p ossible to demostrate that, in general, an electromagnetic eld can puede
descomp onerse como suma lineal de ondas planas ( see App endix ?? ) In this Chapter we consider this kind of waves in a linear homogeneous isotropic medium libre de fuentes. Then incidencia normal y oblicua. Ondas esfricas , desarrollo en ondas planas? Harmonic..Electromagnetic waves are not limited in wavelength and in fact cover the sp ectrum from gamma rays (wavelengths of 10-12 cm???????) through X-rays, visible light, microwaves, and radio waves, to long waves (hundreds of kilometers long).
3.1
Wave equation
For time-varying electromagnetic elds it is possible to combine Maxwells equations to eliminate one of the elds, H or E, to obtain two uncoupled second-order dierential equations, one in E and the other in H, known as wave equations. To formulate these wave equations, let us consider a non-magnetic ( = 0 ), homogeneous, linear and isotropic region where, in general, source terms J and may exist. Taking the curl of (1.1c) and using the vector relation (??) we
1 Wave-front is dened as a surface that, at any time t, is orthogonal to the propagation vector n at all the points on the surface.
69
70 have E
CHAPTER 3. ??ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
= ( E) 2 E = = 0
B t
2 E
D (Jc + J + ) t t D = ( E) + 0 (Jc + J + ) t t E 2E J 1 + 0 + 0 + 0 2 = t t t (3.1)
where J and Jc are the source and induced conduction density of the currents, respectively. Thus, rearranging terms, we get 2 E 0 E 2E J 0 2 = + 0 t t t (3.2)
which is known as the inhomogeneous vector-wave equation for the electric eld. A similar equation can be written for the magnetic eld H by taking the curl of (1.1d), H 2H 2 H 0 (3.3) 0 2 = J t t For a lossless media (3.2) and (3.3) reduce to 2E t2 2H 2 H 0 2 t 2 E 0 = J 1 + 0 t (3.4a) (3.4b)
= J
These Eqs are analogous to the inhomogeneous wave equation for the vector potential (2.14a), and consequently their solutions take the form of the retarded vector potential given by Eq. (2.41b), i.e. Z [] + 1 c2 1 E (r, t) = 4 V 0 R h i Z J 1 H (r, t) = dv 0 4 V 0 R h
J t
dv0
(3.5a)
(3.5b)
from which, by means of straightforward operations, we can obtain the expressions (2.49) and (2.55) for the elds created by a bounded distribution of nite densities of charges and currents with arbitrary space and time dependence. In source-free regions ( J = 0; = 0, except the charge and current densities induced by the presence of the elds, which are expressed in terms of the
3.1. WAVE EQUATION constitutive parameters) the equations (3.2) and (3.3) simplify to 2E E 0 t2 t 2 H H 2 H 0 2 0 t t 2 E 0 = 0 = 0
71
(3.6a) (3.6b)
which are the homogeneous wave equations that determine the propagation of the elds E and H in a sourceless homogeneous, linear and isotropic medium. The solutions to these wave equations must be compatible with Maxwells equations and the coecients of the solutions must be derived from the boundary conditions. Uniform plane waves are dened as waves with a eld amplitude that, at any instant, is the same at all points of the wave-front plane. Thus, the eld amplitude depends only on the distance from the origin to the plane (g.6.1). Therefore, if n = / is the unit vector that is normal to the plane, the del operator becomes = / n and Maxwells equations simplify to n n n n and the wave equations become 2E E 2E 0 2 0 2 t t 2H H 2H 2 0 t2 0 t = 0 = 0 (3.8a) (3.8b) D B E H = 0 = 0 = B t D t (3.7a) (3.7b) (3.7c) (3.7d)
= E +
These equations, which describe the propagation of plane waves in a homogeneous conducting medium, are called the telegraphers equations. For nondissipative media, for example the free space, these equations simplify to 2E 2E 2 0 0 t2 2H 2H 2 0 0 t2 = = 2E 1 2E 2 c2 t2 = 0 2H 1 2H 2 c2 t2 = 0 (3.9a) (3.9b)
72
f (z, 0)
f (z, t ) ct
Figure 3.1: The wave tal, in a lossless medium, propagates at velocity tal to the right without changing shape
r
O
x
Figure 3.2: poner plane wave front
3.2. HARMONIC WAVES
73
3.2
Harmonic waves
For time-harmonic elds, when the medium presents a conductivity and, at the operating frequency, a complex dielectric constant, c = 0 j00 ,(1.71), the wave equation (3.6a) can be written as a time-independent wave equation ~ ~ ~ 2 E j0 E + 0 2 c E ~ ~ ~ = 2 E j0 e E + 0 2 0 E 2~ 2 0 ~ = E + 0 (1 j tan d ) E ~ = (2 + 2 0 ec )E = 0
(3.10)
where e = + 00 , tan d = e /0 , and ec = 0 (1 j tan d ), are the eective conductivity, the loss tangent and the eective complex permittivity dened in (1.78), (1.81), and (1.83) respectively. According to Subsection (??), depending on the characteristics of the medium, the values of the term j tan d in Eq. (3.10) may range from << 1 (zero for a perfect dielectric or lossless medium) to >> 1 (innite for a perfect conductor). In a highly conductive medium tan d >> 1 and 1 j tan d ' j tan d , and thus Eq. (3.10) becomes the so-called time-independent diusion equation for ~ the electric eld E ~ ~ 2 E j0 E = 0 (3.11) which is of the same type as the one that determines the propagation of heat by conduction or by diusion. As commented in Subsection (??), for most metals the relaxation time is 1014 s, which is a low value compared with the period for all frequencies lower than the optical ones. Thus, since tan d = ( )1 , the diusion equation is adequate for metals at all these frequencies. Equation (3.10) can be written more concisely as ~ ~ 2 E 2 E = 0 (3.12)
where is in general a complex quantity called the complex propagation constant, which, from (3.10) and (3.12), is given by 2 = 2 0 (c j )
00
)) = 2 0 0 (1 j tan d ) = k2 (1 j tan d ) = 2 0 ec = 2 0 (0 j( + p o 0
(3.13) (3.14)
where k=
is the wavenumber corresponding to an unbounded lossless medium with a real dielectric constant 0 . Analogously, for the magnetic eld, we have ~ ~ 2 H 2 H = 0 (3.15)
74
3.2.1
Uniform plane harmonic waves
For uniform plane waves, we have 2 = 2 / 2 and Eqs. (3.12) and (3.15) simplify to ~ 2E ~ 2E 2 ~ 2H ~ 2H 2 = 0 = 0 (3.16a) (3.16b)
The complex propagation constant is usually written as2 = jk (1 j tan d )

1/2
= + j
(3.17)
where the imaginary part, , is termed the phase constant, whereas the real part, , is called the attenuation constant of the wave. Thus, from, (3.13) and (3.17), we can easily calculate the explicit expressions for and 1 i1/2 0 0 2 h = (1 + tan2 d )1/2 + 1 2 !1/2 r p 2 o 0 e = 1+ +1 0 2 !1/2 r 2 k e = 1+ +1 0 2
0
(3.18a)
1 i1/2 0 2 h = (1 + tan2 d )1/2 1 2 r !1/2 p 2 o 0 e = 1+ 1 0 2 !1/2 r 2 k e = 1+ 1 0 2
(3.18b)
The dimensions of and are m1 and they are referred to as neper and radian, respectively, to indicate their attenuative and phase meanings in wave expressions. For lossless media we have e = 0, = 0 and the phase constant becomes = j = j k.
2 Recordemos que los valores del factor de atenuacin, tal como se han calculado, vienen expresados en nepers/metro y que multiplicados por 80 868 se convierten en dB/m.
3.2. HARMONIC WAVES
75
~ ~ Equations (3.16) have solutions of the form Ee and He so that the instantaneous values for the elds are given by wave equations E H ~ ~ ~ = Re{Ee(jt) } = Re{Ee(jtr) } = Re{Ee ej(t) } (3.19a) ~ (jt) } = Re{He(jtr) } = Re{He ej(t) } ~ ~ = Re{He
(3.19b)
where the so-called complex propagation vector = n (with module and direction of the unit vector n normal to the wave-front planes) has been in troduced and r is the position of any point on the wave-front plane so that n r = . Equations (3.19) represent waves traveling at a speed given by the phase velocity vp vp = (3.20) which in general, as is given by (3.18a), depends on the frequency (dispersive media). The penetration factor is dened as = 1 (3.21)
This is the distance at which, due to the attenuation , the eld module decreases from an initial given value to 1/e of this value. From (3.7) the following equalities may be deduced ~ E ~ H = 0 = 0 ~ = j0 H ~ = jec E (3.22a) (3.22b) (3.22c) (3.22d)
~ E ~ H
~ ~ From these equations, we see that E, H and n are perpendicular to one ~ ~ another and that they form a right-handed system in the order E, H, n. For this reason these waves are often referred to as transverse electromagnetic (TEM) ~ ~ waves. The magnitudes of E, H are related by H= E E = c j0 (3.23)
where the quantity c , known as the complex characteristic impedance of the medium, is given, taking into account (3.13) and (3.17), by E j0 = = H 0 ec 1/2 0 ( + j) =| c | ej 2 + 2
c =
(3.24)
76
Thus, its module and phase is given by 0 1/2 | c | =

