Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Compression
Compression: the process of coding that will effectively reduce the total number of bits needed to represent certain information.
Compression
There are two main categories
Lossless Lossy
Compression ratio:
Information Theory
We define the entropy of an information source with alphabet S = {s1, s2, , sn} as
Information Theory
Figure (a) has a maximum entropy of 256 (1/256 log2256) = 8. Any other distribution has lower entropy
Run-Length Coding
Run-length coding is a very widely used and simple compression technique which does not assume a memoryless source
We replace runs of symbols (possibly of length one) with pairs of (run-length, symbol) For images, the maximum run-length is the size of a row
Huffman Coding
Huffman coding constructs a binary tree starting with the probabilities of each symbol in the alphabet
The tree is built in a bottom-up manner The tree is then used to find the codeword for each symbol An algorithm for finding the Huffman code for a given alphabet with associated probabilities is given in the following slide
3. Assign a codeword for each leaf based on the path from the root.
Huffman Coding
Variants:
In extended Huffman coding we group the symbols into k symbols giving an extended alphabet of nk symbols
This leads to somewhat better compression
In adaptive Huffman coding we dont assume that we know the exact probabilities
Start with an estimate and update the tree as we encode/decode
Arithmetic Coding is a newer (and more complicated) alternative which usually performs better
Dictionary-based Coding
LZW uses fixed-length codewords to represent variable-length strings of symbols/characters that commonly occur together, e.g., words in English text. The LZW encoder and decoder build up the same dictionary dynamically while receiving the data. LZW places longer and longer repeated entries into a dictionary, and then emits the code for an element, rather than the string itself, if the element has already been placed in the dictionary.
LZW Example
Code
1 2 2
String
a b c
LZW Example
LZW Decompression
Quadtrees
Quadtrees are both an indexing structure for and compression scheme for binary images
A quadtree is a tree where each non-leaf node has four children Each node is labelled either B (black), W (white) or G (gray) Leaf nodes can only be B or W
Quadtrees
Algorithm for construction of a quadtree for an N N binary image:
1. If the binary images contains only black pixels, label the root node B and quit. 2. Else if the binary image contains only white pixels, label the root node W and quit. 3. Otherwise create four child nodes corresponding to the 4 N/4 N/4 quadrants of the binary image. 4. For each of the quadrants, recursively repeat steps 1 to 3. (In worst case, recursion ends when each subquadrant is a single pixel).
Quadtree Example
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Quadtree Example
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Quadtree Example
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lossless JPEG
JPEG offers both lossy (common) and lossless (uncommon) modes. Lossless mode is much different than lossy (and also gives much worse results)
Added to JPEG standard for completeness
Lossless JPEG
Lossless JPEG employs a predictive method combined with entropy coding. The prediction for the value of a pixel (greyscale or color component) is based on the value of up to three neighboring pixels
Lossless JPEG
One of 7 predictors is used (choose the one which gives the best result for this pixel).
Lossless JPEG
Now code the pixel as the pair (predictorused, difference from predicted method) Code this pair using a lossless method such as Huffman coding
The difference is usually small so entropy coding gives good results Can only use a limited number of methods on the edges of the image