0
e [1 + ( 0 )2 ]1/4 1 d e = tan1 = tan1 0 = 2 2
(3.25a) (3.25b)
~ ~ Therefore, in general there is a phase shift between E and H.
3.2.2
Propagation in lossless media
By particularizing the above expressions for a lossless medium where, 0 = = r 0 , 00 = 0, and = 0, we thus have tan d = 0; = jk; and = k = k n, and consequently equations (3.12) and (3.15) simplify to ~ ~ 2 H + k2 H 2~ 2~ E+k E = 0 = 0 (3.26a) (3.26b)
and the complex characteristic impedance of the medium, (3.25), simplies to 1/2
0
= = = 0
0 0 r
1/2
0
1/2 r
120 r
1/2
(3.27)
so that the impedance is real and constant. In particular, when the medium is free space, simplies to the impedance of free space 1/2 0 = 120 (3.28) = 0 = 0 ~ Consequently, in unbounded lossless media, there is no phase shift between E ~ and H and the attenuation is null ( = 0). Thus = jk and = and Eqs (3.22) simplify to ~ kE ~ kH = 0 = 0 ~ = 0 H ~ = j E (3.29a) (3.29b) (3.29c) (3.29d)
~ kE ~ kH
3.2.3
Propagation in good dielectrics or insulators
In a good dielectric (see Subsection ??) the reactive current predominates on the dissipative current and according to (1.91), tan d = e /0 << 1. In this
3.2. HARMONIC WAVES
77
Figure 3.3:
Cuidado estan normalizada a
p ossitive
traveling elds of a uniform plane in
dissipative medium
Figure 3.4:
Uniform plane wave propagating in the
direction in a lossless medium
78
case, we can develop the complex propagation constant (3.17) to get j tan d tan2 d 1/2 0 1/2 = jk (1 j tan d ) = j (0 ) 1 + + .. ' 2 8 j tan d 1/2 1 j (0 0 ) (3.30) 2 and therefore ' (0 0 )1/2 tan d e 0 1/2 = 2 2 0 1/2 ' k = (0 0 ) 1 ' (0 0 )1/2 (3.31a) (3.31b)
Thus the propagation velocity can be approximated by (3.32)
From (3.31a) it can be seen that is small and therefore so is the wave attenuation. Moreover, since e /0 << 1, the intrinsic impedance of the medium (3.25) is usually simplied to c ' = = 0 1/2
0
(3.33a) (3.33b)
3.2.4
Propagation in good conductors
For a good conductor (see Subsection ??) the dissipative current predominates on the reactive current and according to (1.94), tan d = / >> 1. In this case, from (1.93) and (3.13) we have ' jk (j tan d ) = jk (1 j tan d ) 1/2 = (1 + j) 0 2
1/2 1/2
= jk
1/2 (1 j) (1 j) 2
(3.34)
and consequently from (3.17),
==
Thus the electric eld from (3.19a), simplies to ~ E = Re{Ee/ ej(t/) } where = 1 = 2 0 1/2 (3.36)
1/2 0 2
(3.35)
(3.37)
3.2. HARMONIC WAVES
79
is the penetration factor (3.21) particularized by a good conductor. Thus, for good conductors, the penetration factor has a very low value which decreases as the frequency increases. Thus the elds are conned within a very short distance from the surface of the conductor. For a perfect conductor, and = 0. Furthermore, the dielectric constant and the complex impedance are reduced to j ec = 1 ' j (3.38) and, respectively c = 0 ec 1/2 1/2 1/2 0 = j 0 = (1 + j) 0 = (1 + j) 2 2 (3.39)
Thus the phase shift between E and H is 45o .
3.2.5
Surface resistance
Let us consider an area element perpendicular to the direction of propagation . Since the wave amplitudes of E and H decrease exponentially according to the factor e , the complex Poynting vector (1.107), and consequently the mean power per unit of area, (1.106), attenuates along the direction of propagation by the factor e2 . Therefore Pav = 1 ~ ~ Re{E H } = Pav (0)e2 2 (3.40)
where Pav (0) is the mean power per unit area at = 0. Thus the total power per unit area transmitted by the wave to the medium along the distance = l is given by dP (3.41) = Pav (0) Pav (l) = Pav (0)(1 e2l ) ds This can be also calculated, according to (1.87), as e dP = ds 2 Z
l 2 (E0 e2 )d
2 e E0 (1 e2l ) 4
(3.42)
This expression for l = , or for a distance l such that the magnitude of the elds becomes negligible, simplies to
2 dP 1 e E0 1 2 2 = = Re{1 }E0 = Re{ c }H0 = c ds 4 2 2
(3.43)
since Re{1 } = c
e 2
(3.44)
80
For a good conductor, expression (3.43) simplies, from (3.39), to dP H 2 0 1/2 1 2 = Rs H0 = 0 ds 2 2 2 where Rs is the so-called surface resistance 1 1 2 0 = Rs = 2 and is the penetration factor given by (3.37).
(3.45)
(3.46)
3.3
Group velocity
When the signal propagates through a dispersive medium, i.e. a medium where the phase velocity depends on the frequency, each spectral component travels at a dierent velocity and, as a consequence, the signal will deform as it propagates. When, as commonly occurs in practice, the spectrum of the signal is narrow 3 and the transmission medium is only slightly dispersive, then a single velocity, termed the group velocity, may be assigned to the signal which is usually known as a wave group or wave package. The velocity with which the envelope or energy of the wave group propagates in the medium is called group velocity. To calculate this, let us consider a wave group centered on a frequency 0 such that A ' 0 except for = 0 4/2 (Fig. 7.4). Under these conditions, Eq. (3.47) simplies to Z f (, t) = A ej(t) d (3.48)
4
So far, we have considered the ideal case of a plane harmonic wave, i.e. one in which the wave number and the frequency are xed. When this type of wave propagates through a dispersive medium, the propagation velocity (phase velocity) of a harmonic wave depends on its frequency. In practice, the ideal situation of a pure harmonic wave which extends to innity both backward and forward in time never arises and, moreover, such a wave could not carry information. What in fact happens is that a transmitter emits a given signal f (, t) for a nite period of time that, according to Fouriers theorem, can be expanded into a continuous spectrum of amplitudes A such that Z f (, t) = A ej(t) d (3.47)
extended to the values of in which A 6= 0. Given that = (), it can be developed into a Taylor series around the frequency 0 2 2 ( 0 ) + ( 0 ) () = ( 0 ) + (3.49) 0 2 0 2
3 Note that a concentration of the eld in space does not imply a concentration in the frequency spectrum, but just the opposite, in accordance with the scale change property of the Fourier transform, which indicates that an inverse relation exists between the duration of a signal and its bandwidth.
3.4. POLARIZATION
81
where 0 = ( 0 ). By substituting (3.50) in (3.48) we get f (, t) = e

j
0 0 0
If the dispersive medium is such that the dependence of the phase velocity vp on the frequency is so slowly that we can consider (as a good approximation) that there exists a linear relation between and , then (3.49) simplies to ( 0 ) () = 0 + (3.50) 0 | Z
j t
0
A e
4
(3.51)
which, taking into account (3.48), can be written as a function of f (0, t) in the following way ! j 0 e |0 0 f (, t) = f 0, t (3.52) 0
If the phase velocity varies slowly with the frequency, then a pulse may travel through a dispersive medium a certain distance without a signicant change. If this condition is not satised and the medium is very dispersive the shape of signal changes rapidly and the concept of group velocity is not longer valid. The sign of dvp /d determines whether vg is greater or less than vp . If the phase velocity vp increases with the frequency, it is termed normal dispersion. On the contrary, when vp decreases with the frequency, it is termed anomalous dispersion. In an ideal dielectric where vp 6= vp (), so that all the wavelengths propagate at the same velocity vp = vg , the signal propagates without deformation.
This means that, at a point , the signal has the same amplitude as at the origin after a time t = /|0 and a phase shift given by /|0 0 0 . Consequently, the velocity at which the signal, and thus its associated energy, propagates is d d vg = = dt d 0 d dvp = (vp ) = vp + d d 0 0 dvp 1 = = vp (3.53) d d/d
0 0
3.4
Polarization
As the wave equation is a linear dierential equation, it fulls the superposition principle and any sum of solutions is also a solution of the dierential equation.
82
In particular, let us consider the sum of two plane waves propagating in direction z (one with the electric eld lying along the x axis and the other along the y axis) at identical frequencies but, in general, with dierent amplitudes (a and b) and phases ( 1 and 2 ), respectively. Each of these waves, because the direction of their electric eld does not change with time, is said to be linearly polarized, one in the x direction and the other in the y direction. However, in an electromagnetic wave the direction of the electric eld generally changes and traces out an ellipse as the wave propagates4 . To see this, let us consider the total time-varying electric eld, which is sum of the two linearly polarized waves, given by ~ E(z, t) = (aej1 x + bej2 y )ej(tkz) (3.54) Let us determine the time evolution in a plane z = cte of the electric eld vector resulting from the composition of these two plane waves. We will assume a homogeneous, isotropic, lossless medium (although the eects of losses as an exponential factor common to all the eld components do not inuence the polarization). At the plane z = 0, for example, we have Ex Ey Ez = a cos(t + 1 ) = b cos(t + 2 ) = 0 (3.55a) (3.55b) (3.55c)
Using the trigonometric identity for the sum of two angles, solving for cos t and sin t in terms of a and b, dening = 1 2 as the relative phase dierence between the two components and after some simplications based on simply trigonometric identities, we nd
2 2 Ey 2Ex Ey Ex + 2 cos = sin2 a2 b ab
(3.56)
which is the equation of an ellipse with its major axis tilted depending on the value of . This means that at a plane z = cte, as the time goes on, the electric eld delineates an ellipse or, equivalently, that the electric eld delineates an elliptical helix in the direction of propagation. The resulting polarization is referred to as elliptical polarization. The angular velocity of the vector E t = Ex x + Ey y is given by d Ex Ey Ey E x d Ey = )= = (tan1 dt dt Ex |Et |2

(3.57)
where is .......... The sense of rotation together with the direction of propagation dene lefthanded polarized versus right-handed polarized waves, according to the righthand rule: the thumb of the right hand is pointed in the direction of propagation.
4 In
a unpolarized wave, the vector E is subject to random changes of amplitud and phase
3.4. POLARIZATION
83
Thus, if the ngertips are curling in the direction of the rotation of the electric eld, the wave is right-handed polarized, and in the contrary case the wave is left polarized. Particular cases occur depending on the values of a, b, , and the polarization ellipse may degenerate into a centred ellipse, a circle or a straight line. When a 6= b and = m/2, with m = 1, 3, 5, .. the polarization ellipse (3.56) becomes a centred ellipse with the major and minor axis oriented along the x, y directions, i.e. 2 2 Ey Ex + 2 =1 (3.58) a2 b If a = b, then 2 2 (3.59) Ex + Ey = a2 which is the equation of a circumference. When = m, with m being an integer, the equation (3.56) becomes Ex Ey a b 2 =0 (3.60)
which represents the equation of a straight line b Ey = Ex a (3.61)
intersecting the origin. The wave is then linearly polarized and the components of E are Ex Ey = a cos(t kz) = b cos(t kz m) Ey b = (1)m Ex a (3.62a) (3.62b)
The angle of the slope with the x axis is tan = tan (3.63)
84
Chapter 4
Reection and refraction of plane waves

In the previous chapter, we studied the characteristics of harmonic plane waves, and now consider what happens when such waves reach the interface (assumed to be plane and indenite) separating two linear, nonmagnetic, homogeneous and isotropic dielectrics having dierent electromagnetic characteristics. The change in the constitutive parameters, as the wave passes from one medium to the other, is assumed to take place in an electrically very narrow region with a thickness much less than . In general, when a wave propagating through a medium strikes the interface (incident wave), part of its energy is reected and propagates through the same medium (reected wave), while another part is transmitted to the second medium (transmitted, or refracted wave). The characteristics of reected and transmitted waves can be calculated from those of the incident wave by forcing the total eld on the interface to full the boundary conditions. We will consider rst the simplest case of normal incidence, i.e. when the interface is perpendicular to the propagation direction of the wave, 1 . and then the more general case of oblique incidence. This study has extensive applications in optics where the interface of many optical devices, such as lenses and ber-optic transmission lines, has a radius of curvature much larger than the wavelength of the incident wave. Thus the interface can be considered quite accurately as a plane interface. In the following, with no loss of generality, we will assume the interface to be parallel to the xy plane.
1 La incidencia normal tiene muchas analogas con la lneas de transmisin que se estudiarn en el captulo Tal
85
86 CHAPTER 4. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF PLANE WAVES

Medium 1
n
Medium 2
0;1;1
r Exr P
i
0; 2; 2
r E xi
r H yr
r Ext Pt
r i Hy
r H yt
Figure 4.1: Poner los vectores de pynting P El subindice de campo electrico incidente ponerlo mejor
4.1
4.1.1
Normal incidence.
General case: interface between two lossy media
normally incident from a lossy media, characterized by the parameters 0 , 1 = 0 j00 , 1 to the surface of another one with dierent constitutive parameters 1 1 0 , 2 = 0 j00 , 2 2 2 Considering two semi-indenite lossy media that are separated by the plane z = 0, see gure 4.1, let us assume that a harmonic plane wave propagates through the rst medium in the positive sense of the z axis with the electric eld parallel to the x axis. The wave impinges with normal incidence on this plane. Due to the discontinuity of the constitutive parameters, = 0 , ci = 0 j00 , i i and i where subindex i (i = 1, 2) refers to medium 1 or 2, part of the wave is propagated through medium 2 and part is reected back through medium 1. Therefore, the total eld in medium 1 (where z < 0) and medium 2 (where z > 0) is given by Medium 1 = E i e1 z ej 1 z + E r e1 z ej 1 z = E i e 1 z + E r e 1 z x1 x1 x1 x1 (4.1a) H y1 = E i 1 z j 1 z x1 c1 e e E r 1 z j 1 z x1 c1 e e = E i 1 z x1 c1 e E r 1 z x1 c1 e (4.1b) E x2 H y2 Medium 2 = E t e2 z ej 2 z = E t e 2 z x2 x2 = E t 2 z j 2 z x2 c2 e e = E t 2 z x2 c2 e (4.1c) (4.1d)
E x1
4.1.
NORMAL INCIDENCE.
87
i, r, and t indicate the incident wave (medium 1), the reected wave 1) and the transmitted wave (medium 2), resp ectively. The minus sign for the reected wave of the magnetic eld is associated with the fact that the Poynting vector p the reected wave propagates in the direction. In these expressions, of z ci = 0 /eci represents the impedance (3.24) of medium i while i is the complex propagation factor (3.17),
The sup erindices?? (medium
i = i + j i
(4.2)
where i and i are the attenuation and propagation constants (3.18a)and (3.18b), respectively p 1/2 o 0 q i = i 1 + ( e /0 ) + 1 (4.3) i 2 p 1/2 o 0 q i = i 1 + ( e /0 ) 1 (4.4) i 2
The time dependence of the elds is achieved by adding the factor ejt to (4.1). For each instant of time, by imp osing the b oundary conditions in the plane z = 0 (2.182b) onto the tangential comp onents of E and H, E1t H1t we obtain i Er x1 Et x2 Hr y1 Ht y2 t = r = L E i x1 TL E i = (1 + L )E i x1 x1 L H i y1 c1 = TL H i y1 c2 = = = = (4.6a) (4.6b) (4.6c) (4.6d) (4.6e) = E2t = H2t (4.5a) (4.5b)
where L is the reection coecient in the plane z = 0 dened by L = c2 c1 = |L | ejL c2 + c1 (4.7)
and TL is the transmission coecient in the same plane, dened by TL TL = 2 c2 c2 + c1 (4.8a) (4.8b)
= 1 + L = |TL | ejL
If there is an impedance adaptation ( c2 = c1 ) then there is no reected wave, and so all the incident energy is absorbed by the second medium.
88 CHAPTER 4. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF PLANE WAVES From (4.1a) and (4.6b), the total electric eld in the rst medium can be expressed as E x1 = E i e1 z ej 1 z (1 + L e21 z e2j 1 z ) x1 = E i e1 z ej 1 z (1 + (z)) = E i e 1 z (1 + (z)) x1 x1 (z) = L e21 z e2j 1 z (4.9) (4.10) (4.11)
where (z), dened as is the reection coecient in the plane z = z. Similarly, for the magnetic eld, we have Ei (4.12) H y1 = x1 e 1 z (1 (z)) c1 The impedance associated with the total eld at a coordinate point z in the rst medium is dened as E x1 = c1 1 + (z) = c1 c2 c1 tanh( 1 z) inp (z) = (4.13) H y1 z 1 (z) c1 c2 tanh( 1 z) The impedance inp (z) is continuous through the interface, because the tangential components Ex1 and Hy1 are similarly continuous, while the reection coecient is discontinuous.
4.1.2
Perfect/Lossy dielectric interface
In the particular case in which the rst dielectric is perfect, i.e. lossless (1 = 0 and 00 = 0, 1 = 0 , 1 = jk1 ), the characteristic impedances reduce to 1 1 r 0 1 = (4.14) 1 and the coecient of reection (4.7) at the interface (z = 0) becomes q ec2 1 1 q (4.15) L = ec2 1 + 1 Since 1 = 0 and 00 = 0, it follows that 1 = 0 and therefore 1 and H y1 = where (z) = L e2jk1 z The input impedance (4.13) simplies to inp (z) = 1 c2 1 tan(k1 z) 1 c2 tan(k1 z) (4.19) (4.18) E x1 = E i ejk1 z (1 + L e2jk1 z ) = E i ejk1 z (1 + (z)) x1 x1 E i jk1 z x1 e (1 (z)) 1 (4.16)
(4.17)
4.1.
NORMAL INCIDENCE.
89
4.1.3
Perfect dielectric/Perfect conductor interface
Another particular case arises when the second medium is a perfect conductor (2 = 0) and therefore TL = 0 and L = 1. Then the elds in the rst medium are = E i ejk1 z 1 e2jk1 z = E i ejk1 z ejk1 z = 2jE i sin(4.20a) (k1 z) x1 x1 x1 = E i jk1 z Ei x1 + ejk1 z = 2 x1 cos (k1 z) e 1 1
E x1 H y1
(4.20b)
4.1.4
Standing waves
It is well known that two waves with the same frequency that are propagating in opposite directions interfere and form what are termed standing (or stationary) waves. To examine this concept, let us rst consider the case in which the rst medium is lossless, and then analyse the case in which the rst medium is dissipative. a) Lossless case For the rst medium, the expression of the total electric eld is, E x1 = E i ejk1 z + E r ejk1 z = (1 + L )E i ejk1 z + L E i (ejk1 z ejk1 z ) x1 x1 x1 x1 = TL E i ejk1 z + |L | E i (ej(L +k1 z) ej(L k1 z) ) x1 x1 = |TL | E i ej(L k1 z) + 2 |L | E i sin(k1 z) ej(L +/2) (4.21) x1 x1
By including the time dependence, and assuming an initial phase = 0, we obtain the following expression for the total eld
i i Ex1 (z, t) = |TL | E0x1 cos(t k1 z + L ) 2 |L | E0x1 sin(k1 z) sin(t + L ) (4.22) where the rst summand of the second member corresponds to a wave that is propagating, while the second summand represents a standing wave, i.e., one in which the mean energy transported by the wave is null. The amplitude of the propagating wave is determined by the coecient of transmission, while that of the standing wave depends on the coecient of reection. The envelope of the equation (4.22) is termed the diagram of the standing wave. If the coecient of transmission T is null (which occurs when the second medium is a perfect conductor) the wave of the rst medium becomes a pure standing wave. From (4.16) and (4.17) the magnitudes of the elds are
E0x1 H0y1
i = E0x1 |1 + (z)| 1 i = E |1 (z)| 1 0x1
(4.23a) (4.23b)
90 CHAPTER 4. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF PLANE WAVES The maximum values of E0x1 (the minima of H0y1 ) are given by
i r E0x1 (z)max = E0x1 + E0x1
(4.24)
at the coordinate points zmax = L + 2n 2k1 n = 0, 1, ... (4.25)
i r and the minimum values of E0x (the maxima of H0y ), assuming E0x1 > E0x1 , are given by i r E0x (z)min = E0x1 E0x1 (4.26)
at the points zmin = L + (2n + 1) ; n = 0, 1, ... 2k1 (4.27)
Ratio of the standing wave The relation between the maximum and minimum values of the diagram of the standing wave is called the ratio of the standing wave, and is described by SW R =
r E i + E0x1 1 + |(z)| 1 + |L | E0x1 (z)max = 0x1 = = i r E0x1 (z)min 1 |(z)| 1 |L | E0x1 E0x1
(4.28)
Its value ranges from 1 (no reected wave) to innity (pure standing wave), i.e. 1 SW R b) Lossy case In this case, the expression of the total electric eld in the rst medium is E x1 (z) = E i e1 z ej 1 z + E r e1 z ej 1 z = E i (e 1 z + L e 1 z ) x1 x1 x1 = TL E i e 1 z + L E i (e 1 z e 1 z ) (4.30) x1 x1 and, by including the time dependence, we get (4.29)
i Ex1 (z, t) = |TL | E0x1 e1 z cos(t 1 z + L ) + i 2 |L | E0x1 sinh( 1 z) cos(t + L )
(4.31)
In these media, it makes no sense to dene the SW R parameter because the maxima and minima are not constant.
4.2. MULTILAYER STRUCTURES
91
4.1.5
Measures of impedances
Assuming that the rst medium is lossless, from (4.27) the rst eld minimum occurs at L +2k1 zmin = . Consequently, we can determine the phase angle L , assuming that k1 is known and that zmin is determined experimentally (by using an appropriate device to detect the rst eld minimum). If k1 is not known, it can be calculated from the distance between two consecutive minima. The value of |L | can be found from the ratio between the maximum and minimum eld values E0x1 max /E0x1 min = SW R = (1 + |L |)/(1 |L |). Note that if the incident wave has an amplitude of one, then |L | is identical r to E0 and thus we need to measure only this amplitude. Thus 2 is determined from this information and from expression (4.7).
4.2
Multilayer structures
Let us now consider the normal incidence of an electromagnetic wave on a structure in which there are more than two media separated by parallel planes. To simplify the analysis, we consider the case of three lossless dielectrics, as shown in Fig. tal. The generalization to more media, including the possibility of losses, is straightforward. Clearly, for a wave that is propagating to the right in medium 2, the problem is analogous to the two-layer cases discussed above. Therefore, the coecient of reection in the z = 0 plane is 23 = 3 2 = (z = 0) 3 + 2 (4.32)
where subindex 23 refers to the surface that separates medium 2 from medium 3. Particularizing (4.13) for z = l we have the load impedance L L = inp (z = l) = 2 1 + 23 e2jkl 1 23 e2jkl (4.33)
Taking into account that inp (z) is continuous at an interface, the coecient of reection (4.7) at z = l, becomes L = (z = l) = L 1 L + 1
by introducing (4.33) into this equation and then operating, we get L = where ij = 12 + 23 e2jkl 1 + 12 23 e2jkl j i j + i (4.34)
(4.35)
Thus, for an electromagnetic wave with an amplitude of one, impinging normally from the rst medium onto the structure, the amplitude of the reected wave is given by (4.34)
92 CHAPTER 4. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF PLANE WAVES Quarter-wave layer For a quarter-wave layer, l = /4 (e2jkl = 1), equation (4.34) becomes = 12 23 1 12 23 (4.36)
Thus, to transmit the incident energy completely (adaptation of impedance), the coecient of reection must be null, and so 12 23 = 0 Taking into account equation (4.35) we have 2 = 13 (4.38) (4.37)
as a condition for impedance adaptation to exist. Half-wave layer For a half-wave layer, i.e. l = /2 (e2jkl = 1), expression (4.34) is reduced to = 12 + 23 1 + 12 23 (4.39)
For impedance adaptation to exist, the following must be fullled 12 + 23 = 0 By replacing the coecients by the values given in (4.35), we have ( 3 = 1 ) (4.41) (4.40)
and thus L = 0 irrespectively of 2 . Thus any material with a thickness of /2 is adapted so long as the impedances of media 1 and 3 are the same.
4.2.1
Stationary and transitory regimes
The above analyses are valid for monochromatic waves in a stationary regime. It should be noted that such a regime is the limit of a transitory process involving multiple reected and transmitted waves within media 1 and 2. To illustrate this limit process, let us consider the normal incidence of a wave that impinges upon a structure formed of three perfect dielectrics, as shown in Fig. tal. From the process of multiple reections and transmissions, we nd that in medium 1 a reected eld is given by Er x1
i = E0x1 (12 + T12 23 T21 e2jk2 d + T12 2 21 T21 e4jk2 d 23 +T12 3 2 T21 e6jk2 d + ...) 23 21
(4.42)
4.3. OBLIQUE INCIDENCE
93
Figure 4.2: Poner sistemas de ejes Observing the second member, we can see that the summands following the rst one constitute a geometric progression of common ratio 21 23 e2jk2 d . Thus the coecient of reection can be written as L = 12 + T12 23 T21 e2jk2 d 1 23 21 e2jk2 d (4.43)
which, taking into account the equalities 21 = 12 T12 = 1 + 12 T21 = 1 12 is reduced to equation (4.34). (4.44) (4.45) (4.46)
4.3
Oblique incidence
As a more general case than the normal incidence, let us now consider the oblique incidence of a plane wave on a plane interface separating two media. In general, in medium 1 there exists an incident and a reected wave, while the transmitted (also called refracted) wave is in medium 2. To study the oblique incidence we will use the geometry shown in Fig.??, where the waves have been represented, as usual, by arrows (called rays) in the direction of propagation. These rays are perpendicular to the equiphase planes (wavefronts). The oblique incident has extensive applications in optics where the interface of many optical devices, such as lenses and ber optic waveguides, has a radius of curvature much larger than the wavelength of the incident wave. Thus the interface can be considered very approximately as a plane interface. In principle, we make no assumption that the three rays are coplanar, although they are shown as such in Fig Tal. The plane of incidence is dened
94 CHAPTER 4. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF PLANE WAVES by vector i and by the z axis. Let us assume that i is in the plane y = 0 and forms an angle i with the z axis. In the general case of two lossy media, the electric elds of the incident, reected, and refracted waves can be written, respectively, as Ei E
r t i = Re{E0 e(j
i
t i r)
= =
r r r Re{E0 e(j t r) } t t t Re{E0 e(j t r) }
(4.47a) (4.47b) (4.47c)
In z = 0, the tangential component of the electric eld must be continuous, and thus we have i r t Ex + Ex = Ex (4.48) so that
i Re{E0x e(j
i
t i r)
r } + Re{E0x e(j
t r r)
t } = Re{E0x e(j
t t r)
(4.49)
A similar relation must be fullled between the components of the elds with respect to the y axis. These conditions can be satised only if i = t = r = and Since i lies on the y = 0 plane, from (4.51) it follows that r = t = 0, y y signifying that the reected and refracted waves are coplanar with the incident wave. Thus we have i r r r t r = = = Nc1 [x sin i + z cos i ] c Nc1 [x sin r + z cos r ] c Nc2 [x sin t + z cos t ] c (4.52a) (4.52b) (4.52c) i r = r r = t r (4.51) (4.50)
where Nc is the complex index of refraction of the medium, such that = Nc c (4.53)
By substituting (4.52) in (4.49), and by making the coecients of x equal, we get i Nc1 sin = r = = Nc2 sin t (4.54a) (4.54b)
These equations, together with the coplanarity of the rays, constitute Snells laws.
4.4. INCIDENT WAVE WITH THE ELECTRIC FIELD CONTAINED IN THE PLANE OF INCIDENCE95 For lossless media Eq. (4.54b) simplies to N1 sin = N2 sin t where Ni = or, for nonmagnetic media,
1 c = (ri ri ) 2 vpi
(4.55)
(4.56)
Ni = (ri ) 2
(4.57)
Next we study the relations between the amplitudes of the incident, transmitted and reected waves by making use of the boundary conditions at the interface between the two media. For this we will assume lossless media although the generalization to lossy media is straightforward2 . Let us analyze ~i the problem in two stages, rstly where the electric eld E oscillates in the incidence plane, and then where it oscillates perpendicularly to the same plane. Any other case can be considered a superposition of these two situations.
4.4
Incident wave with the electric eld contained in the plane of incidence
From the continuity of the tangential components of E and H (Eqs. (4.5a) and (4.5b), we obtain (Fig. 9.2) E i cos + E r cos E t cos t k k k 1 1 i r (E E k ) E t 1 k 2 k = 0 = 0 (4.58a) (4.58b)
where the subindex k indicates that the physical magnitude in question lies in the incidence plane and ~i Ek ~r Ek
i = E0k ej k
i
(4.59a) (4.59b)
r r E0k ej k r
From (4.58) we nd that Er k Ei k Et k Ei k 2 cos t 1 cos 2 cos t + 1 cos 22 cos 2 cos t + 1 cos
k k
= =
= =
(4.60a) (4.60b)
Where k and k are the coecients of reection and transmisison, respectively. If medium 2 is a perfect conductor (2 = 0) then k = 1.

r Ei r Hi ni
nr
r Hr
r Er
t
r Ht nt
r Et
Figure 4.3: cuidado con superindices y subindices... For

lossless non-magnetic materials ?? ( 1
= 2 = 0 )
such that
cuidado notacion de vel fase.
N12 =
with
2 v2 N1 sin t = = = 1 v1 N2 sin
refraction of medium 1 and medium 2,
(4.61) expressions
N12 being the ratio of the indices of (4.60a) and (4.60b) are reduced to Er k Ei k Et k Ei k
= =
tan (t ) tan (t + ) 2 sin t cos sin (t + ) cos (t )
(4.62a) (4.62b)
~1 The total electric eld E k in medium 1 is given by ~1 ~i ~r Ek = Ek + Ek where ~r Ek

Thus we have
(4.63)
~i Ek
= E i cos E i sin x z k k = Er k cos + x Er k sin z
(4.64a) (4.64b)
i r r i i r r i ~1 E k = cos E0k ej k r + E0k ej k r x + sin E0k ej k r E0k ej k r z (4.65)

2 If the medium is lossy, we must replace {, jk} by ( , ) c
4.4. INCIDENT WAVE WITH THE ELECTRIC FIELD CONTAINED IN THE PLANE OF INCIDENCE97 that is,
i r
E1 kx E1 kz
i = E0k cos
ej k
r i i = E0k sin k ej k r ej k r
+ k ej k
(4.66a) (4.66b)
Taking into account that
kr r k r
i
= kr z cos + kr x sin = k z cos + k x sin

i i
(4.67a) (4.67b)
and by substituting these equations in (4.66), we nd that i 1 + k e2jk z cos cos i i i = E0k ejk (x sin +z cos ) 1 k e2jk z cos sin
i = E0k ejk
i
E1 kx E1 kz
(x sin +z cos )
(4.68a) (4.68b)
i When the time factor ejt is introduced, the term e(jtjk x sin ) represents a wave that is propagating in the direction of the x axis, while the term
i i ejk z cos + k ejk z cos ejt
(4.69)
From (4.68a) or the corresponding one from (4.68b) gives us the superposition of two waves that are propagating with respect to the z axis, but in opposite directions. In other words, a stationary wave overlies a traveling one such that the energy that is transported in direction z, from medium 1 to medium 2, is transported by the traveling wave.????. For the case of a perfect conductor, k = 1 and there exits only a standing wave along the z axis. ~1 The total magnetic eld H in medium 1 is ~1 H
i = H0 ej k
r 1 i j ki r r E0k ej k r y = E0k e 1 i i i (4.70) H0 ejk (x sin +z cos ) 1 k e2jk z cos

i
r + H0 ej k
where the symbol indicates that the magnitude in question is perpendicular to the incidence plane In the case of a perfect conductor, it is straightforward to show that there is no energy ow towards z, but there there is towards x, as the mean time value of Poyntings vector towards z is zero.

r Hi r Hr nr r Er
r Ei ni
t
r Et
r Ht
nt
Figure 4.4: cuidado el reejado tiene mal el sentido del campo electrico
4.5
Wave incident with the electric eld perpendicular to the plane of incidence
As above, the continuity equations are used for the tangential components of E and H and thus (Fig.9.3): ~i ~r E + E 1 ~r E cos ~t = E = 2 (4.71) cos t (4.72)
~i E
~t E
where the subindex indicates that the physical magnitude in question corresponds to the case in which the electric eld of the incident wave is perpendicular to the plane of incidence. By resolving the two Eqs. (4.70) and (4.71), we get = = Er cos 1 cos t = 2 2 cos + 1 cos t Ei Et 22 cos = i 2 cos + 1 cos t E (4.73a) (4.73b)
where the parameters = E r /E i and = E t /E i are the coecients of reection and transmission, respectively. For lossless non-magnetic materials, Eqs. (4.73) are transformed into Er Ei Et Ei = = sin (t ) sin (t + ) 2 sin t cos sin (t + ) (4.74a) (4.74b)
4.5. WAVE INCIDENT WITH THE ELECTRIC FIELD PERPENDICULAR TO THE PLANE OF INCIDENCE
i By operating in a similar way to that described for the case of Ek , we arrive at the following for the total electric and magnetic elds in a lossy medium 1
~1 E ~1 Hk
i = E0 ejk
i E0 1 i r Ei 0 sin ej k r + ej k r z 1
i i ejk z cos + ejk z cos y i r cos ej k r ej k r x

i
x sin
(4.75a)
(4.75b)
~ As in the case of E k , the eld behaves as a travelling wave towards x and as a travelling wave overlying a standing one towards z. The formulas (4.62) and (4.74) are known as Fresnels formulas, which give the relations between the amplitudes and phase of the incident, reected, and tranmitted waves.
Chapter 5
Electromagnetic wave-guiding structures: Waveguides and transmission lines

5.1 Introduction
There are many engineering applications in which it is necessary to use devices to conne the propagation of the electromagnetic waves in order to transmit electromagnetic energy from one point to another with a minimum of interference, radiation, and heat losses. Although such transmission systems can take many dierent forms, a common characteristic is that they are uniform. That is, their cross-sectional geometry and constitutive parameters do not change in the direction of the wave propagation z for wavelengths numerous enough to make border eects negligible. In general, any device used to transmit conned electromagnetic waves can be considered a waveguide; however, when the transmission device contains two or more separate conductors the term "transmission line" is generally used instead of "waveguide". Figure (5.1) shows the cross-sectional shape of some guiding transmission systems: two-wire transmission lines; coaxial transmission lines formed by two concentric conductors separated by a dielectric; two hollow (or dielectric-lled) metal tubes of rectangular and circular cross section (i.e. a rectangular and a circular waveguide); two planar transmission lines (the stripline and microstrip); and two dielectric (without conducting parts) waveguides: the circular dielectric waveguide (or homogeneous dielectric rod) and the optical ber. In hollow conducting pipes waves propagate within the tube, whereas in transmission lines formed by two or more conductors, the waves propagate in the dielectric medium between the conductors. In homogeneous dielectric 101
102CHAPTER 5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE-GUIDING STRUCTURES: WAVEGUIDES AND waveguides the eld decays exponentially away from the dielectric in the transverse plane, and consequently the electromagnetic waves are conned mainly within the dielectric medium. Optical bers, used mostly at optical wavelengths, consist of a cylindrical core surrounded by a cladding and are usually circular in cross section. The light is essentially conned to the core (which has a larger refractive index than the cladding) by total internal reection as it propagates along the ber and the wave is conned without need of any conducting walls. The choice of a specic transmission system depends on the application and should take into account aspects such as frequency range, losses, powertransmission capacity, and production costs. For example, the two-wire transmission lines, which are usually covered by polyethylene, are relatively inexpensive to manufacture, but radiation losses (mainly at discontinuities and bends) make them inecient for transferring electromagnetic energy farther than the lower range of microwaves. Coaxial lines and hollow metal pipe waveguides are more ecient than two-wire lines for transferring electromagnetic energy because the elds are completely conned by the conductors. For the transmission of large amounts of power at high frequencies, waveguides are the most appropriate means. In a coaxial cable, signicant wave attenuation occurs at high frequencies because of the large current densities carried by the central conductor, which has a relatively small surface area. On the other hand, waveguides are intrinsically dispersive and consequently incapable of transmitting large bandwidth signals without distortion. However, coaxial lines can guide signals of much higher bandwidths than waveguides can. As shown in the next chapter, the dimension of the cross section of a waveguide is related to the wavelength of the guided wave. Thus, for very lowfrequency waveguides the cross section would be too large and thus impractical for frequencies lower than 1 GHz. On the other hand, at optical frequencies the size of a metal waveguide must be too small (in the range of the m) and, moreover, at these frequencies the study of the interaction of the electromagnetic eld with the metal walls requires of quantum mechanical theory. As a result of the development in solid-state microwave and millimeter technology, planar transmission lines are used instead of waveguides in many applications because these lines are inexpensive, compact, and simple to match solid-state devices using printed-circuit technology. Planar lines allow dierent congurations, usually including a dielectric substrate material with a ground plane and one or more conducting strips on the upper surface. The most commonly used of these are striplines and microstrips, which are briey described in Section ??. The eld congurations that can be supported for any guiding structure must satisfy Maxwells equations and the corresponding boundary conditions. The dierent eld distributions that satisfy this requirement are termed modes. Although the electromagnetic eld distribution in ideal guiding transmission systems (composed of perfect conductors separated by a lossless dielectric).can be expressed as a superposition of plane waves, the study of the propagation is greatly simplied when we seek other kinds of solutions called transverse magnetic (TM) modes, transverse electric (TE) modes, or transverse electromagnetic
5.2. GENERAL RELATIONS BETWEEN FIELD COMPONENTS

Conductors Conductors Conductor (3) Conductor
103
(1)
(2)
(4)
Dielectric
Dielectric
Dielectric
Dielectric 2 Dielectric Conductors

Conductors Dielectric Dielectric 1
Dielectric
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Figure 5.1: Examples of waveguides and transmission systems: (1) Two wire transmission line (2) Coaxial transmission line (3) Rectangular waveguide (4) Circular waveguide (5) Stripline (6) Microstrip (7) Circular dielectric waveguide (8) Optical ver cable. (TEM) modes. These terms indicate that, in the direction of propagation, the TM modes have no magnetic eld component, the TE modes have no electric eld component, and the TEM modes have neither electric nor magnetic eld components. In practice, these modes form a complete set of orthogonal functions and, hence, any propagating electromagnetic eld in the guiding structure can be expressed as a linear combination of these modes. As discussed below, there are two important properties that distinguish TEM from TE and TM modes: 1) TM and TE modes have a cuto frequency below which they cannot propagate, which depends on the cross-sectional dimension of the guiding structure. 2) TEM modes cannot exist within a waveguide formed a single perfect conducting pipe while transmission lines can in general support TE, TM and TEM modes. In this chapter, we present some general aspects of the propagation of timeharmonic electromagnetic waves in guiding systems formed by perfect conductors and only one homogeneous lossless dielectric in which the guided eld propagates. Nevertheless, the results can serve as a basis for structures in which the cross-section contains more than one dielectric medium. The eect of lossy media is analyzed in the nal section. The study of some specic geometries is left for the next chapter.
5.2
General relations between eld components
Let us assume that a time-harmonic wave propagates along the z-axis, in the +z direction, in a lossless guiding transmission system. Thus the dependence
104CHAPTER 5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE-GUIDING STRUCTURES: WAVEGUIDES AND on z and time t is given by the factor ej (t g z) and the elds are of the general form ( ) ~ E0 ej (t g z) Eejt Re (5.76) = Re ~ Hejt H ej (t g z)
0
~ ~ where E = E0 ej g z and H = H0 ej g z and g is the wavenumber of the guided wave. Because the geometry and constitutive parameters do not change along the z-axis, E0 and H0 are functions only of the transverse coordinates. ~ ~ To determine E and H, we will rst show that it is possible to express ~ ~ ~ their transverse components, E t and H t , in terms of their z-components, E z ~ and H z . For this, we divide the three dimensional Laplacian operator 2 in the homogeneous Helmholtz wave equations (3.26) into two parts. One part, 2 /z 2 , acts only on the axial coordinate, z, and the other, 2 , on the transverse ones t only1 , i.e. 2 2 = 2 + 2 (5.77) t z Since /z j g , the wave equations can be written as 2 + k2 ~ ~ E E = 2 + h2 t ~ ~ =0 H H h2 = k2 2 g
1
(5.78)
where
(5.79)
and k = () 2 is the wavenumber for the wave propagating in an unbounded medium of the matter which lls the transmission system. By particularizing (5.78) for the z eld component, we have Ez 2 2 =0 (5.80) t + h Hz
where
This equation, when solved together with the boundary conditions of a given structure, has solutions for an innite but discrete number, m, of characteristic values (eigenvalues) hm , i.e. E zm 2 =0 (5.81) t + h2 m H zm h2 = k2 2 m gm (5.82)
with E zm , or H zm being the corresponding functions characteristic (eigenfunctions) which satisfy the equations (5.81) and the corresponding boundary conditions, which are determined by the geometry of the system.
1 For example in Cartesian coordinates we have
that 2 = t
2 x2
2 y2
= t + z z where t =
x x
y so y
105
Now we are going to demonstrate that, once equation (5.80) has been solved, ~ ~ we can obtain E t or H t from E z and H z . From Maxwells equations (1.67c) and (1.67d), in a sourceless region, we have ~ E ~ H ~ ( E)t ~ ( H)t ~ = jH ~ = jE (5.83a) (5.83b)
The transverse components of these equations can be written as ~ ~ ~ = t E z + z E t = jH t ~ ~ ~ = t H z + z H t = jE t (5.84a) (5.84b)
~ ~ Thus, as E z and H z are assumed to be known, we have a system of two equa~ ~ tions and two unknowns, E t and H t , the solutions to which are j ~ ~ H t = h2 t E z g t H z (5.85a) j ~ ~ E t = h2 t H z + g t E z (5.85b)
According to (5.85), once the z components of the elds are known, the transverse components can also be calculated. Moreover, in ideal guiding structures?? , we can express any eld propagating in the homogeneous guiding transmission structure as a linear superposition of TE, TM and TEM waves or modes. Clearly, it is not possible to nd specic expressions for the eld distribution of any of these modes without previously knowing the geometry and characteristics of the transmission system. However, as shown below, we can study some of their general characteristics.
5.2.1
Transverse magnetic (TM) modes
Let us rst consider TM modes so that Hz = 0 in (5.85). Thus we have

j 1 ~ E t = h2g t E z = t h2 E z = t T M z
(5.86a) ~ Et =
1 ZT M
~ Ht =
j h2 t
~ E z = j z t E z = h2
g z
z Et ~ (5.86b)
where we have dened the scalar potential for the TM modes, T M , as T M =

1 E z h2 z
(5.87)
~ z To obtain (5.86b), we have used the equality t E z = t E z and dened the frequency-dependent quantity ZT M , as ZT M =
g
g k
(5.88)
106CHAPTER 5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE-GUIDING STRUCTURES: WAVEGUIDES AND where = (/) 2 is the intrinsic impedance of the dielectric that lls the transmission system. The quantity ZT M , which has the dimensions of impedance, is called the wave impedance for the TM modes. From (5.86b), we can see that ~ ~ E t , H t , and z form a right-handed system when the wave propagates in the z-positive direction. ~ Thus, from (5.86a), in TM modes, E t can be written as the gradient of a scalar function T M . This result could have been obtained by simple reasoning ~ from Faradays law (5.83a), taking into account that, since H has only trans~ Therefore, from Stokes theorem, verse components the same is true for E. we have Z I ~ ~ E dl = 0 (5.89) ( E) z ds =
S
1
where S is a transverse surface normal to the z axis. But Ez cannot contribute to the line integral because the integration path lies on the transverse plane. Therefore I I ~ dl = ~ E E t dl = 0 (5.90)

which implies that Et is conservative and, therefore, can be written as the gradient of a scalar function T M .
5.2.2
Transverse electric (TE) modes
For TE modes, from equations (5.85), with E z = 0, we have

j 1 ~ H t = h2g t H z = t h2 H z = t T E z
(5.91a)
g
~ ~ E t = j t H z = h2
j h2 z
~ t H z = z H t = ZT E z H t ~ (5.91b)
where T E = is the scalar potential for TE waves and ZT E =

g 1 H z h2 z
(5.92)
k g
(5.93)
~ ~ is the wave impedance for the TE mode. From (5.91b) we can see that E t , H t , and z form a right-handed system when the wave propagates in the z-positive direction. ~ The fact that, according to (5.91a), H t can be expressed as the gradient of the scalar function T E can be explained by Amperes law, (5.83b), following a reasoning similar to that used in the case of TE modes.
107
5.2.3
Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) modes
For TEM modes, since E z = 0 and H z = 0, substituting these values in (5.85), we can get no null or trivial solutions only if h = 0. Consequently, from (5.79), for TEM modes, we have 2 = k2 = 2 (5.94) g This means that a TEM mode in a transmission system has the same propagation constant as a uniform plane wave traveling in the unbounded dielectric ~ ~ ~ ~ between the conductors. Since h = 0 and E = E t and H = H t , (5.78) reduces to ~ 2 E t ~ 2 H t ~ = 2 E t = 0 t ~ = 2 H t = 0 t (5.95a) (5.95b)
Thus the distribution of the electric and magnetic elds on a transverse plane satises the same bidimensional Laplaces equation as for the static elds. This means that, for TEM modes, on a transverse plane, E is conservative, and derivable from a scalar function by means of the gradient function, i.e. ~ E = (5.96)
Hence, the electric eld distribution in the cross-sectional plane has the same spatial dependence as the electrostatic eld created by static charges located on the conductors of the transmission system. Consequently, a TEM mode cannot exist within a waveguide formed by a single perfect conducting tube of any cross section since no electrostatic eld can exist within a sourcesless region completely enclosed by a conductor. When two or more separated conductors exist, as for example in coaxial, two-wire or stripline transmission lines, TEM waves can be propagated along the dielectric separating the conductors. It is straightforward from (5.84b) that ~ E t = ZT EM z H t = H t ~ z ~ where ZT EM ZT EM = = 1 2 (5.97)
(5.98)
is the wave impedance for the TEM mode, which coincides with the characteristic impedance of the dielectric that lls the transmission system. cuidado en lo de lineas: usar Now we will demonstrate that, for TEM modes, Maxwells equations can be o no negritas..?used to derive a pair of coupled dierential equations which enable us to study the propagation of these modes in transmission lines as voltage and current waves (instead of electromagnetic waves), using elemental circuit theory. From (5.96), according to the fundamental property of the gradient, in the transverse plane the line integral of the electric eld is path independent and consequently voltage V and potential dierence 2 1 will be the same.
108CHAPTER 5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE-GUIDING STRUCTURES: WAVEGUIDES AND
y l
I I
x
C2
C1
Figure 5.2: two conductor transmission linecambiar ejes Comprobar si los ejes y el texto coincide. Los conductores se ponen en negro.entero no decir que c1 son los conductores y que los sentidos de la corrinte in idreccion opuesta en cada conductor son indicadas. Poner origen coincidiendo con el conductor ver dibujos de Salva. en todo ccaso la echa de l de acuerdo con libro de siempre es al revs Then for TEM waves (using, without loss of generality, Cartesian coordinates) we have Z Z V = (2) (1) = Et .dl = Ex dx + Ey dy (5.99)
l l
where (2) and (1) are the values of the scalar function at the the conductors 1 and 2 and where l is any line that joins the equipotential transverse sections of these conductors (g.5.2). Deriving with respect to z and taking into account Faradays law, (1.1c), particularized for the source-free region, outside the conductors, we get Z Z V Ey Ex By dx + Bx dy (5.100) = dx + dy = z z t l l z R Note that l By dx + Bx dy is the magnetic ux through the area swept, along a unit of length in the direction z, by the line l joining the conducting surfaces. This ux can be expressed by using the magnetostatic denition of coecient L of self-inductance per unit of length, as the product LI. Therefore we have V I = L (5.101) z t On the other hand, from Amperes law, (1.1d), for the source-free dielectric region, we have I I Hx dx + Hy dy (5.102) Ht .dl = I=

109
L C G
Figure 5.3: where is a closed path around one of the wires (see Fig. 5.2). Deriving with respect to z, we have I I I Hx Hy Dx dy Dy dx (5.103) = dx + dy = z z z t where, in a similar way as above, Dy dy + Dx dx represents the ow of vector D per unit length in the direction z. Using the magnetostatic denition of capacitance C per unit length, this ux can be expressed as the product CV . Thus we have I V = C (5.104) z t Note that, from (5.99) and (5.102), V and I must have the same z dependence as E and H, respectively. Thus, V and I are also traveling waves. In summary, according (5.101) and (5.104) we have
z I z
= L I t = C V t
(5.105a) (5.105b)
which are the coupled dierential equations that voltage and current satisfy at any z cross section of an ideal line composed of perfect conductors separated by a lossless dielectric. Equations (5.105) are called ideal "transmission line equations". The use of these equations to study the propagation of TEM waves in transmission lines is considered in Chapter ??.
5.2.4
Boundary conditions for TE and TM modes on perfectly conducting walls
For a guiding transmission system with perfectly conducting walls, the general ~ boundary conditions on the walls require that the tangential component E T of ~ and the normal component H n of H be null, i.e. ~ E ~ ET Hn = nE =0 ~ = nH =0 ~ (5.106a) (5.106b)
110CHAPTER 5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE-GUIDING STRUCTURES: WAVEGUIDES AND where n is the unit vector normal to the conducting walls. However, for TM and TE modes, as shown below, these conditions can be simplied and reduced to equivalent ones which are expressed only in terms of the z component of the elds. For example for TM modes, the requirement that Ez = 0 (5.107)
on the perfectly conducting guide walls suces to ensure that Eqs. (5.106) are ~ fullled. From (5.86a) and the gradient properties, we can see that E t is normal to the lines where E z = cte and, therefore, to the boundary of the conductor, ~ ~ since it represents a line with E z = 0. Given that E t and H t are perpendicular to each other, the magnetic eld is tangential to the conductor and thus E z = 0 is equivalent to Eqs. (5.106). For TE modes, the necessary and sucient condition to ensure that Eqs. (5.106) are fullled is that the normal derivative of Hz be null on the perfect conducting parts of the guiding structure. That is H z = H z n = (t + z ) H z n = 0 n (5.108)
where we have divided into its transverse and axial components. Taking into account (5.91a), we see that ~ t H z n = H t n = 0 (5.109a)
~ which means that H t is tangencial to the conductor and therefore, due to the perpendicularity of the elds, we have n Et = 0 ~ (5.110)
In summary, the necessary and sucient boundary conditions on the perfect conducting walls of the propagation system are Boundary conditions on the perfect conducting walls
For TM modes Ez = 0 For TE modes H z n = 0
(5.111a) (5.111b)
5.3
Cuto frequency
From (5.76) and (5.79) we see that, for propagation to exist, g must be real, and consequently, k2 > h2 (5.112)
5.3. CUTOFF FREQUENCY For this reason, c , dened as c = h = 2 c
111
(5.113)
is called the cuto wavenumber, and c is the cuto wavelength. Thus, from Eq. (5.79), we have (5.114) 2 = k2 2 g c and, consequently 1 1 1 2 = 2 2 g c (5.115)
where is the wavelength of a plane wave in the unbounded lossless dielectric medium lling the ( better guiding structure ) waveguide, and g is that of the wave in the guide. Thus we have k= 2 2 2 ; g = ; c = c g (5.116)
The cuto frequency fc is dened2 as fc = c c vp c = = 2 2 2 (5.117)
where vp = /k is the phase velocity in the unbounded medium lling the ( better guiding structure) waveguide. Thus, from (5.79), the wavenumber g can be expressed in terms of fc , as g = k s 1 fc f 2 (5.118)
which is greater than . According to (5.118) the wavenumber is imaginary for modes with frequencies below the cuto frequency fc , i.e. f < fc (or > c ).
These modes, called evanescent modes, are attenuated and cannot propagate along the guide. Thus, ( b etter guiding structure) waveguides behave as high-pass lters for the TE and TM modes since they cannot transmit any of these modes for which the wavelengths, in the unbounded m edium lling the ( b etter guiding structure) waveguide, exceed the value of the cuto wavelength.
2 For a guiding transmission system with more than one dielectric the cuto frequency can b e dened in a dierent m anner than (5.117). See for example Section ??.
and the corresponding wavelength g in the ( better guiding structure ) guide is 2 g = =r (5.119) 2 g fc 1 f
112CHAPTER 5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE-GUIDING STRUCTURES: WAVEGUIDES AND In terms of the cuto frequency, the expressions of the wave impedances for the TM and TE modes (5.88) and (5.93) for ZT M and ZT E become, respectively s 2 fc (5.120a) ZT M = 1 f ZT E = r (5.120b) 2 1 fc f
which is analogous to that obtained in (??) for the transverse electromagnetic waves in a nonmagnetized plasma. The plot of the phase constant as a function of the frequency (dispersion diagram) is shown in Figure 5.2.3. The transversal broken line corresponds to c = 0, i.e. to an unbounded lossless, nondispersive medium in which the wave propagates at the phase velocity vp regardless of its frequency. The solid-line curve represents Eq. (5.121) and shows that the waveguide is very dispersive close to the cuto frequency c . For frequencies >> c such that their wavelengths are much smaller than the transversal ( better guiding structure ) waveguide dimensions, the walls do not aect the propagation and the velocity tends to vp .
From (5.120a) and (5.120b), we can see that ZT M < and ZT E > and they become imaginary below the cuto frequency. Thus, for f < fc , the waveguide behaves, in this respect, as a reactive impedance. From (5.79), we obtain the dispersion relation 1/2 2 (5.121) = 2 + vp 2 c g
JV: texto Dispersion diagram. Es la gura de plasmas. ver tb pp 444 del Jonk The group velocity, vgg , within the guide is given by s 2 d fc = vp 1 vgg = d g f
(5.122)
5.4. ATTENUATION IN GUIDING STRUCTURES
113
which is always higher than that in the unbounded medium and is frequency dependent. Hence single conductor ( better guiding structure) waveguides are dispersive transmission systems. Note that
2 vpg vgg = vp
which is smaller than the phase velocity vp in the unbounded medium. The phase velocity within the waveguide( better guiding structure ), vpg , is given by vp vpg = = f g = r (5.123) 2 g fc 1 f
(5.124)
For TEM modes, from (5.94), we have g = k which is real and independent of the frequency. Thus, all frequencies propagate along a lossless transmission line at the same phase velocity vp as that of the unbounded homogeneous dielectric lling the waveguide and there is no cuto frequency.
5.4
Attenuation in guiding structures
For a propagating mode an attenuation constant , owing to energy dissipation within the waveguide, can arise from losses in the non-perfect conducting walls (c ) and in the non-perfect dielectric lling the waveguide (d ). Thus, the attenuation constant consists of two parts = d + c . Dielectric losses are generally negligible when ( better guiding structure ) waveguides are lled with air, which has a lower dielectric loss than do conventional dielectrics. hay que decir TE y TM y TEM..
First, we analyze the losses for TE and TM due to a non-perfect dielectric and afterward the ones due to non-perfect walls. In any case, as generally occurs in practice, these losses are assumed to be very small.
5.4.1
TE and TM modes.
Dielectric Losses When the dielectric lling the waveguide is lossy the attenuation can be easily taken into account if in the expressions obtained for ideal dielectrics the real propagation constants k and g are replaced by j and j g , respectively, where = + j and g = d + j g are the complex propagation constants in the unbounded dielectric lling the waveguide and in the waveguide, respectively. Then, from equations (3.17), (5.79) and (5.113), we have k2 (1 j tan d ) = 2 = 2 + 2 c g (5.125)
114CHAPTER 5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE-GUIDING STRUCTURES: WAVEGUIDES AND and g and neglecting the term 2 , because the d attenuation constant d is very small, we nd
Using the ab ove expressions for
2 c d
= k2 2 g
2
(5.126a)
2
g + k tan d = 2 g 2 g
2 c
tan d
(5.126b)
tan d , of the dielectric llOn the other hand, (5.126a) coincides with Eq. (5.114) for waveguides with ideal dielectric, and consequently the phase constant (and thus the wavelength) remains practically the same as those for a lossless waveguide. The dependence of the attenuation factor d on the frequency (assuming a range of frequencies in which the permittivity of the dielectric remain unchanged) can be deduced by substituting the expressions of tan d and g , given by (1.91) and (5.118), respectively, in (5.126b). Thus we get
Thus, the attenuation factor is prop ortional to the loss tangent, ing the waveguide .
d =
e 2(1(fc /f )2 )
1/2
(5.127)
where is the intrinsic impedance of the dielectric given in (3.33a) and e is its eective or equivalent conductivity (1.78). From (5.127) we can see that d becomes very high at frequencies close to the cuto value, then decreases to a minimum value, and afterwards increases with the frequency, becoming almost proportional to it. Wall losses When the conductivity is nite the tangential magnetic eld induces currents which are not restricted to the surface and, according to Ohms law, are associated with a tangential electric eld (i.e. J = E = n H) in the walls. The vector product of the elds E and H at the surface of the walls represents a ux of power directed towards the inner of the wall. This power coincides with the dissipation in the conductor caused by the Joule eect and is subtracted from the mode that propagates along the waveguide. As a consequence, the amplitude of the electric and magnetic elds of the mode are attenuated according to ec z , where c is the attenuation constant due to wall losses. We can determine the value of c for a given propagating mode by taking into account that the time-average power Pav transmitted through the cross-section S of the guiding transmission system is Z Z 1 ~ ~ Re(E t H t ) ds (5.128) Pav ds = Pav = 2 S S Since, due to the losses, the amplitude of the eld wave varies according to ec z , then, Pav will vary according to e2c z . Moreover, the law of energy conservation requires that the rate of the decrease of Pav with distance along the transmission system equals the time-average power loss on the surface of the 0 walls per unit length, Pd , in the direction of propagation. Therefore, we have
5.4. ATTENUATION IN GUIDING STRUCTURES
115
0 Pd = and thus
dPav = 2c Pav dz
0 Pd 2Pav
(5.129) (5.130)
c =
~ If H is the magnetic?? eld existing near the walls, the time-average power dissipated per unit of length in the walls is given, according to (3.45), by Z Z 1 1 0 2 ~ ~ Pd = Rs H0 dl = Rs H H dl (5.131) 2 2 where Rs is the surface resistance given by (3.46) and is the cross-sectional contour of the non-perfect conducting walls. Thus the coecient of attenuation of the n-th TE or TM mode is found to be c =
Rs 4
S
HH dl Pav ds
Rs 2
S
HH dl
Re(E t H t )ds
(5.132)
This equation will b e applied in next chapter to the calculation losses for TE and TM modes in waveguides .
In strict terms, the modes we have found assuming perfect conducting walls are no longer valid since non-perfect conducting walls represent a change in the boundary conditions because in this case the tangential component of the electric eld is not null. However, if the losses are small, we can make an approximate analysis (known in M athematical Physics as "rst order p erturbation method") by assuming that the eld congurations or modes in the waveguide coincide with those found for ideal-wall ( better guiding structure ) waveguides.
5.4.2
TEM modes
The coupled dierential equations (5.105) for ideal transmission lines can b e easily extended to lines
, , ) separating the p erfect conductors. In this case, at any z cross-section of the line, an additional current increment I leaves .. assuming that the dielectric has a conductivity such that
with a non perfect of dielectric (constitutive parameters
I = gV in which g deno tes the conductance ..... pp 487 del Jonk: the series and shunt low-parameters r and g... z I z I t V = C gV t = L
(5.133)
(5.134a) (5.134b)
116CHAPTER 5. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE-GUIDING STRUCTURES: WAVEGUIDES AND
Chapter 6
Some types of waveguides and transmission lines

6.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter we examined some general prop erties of the propagation m odes that may exist in an ideal guiding transmission system which has no sources and is constituted by p erfect conductors and one ideal homogeneous dielectric. Specic expressions for such modes can b e determined only when the particular geometry of the guide is given. In this chapter we will rst analyze in som e detail the homogeneously lled rectangular and circular metallic waveguides. After this, as a simple example of non homogeneous guiding structure in which the electromagnetic eld propagates in more than one dielectric, we will study the dielectric slab waveguide. Then, we will give some basic ideas on propagation in strip and microstrip lines. Finally, we will consider cavity resonators which are basically constituted by a dielectric region totally enclosed by conducting walls. This region, when excited by an electromagnetic eld, presents resonance with a very high-quality factor
Q.
In particular, we will study the common simple cases of rectangular and circular cavity
resonators.
6.2
Rectangular waveguide
a
and
Figure 6.1 shows a rectangular waveguide of sides
b,
with
a > b,
and homogeneously
lled with a p erfect dielectric. Following the theory develop ed in the previous chapter, in order to calculate the TE and TM modes that can propagate in this waveguide, we start by solving the wave equation for the longitudinal comp onents these longitudinal ones. W ith axis chosen as shown in the gure, the expressions for the elds in (5.76), take the form
z of the eld with the corresponding boundary conditions
determined by the geom etry of the system. The transverse comp onents are then calculated from
~ E ~ H
= E0 (x, y)ej g z = H0 (x, y)e 117

j g z
(6.135a) (6.135b)
118CHAPTER 6. SOME TYPES OF WAVEGUIDES AND TRANSMISSION LINES
x
z
Figure 6.1: Rectangular waveguide of width a and height b Rellenar en negro.
Next, we are going to nd the expression for these elds, rst for TM modes and afterwards for the TE modes.
6.2.1
TM modes in rectangular waveguides
For the TM modes, the dierential equation (5.80) for E z = E0z (x, y)ej g z (6.136)
can be solved by using the standard method of separation of variables in rectangular Cartesian coordinates. For this, we assume, for E0z , solutions in the form of the product E0z (x, y) = X(x)Y (y) (6.137) in which X(x) and Y (y) are, respectively, functions only of x and y. By substituting (6.137) in (5.80) and dividing by E0z , we get 1 d2 Y 1 d2 X + + h2 = 0 X dx2 Y dy 2 (6.138)
As each summand depends on a dierent variable, it should be veried that 1 d2 X X dx2 1 d2 Y Y dy 2 h2 = h2 x = h2 y = 2 = h2 + h2 c x y (6.139a) (6.139b) (6.139c)
where we have substituted, according to (5.113), h by the cuto wavenumber c and where hx and hy are the separation constants to be determined from the boundary condition (5.111a) at the guide walls. This boundary condition
6.2. RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE for the geometry of Figure 6.1 implies 0 x= a = 0 at 0 y= b
119
E0z
(6.140)
The solution of the Eqs. (6.139a) and (6.139b) are, respectively, X Y = C1 sin hx x + C2 cos hx x = C3 sin hy y + C4 cos hy y (6.141a) (6.141b)
where the Ci coecients are arbitrary constants to be determined from boundary conditions. Therefore the general solution (6.137) for E0z takes the form E0z = (C1 sin hx x + C2 cos hx x) (C3 sin hy y + C4 cos hy y) (6.142)
From the boundary conditions (6.140), we nd that C2 = C4 = 0 and hx hy and thus, from (6.139c), 2 = c
where
= =
m a n b
(6.143a) (6.143b)
and
are integers. The dierent solutions achieved by giving values to
m 2
a
n 2
b
(6.144) m
and
are
termed TM mn modes and each set of values of
and
indicates a sp ecic mode. Thus, from
(6.136), (6.142) and (6.143), for TM mn modes, we have
E z = Amn ej g z sin
m n x sin y a b
(6.145)
where the product of the constants C1 and C3 has been replaced by a new constant Amn . Once we know the longitudinal component E z , we can calculate the trans~ verse components E t by means of (5.86a) and then, by using (5.86b), which implies that ZT M = Ex Ey = Hy Hx (6.146)
~ we can obtain H t . As a result, we get the following general expressions for the
120CHAPTER 6. SOME TYPES OF WAVEGUIDES AND TRANSMISSION LINES components of the TM modes in a rectangular waveguide TMmn modes in rectangular waveguides (E z )TM mn = Amn ej g z sin m x sin n y a b ~ (E t )TM mn = jAmn g m ej g z cos m x sin n y x 2 a a c b g n j z m n jAmn 2 b e g sin a x cos b y y
c
(6.147)
k ~ (H t )TM mn = jAmn 1 2 n ej g z sin m x cos n y x a c b b m n 1 k m j g z jAmn 2 a e cos a x sin b y y

c
6.2.2
TE modes in rectangular waveguides
To analyze the TE modes, we can follow a procedure similar to that used for the TM modes but now solving for H z and imposing the boundary condition (5.111b), H z /n = 0, on the guide walls. This, for the geometry of Figure 6.1, implies that H z x=0 = 0 at x=a x H z y=0 = 0 at (6.148) y=b y Then, using (5.91a) and (5.91b), and after steps analogous to those followed for TM modes, we get TEmn modes in rectangular waveguides (H z )TE mn = Bmn ej g z cos m x cos n y a b ~ (H t )TE mn = jBmn g m ej g z sin m x cos n y x+ 2 a b c a g n j z jBmn 2 b e g cos m x sin n y y a b
c
(6.149)
k ~ (E t )TE mn = jBmn 2 n ej g z cos m x sin n y x b c b a k jBmn 2 m ej g z sin m x cos n y y a a b

c
dedidir
subindices .
si
subindexes
or
Note that, for both, TM mn and TE mn modes, the subindexes m and n, indicate the number of half-wave variations of the eld in the x and y directions, respectively. For a TMmn mode with m or n equal to zero, from (6.145), we have (E z )TE 00 = 0 ~ ~ and consequently, from Eqs (6.147), (E t )TE 00 = 0 and (H t )TE 00 = 0. Hence, there is no TM mode in which m or n is equal to zero. This was to be expected
6.2. RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
121
because a TM wave with Ez = 0 would degenerate to become a TEM wave which, as we saw in Subsection 5.2.3, cannot propagate within a waveguide. For TEmn modes, it is easy to see from (6.149) that either m or n may be equal to zero but not both at the same time, since in this case the expression of (Hz )TE mn in (6.149) reduces to (H z )TE 00 = B00 ej g z (6.150)
while (Ht )TE 00 = 0 and E = (Et )TE 00 = 0, such that only (Hz )TE 00 exists. This eld does not full Maxwells equations, since a time-varying eld H should generate an electric eld E. Therefore the TE00 mode cannot exist. Cuto frequencies in a rectangular waveguide From (5.117), (6.139c), and (6.143), we see that the cuto frequency for either a TEmn or a TMmn mode is given by (fc )mn 1 vp m 2 n 2 2 = + 2 a b (6.151)
where vp is the phase propagation velocity of the wave in the unbounded medium lling the waveguide. The wavelength and wavenumber in the waveguide are given, respectively, by (c )mn = h m 2
a
2 +
( g )mn
m 2 n 2 1 2 = k2 a b
n 2 i 1 2
b
(6.152a)
(6.152b)
From (6.151) we see that the cuto frequency of the modes depends on the dimensions of the cross-section of the waveguide. Values of the cuto wavelengths and frequencies for several modes are (c )TE 10 (c )TE 01 (c )TE 20 (c )TE 11 vp 2a vp = 2b; (fc )TE 01 = 2b vp = a; (fc )TE 20 = a = 2a; (fc )TE 10 = = (c )TM 11 = 2ab (a2 + b2 ) 2
1
(6.153a) (6.153b) (6.153c) 1 vp a2 + b2 2 = 2ab (6.153d)
; (fc )TE 11 = (fc )TM 11
Note that if a = b the cuto frequencies of TE10 and TE01 and the two modes are equal except for a rotation of /2.
122CHAPTER 6. SOME TYPES OF WAVEGUIDES AND TRANSMISSION LINES

9 8 7 TE 6
m,n 1,0 22
TE ,TM
12
12
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 TE TE
02
TE ,TM
21
21
TE ,TM TE
20 11 01
11
TE 3.5
10
a/b
Figure 6.2:
Rectangular waveguide: ratio of the cuto frequency of several modes to that of the
TE 10 mode as a function of
a/b.
mas grande las letras de las coordenadas
The dominant TE10 mode
In practice, we usually wish to have only the mode which has the lowest cuto frequency (called fundamental or dominant mode??) propagating through the guide. Thus, in the case of a rectangular waveguide, if a > b, such that (fc )TE 10 < (fc )TE 01 , the waveguide is usually designed so that only the TE10 mode can be propagated. The cuto frequency of the dominant TE10 mode is selected by means of the dimension a. The ratio of the cuto frequency of each mode to that of the TE10 mode as a function of a/b is plotted in Figure 6.2. We see that the separation of the cuto frequencies for dierent modes is larger for higher values of the ratio of the a and b dimensions Note that if a ' 2b, then the cuto frequencies of the modes TE01 and TE20 are nearly the same and in the frequency range v/2a < f < v/2b only the TE10 mode can be propagated. Moreover, if a > 2b, then (fc )TE 20 < (fc )TE 01 . As we will see in the next Section, losses due to non-perfectly conducting walls increase as b decreases. Thus, to have the greatest frequency range in which only the TE10 mode can propagate and, at the same time, to have the smallest losses possible, we usually choose the dimensions of the guide such that a ' 2b. Under this condition, only TE10 modes will propagate in the frequency range (fc )TE 10 < f < 2(fc )TE 10 . For the dominant TE10 mode the general expressions (6.149) simplify to those given in (6.154) where the constant B10 has been replaced by H0 .
123
Rectangular TE10 mode c = fc = g =

a vp 2a
H z = H0 ej g z cos x a H x = jH0
g a j z g e
q 2 k2 a
sin x a
(6.154)
Hy = 0 Ez = 0 Ex = 0 E y = jH0 a ej g z sin x a
6.2.3
Attenuation in rectangular waveguides
Losses due to a non-perfect dielectric lling the waveguide and to non-perfect conducting walls can be calculated using the expressions (5.127) and (5.132), respectively. For a given mode, to obtain the attenuation due to dielectric losses, we simply need to use, in the formula (5.127), the value of the cuto frequency of the mode, given by (6.151), and the values of the constitutive parameters of the dielectric at the work frequency. However, to nd the the attenuation constant c due to wall losses for any TE or TM mode, though not complicated, is quite laborious. Here, to illustrate the procedure, we will consider the particular case of the dominant TE10 mode Attenuation of the TE10 mode For the TE10 mode, the integrals of the formula (5.132) can be calculated from the general expressions for the eld components (6.154). Thus, for the denominator, we have Z Z Z 1 b a PTE 10 = (Pav )TE 10 ds = (E y H )TE 10 dxdy = x 2 0 0 S 2 aH0 ab g (6.155) 2 Regarding the integral of the numerator in (5.132), because in the dominant mode TE10 in a rectangular waveguide the magnetic eld H has only Hx and
124CHAPTER 6. SOME TYPES OF WAVEGUIDES AND TRANSMISSION LINES Hz components, this integral takes the form (Z Z Z a 2 2 ~ H dl = 2 ~ H |H x | + |H z | dx +
0 Using the expressions of
|H x |2 + |H z |2 dy
(6.156)
H x and H z
given in (6.154) and by op erating, we obtain
" ! # " # 2 2 2 2 ~ H dl = 2H0 a 1 + g + b = 2H0 a f ~ H +b 2 2 fc 2 c
(6.157)
where the last expression is obtained from (5.118). By substituting (6.155) and (6.157) in (5.132) and after operating, we nally obtain the following expression for the attenuation factor (c )TE 10 (c )TE 10 =
Rs 1+ 2b ( fc ) a f b 1( fc ) f
2
1 b
f 2 (1( fc ) ) f
1 2 1+
2b a
(6.158) Following a similar analysis,we can show that the general expresions for the attenuation constant c due to wall losses for any TE mn mode is ( 2 2 Rs fcmn b b r + 1+ 2 a f fcmn 1 f ) 2 ! b b 2 2 fcmn 0n a ( a )m + n b 2 2 f m2 + n2
a
2
fc f
Np/m
(c )TE mn
(6.159)
where While for TMmn mode is
0n =
1 2
q=0 q6=0
(6.160)
cT M mn = b
b ( a )3 m2 + n2 2Rs 2 2 b 2 m a + n2 f mn 1 cf
(6.161)
These expressions show the dep endence of the attenuation on the frequency. Reedactar: Computed values of
c for a few TE mn and TM mn modes are given in Figure 6.3In practice, surfaces imp erfections, the value of c may b e greater than the theoretical values. This eect can be reduced
using well polished walls.
125
0.5
(np/m)
0.2 0.1 TM 11
0.05
0.02 0.01 TE
TE TE
10 20
11
10
20 f(GHz)
50
100
200
Figure 6.3: Atenuacion en guias rectangulares: a commom characteristic It tends to innite when f is close to the cuto frequency, decreases toward an optimum frequency (minimum value of c ) an then increases almost linearly with f

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Electromagnetic eld theory for physicists and engineers:Fundamentals and Applications

Electromagnetic eld: radiation and propagation

5 117 117 117 118 120 123

Asignatura: Electrodinmica 4o C. Fsicas Curso 2006-2007 (Granada)

Electromagnetic eld: radiation and propagation

Electromagnetic eld fundamentals

Review of Maxwells equations

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD FUNDAMENTALS

B(r, t) = 0 (Gauss law for magnetic elds)

(1.2a) (1.2b) (1.2c)

B(r, t) ds (Faradays law) t

D(r, t) ) ds (Generalized Ampres law) t (1.2d)

1.2. REVIEW OF MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD FUNDAMENTALS

Physical meaning of Maxwells equations

1.2. REVIEW OF MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

the the the

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD FUNDAMENTALS

B(r, t) = 0 Jall (r, t) + 0 0

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD FUNDAMENTALS

medium. Conductivity is measured in siemens p er meter 1

the prop ortionality factor called the conductivity of the 1 1 1

1.2. REVIEW OF MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

Similarly for magnetization and Ohms law we have

m (t t0 )H(t0 )dt0 (t t0 )E(t0 )dt0

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD FUNDAMENTALS

In the following we will assume that there is no magnetization current.

1.2. REVIEW OF MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD FUNDAMENTALS

n (H1 H2 ) = Js n (D1 D2 ) = s n (B1 B2 ) = 0

The conservation of energy. Poyntings theorem

1.3. THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. POYNTINGS THEOREM

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD FUNDAMENTALS

Momentum of the electromagnetic eld

which, taking into account that B

becomes f = ( D)E B ( H) (D B) D ( E) t (1.48)

1.4. MOMENTUM OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

Therefore, from (1.50) and (1.52), we have

(1.54) em Txz em Tyz em Tzz

em The components of the electromagnetic tensor T can be written as

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD FUNDAMENTALS

Note that the term

Time-harmonic electromagnetic elds

TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Maxwells equations for time-harmonic elds

~ ~ = J + j D (Generalized Ampres law)

Integral form of Maxwells equations for time harmonic elds

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD FUNDAMENTALS

Complex dielectric constant.

(1.70) (1.71) (1.72)

TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD FUNDAMENTALS

Original medium Equivalent medium 1 Equivalent medium 2 Equivalent medium 3

Permittivity c = 0 j00 0 ec = 0 j(00 + ) 0

Conductivity e = + 00 0 ec = + 00 + j0 (1.85) factor Q of the dielectric which is a

E0 cos t ( e E0 cos t + 0 E0 sin t)dt 1 T Z

TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Thus, dividing (1.89) by (1.87), we have Q= 1 0 = e tan d (1.90)

which for good conductors where 00 = 0; 0 = simplies to tan d = (1.94)

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD FUNDAMENTALS

e E = respectively. Hence we have

Boundary conditions for harmonic signals

TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS